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BY S
. Gf
,RN SBAC K 4
5
H
. SEC OR
 C
xper
tmEn
tal
e
latru
ttp C
ourog

I
N T WENTY LESSONS
.

BY

S
. GERNSBACK a
nd H
. W
. S
ECOR
, E
. E
.
Authors o
f "THE WIRELESS COURSE
," e
tc.

\T
ill I
LLUSTRATIONS
.

TIL E
E
XPER
IMENTER P
UBL
ISH
ING C
O.
, I
n
c.
2
33 FULTON STREET
, NE W YORK

191 6
 C
opyr
igh
t b
y
THE EXPERI MENTER PUBLISHING CO
., I
nc.

1
916

.f
•

A
ll R
igh
ts R
eserven
 E
xperim
enta
l
E
l
ect
ric
ity Cou
rse
.
LESSON No
. 1
.
"
ELECTRIC BELLS
, BUZZERS AND
ANNUNCIATORS."

F
4LECTR
ICITY
, w
hen ut
ilized f or signall
ing pu r p o
ses
,
g
eneral
ly involves t
he u
se o f e
lectr
ica
l b e
ll s
, buzzer
s, o
r
a
nnunciators
, a nd s
o these apparatus w i
ll b e d escribed
i
n order; al
so t he b
est methods t o pursue i n p roper ly
w
iring f or same .
I
t is a dvisab le, p erhaps , to s tart w ith a d escription o f
t
he o rdinary v ibra ting b ell. The a c
tion o f i t i
s v ery simp le,
a
nd may b e t he more r eadily u nders tood b y look ing a t t he
s
chema tic draw ing , F ig. 1 .
I
n t h
is d raw ing a re s hown t he various p arts o f t
he s im -
p
lest b ell circu it
. I ncluded i n the circuit a re: the b el
l i t
self,
o
f t he vibra ting t ype ; the b attery, o f one o r more c ells
, a nd
ap ush b utton f or t he c pntrol of t he bel
l. The b e
ll acts u pon
t
he p rinciple t hat whenever a n electric c urrent, a s from t he
bat
tery h ere s hown , p asses t hrough a c oil o f severa l turns
o
f i nsulated w ire, t here w i
ll b e produced w ithin t he coi
l a nd
abou t it
, a n e lec tromagne tic f i
e
ld o f force, a s i t is te
rmed .
This e lectro- magne tic e ffect, produced whenever a c urren t
t
raverses a c o
il o f w ire, i sintroduced i n the b el
l, i n t
he man -

r
te
. I
F
ig. 2

n
er ilustrated . There a re t wo c oils in mos t bells, but some
t
ypes c ontain b ut o ne. Now , i ft he p ush b utton i s pressed ,
t
he t wo c ontact s pr
ings i n i ta re b rought t oge ther, mak ing
a
n electric circuit
, t hrough wh ich t he b at
tery c urrent p asses,
a
nd s o o n a round t hrough t he e l
ectro -magnet c o
ils o n t he
i
ron frame o f the b e
l l
. The i ron c ores o f t
he magne ts become
s
udden ly strongly magne t
ized , a ttracting t he soft iron pivoted
a
r mature, wh ich c arries the g ong h ammer . When t he a rm -
a
ture i s t
hus a ttracted , a
nd d rawn f orward , t wo t h
ings h ap-
p
en: —first, the h ammer h i
ts t he g ong, giving o ut as ignal;
and s econd, t he c ontact s pring c arried b y t he a r mature,
b
reaks c ontact o r l e
aves t he c ontact s crew s hown i n t he
f
igure.
 The c onsequence o f t his i s
, t ha t t he a r ma ture i sn o long -
e
r a ttracted b ecause i t
s f orward movemen t h as b roken t he
battery c ircu i
t, a nd n o c urren t t r averses t he magne t c oils.
Hence t he a r ma ture , wh ich i s n orma lly h eld away f rom t he
magne t c ores , b u t a gains t t he c on tact s crew b y as pr ing, a t
once f l
ies b ack t o t his p os ition , o r away f rom t he magne ts; a s
soon a s t his h appens , h owever , t he e lec tric c ircu i t i s o nce
more c omp leted , t he magne ts a re e nerg ized , a nd t he a rma -
t
ure i s a gain a ttrac ted , s trik ing t he g ong . A s l ong a s t he
push b utton i sd epressed , t his a ction c on tinues , t he a r ma ture
vibra ting a t ah igh r ate o f s peed , g iv ing r i
se t o ac on tinuous
r
ing ing o f t he g ong . The n umber o f s trokes p er m inute , a nd
the a ction o f t he a rma ture a re e asily r egu la ted b y a d jus ting
the c on tac t s crew , t he t ens ion o f t he a r ma ture s pring , a nd
t
he d istance s epara ting t he magne t c ores f rom t he a r ma ture .
A t yp ica l v ibra ting b ell o f t he s o-ca lled i ron b ox t ype, i s
'
depicted i n F ig. 2 , wh ile a t F ig. 3i ss hown a c omp le te e l ec-
t
ric b ell o utfit, i nclud ing b e ll, p ush-bu tton , b a
t tery , w ire a nd
s
tap les f or s ecur ing i ti n p lace . Th is o u tf
i t f orms a v ery ef i-
c
ien t f ront d oor b ell s et, o r i n a ny o ther a pp l
ica t
ion f or d is-
t
ance s n ot e xceed ing f ifty f ee t. I n F ig . 4 , a re i lus tra ted, a
f
ew o rnamen tal b rass p ush b ut
tons .
I
t i s n ot a lways d es irab le t hat t he e lectric s i gna l b e
t
ha t of t he s omewha t n o isy b ell, a nd f or t h is c lass o f s erv ice ,
r
eso rt i s h ad t o a n i nstrumen t k nown a s ab uzzer . T his i s
noth ing e l
se b u t an ea tly made b ell m e-
chan ism , w ithou t a ny i g
ong o r s triking a rm ,
s
o t h at t he a rma tu r e ni tc an v i bra te q uite
r
ap id ly , s end ing o ut al oud b uzzing s ound ,
s
im i
lar t o t h at o f ab ee . I t i s much e m -
p
loyed i n of ices , o r o ther q uie t p lace s
,
where t he b ell i s t oo n oisy, o r s ome t
ime s
iti su sed i n c on junc tion w ith a b ell
, s o t ha t
ei
ther t he b uzzer o r t he b ell r ing ing , w ill
indica te o ne o r t he o ther o f t wo d ifer en t
s
i gna ls. For i nstance , i n many p riva te
hou se s, t he b ell a nd b uzzer a re moun ted
s
i de b y s ide i n t he k itchen , a nd s o c on -
nec ted t o t wo p ush b u ttons t ha t t he b ell
i
nd ica tes s omeone a t t he f ron t d oor , a nd
t
he b uzzer a c all f rom t he d i ning -room
F
ig. 3 . t
ab le, e tc. S ome time s an umber o f b e
ll s
w
i th d iferen t t oned g ong s a re a rrang ed i n
as et
, the m ean ing o f e ach b e
ing q uite d ist
inc t. C ommon f orm s
o
f t he o dd g ongs a re: t he c ow b ell, t he c ocoa wood; t he s le
igh
b
ell; t he s pl it g ong ; t he c hime g ong , e tc. A n eat a nd w el l
made b uzzer i ss een a t F ig . 5 .
A r ecent i nnova tion i n t he r ea lm o f e l ectric s igna lling
d
evice s i s t he e l ectro wh i stle. This i nst rument g ives o ut a
more o r l ess s hr ill wh is t l
ing n o te, q uite d is t
inc t f rom a ny
o
ther d ev ice . I t i sb u
i lt o n t he s a me p r
inc ip le a s t he v ibra t-
i
ng b el
l, e xcep t
ing t ha t t he a r ma ture o f t he b ell i ss ubs t itu ted

F
ig
.4
by an ir
on r od a nd a t h
in d iaphragm , as shown a t Fig . 6.
Whenever c urrent i s s
upplied to t he t
erm ina
l binding p osts
,
Ter
. 1,and T er. 2
, it
s path i saround t hrough t he magne t
iz-
i
ng coi
l, and c losed contacts, A. A t t
his juncture, h
owever ,
t
he magne t
izing c oil h
as drawn f orward t he i
ron disc a
nd r od
s
hown, and t h
is a lso moves t he diaphragm , t
o wh ich t
he r od
i
s a
ttached. The movement o f the rod a nd di
sc, simul
tane -
o
usly breaks t he contact b e
tween t he spr
ings , A
, a nd the rod
a
nd i t
s p arts r e
turn t o their o r
ig inal posit
ion. I n practice
,
t
his at
trac tion a nd r e
lease o f the i r
on rod a nd also the d ia
-
p
hragm o ccurs a t av ery h igh rate, result
ing i n a wh ist
ling
s
ound b e
ing em itted b y the diaphragm . Th is sound may b e
g
reatly amp l
ified a nd directed b y a t
taching a brass o r other
metal horn t o the front of the instrumen t
. Th is arrangemen t
g
ives v ery s a
tisfactory s ervice as at e
lephone c a
ll in p ower
houses o r other n oisy locations.
The appara
tu s so f ar ment ioned , f orm t he usua l comp le-
ment of aud
ible elec
tric s,g nalling d evices , b ut before t aking
u
p t he study o f c ircuits a nd o ther de tails
,
r
eference w ill be made t o av ery i mpor tant
instrumen t, variously c a
lled a n indicator o r
a
nnunc iator. Ac u
t o f a6 p osition a nnun -
c
iator , or o ne c apab le o f ind
ica ting 6 d is
-
t
inc t c al
ls, i ndividua lly, i s p ortrayed a t
F
ig . 7 . T he a nnunc ia tor is a v ery e x
-
t
ens ively u sed i ns
trumen t, particularly i n
Fig
. 5 hotels, a nd o ther p l
aces, w here a g reat
number of diferent c alls a re t o be r eg istered a t o ne c en tra
l
po
int
, such as ahotel o fice.
I
ts p rinc ip le o f
a
ction i s b ased M AG NeT CO L
u
pon t he e lec tro -
magne t
, a
s de- HORN
s
cribed i n c onnec -
t
ion w ith t he b ell
p
rev iou sly. I n IRON ROD
mo st c ase s ab ell a .MSG
o
r b uzzer i s a r-
r
anged t o o pe ra te
whenever a c al
l i s CONTACT A
S O U ND C H AM BE R
r
eg istered upon
IRO N DIAPHRAGM
the a nnunc iator , TERM. Z
b
u tt hea nnunc iato r
i
t
se l f e mits n o a p-
p
re c
iable s ound a t al
l. E ach s hutter or d rop , b earing a ny d es
ired
numbe r, n ame o r l e
tter, i sn orma lly held o ut o f s igh t
, i n the type
s
hown i nt he c ut
. When a n e lectric curren t i ss ent f r om a c ertain
c
o rre spond ing p ush b utton, h owever , the s hu t
ter i si nstantly r e
-
l
ea sed b y a n e lec tro- magne t, a nd d rops d own i nto s igh t. In the
c
u t
, No s. 1 , 3a nd 5 ,h ave b een r e-
l
ea sed b yt he e l
ec tro -mag rrets o per -
a
ting t hem . The s hutter sa re r eset,
t
oa waita no the rc all,b y p ash ing u p
on ab utton a t t he b ot tom o f t he
c
ab inet, a ft er e ach i nd ication . I n
s
ome a nnunc ia tor s t his r e setting
o
f t he s hut ters o r indica ting n eed -
l
es
, i s accomp l
ished a utoma t
ica lly
b
y e ach s ucceed ing c all. Th is i s
b
o th a g ood a nd a b ad f eature ,
i
nasmuch a s t he s e
cond c all may
o
ccur , r ese tting a l
l p rev iou s c a
lls,
b
e fore t hey h ave b een s een o r a n-
swered . Hence t he manua lly r eset F
ig. 7
t
ype i s g enera lly t he mo st d esir-
a
b le. A s ke tch o f t he work ing a ct
ion o f a n a nnunc ia to
r d rop,
i
s s hown s chema tically a t F ig. 8 .
An e l
ectro- magne t is arranged w ith a p ivoted soft ir
on
a
r mature, to which i sattached a t r
ip b ar
, s o that when. the
magne t ise nerg
ized b y passing a c urren t through i t
, the ar-
mature w i
ll b e attracted, ra
is ing the t r
ip b ar or finger, a
nd
r
eleasing t he shut ter or drop , which r ests o n ap ivo t a
lso.
The s hu
tter i srese t oa
t of r ange of t he w indow i n t
he cabi-
n
e t f
rame , b y p
ush ing u pward o n ab utton a t the base oft he
5
 c
abine
t. This r
eset button, B, is s
ecured t o a me tal rod, A ,
;SHUTTER
OR DROP w h
ich , when p u shed up -
ward, p resses the s hut-
( . p
ivoT ter u pward a l
so, and the
j
I I STOP f
1
:
;
pre
§
l
i
a
I
an

nd t
t
ing e
nger a
h
l
en f
dge of t
lows i
a
l
t t
l o
he t
o ri
ri

th
s
e
p

„
i
c
-
,
-R
omA
GN
E)
ver e
T e
dge o f t he shutter
, thus
A; ARMATURE r
etaining i ti n p
lace, un -
t
i
l a nother c al
l ocurs .
FM 8 T
here a re m any d
if erent
s
t
yles a nd makes o f an-
n
unc
iators upon t
he marke t
, but th
ey al
l o perate b y mean s of an
e
l
ectro-magnet a
nd a rmature of some form .
THE WIRING .
For ord inary e lec
tric be
ll insta
llat
ions i tisu sual to em -
p
loy c opper w ire
, a bou t No
. 1 8 gauge, B . & S. ( Browne &
Sharpe ), with t wo c oat
ings or w raps of waxed co t
ton o ver i t
f
or i nsulation. The n umber o f feet per pound o f afice a nd
a
nnunc iator w ire, used for be
ll work , et
c., i
sas follows :
Off
ice w ire:
No . B . & S . g auge. Feet per l b
.
No . 1 2
No . 1 4 3
5
No . 1 6 5
No. 1 8 9
5
1
35
Annunc iator Wire :
No. B . & S . g auge. Feet per lb.
No. 1 8
No. 2 0 1
80
2
25
The a nnunc iator w ire
, o r common b el
l wire, h as t wo
l
ayers o f c otton mere ly w rapped a round t he c ondtc tor,
which i s then s oaked w ith paraff
ine wax . I t i
se asi
ly u nrav -
e
l
led .
Of f
ice w ire h as t wo c o tton l ayers b raided , wh ich i s n ot
so e asily u nrave lled a nd c onsequen tly more p referab le . The
i
nner b raid ing i s fi
lled w ith a mo is ture r epellant c ompound .
The c heape st w ire t o b uy, o f c ourse , wou ld b e No . 2 0
,
gauge , a s i tc onta ins t he g rea tes t n umber o f fee t to t he p ound ,
but i ti so nly s ui tab le f or c omparat ive ly s hort l ines, a s i th as
t
oo mu ch r esis tance f or t he l ow v o
ltages u ti
lized i n b el
l
work .
. No . 1 8 i sp erm is s
ib le f or b e
ll o r a nnunc ia tor c ircu its
u
p t o ad istance o f 1 00 f eet o ne way o r 2 00 feet o f w ire i n the
c
ircui t. F or c ircu its o f 1 00 f e e
t t o 1 50 f eet o ne way , u se No .
1
6 g auge w ire. C ircu its f rom 1 50 f eet t o 2 00 f e et, No . 1 4
w
ire, a nd c ircu i ts o f 2 00 t o 2 50 f ee
t o ne way , u se No . 1 2w ire.
For c ircui ts o f g rea ter l eng th t han t hese i tisn ot p ract ica l to
r
ing t he b ells d irec t, a s t hey r equ ire t oo much c urren t i n
ampere s, wh ich n ecess i ta te a v ery l arge b at
tery t o c ompen -
sate f or t he v olts d rop i n t he l ine o r circu it
, a nd a lso l arge
copper w ire . F or l ong b e
ll c ircui ts, t he mos t p rac t
ica l a r-
r
angement i s t ha t i nvo lv ing t he u se o f a h igh r esis tance
r
elay , wh ich i sa c tua ted d irec tly b y t he p ush b utton a nd b at-
t
ery , o ver t he l ong l i
ne ; a nd t he r elay t hen c loses a l ocal
c
ircu it c onta ining s evera l f e et o f w ire, ab attery o f af ew
c
ells, a nd t he b ell. The r elay i s wound t o ah igher r esistance
t
han t he b el
l, a nd d oes n ot r equ ire n early a s much c urren t in
ampere s
, s o t ha t s ma ller l i
ne w ire may b e u sed . R elays a re
q
ui te s ens itive, a nd a re t he s a me a s u sed o n t e
legraph l ines,
t
he r esis tance v ary ing f rom 2 0 t o 100 o hms o r more , d epend -
ing u pon t he l eng th o f t he l i
ne . A l ong d istance b ell c ircu it
with r elay i ss hown a t F ig . 9 .
I
n t his a rrangement , whenever t he p ush b utton i s d e-
pressed , c urrent f rom t he b a ttery i ss ent o ver t he l ine wh ich
a
c tua tes t he r elay e lec tro- magne ts a t t he o ther e nd . The
magne ts t hen p ull f orward t he i ron a r mature s hown , c lo sing
t
he c on tac ts o f t he l oca l c ircu it, a nd a l
low ing t he b el l t o r ing
f
rom i ts lo cal b attery . A s pira l s pring h o
lds t he r e
lay a rma -
t
ure n orma lly away f rom t he magnet p oles a nd c on tact
s
crew , l eaving t he l oca l b ell c ircuit o pen.
6
 I
n g enera l to r ing a n ordinary b ell o f med ium s ize
, t he
b
attery r equired e ither 200 0
'L INE REL AY CONTACT
o
f d ry c ells o r w et
c
e
lls ( sal-ammon iac-car -
b
on -zinc) , i s a bout 2 PB.
c
e
lls f or c ircu its u p t c
5
0 f eet
, o ne w ay; c ir-
c
uits u p t o 7 5 f eet 3 BATT
.
c
e
l ls; 1 00 f eet 4 c el
ls,
e
tc
. T he n umber o f c ells FI G
.e 2
13 OHM RELAY
MA GNET
r
equ ired will d
epend
upon t h
e s i
ze o f the b ell to be o pera ted a nd t he l ength o f t he
c
ircu it
. T he s t
andard s i
zes o f bell gong s v ary f rom 2 i nches u p
t
o 1 2 i
nches , t he la
tter r equir
ing a bout 8d ry cells t o o perate o n a
c
ir cuit n ot e xceed ing 7 5 f ee
t i n length o ne w ay.
I
n t he p as t f ew y ears t here h as b een a n ew s ource o f
power f or b ell c i
rcu i :s i n
troduced , t ha t emp loy ing a s mall
s
t ep -down t rans former , excited f rom t he A. C . e lec tric light-
i
ng ma ins, i n t he h ouse o r b uilding . The t rans former d oes
not t ake a c urren t wor th men t
ion ing , a nd s upp lies a r el
iab le
source o f p ower f or b e
ll c ircuits a nd t he l ike. A c ircuit
diag ram f or i ti s shown a t Fig . 10. The s econdary c o
il h as
s
evera l t aps b rought o ut f rom d iferen t t urns t hereon , s o
tha t various v oltages may b e a pplied t o the b ell c i
rcu it
, g en-
erally f rom 6 t o 24 v olts, A. C . ( Alternat ing C urren t
).
A f ew words w ill n ow b e d evo ted t o t he s ub ject o f b el
l
wi ring i n g enera l. Some o f t he b asic p rinc iples u nderlying
good b e l
l work , are: t hat al
l w ires mus t be c are fu lly r un a nd
'M A
.M G
% V G Ne
.
to'M CC 1
3
L
TRANSFO M IR L
.I

• PR
IM AR Y Ç A
lt is

SECONDARY
1
11 Z 'G
. ‘
i
0 0
0U.
1
.
14111

w
e ll i nsu la ted f rom c ontac t w ith g as, s team , o r w ater p ipes ,
a
nd a l
l join ts i n t he w ire c ircu it shou ld b e s oldered a nd t aped
u
p w ith b l ack f ric t
ion t ape . The b est p rac tice i n r unn ing
t
wo o r more c otton c overed b ell w ires , i s to e ither h ave a l
l
t
he w ires b unched i nto a c able, a nd t he c ab le s ecured i n
p
lace b y f i
bre o r l eather s trap s
, o r t o r un e ach w ire s epa rate
f
rom i t
s n eighbor a nd s ecur ing e ach i n place b y means o f
i
ron s taples . I nsu la ted s t ap les, s uch a s the B lake , a re b es t,
a
nd s o me times t he t wo w ires o f ac ircu it a re h eld u nder o ne
i
nsu la ted s tap le, t here n ot b eing much c hance o f s hort -cir -
c
uit ing t he t wo w ires t oge ther . Un less c on t
inua l t r oub le i s
d
e sired , t h erefore , t he i nd iv idua l
w
ir es w ill b e w ell i nsula ted b y s
i
.eo rf ir
f
o rm ing i nto a c ab le, o r b y k eep - 4

i
ng e ach o ne s epara te. A g ood
c
ab le f o
rm f or s e
%era l p airs o f
wir es, r esu lts b y w rapp ing t he
w ho le c ab le w ith i nsu lat
ing f r
ic- t ,
t
ion t ape. T his i so ften e mp loyed 3GLL o
1 rt
for i nterior t elephone w ork a nd f
l&IE
RELAY & is
ELL
has p roven v ery s a
tisfac tory .
On n ew b ell work where t he b uild ing i s u nfin ished , t he
wires a re r ead i
ly p laced i n t he w a
l ls a nd f loors, mak ing a
ful
ly c oncea led j ob. Where t he b ells h ave t o b e i ns talled i n
old b uild ings , t he w ires may b e r un i nside o f t he wa l
ls t o a
g
rea t e xten t
, b y f i
sh ing t hem f rom h ole to h o
le, mak ing s mall
ho
les a t t he b aseboard a nd a t t he c eiling . A lso b y t aking u p
as hor t p i ece o f f l
oor o n o ppos ite s i
de s o f ar oom , as tee l
f
i
sh w ire o r s nake , a s i ti so ften c alled i n the e l
ec trica l t rade ,
i
s e asi
ly p ushed a long b e tween t he f l
oor b eams . When t he
f
i
sh w ire a ppears a t t he o ppos i
te h ole , the b ell w ires a re a t-
t
ached t o i ta nd p u
l led t hrough t o t he o ther h o
le . Wooden
mou lding makes a g ood a ppearance , p articular ly i f h ard
wood mou ld ing i s u sed t o ma tch t he t r
im o f t he r oom i n
wh ich i ti si ns talled .
7
 First class b e
ll i ns
talla t
ions h ave the w ires p
laced in i ron
p
ipe, the s a me as r egular e l
ectric l
ight wires.
B e
fore g oing i n
to t he v ar
ious s ystems a nd connec t
ions
which may b e u sed f or e l
ectric bel
ls a nd a nnunciators, it
w
ill b e well t o give a f ew s imple i
nstruc t
ions o n the test
ing
o
ut o f bel
l w ires, b at
ter ies
, e t
c.
The s imp lest me thod b y which to t e
st o ut any wires f or
t
heir c ont
inu ity, b ut not a lways applicable, is t
hat known a s

tn
i
tf nn
in nun Me
l
tnnn
inn
t

F
ig. 1
3.

t
he g round t est. The manner o f a ccomp lish ing t h
is t e s
t i s
dep icted i n F ig. 1 , where G i s a n a r
tificial g round o r earth
connec tion , t hrough wa ter , g as, o r s tea m p ipes i n ab u
ild -
i
ng ; B t he t esting b a
t tery o f af ew d ry c el
ls ; T t he t esting
b
ell b uzzer , o r s ome t
ime s a t e
lephone r ece iver f or l ong
l
ines h aving h igh r esistance , a nd L t he w ire t o b e t ested.
The d iagra m g iven e xp la ins i t
self, t he o nly t hing n eces-
s
ary t o d o, b eing t o c onnec t t he g round w ire C t o a ny w ire
des ired , a nd t hen t esting t he e nds o f t he w ires a t A , u nti
l
the b ell r ing s
, when t he w ire u nder t est i s c onsequen tly
known t o b e c on t
inuou s, a nd a lso
a c ertain w ire i n t he s ystem , b u m
p ut m!
which i t i s w e
ll t o c all No . 1 .
T he w ires, i f more t han t wo i n Fi 13A.
number , s hou ld al wa ys b e tagge dg.
and n umbered , a fter w hich i tb ecome s as imp le ma tter t o q u
ick ly
hook u p the w ire s to a ny f orm o f s ystem d esired.
The g round t est, a s p rev ious ly men tioned , i s n ot s ome -
t
ime s a pp l
icab le, d ue t o t he a b sence o f ah andy g round c on-
n
ec t ion . In t h
is e vent , a s o mewha t d iferen t p rocedure i s
pursued w ith t he s a me r esu lts , t hat i s, t he t est
ing o ut o f
i
nd iv idua l w ires o f t he s ys tem f or c ontinu ity a nd n umber .
The c ommon c ircu it a rrangemen t f or t h
is f ull me tal
lic t est,
i
s s hown a t F ig. 1 2
. F irs t t he t es
ting b attery i s c onnec ted
a
cross a ny t wo w ires a s s een , a nd t he t ester a t B t ries d if-
f
eren t w ires o r c able t erm ina ls, u ntil h is b ell o r r e
lay a nd
b
ell f or l ong l ines
, r ings . He t hen k nows t ha t h e h as t he
f
i
rs t t wo w ires c on tinuous , a nd u sua lly t hey a re t agged a t
b
oth e nds No s
, 1a nd 2 . B y j o ining b oth l i
ne t erm ina ls
, 1a nd
2
, t o o ne p ole o f t he b at
tery a t A , a nd t he o ther b attery p ole
t
o at hird w ire ; the t e s
ter a t B , b y c onnec ting h is o ne b el
l

F
G
.
I G. 1
4
o
F
10.10
t
erminal t o l
ines 1 and 2 a nd test
ing t he various c able e nds,
r
eadily finds one that rings h is bell
, a nd that o ne i
s No . 3
l
i
ne w ire
. Th is is fol
lowed o ut u nt
il all the wires a bove 1
a
nd 2 i n number a re ascertained. A t this stage o f the test,
h
owever , the wires 1a nd 2 are not k nown o ne from a no ther
,
b
ut b y separa
ting t he
ir respec t
ive e nds, and c onnec t
ing o ne
b
attery p ole to No . 3 c able w ire, and t he o ther p ole to
e
i
ther No . 1o r 2 at the t erminus A , t hen w i th o ne b el
l
t
erm ina l h ooked o n t o No . 3w ire , a t B , a nd e xp lor ing t he
o
the r w ire s, w ith t he o ther b el
l t erm ina l, No . 1o r 2a s t he
c
ase may b e, i s s oon f ound a nd t agged . A c oup le o f sma ll
b
at tery t elephones f or t ests o ver l ong l ines a re v ery u se fu l
,
i
n t h is c onnec tion , a l
low ing t he t ester a t A t o q uick ly i n-
f
orm h is c o-worker a t B wha t l ine n umber h e i s c onnec ted
t
o
. I t isa ssumed o f c ourse , t ha t A t ags t he c ab le e nds a r-
b
itra rily f i
r st, b efore a ny t es
ts a re made .
In r egard t o p roper w ire j oin ts, ag lance a t F ig . 1 3
, w ill
s
how t he manner o f ma :cing s ame . The w ires , where t hey
a
re t o b e j oined , mus t b e t horough ly c leaned b righ t b y s crap -
i
ng w ith a k n
ife, o r b et ter, b y ab i
t o f s andpaper o r e mery
c
l oth . The j o
in t i s made b y t wis ting t he w ire e nds a round
one a no ther t igh t
ly a nd s o
ldered b y h ea ting w ith a n a l coho l
t
o rch o r s older ing c opper . When h ot e nough , ag ood n on -
corros ive f lux, s uch a s r os in ; A llan s older ing s tock , No -
Korode p as te, e tc., i s a pp lied , a nd t hen t he s older , a llow ing
i
tt o f l
ow t hrough t he j oint t horough ly . The j oin t c an t hen
be w e
ll t aped t o a vo id p pss ib le s hor t-c ircu its o r g rounds .
I
t is f requen t
ly c on %e n
ien t t o h ave s tranded w ires t ran s-
f
ormed i n
to s o
lid t erm ina ls. Here i s as pecial E lec tro No . 6 225
t
ip w hich d oes t he t r
ick i n as im-
p
le m anner . Ho ld t he t ip i n a { i ii i ail l11.1 41 111
g
a s o r c and le f lame , u s
ing a p air P U MP» WI = T IP

o
f t wee zers o r p liers u nt
il t he
s
older a l
ready i n
side i t m elts. When t h e s older m el ts, p ush
t
he e nd o f t he w ire i n
to t he t i
p. When t he s older c oo ls, t he
w
ire w i
ll b e s o
ldered s ecure ly t o t he i nside o f t he t ip
. T he w i re
s
hou ld b e c a refully c leaned b eforehand
Fig. 1 3a r epresen ts a n E . I . C o. w ire j oint No . 6 485 .
These j oin ts a re o f as pec ia l c ons truc t
ion , ar ad ica l d epa r-
t
ure f rom t he o ld s tyle j oin ts i n u se. They h ave a s pec ial
beve led e dge wh ich a lbws t he j oin t t o f i
t t ight a nd make a
per fec t c on tact w ith t he w ire . The j oint i s a s p er fec t a s a
w elded o ne. B y u sing t hese i n y our t elegraph l i
ne , t elephone
l
i
ne , e lect rica l w iring , a nd l ast o f a ll, i n c ons truc t ing y our
aeria l f or w ire less work y ou w ill g rea tly i mprove t he e f
i ci
-
ency o f t he c onnec t
ions .
This c overs t he p rinc ip les a nd i mpor tant f eatures i n t he
i
nsta llation o f t he w ires , a nd t he n ex t t op ic t o e ngross u s
w
ill b e t he d iferent a rrangements i n u se t o a llow o f v ar ious
d
ispos it
ions o f t he b e ll
, p ush b u ttons , b at ter ies, i nd ica tors ,
•etc. The s imp lest c all b ell c ircu it w as s hown i n t he b eg in-
n
ing o f t his c hap ter.
At F ig . 1 4 i s i lus tra ted t he c ircu it f or ac all b ell s yste m
with g round r eturn , t he g round b eing made t o wa ter , s team
o
r g as p ipes . F ig . 1 5
, s hows t he c onnec tions f or r ing ing
one b ell f r om more t ian o ne p ush b utton .

B
t.

F
I
G
.16 n
ee
A
t Fig. 16
, is s
hown the proper a
rrangemen t for ringing
t
wo vibrat
ing bel
ls j
a ser
ies at the sa
ine t ime
. B el
l No . 2
i
s made sing
le st
roke
, and it
s magnet c urrent is i
nterrupted
b
y the armature o
f t
he o
ther bel
l, which can o pera
te s evera
l

Pt

6 J
s
i
FIG
.16
e
8
s
ing
le st
roke be
lls i
frequ
ired
, i
ns
tead o
f one
.
F
ig. 1
7, d
epic
ts Inw two or more b
el
ls may b
e r
ung o
n
9
 mul t
iple simultaneous ly, from o ne p ush b ut
ton. F ig. 1 8
, is
as ystem allowing e i
ther p ush b utton t o operate t
he o pposite
be
ll, over t wo wires
, b ut t wo batteries are required. I n dia-
g
ram 1 9
, the standard r eturn c a
ll b el
l c i
rcuit is s
een, requir-
i
ng b ut one battery and t hree wires.
A c ommon f orm o f four d rop a nnunc iator or indicator is
d
iagrammed a t Fig. 20.
Whenever the push
, P 1 , i
s pushed
, for in
stance
, it c
l
oses
t
he ci
rcuit around through the annunc
iator t
rip magnet co
il
,
a
lso t
he cal
l b e
ll in ser
ies w
i th t
he ci
rcuit
.
A more e l
abora te i ndi-
CAL L B
ELL c
ator s ystem i s o utl
ined
a
t Fig. 2 1. T his h as r e-
turn c all b e
lls a t e ach
party's p ush b utton s ta
-
ti
on , so t hat t he c entral
operator a t t he indica tor
A. N . m ay p ush t he c or-
r
e spond ing b utton f or
a
ny c all r ung u p
, t hus
s
igna l
ling t
he c
al
ling
p
ar ty t hat h is c a
ll h as
b
een h eard .
F
IG t
o A f ew d iagrams a re
a
ppended h ere f or ¿ l
ec-
I
nc g as i gnition systems
. T he common p ull chain i gniter b urner
i
sgiven i n d iagram b y F
ig. 22
; w here o
nly o ne w ire l e
ads f rom
t
he g as l ighting c o
il to the burner
. C ommon g round c onnec -
ti
on i se fec ted i n the basement to the g as p ipe, a nd r eturns
t
hrough t he g as fi
xture
.
T
he a uto-
matic gas
burner a
nd
C
onnec t ions a re
i
lustra ted at
F
ig. 2 3
. A t A ,
a
re th e c onnec -
t
ions f or a s in-
g
le push b u t
ton
c
ontrol o f t he
b
urner, wh ile a t
B
, i s ad oub le
control o f t he
burner, s uch a s
h aving t he
pushes a t oppo -
s
ite sides o f t he
r
oom . F ig. 2 4,
i
s a no ther c ut
o
f an a
uto -
matic g as b urn -
e
r h ook -up.
The h
igh
t
ension g as i g-
n
i
tion s
ystem
much used i
n theatre
s, a
s a ux
i l
iary, i n ca se t he e l
ectric l ights
f
ai
l, i
s seen i
n d
iagram F ig
. 25. T his s ystem e mploy s e ither a
j
ump spark co
il or aspec
ial fr
ictional g enera tor w hich d evelop s
about 5 0
,000 v olts, a t at urn o f
t
he hand le. T he b urners a re made
with fi
xed s park g aps, a nd a n um -
b
er o f the b urners a re c onnec ted
i
n ser
ies. T he a ir g ap, w hich t h e
s
park h as to j ump o n each b urner
is abou t o ne-th irty -second o f a n
inch, and t herefore t here a re a p-
proxima tely t hir ty-two b urner s to
every inch o f s park a vailable f rom
t
he c harging a ppara tus. I n p rac-
t
ice slightly l e
ss t han t his n um -
10
b
er o f burners per in
ch o f spark isa l
lowed , on a ccount of the
l
eakage o ccurr
ing w i
th s uch high v o
ltage c urrent
.
Burglar alarms f orm a no
ther b ranch o f electric signa
lling
a
nd t hese are insta
lled w ith both o pen a nd closed c i
rcuit ap-
p
ara tus
. The c losed circuit system h as many g ood features
t
o c ommend i t
. S ome t
imes a c omb ina t
ion o f the closed a nd
o
pen c ircuit sy s
tems
a
re i n s
talled, and t his
i
s t he b est b urg lar
p
roof s cheme e volved .
The d iagram f or a n
o
pen c ircuit b urg lar
a
larm s ystem d oes n ot
d
ifer f rom a n o rdi -
n
ary c a
ll b el
l c i
rcu it,
only t he p ush b ut-
t
ons a re s ubst
itu ted
by s pecial d oor a nd
window springs,
p
l aced s o t h
at w hen -
ever a w indow o r P
IG 2
3
door i s o pened t he
alarm b el
l w il
l r ing.
A s witch i s placed i n the battery ci
rcu
it, s o t
hat i
tcan be c
ut
of d uring t he day , if eesired
.
The c losed c ircu it system i s diagrammed i n F
ig. 2
6. The

F
IG. 25

g
ravity bat
tery isa lways c losed through
t
he w indow s prings a nd r e
lay magne t
&PR
IM'S

c
oi
ls. I f the springs s hould b e o pened
b
y raising the w indow , the r e
lay m ag
-
n
ets w ould have n o p ower, a nd r eleas
-
i
ng the armature, w ou
ld c ause the a larm
b
el
l t o ring. See comp lete d etai
ls o f
Burglar Alarms i n Lesson No . 9.

LESSON No
. 2
.

PRI MARY BATTERIES AND DRY CELLS

.

T
HERE a re various k inds o f b attery ce
lls used i n pract
ical
e
lectrical w ork , the t wo p rincipal classes b eing : the
p
rimary c el
l, a nd t he storage c el
l. T he f ormer o r pri
-
mary c e
ll will b e t r
eated u pon i n t
he f ollowing p ara -
g
raphs, the storage c ell rece
iv ing e xhau stive tr
ea tmen t in al a
ter
c
hapter, devoted e specially to i t
.
The d i
scoverer o f t he p rimary c ell w as A lessandro Vo lta,
o
ne of the g reates t sc
ien t
ists o f t he e arly el
ectrical e xperimen t-
e
rs
, a nd the g reatest o pponen t of G alvan i, b
orn o n February 1 8,
1
745, at Como , I t
aly.
1
 A s ab oy h e w as v ery much i n
tere sted i n n atura l h istory,
and i n t he y ears 1 769 -1771 h e p ubl ished s ome i ntere s ting s c
ien-
t
if
ic a nd e l
ec trica l p a-
p
ers t hrough w hich h e
made h imse lf a g ood
n
ame .
Volta w as a n e xtra-
ordinar ily c leve r exp e ri
-
m en ter , a nd d ue t o h im
isn ot o nly t he f irst e lec-
FIG
.
@ tr
ic b attery , b u t h e a l
so
i
nven ted t he w ell-known
e
lectrophorus , a lso t he e lec tric c ondenser i s h is i nven tion .
I
n t he y ear 1 800 h e s en t ad escr ip t
ion o f t he " Volta P i
le"
t
o t he R oya l I nstitu te o f L ondon , a nd i n t h e y ear 1 80 1 h e w as
c
alled t o P ar is b y B onapar te. Here h e d emon stra ted h is e xpe ri-
men ts t ot he A cademy o f S cien tis ts, i n t he p resence o f N apo leon.
I
n t he y ear 1 804 h e c ea sed t e ach ing , b ut i n t he y ea r 1 815
a
ccep ted t he n om ina tion a s d irec tor o f t he p hilosoph ica l f aculty
o
f t he Un iver sity o f P adua , wh ich w as t e ndered t o h im b y
Emperor F ranc is.
H
is l a
st y ears w ere s pen t i n h is h ome t own , C omo , a nd h e
d
ied t here a tt he a ge o f 8 1, o n March 6 ,1 826.
Primary c ells i n
clude a ll t hose f orms w hich p roduce a n e l
ec-
tr
ic c urren t b y vol taic o r g alvan ic a c tion . E ach c e
l l i sm ade u p
of t wo d issim i
lar e l
emen ts, t e
rmed t he v olta ic c oup le , w hich a re
in t urn i mmer sed i n as aline o r a c idua ted s olu tion , k nown
techn ica lly a s t hee lec tro lyte .
The e l
emen ts a re s e
lec ted f or a c el l
,
s
o t ha t o ne, t e rmed t he a node , o r p os -
i
tve e lemen t
, w ill b e a cted u pon b y
t
he s olu tion o r elec tro ly te , more r ead ily
t
han t he c athode , o r n ega tive e lemen t.
The a node c ompr ises t ha t e lemen t a t
which t he c urren t e nter s t he e lec tro ly te ,
a
nd t he c athode o r n ega tive e lemen t,
t
ha t a t w hich t he c urren t l eaves t he
e
lectro ly te.
The c hem ica l a ction o ccurr ing i n t he
produc tion o f e lectr ica l e nergy i sa s f ol -
l
ow s: T he a node i s s low ly c onsumed
by o xygen f rom t he e lec tro ly te, a nd h y -
drogen g as l i
bera ted f r om t he e l
ec tro -
l
yte o r s olu t
ion t ends t o g a ther o n t he F
ig . 2
f
a ce o f t he c athode . Hydrogen g as i s
a n on c onduc tor, p rac tica l
ly , a nd h ence a t hin l ayer o l
on t he c athode e lemen t h inders t he p assage o f a c ur-
r
en t
, r esu lting i n w ha t i s c alled p olar iza tion . S ome m ean s t o
r
educe o r a bo l
ish t h
is p olar iza tion p ro ce ss
which o ccur s, i s a lways r esor ted t o i n
p
rimary c ells. A d epo lar izer i s as ubs tan ce
tha t w ill r ead ily c omb ine w ith t he f ree h y-
drogen g as, a nd i s p laced c lo se t o t he c a
-
thode o r n ega tive e lemen t t o r emove t he'
gas f orma tions a t t his p oin t. S olid a nd
li
qu id d epo lar iz ing a gen ts a re c ommon ly
e mp loyed . T he s o
l id d epo lar izer m ater ials
a
re a rranged s ome time s a bou t t he c athode
i
n ap orous c up, t hrough w hich t he e lec-
t
r oly te c an s eep . When i n l iquid f orm ,
t
he d epo lar izer i s s ome times p laced i n a
p
orous c up a round t he c athode , o r i tc an
b
e o f ad if eren t s pecif i
c g rav ity t han t he
elec tro ly te , a llow ing o ne l iqu id t o r e-
Fig. 3 ma in a bove t he o ther d ue t o t heir v ary -
i
ng d ens i t
ies . T he d epo lar iz ing l i
qu id
i
s al so m ii
ced w ith t he e lec tro ly te i n s ome c ells .
I
t i s n ot n ece ssary t o d escr ibe h ere a l
l o f t he v ariou s t ype s
1
2
o
f p rimary c ells t hat a re a nd h ave b een u sed, b ut o nly t ho se
t
ha t a re p rinc ipa lly e mployed t o-day f or b ell a nd s i
gna l w o rk ,
r
unn ing s ma ll l amps , mo tor s, e tc.
The c h ief d iference s i n t he u se o f p rimary c el
ls d epend s
upon w hether t hey a re t o b e u sed o n closed c ircuit o r c on tinuou s
duty , o r for o pen c i
rcu i t o r i nterm i
tten t d uty. O pen c ircu it b at-
t
eries a re u tilized w here e lect ric c urren t i n s ma ll q uan t
itie s i s
r
equ ired i n
term i tten tly, a s i n t he r inging o f b ells, g as -ligh ting ,
t
elephone s, e tc. T he c lo sed c ircu i t b attery i se mployed w hen a
sma ll c urren t i sr equ ired s tead ily f or l ong p eriods o f t ime , a s i n
commer c
ial t elegraphy , f i
re a larm s, e tc
. T he g rav ity o r D an iell
ce
ll i s much u sed f or c losed c ircu it w o
rk , a s a re a lso t he G ordon
ce
lls . F or o pen c ircu it r equ iremen ts, L eclanché c el
ls a nd d ry
ce
lls a re used v ery e xtens ive ly.
T he s tandard c l osed c ircu it c e
ll f or t e
leg raph w ork i n t he
United S tates i s t he
CARSON Grav ity, C row -foo t o r
POROUS ZINC Dan iell c el
l, a s i t i s.
CU P v
ar ious ly c
alled . The
g
rav i ty c ell, Fig . 1 ,c on -
t
ains a z i
nc b lock Z ,
s
u spended f rom t he s ide
o
f t he j ar, w hi le a n um -
,
JA R b
er o f c opper l eave s C
s
tand o n e dge a t t he
ELECTRO LYT7 . bottom . A q uan tity o f
b
lue v i
trio l ( blue- stone
or s ulpha te o f c opper ) i s
F
let.4 poured o ver t he c oppe r
l
e ave s a nd t he j a r f i
lled w ith w ater.
In the c hem ica l a ction o f t his c ell, copper i sd epos ited o n t he
copper p late , a nd s ulpha te o f z i nc i sf o rmed a t t he z inc e lemen t
.
T o i ncrea se o r q u icken t he a ction , as ma ll q uan tity o f z inc s ul-
pha te i ss ome t
imes a dded t o t he s olution w hen t he c ell i s f i
rs t
set u p
. I
f t he c ell i s n ot worked e nough , a ll t he s o lu -
t
ion w ill b ecome b lue a nd t he z inc w ill b lacken . I f t he z in c
b
ecomes v ery d irty f rom t his c ause , i t s hou ld b e r emoved ,
s
craped a nd w ashed t horough ly . A ll t he e lectro lyte o r s olu -
t
ion s hould a l
so b e t hrown o ut, a nd r ep laced b y new s ulpha te.
A n ew z inc i si nser ted , a nd t hen t he c opper a nd z i nc e lemen ts
a
re c onnec ted t oge ther f or a f ew h ours w hen t he c ell i sr eady
f
o r c on s
tan t d uty. I ts v oltage i s 1 .
1 v olt
, a nd t he c urr en t a p-
p
rox ima tely o ne-ha lf ampere . Warm th c auses i tt o p rodu ce a
g
rea ter c urren t
, a nd i t s hou ld n ever b e a llowed t o f ree ze.
T he g ravi ty c ell mus t b e u sed o n
ly w here i tc an b e k ep t c on -
ti
nuou sly i n c ircu it, a nd n ot l e
f t s t
and ing i d
le . f
or a ny l e ng th
of t ime. T he t empe ra ture o f t he c e
ll s hou ld b e k ep t a bove 7 0
d
eg ree s F ahrenhe it f or b es t r e-
s
ults, a s t he r esistance o f i t i n-
c
rea ses v ery f ast w ith a d ecrea se t—
i
n t empera ture . T he i nterna l r e-
s
istan ce o f t he c ell i sf r om 2 t o 3
ohm s. A b lue c o
lor i n t he b ot-
t
om o f t he c e
ll d eno tes a g ood
c
ond it
ion, b ut a b rown c olor 1
s
how s that the z inc i s de
ter iorat-
i
ng. T he blue l ine w hich mark s
t
he boundary b e
tween t he c opper
s
ulphate a nd t he z i
nc s ulphate,
s
hould s tand a bout h alf-way b e-
t
ween t he electrodes. I f itc omes
t
oo c lose t o t he z inc
, s ome o f
t
he copper s ulpha te can b e d rawn F
IG.5
out b y s iphon ing, o r t he c el
l
c
an b e s hort-circui:ed, t hus p ro-
d
ucing more z inc s u
lpha te. I f the b
lue li
ne sinks t
oo l
ow, a
q
uantity of w ater a nd c opper -crysta
ls c
an be added. ,
I
t r
equ
ire
s
a
bout 3p ounds o f zrystals t o make a new charge.
1
3
 One o f t he best t ype s o f closed c ircuit c ell d es
igned e spe -
c
ia
lly f or c on tinuous d uty a nd f airly h eavy c urren ts
, w ith t he
c
apacity i s ampere h ours r ang ing f rom 1 00 to 6 00, i st he G ordon
primary c ell
. A v iew o f t h
is t ype o f c e
ll i s s hown a t F ig. 2 .
Th
is t ype o f c el
l i s at riumph o f t he l aboratory , a nd i sa t o nce
su
itable e i
ther f or o pen o r closed c ircuit r equiremen ts, with v ery
li
tt
le d e
teriora t
ion o n o pen c ircuit. T he m echan ical c ons truc -
t
ion o f the c ell is especia lly g ood . T he c opper o xide ( or n ega -
t
ive e l
emen t) i s used i n f lake f orm c ompres sed i n per fora ted
metal c y
linders ( s
ee F ig. No . 3 )
, t he perfora tions o f w hich a re
c
losed i n such a w ay a s t o p reven t leakage. A ttached t o t he
c
ylinders a re t hree p orce lain i nsula ting s uppor ts ( Lug s); u pon
t
hese l ugs t he z inc ( or p os
i t
ive e l
emen t) r ests, t hus p reven t
ing
i
tf rom c oming i n c ontac t w ith t he c opper a nd f orm ing a s hor t
c
ircuit within t he cel
l.
T
he z inc i s made i n c ircular f orm a nd i sh eld i n p lace b y
t
he lugs— it d oes n ot hang f rom t he c over o f t he c ell
. A h eavy
i
nsulated c onnec tion w ire i s fi
rm ly a t
tached t o t he z inc.
The e lectro lyte i s as trong s o
lu tion o f caus t
ic s oda . T he
t
op of t he s olu t
ion i sc overed w ith a h eavy m inera l o i
l s uch a s
p
araff
ine t o p reven t t he s oda s o
lu tion o r electro lyte f rom e vap -
o
rating.
The c ells a re u sually s upplied w ith p orcelain o r glass jars,
a
nd t he p roper amoun t o f
c
hem ica ls f or ac harge a re
put u p i n se aled p ackage s. CRYSTALS + CARSON
This f orm o f primary c ell
h
as a n i n
itia l E . M . F . o r POROUS
CUP Z
INC
voltage o f . 9
5 v o
lt, w hich
drops t o . 7
0 v olt when t he
externa l c ircu it i s closed I JAR
and t he l oad p ut o n. T he
i
nterna l r esis tance i s e x- AMMONIUM
c
e eding ly l ow , v arying f rom C
SH
OLOR
LUTID
IOEN
.
02 t o . 0
89 o hm, a ccord-
i
ng t o t he t ype a nd s i
ze
o
f c
ell. The f
o
llow ing
d
ata s hows t he p erformance FIG.6
o
f t hese b at teries:
Continuous r apac ity in amperes 1
.5 2
.5 4
.0 6
.0 7
.0
Max imum c apac i
ty i n a mpere s 7
.49 9 .53 15.51 26.68 3.35
C
apac ity i n ampere h our s 1
00 1
50 3 00 4 00 6
00
I
nterna l r esis tance o hms .
089 . 070 . 0
43 . 025 . 020
This c el
l i s w el
l a dapted t o s mal
l l i
ghting p lants
, g as igni-
t
i
on , o peration o f spark c oils
, e t
c.
For t he o pera t
ion o f spark c oils
, s mall l i
ghts, etc.
, use i s
o
ften made o f B unsen o r G rene t b at
teries. T hese c e
lls supply
ac ontinuous c urren t u n
til t hey a re e xhausted , when t hey are
r
echarged .
T
he Bunsen ce
ll c
ons
ists o
f amalgama
ted zinc and c
arbon
e
l
ements
, t
he la
tter immersed i
n d
ilute s
ulphur
ic ac
id, mixed
w
i th fum ing n i
tric a c
id
a
s a d epolarizer . T he
Bun sen b at
tery i s a n
i
mprovemen t o ver t he
L
i Grove c el
l, i n w hich
,-- - p
latinum w as u sed i n
-
s
tead o f c arbon . I
t
s
v
oltage o r e lectro - mo-
t
i
ve -force ( E.M .F .) i s
1
.
89 v o
lts. T he c arbon

4
.7 e n
:
*
n
6.6
e
l
ec
a
c
id
p
l
trode a

aced i
d
epo
nd t
lar
n ap
he n
izer
orous c
itric
a
re
up,
t
he c onstruction d etails
b
e
ing s e en a t F ig. 4 .
Mey
lan
, in 1
886, made some el
aborate t
e
sts o n the B un sen c el
l,
w
ith t
he f
o
llowing resu
lts:
1
4
 The e xciting l iquid o r e lectrolyte w as sulphuric a c
id, c on-
s
i
sting o f e qual v olumes o f 60 ° B aumé, s ulphuric acid a nd w ater.
The d epo lar izer w as nitric a cid o f 3 6° B aumé, specifi
c g ravity .
Z
inc e l
ectrode h aving a n active s urface o f 16.25 s quare i nches .
Externa l r esistance 1 .
27 o hm s. I
nterna l r e
sistance 0 .04 ohm ,
f
all
ing t o 0 .035 o hm , a nd r i
sing t o 0 .
12 o hm .
S
tarting 1
.93 vo
lts 0
After 1 5 m inu tes c lo
sed c ir-
c
u
i t 1
.87 " 1
.
42 ampere s 0
After 2 4 h ours closed c i
rcu it 1 .
77 " 1
.
33 " 56w atth rs.
After 3 0 h ours c losed c ircuit 1 .
73 " 124 " 7
0 I
d d
i

The B unsen a nd G rove c ells h ave t he a dvantage t hat n o salts

a
re u sed i n t he
ir s o
lution , s o there i s c onsequen t
ly n o troub le
f
rom c rys tallization i nt he carbon o r platinum c ompar tmen t. T he
e
vo lution, h owever , o f n i
trous f umes w h
ich c orrode t he b a
ttery
c
onnec tions a nd d emand s pecial v entilation a rrangemen ts i s a
b
ad f ea
ture.
A ba
ttery wh ich has b een e x
tensively emp loyed a broad for
e
xper imental a nd labora
tory p urposes is the p o
tassium b i
chro-
mate or G renet cel
l. Its usua l f orm i sshown i n cut
, Fig. 5. A
f
our -ce
ll b i
chroma te battery i s s hown a t F ig. 1 3
. I t is com-
p
rised o f carbon a nd zi
nc e lectrodes i mmer sed i n an electroly
te
o
f 1 00 parts potassium b ichroma te, 100 parts o f w ater
, a nd 5 0
p
ar ts of sulphuric acid
. When n o
t i n use t he zinc elemen t is
w
i thdrawn f rom t he solution t o prevent l ocal action a nd e x-
h
aus tion o f t he c ell.
For o pen c ircu i t r equ iremen ts s uch a s t he r i
nging o f b ells,
s
igna l l
ing d ev ices , i gn ition s park c oils, a nd t he like, o r whe re
sma ll q uan t
i t
ies o f e lec tric c u rren t a re u sed i n
term ittently, t he
ammon ium c hlor ide c ell i s g enera l
ly u t
ilized, a s i t h as many
c
ommendab le f e ature s. Ammon ium c hlor ide f orms wha t isc alled
c
ommon ly s al-ammon iac o r c hem ically N I-14
.
71. S
ulphur ic a cid
i
se xpressed c hem ica lly a s I 2SO 4
. I n ammon ium c hloride c ells
d
epo lar iz ing i s n ecessary , u nless t he c a rbon s urface ex po sed t
o
c
hem ica l a ct
ion i se x trem .ely l arge c ompared t o that o f t he z inc .
One o f t he e arlies : a nd b est c ells o f t h
is t ype w as t ha t
evo lved b y L ec lanché , i n 1 868 , a nd i ti s named a fter h im t he
Lec lanché c e
ll. T here a re t wo g enera l f orms o f i ti n use; t he
porou s c up c el l, a nd t he a gglomera te b lock c e
ll.
In t he p orous c up t ype , s een a t f i
g. 6 , the z i
nc e lemen t
, i n
t
he f orm o f ar od , i s p laced i n the o uter v essel, c on taining a
s
olu tion o f ammon ium c hloride ( sal-ammon iac). T he c arbon
i
s i n ap orous j a r, wh ich i sf il
led w i th a m ixture o f p ulverized
c
arbon a nd b l ack o xide o f manganese , p referab ly i n n eed le -
f
orm o r c rys ta lline . T he p orous c up mu st b e of g ood q uali ty
and q uite p orous . T he E . M . F . o f t his c e
ll is 1.48 v o
lts. T he
porous c up d oes n ot u sua l
ly l ast l onger t han t wo y ears. One
par t o f z inc d i sso lved s hou ld r educe t wo p arts o f manganese
d
iox ide , a nd s hou ld i n t urn e xhaus t o ne p art o f ammon ium
c
hlor ide . S
trong a mmon ium c hloride i s preferab le a s i t i s a
better s olven t f or t he z inc o xych lor ides f ormed . I n f igs. 7a nd
8a re s hown , r e spec tive ly , t he p orous
c
up a nd a gglomera te b lock L eclan ché
c
ells. CARDON
T he a gg lomera te b l ock ty
pe o f Z
INC
cons truc t
ion , t akes i t
s n ame f rom t he
fact t ha t n o p orous c up i s e mployed ,
but t he d epo lar izer ; _
s made i n t wo
cakes , wh ich a re h eld a ga in st t he c ar -
bon p l ate o r e l ec trode b y r ubber b ands .
The c akes c ons is t o f 4 0 p ar ts b ioxide i1 I JAR
o
f manganese , 5 2 p ar ts o f c arbon , 5
p
ar ts o f g um -lac , a nd 3 p ar ts o f p o -
t
assium b isu lpha te. The se a re c om -
p
ressed o r b ricque tted a t a p ressure F
IG. 9
o
f 3 00 a tmospheres a t t he t emper -
a
ture o f b oiling wa ter . Ammon ium
c
hlor ide o f t he b es t q ua lity mus t b e u sed f or b est r esults, a s
1
5
 t
he commer
cia
l s al
-ammoniac i s li
ab
le t o c
onta
in i
mpur
it
ies
w
hich t
e
nd to i
ncrease t
he r
es
istance of t
h
e ce
ll
.
The common f o
rm o f L ec
lanché c e
ll us ed int his coun try f or
b
ell w ork, e mploys as a
turated s olution o f s a
l-ammon iac, w ith
azi nc rod a bout ; ,
‘ inch in d iame ter f or t he p os
itive e lectrode
o
r n egative t erminal pole, and a l arge ca rbon c ylinder a bout 4
Inche s in d i
ame ter f or t he n ega t
ive e l
ectrode o r p osi
tive t er-
m
ina l p o
le. T he e lec
trolyte i s m ade b y t horough ly d i
s solving
abou t Yi p ound o f s a
l-ammon iac i n t h
e j ar al i
t
tle m ore t han
half fi
lled with w a
ter. N o d epo larizer i su sed, t h
e c onsiderab ly
greater a rea o f the c arbon e lectrode , a s c ompared t o t hat o f
t
h e z i
ncj b e
ing c on s
idered a ble t o c are f or t he p roduc t
ion o f
hydrog en g as
. T his cell is ve ry p oor, h owever , if m uch l oad
i
s p laced a cro ss i t
s term inals, t h e c a
rbon e lemen t b ecom ing
c
overed w ith h ydrog en g as b ubb les
. B aking t he c ar
bon i n a n
o
ven o f
ten g ives increased r esult s in t he a ct
ion o f t he b attery.
The i nternal r es
istance o f t he L eclanché c ell of t h
e p orous
c
up t ype i sa pproxima tely 1 .
5 o hm s.
T
he F
'
ull
er b
a
ttery c
e
ll i
sone t
ha
t h
as b
een much u
sed f
or
t
e
legraph ic p urpo ses i nE ngland , a nd for
e
xperimen tal w ork i n this c oun try. I t
i
s of
ten c al
led t h e Mer cury- Bichroma te
b
at
tery, o w
ing t o t hese elemen ts b eing
t
he chief c onstituen ts i n i t
s m ake-up.
FM, 1
4 13 F ig
. 9i s ac ut o f t he F uller c e
ll. I t
comprises ag lass o r p orcelain c ontain-
i
ng jar, inside of w hich i sfi
tted ap orous
cup, c ontain ing a p yramid s haped z inc e l
ectrode , i m-
mersed in m ercury a t t he bottom . T he m ercury t hus k eeps
t
he z i
nc c ont inuously a malgama ted . A c arbon e lectrode i s
placed in th e o uter v esse
l, w hich r ece
ive s t he d epolarizing s o•
l
ution. T he a c
id electrolyte for t he c e
ll i sp l
aced i n t he p orou s
c
up . T he e lectrolyte ism ixed b y a dding 6 o un ces of p ota ss
ium
b
ichroma te a nd 1 7 o unce s of s ulphur ic a cid t o 56 o unce s of
s
of t water
. T his isp oured i nto t he glass j ar. I n t he p orous
c
up i s pl
aced t wo t easpoonfu ls o f s a
lt; o ne t e
aspoonfu l o f
mercury, and t he cup f i
led to w i
th in t wo i nche s of t h
e t op w ith
s
oft w ater
, w ith t he z inc ele
ctrode i n place.
T
he color of the so
lution is orange w hen the ce
ll is in
working order
, and t h
e interna
l resis
tance v ar
ies fr
om 0 .5 t
o
4ohm s. T he Ful
ler ce
ll c
an b e l
e
ft o n open ci
rcu
it for s
evera
l
months at at ime
, w i
thout a ny appreciab
le d e
ter
iorat
ion. I t
s
E
. M . F. i
s2 .
14 vol
ts.
T
hrough t he whole category o f batteries, there iso ne w h
ich
has probably r e
ached a g reater a doption t han a ny ot her
, the
c
ommon ly called dry b a
ttery. T he dry c e
llh a sbeen ab oon tothe
u
ser o f p ocket f l
ash l i
gh ts a nd o ther p ortable r equiremen ts
.
The v o
ltage i s about 1 .
5 v -dts and t he c urren t from 1 t o 30
amperes f or s hort in
terval s
, d epending u pon t he size o f the
c
el
l. T hey last several m onths f o
r f l
ash l ight w ork, and a bout
ayear f o
r bells
, e t
c. T he c e
ll i sgenera l
ly d iscarded f or an ew
o
ne, w hen e xhau s
ted, al
though t h
ey m ay b e r echarged a s fol-
l
ows:
Procure a m achine d ril
l o f about t
o 3/16
" i n diameter
a
nd d ri
ll holes carefully t i
l
l t he d r
ill touches th
e c arbon. D o
n
ot b e afra
id t o d r
ill t hrough t h e entire por
tion o f t h
e d e-
p
olari
zer, as iti sn ecessary t hat itg et
s a ir a
nd electroly
te. I t
i
so bvious that dr
illed h oles d o not t hrow u p ar im, but leave
afl
at
, c l
ean h o
le, m aking s hort circuit ent
irely o
ut o f the ques-
t
i
on. We w ould recommend t o dr
i l
l a bout 8or 1 0 such h o
les
,
b
e
ing c arefu
l t o s
ee t hat all m angane se (black f
i
ler) i sc arr
ied
o
ut of t he ho
le. B low ing h ard in t he h o
le wi
ll u sual
ly c l
ear
1
6
i
t p er fe ctly. We a l
so r ecommend t o d rill e ad t
b
o
le a s r apidly a sp os s
ib le, becau se t he d rill i tself ,
)
e
ing i n c on tac t w ith b oth z inc a nd d epo la rize r
d
uring t he a ct o f d ril
ling , f or t h e t ime s ho r t-
c
i
rcu its t he c el
l. E
LECTRO

w
eigh
N
t
ex
) w
t p
at
repa
er a
re a s
nd 5 p
olu
ar
t
t
ion o
s o f c
f 1
h
lor
0 p
ide o
art s (
f z i
by
nc,
e
l
t
i
l
t
RY
D
R
Y
which c an b e b ough t f or a bou t 5 0 t o 6 0 c en ts
p
er p ound . T en c en ts
' w orth w il
l d o f or a bou t
ad ozen d ry c ell s
. I f t he s o
lu tion i sk ep t i n a
well- stoppered b o
ttle i tc an b e u sed o ve r a nd
o
ve r, a s e ach c ell d oe s n ot a bso rb m uch l iquid .
The s o
lu tion mu st b e w ell h eated b efo re u sed ,
b
u t s hou ld n ot b oil, I nser t t he c elli nt his l i
qu id
a
nd l eave I n s ame f o r a bou t 2 0 t o 3 0 m in tua .
P
ig. l o
.
The t ells s hou ld t hen b e t aken o ut a nd r olled o n
t
he f l
oo r
. E ach h o
le s h culd n ow b e i nspec ted t o
v
e rify i fi ti sc l
ean a nd i fn o f i
l
ler t ou che s t he z i
nc.
Now d ry t h e c ell c are fully, a nd i fp os sib le i n
sert i n e ach
d
ril l h ole a d ry w ooden p lug , w hich c an b e c ut o f f lu
sh w ith
t
h e z inc .
The b attery i s n ow r eady f o r u se a nd i n m ost c a
ses w ill
regis ter f rom 8 t o 1 2 a mp ere s a nd a bou t 1 .3 v o
lts.
T he m ethod o f t esting d ry b a tte ry c el
l s, e tc
., i ss hown b y
the d i agram , F ig. 1 4
, w he re B i st he b attery a nd M t h
e v olt o r
amme ter . Dry c el
ls o f t he
s
tanda rd s i
ze , v i
z., 2Wx6 ",
u
sua lly r eg is ter 1 .
5 v olts p er
c
ell i ndica ting t he s t
ronge st
CELLS I N SER IES c
ircu it b ya na mme ter,t he re ad-
+ i i
n g v ar ie s f r om 1 5 t o 25, u -
s c o rd ing t ot he t ype of c e
ll
. T he
c
ell i n dica ting t he s t
rong est
amperage i s n ot a lways t he
CELLS I N MULT IPLE. mo st s a
ti sfac tory o ne for d ura -
t
ion o r l i
fe. S ome o f the b est
dry c ells r eg is
ter b ut 1 8 a m
-
p
er es w hen n ew, w h
ile s ome
C
. w ill s how 3 0 t o 35 a mpe res o n
sho rt c ircu it t hrough t he a m
-
meter . I t i s to b e d eplo red
tha t t he c ell t e
st b y t he s ho rt
CELLS I N seR IE5 -MU LTIPLE c
ircu it t hrough a n a mme ter i s
F
ia . I
i emp loyed s o w idely, a s i t is
t
he wo rst p o ssib le t hing t o d o
. T he c orrec t me thod i sb y
m eans o f ag ood v oltme ter.
The o u ter c on tain ing j ar o f ad ry c ell i so f z inc i n m ost
t
ype s
. T he c a rbon o r n ega tive e lect rode i s s uspended i n t he
c
en t re o f t he z in c c on tainer , a nd f orm s t he p osit
ive t ermina l
p
ole o f t he b attery . T he c a r-
b
on e lemen t m ust n ott ouch t he
z
i nc. T he z i
nc c l
iambe - :isp ro -
t
ec ted i nside b y s e vera l l ayer s
o
f b l ott
ing p ape r
, a nd f i
lled
with a m ix tu re c on sis t
ing o f
powde red c arbon , m angane se
diox ide a nd s awdu st ( or s ome
other a bso rben t s ub s
tance ).
T he m ixture i ss atura ted w ith
a s olu tion o f s al-ammor ia c
.
After t he c ell h as b een t hus
b
uil t u p, i ti ss ealed w ith s e a
l-
i
ng w ax, a nd t he w hole s l
ipped
i
nto a c arton o r p asteboard
b
ox .
The e ass ner d ry c ell h a
s Fig. 12
.
an ega t
ive e lect rode ( po sitive t erm ina l p ole ) c ompo sed o f a
1
7
 c
y linder o f c arbon p owder a nd mangane se d ioxide . T he f i
l
ling
mix ture c ompos ition i s zi nc o xide , ammon ium c h lor ide , a nd
z
i nc c hloride , 1p ar t e ach; p las ter o f P ar is, 3p art s; w ater, 2
part s
. T he i n
terna l r esistan ce i s a bou t 0 .3 o hm . A c u t o f a
modern d ry c el
l iss een a t F ig. 1 0.
The a rrangemen t o f t he v arious c e
lls o f ab at tery , w hen
more t han o ne cell i s u sed i si mpor tan t
, a nd d epends u pon t h
e
c
la ss o f w ork i tist o b e used u pon . I n c onnec ting u p an umbe r
o
f c el
l s i n se r
ies t o attain i ncrea sed v oltage , t he c arbon e lectrode
o
r p ositive p ole o f o ne c ell i s c onnec ted t o t he z inc e lectrode
o
r n ega tive p ole o f t h
e n ex t c ell, e tc.
, a s s hown i n F ig. 1A .
Wi th t his a rrangemen t, t he v o
ltage a cross t he line w ires c om ing
f
rom t he b a
t tery i se qua l to t he n umber o f c ells times t he v o l
tage
of o ne c ell
. Hence , i fo ne c e
ll d elivered 1 .
5 v olts, t hen 3 c e
lls
w ou ld d e
liver 3 t upes 1 .5 v ol
ts, o r 4.5 v olt s
. T he m easuremen t
of t he v o
ltage o r c urren t o f b atter ies i sr ead ily made b y t he u se
of ap ocke t v ol
t o r amme ter , ac ut o f o ne a ppearing i n F ig . 1 2
.
When more c urren t i sd esired t han t ha t o btainab le f rom a
s
i ng le c el
l, t h ey are a rranged i n mu ltiple o r o n p ara lle l
, a s i n
F
ig . 1 B . I f o ne c el
l c an s upp ly ampere n orma l
ly , t hen
t
h ree o n mu ltiple c ou ld S upp ly t hree t ime s 5 4 ampere , o r 1 ;4
ampere s, b ut a t t
he v oltage o f 1c ell o r 1 .
5 v olt
s. Here a ll t he
c
a rbon p oles a re c onnec ted t o t he s ame l i
ne, a nd a ll t he z inc
p
ole s t o t he o ther l i
ne.
A c omb ina tion o f t he a bove t wo c ond itions , isi lus tra ted b y
t
he d i ag ram F ig . 1 C . T his a l
lows t he b attery t o c are f or a ny
d
es ired v oltage a nd c urren t i n amperes . T he v oltage d eve loped
b
y t he b a
ttery i sd eterm ined b y t he n umber o f c ells c onnec ted
across t he
l
ine w ires
C D . The
c
urren t i
n
amperes b y
the n umbe r
o f f i
l
es on
multiple
a
cro ss the
l
ines C D . I n
t
he i lustra -
t
ion , t
he b at-
t
ery s hown
would d e -
,l
iver a v o
lt-
a
ge o f t wo
t
i mes 1
.
5
v
ol ts
, o r 3
v
olt
s. T he current ( taking that for e ach cel
l a t 5
4 ampe re),
would be three times t hat per cel
l, or 154 omperes , n ot three
t
imes 1ampere , because t he ce
lls are in ser
ies and h ave t w
ice
t
he res
istance of o ne cel
l. To g et 3 amperes across t he li
ne,o n
t
he bas
is taken above , it would b e necessary to connec t 6f i
les
o
f two ce
lls each
, a cross the l
ines
, instead of 3f i
l
es.
PRI MARY BATTERY CELLS
.
NA ME
. E
lectro
lyte C
athode Depo
lar
izer E
.M.F
. Vo
lts Remark
s
Law
. S
olu
tion of NH
,C1 Carbon None 1
.3 t
o 4For o
pen
c
i
rcu i
t
Hercu
les. O
f d
e
c
losed
I
d

Bunsen, d
ilute c
i
rcu i
t
D
ilu
te n
i
tric a
c
id 1
.
9 a
d

S
olu
tion of H
.SO
.
Open o r
Grenet B
ichroma te-ac
id 11
w ork
The bichroma te 1
.9
-2.1 0pen o r
B
ichromate s
o
lu tion d
issolved i n the
P
oggendorf
. c
l osed
e
lectroly te
. c
ircu i t
Ful
ler a
l d
i
B
ichroma te 2
.14 a
d

Danie
ll Z
inc s ulphate Copper Copper s ulpha te
(
crowfoot) 1
.07 C
l ose d
L
eclanche Solu
tion o f N II
.C1 Carbon c
ircu i t
Mangane se d ioxide 1
.
4.1.70pen
E
dison- C
aust
ic P otash
. C
opper o x
ide Cupric o xide . c
ircui t
.7 C
lo sed
L
alande
. Pla
te
c
i
rcu
it
1
8
ù
ordon
. C
aus
tic s
o
da C
ranu
latedCopp
er o
x
ide .
7 O
p en o
r
c
opper ox
ide c
l
osed
c
i
rcui
t

A few w ords r egard ing f lash lights a nd t heir b atterie s m ay

b
e o f interes t
, a s t h ey a re o ften m isunders tood . A t F ig. 1 5
a
re s een t hree v arie -
t
i
e s o f modern f lash -
l
ight s; A b eing a
med ium s ize w ith a 3
c
ell d ry b attery , g iv-
i
ng 41 / v
2 olts; B a
v
ery s mall v est p ock -
e
t f l
ashligh t
, h av ing a
3v olt, 2c ell d ry b a t
-
t
e ry; and C a t ubu lar
t
ype , h aving a 4%
volt, 3c ell d ry b at-
t
ery . An eck -tie e lec -
t
ric s t
ick p in may b e
seen a t 15A. T he a r-
r
ang emen t o f t hese
b
atteries, a s r egards
t heir c onstruc tion , F
ig . 15
w
i l
l b e gleaned r ead -
i
ly f rom t he s ke tch F ig. 1 6, A , B , C , t he b attery c i
rcu it
h
av ing a p ush b u tton t o o pen a nd c lose t he c ircu it a t P , t he
l
amp ( usua lly t ung sten f i
lamen t
, a s i ti s 2% t o 3t imes a s e f
i-
cien t a s t h e o ld
c arbon f i
lamen t
type) , b eing p lac ed
a
t L . F lash -
ligh t
b
at terie s give f rom
2 t o 3 mon ths'
s
e rvice i f u sed
only a f ew t imes
each day . I
f
burned c on tinuou s-
l
y, t hey w ill l i
gh t
t
he l amp f or f rom
2t o 3h ou rs.
A n ew f orm o f
, s pring b ind ing -
pos t, w hich h as
r
ece ived w ide r ec-
o
gn ition , w her ever
b
a tteries a re u sed
i
s i lustra ted b y
c
u t F ig. 1 7. I t i s

G CA RD t0r
F
,G
, RD CO VE R
r
e
c
os
asonab
t, a
le i
nd e asi
n f
ly a
i
rs
p
t
-
p
lied b y am ach ine
s
crew a nd n ut. Wires a re c onnec ted t o i t
, b y s imp ly p re ss
ing
d
own o n t h e l i
p, a nd r eleas ing t he p ressure a gain. I
t i s a
b
oon t o ba ttery u ser s
, h av ing v ibrat
ion t o c on tend w ith, s uch
a
, i n automob ile i gni tion , e tc., a s aw ire c anno t j ar o r v ibrate
l
oo se. T
he c on-
n
ec tion i
s v ery
s
olid a s e videnced
b
y t he a dap t
ion o f
t
his b inding p ost
o
n a l
l d ry b at
teries '-
emp loyed i n mod - •
e
rn t e
lephone e x- .
1
11
1
.g .
c
hange work, F
ig. 1 7
w here t he s l
ighte st i mper fec t c on tac t is
quick ly made a pparen t a nd w ill n ot be
t
olera ted. Doub le t ypes a re v ery u seful
f
or m aking d iferen t c onnec tions b e
-
I t
ween w ire s of v arious c ircuits.
19
 L
esson No
. 3
.

S TORAGE b
t
hey c an b
at
STORAGE BATTERIES

ter
e c
ies d if
harged a
fer f
.

rom p
nd re
rimary b
charged b y p
atter
ass
ie s
ing a
, i n t
n el
ha
ec
t
-
tr
ic c urren t th rough t hem
. S torage b attery, s econd ary
battery a nd a ccumu lator are t he v arious t erms i n c om -
mon use to s i
gn ify an e l
ectrical d
evice i n w hich c hem ical a c
tion
i
sfi
rst set u p b y the p assage o f an electric c urren t, a fter w hich
t
he device i s c apable o f g iving o f e lectric c urren t b y m ean s
o
f se
condary r eversed c hem ica l a
ct
ion. T hus a ny f orm o f v ol-
t
a
ic couple t hat is d irectly r ever
sible i n i t
s a c
tion c on st
itute s
as torage b attery . T he a c-
t
ion o f s t
oring e lectr
ica l
e
nergy i n t he b a
t tery b y t h
e
p
assage o f ac urren t f rom
a
n e xterna l source , i sk nown
a
s c harg ing t he b at
tery.
When t he bat tery i sg iv
ing
of c urren t, iti s s aid t o be
d
ischarg ing .
A storage b at
tery c e
ll h a
s
t
wo e l
emen ts
, o r plates, t h
e
Electrodes , one po s
itive a nd
one n ega tive
, i mmer sed i n
an electrolyte of a cidulated
water o r some o ther s olu-
t
ion. T he pos
itive a nd nega -
t
ive p lates a re g enera lly
c
ompo sed o f the s ame m a-
t
eria
l, b ut s ometime s t h ey
F
ig. la
a
re m ade o f two d iferent
materials. A t F ig. 1 A
, i s
s
hown a p
la
te grid before t
he a
ct
ive ma teria l has been i nserted
i
n i
t
. T he v
arious m e
thods of f
orming t he g rids and i nserting
t
he a
ct
ive m
ixture isshown by F
ig. 1B.
T
he a ct
ion o f a storage b at
tery i s as fol
lows : —The p ro-
duct
ion o f current by t h e battery a f
ter charging
, o x
idizes and
may d issolve t he material o f o ne p l
ate
, a nd the e l
ectroly
te is
e
xhau sted i n
•'the process. T he h ydrogen g as liberated seeks
t
hé i n
ac tive plate
, and f inds th ere a d epolar
izer. T h
is i sgrad-
u
ally d ecompo sed and r educed a s i t s
upplies oxygen t o the
h
ydrogen , and a f
ter a t ime t he b a
ttery is exhaus
ted , no longer
b
eing c apable o f p
roduc ing a c urrent
.
To recharge o r regenerate it
, ac urren t of'e
lectr
ici
ty o f o p-
p
osi
te p olar
ity or d ire
c t
ion t o t
hat w hich the bat
tery f ormer ly
p
roduced, i s passed t hrough i t
. B y t his means
, a n e l
ectro-
c
hemical a ct
ion i s c reated
, w hich r eproduces b y e lec
trolytic
r
eduction t he previously a t
tacked e l
ec trode on o ne p la
te ; it
s
imultaneously forms u pon the other plate the d
epolarizer, al
so
2
0
b
y e
l
ectro
lys
is. Dur ing t he c our se o f t he se t wo a ction s, t he
elec tro ly te s olution i s r es to red
t
o i ts o rig ina l s treng th . When
the c harg ing h as p rog re ssed
suf i cien tly l ong, t h e b att ery i s
r
es tored t o i t
s o r
ig ina l c ond i -
t
i on . T he c harg ing c ur ren t i s
then c ut o f, a nd t he b a tte ry i s
r
eady t o p roduce c urren t a ga in .
An e ficien t s torage b a ttery
4Siet
IOxs o Gm
OF PE
,. si
i0V
RFORAT
/IXO D
IOXL
I MIZI IT SITU &
mus t e lec trochem ica lly a b so rb
t
he g rea tes t q uan tity o f e lec -
t
r
ica l e nergy , w ith t he s ma lles t
v
olume , a nd l astly w i th t he s ma lles t p oss ib le w eigh t. I t s hou ld
b
e c apab le o f r eta in ing i ts c harge f or l o ng p eriods w i thou t
s
evere l oss. T he b at tery s hou ld g ive a g ood r eturn o f e nergy ,
o
r
, i n o ther w ord s, i ts e ficiency mu st b e h igh, a l so i t s hou ld
s
upp ly a c ons tan t c urren t, w ithou t i nterm ittence , a nd s hou ld
b
e r ead ily s ubjec t t o r egu la tion o f c urren t s t
reng th a nd v oltage .
The f unc tion o f t he s t orage b at tery i s s ome time s m i sunder -
s
tood . S uch a b attery d oes n o t s t ore e lec trica l e nergy , c or-
r
ec tly s peak ing , b ut p oten tia l c hem ica l e nergy , a s t he c hem ica l
c
hange i n t he e lemen ts c o mpos ing . t he b attery , i s r esnon sib le
f
o r t h e p roduc tion o f c urren t o n d ischarge .
T he p rinc ipa l s torage b attery i n u se t oday i s t he l ead t ype .
I
t u sua lly c on tains t wo e lec trodes , made u p o f l ead p erox ide
(Pb 0 2) , a nd s ponge l e
ad ( Pb) f or t he a ctive ma ter ial s, r e-
s
p ec tive ly. T he l ead p erox ide i su sed f ox t he p osi t
ive e lectrode ,
a
nd t he s ponge l ead f or t he n ega tive e lec trode . The a ppear -
a
nce o f ac omp le te c ell i ss e en a t F ig . I C
, a nd o f as e t o f c ells
f
o r p or tab le u se a t 1 D. T he t wo e lec trodes a re i mmer sed i n
ad ilu te s olu t
ion o f s ulphur ic a c
id ( 1
•12S0 2
.)
When t he b a ttery i s f ully c harged a nd i n f i
rst c lass c ond i tion ,
t
he p osi tive p lates h ave a d ark r edd ish -brown o r c hoco la te
c
o lor , a nd t he n ega tive p la tes a l i
gh t g ray o r s late c olor . T he
p
l ate s c an t hus b e d i stingu ished o ne f r om t he o ther , b y t heir
c
olo r s, a nd a lso b y t he c harac ter
o
f t he a ctive ma ter ia l c ompos ing
t
hem . The l ead p erox ide i sv ery
hard , l ike s oaps tone , w h ile t he
n
ega tive ma ter ial i ss oft a nd e a s
i -
l
ym arked b y t he f i
nger -na il. T he
n
ega tive s ub stance i s p ure l ead ,
r
educed t o as pongy f orm b y t he
e
lec t ro lys is . I th as b een s ugges ted
t
ha t t his s ponge l ead i s am ix ture
o
f l ead a nd h ydrogen , a lthough
u
sua lly i t i s c ons idered a n a llo -
t
r op ic f orm o f l ead , wh ich h as u n -
dergone a p hy sica l b ut n ot a
chem ica l c hange .
O n t he d ischarg e o f t he c e
ll, t h e
electro ly te c omb ine s w ith t he a c-
t
ive s ubs tances o f t he e lec trodes ,
and o n c harge t h e a ctive ma ter ials
are r educed t o t h eir o rig ina l c on -
dition , t he c hem ica ls e xtrac ted
f
rom t he e l
ec tro ly te b eing r elea sed
a
nd r e turned t o t he e lec tro ly te. I t F
ig . lc
i
s e viden t, t hen , t ha t t h e e lec tro -
l
yte d ens ity o r s pec ific g rav i ty, i sg rea ter a t t he e nd o f ac ha rg e,
t
han a t t he e nd o f ad ischarge; a nd a lso t ha t t he a ct
ive s ub -
s
tance s o n t he e lec trodes e xpand a s d ischarge p roceeds .
T he u nit o f c apac i ty o f s torage c el ls i st aken a s t he a mper e-
hour , w hi ch i s u sua lly b ased o n t he e i gh t h our r ate o f d is-
charg e. On t his b asis , a1 00 a mpere -hour b attery w ou ld g ive
ac on tinuous d i scharge o f l 2a a mperes f or e i ght h our s; o r a
400 a mpere -hour s ize , 5 0 a mperes f or 8 h ours . T heo re tica lly
c
on sidered t he 4 00 ampere -hour c ell, s hou ld a lso s upp ly 1 00
2
1
amperes f or 4 h our s; o r 200 a
mpere
s f
or 2 h
our
s; b
ut t
h
is
does not hold t r
ue i n prac-
t
ice
. T he a mpere -hour c a-
p
acity decreases w i
th a n in-
c
rease o f d ischarge r ate.
The inherent c apacity of a
s
torage c e
ll w il
l d epend
u
pon, a nd b e p ropor t
iona l .
t
o
, t he exposed a rea of t he
e
lec
trodes, s ubject t o c on-
t
act w i
th t he e l
ectrolyte,
a
nm
doun
t
al
soo
fde
a
cp
t
ie
vne
dss
ubo
s
n
tant
c
he c
ktef4 k e e
r
f
l
on t he p ositive a nd n ega tive
p
l ates.
Cons idered f rom a t heo - O i-ó --
ACCUMULATOR
r
etica l s tandpoint , t he —Poirmmi

weigh t of m etal
lic l e
ad o n ei
ther e lemen to re l
ec trode , w hich i sr e
-
duced t o sponge l ead, o rt o lead p eroxide, r equ ired t op roduce o ne
a mpere -hour o f d ischarge c urrent i s . 135 o unces , a vo irdupo is ;
and i f changed i nto p erox ide t his w ill w eigh . 156 o unc es
. I n
p
rac tica l o pera tion , t he w e
igh t o f a ctive ma ter ial n ece ssary
p
er e lement i sf rom f our
t
o s i; t imes t he t heore t-
i
calv alue , d ue t o t he f a ct
,
t
ha t i t i s i mposs ible t o
r
educe a ll t he a c tive ma -
t
eria l
. I
t h as b een a s-
c
er tained t ha t t o p roduce
o
ne ampere-hour d is-
c
harge a t o rd inary r ates
r
equ ires . 50 t o . 80 o unces
o
f s ponge l ead a nd . 53 t o
.
86 o unces me tal l
ic l ead ,
c
onver ted i n to p erox ide ,
F
ig . 2 o
n e ach e l emen t r e
spec -
t
ively .
The a ctua l capac i
ty o f s torage b atteries i s d ependen t u pon
t
he a rea o f t he e lectrode a nd t he n umber o f t hem o n p aralle l;
t
heir c harac ter a nd make -up; t he d i
scharge r ate a nd t he t em -
p
era ture . A l
l t hese i mpor tan t p oints h ave a b ear ing o n t he
r
esu ltan t capac i
ty . T he 8 h our r ate of d ischarge i s c ons idered
s
tandard f or a l
l s izes o f b atteries a nd a t empera tu re o f 6 0
d
eg ree s F ahrenhe i t
. T he u sua l c apac
i t
ies o btaining i n Amer i-
c
an p ractice, g i
ves f rom 4 0 to 6 0 a mpere -hour s p er s quare f oo t
o
f p ositive p la te
e s
urface , w hich i s
f
ound b y mu l
tiply -
i
ng .t he n umber o f
p
ositive p l ates i n
p
ara llel, t ime s t he
l
ength , t ime s t he
b
read th, t ime st wo ,
a
s e ach p la te h as
t
wo f aces e xposed
t
o t he e lec troly te.
The change i
n
F
ig. 8 c
apac ity o f al ead
t
ype c el
l u nder d iferen t r a
tes o f discharge i s gi ven b elow .
D
ischarge R ate: P er c ent o f c apacity a t 8h our r ate.
Pas
ted P la
te. P
lanté P
late
.
8h our 1
00%* 1
00%
6h our 9
6% 9
6%
4h our 8
8% 8
0%
2h our 7
0% 6
1%
1hour 4
8% 5
6%
The vo
ltage of any s
t
orage bat
tery ce
ll is independent o
f the
s
i
ze of the plates
. It d
epends on the chemical m ake-up o
f the
e
l
ectrodes
, d ensi
ty of t
he el
ectro
lyte and t he condit
ion of the
2
2
c
e
l l a s c ompared t o i t
s c harged o r d ischarged s tate.
The E .M .F . o r v ol
tage o f t he l ead -sulphur ic -acid c e
ll, wh ile i n
p
roce ss o f c harg ing , v ari es f rom 2 t o 2 .5 v olt, a nd o n d is-
c
harge i tv ar ie s f rom 2 v olts p er c ell d own t o 1 .7 v olts. Any
d
eg ree o r s treng th o f v oltage i s a t
ta ined b y j oin ing t wo o r
mo re c ells i n s eries, a llow ing a bou t 2v ol
ts t o ac ell. Thu s, t o
s
upp ly a l ine, r equ iring 3 6 v o
lts, wou ld n ecess ita te u sing 1 8
c
ells i n s eries . To c ompensa te f or t he d rop b e low 3 6 v olt s
,
o
r a ny o ther l i
ne v o
l tage , af ew e xtra e nd c ells may b e a r-
r
anged , s o t hey c an b e s wi
tched i n
to c i
rcu it a nd t hus k e ep
t
he E .M .F. u p t o t he p roper v a
lue .
S
to rage c ells c an b e b ough t n owaday s a t s uch l ow p rice s
,
t
ha t i td oes n ot p ay t o make t hem f or i ndividua l u se. A v ery
good l i
ttle c ell s upply ing 2 v o
l ts a nd 1 0 a mpere h our s o f
energy i s s old b y t he E l ec tro I mpor ting C ompany . T hey a lso
se
ll a2 0 ampere h our c ell. B oth o f t hese c ells a re moun ted
i
n g la ss j ar s
, w ith g as v en ts i n t op. T he p lates a re s pec ially
made o n t he b est d esign , f or h igh
elec trica l ef i ciency a nd ' ong l i
fe . The
appearance o f t he e l
's i s s een a t
F
ig . 2 , t he f ormer b e
ing t he 2 0 am-
p
ere h our c ell a nd t he l atter t he 1 0
ampere h our c e
ll. A t the s t andard o r
8h our r ate o f d ischarge t he 1 0 A . H .
c
ell wou ld d el
iver 1% a rhperes f or 8
hours . The 2 0 A . H . t ype wou ld s up-
p
ly 2 .5 amperes f or 8 h ours . O f c ourse
t
hese c ells w ill d el
iver h igher v a
lues
o
f c ur ren t t han t hose c ited f or s hor ter
p
er iods o f t ime, b ut s omewha t i n t he
r
atio a foremen tioned ; t he e nergy d e- Fig. 3
l
ivered b eing sma ller t han n orma l i f
t
he d i scharge r ate i s i ncreased . A s ma l
ler c urren t t han
norma l may b e t aken f rom t he c e
l l f or a c orrespond ing ly
l
onger p er iod , a s ampere f or 2 0 h ours i s t he s ame a s
1 ampere f or 1 0 h ours . e tc. A t able o f v arious s ize s to rage
cells a nd t he ir c apac ity i n l igh ting l amps i s g iven b elow .
A s et o f s evera l c el
ls c onnec ted i n s eries i s s een a t F ig. 8 ,
moun ted o n a wooden f rame .
The E lec tro i gnition s torage b attery i s i lus tra ted b y t he c u
t
F
ig . 3 . T his i s c ompo sed o f' 3c e
lls i n s eries a nd d elive r s a
s
teady a nd p owerfu l c urrent a t 6v olts a nd 6 0 ampere -hour s o f
e
ne rgy . I t i s also made i n t he 6 v o
lt, 4 0 a mpere -hour s ize
.
Any s i
ze o f p lant c an b e b u
i lt u p o u t of s evera l o f t hese u nits
on p ara lle l o r in s eries. Two s ets i n s eries w ou ld g ive 1 2 v olts
a
nd 6 0 a mpere -hours c f e nergy . Two s ets o n mu ltip le w ould
s
upp ly 6 v ol ts
, b u
t 1 20 ampere -hour s o f e lec tricity , e t c et era.
S
to rage c e
lls a re a t o nce t he mo st e conom ica l a nd s a
tisfac -
o
t
ory s olution o f t he s mall h ome o r labora tory l ighting p rob lem ,
a
l
l t hing s c onsidered . They c an b e e asi
ly c harged f rom p ri-
mary c ells o f the E dison o r G ordon t ype o r f rom a ny o ther
d
ir ect c urren t source , a s f rom a d ynamo . A l
terna t
ing c urren t
c
anno t b e u sed t o c harge s torage c e
lls d irec t
ly, b ut b y t he
i
nterpo si
t ion o f a r ectif
i er o f t he i ron-alum inum ( see l e
sson
No . 4 ) t ype, or b y means o f aC ooper -Hew i t
t mercury v apor
conver ter , the A . C . ma ins f orm a r eady s ource o f c harg ing
curren t
. A mo tor -genera tor i so ften emp loyed t o c harge t he
bat tery w ith a lso, t he mo tor r unn ing o n A . C . a nd t he g en-
erator u n i
t d el
iver ing t he n ecessary D . C . for c harg ing. ( See
l
esson No . 8 .
)
One o f the most i mpor tant e lements t o b e c ons idered i n
s
to rage b at
tery o pera tion i s t he e l
ec trolyte a nd i t
s s pecifi
c
g
rav ity o r dens i
ty. Th is v aries w ith t he c ond ition o f the c ell
,
a
s c ompared t o t he amount o f c harge o r d ischarge e nergy .
The d ens ity is measured b ya n instrumen t called a h ydrome ter,
one f orm o f wh ich i s s hown i n F ig
. 4 , ag lass v esse l b e
ing
f
urn ished w ith i tt o floa t the i nstrumen t
, when f il
led w ith a
s
a mp le o f the e lec troly te. I n large work t he h ydrome ter i s
2
3
 •
•
Number C
andle Numb er o
f
Amperes of tower of Volts o
f Ampere Hours L amps
p
er Lamps ningaten Battery Hours May b e Burned
L
amp Burned Lamp (
Storage
) C
apacity Continuously

1
.
0 1 6C.P
. 6Vo
lts 4
0 A
.H. 4
0 Hours
1
.
0 2 6 t 6 " 4
0 " 2
0 "
1
.
0 4 .
6 " 6 " 4
0 " 1
0 "
L
O 6 6" 6 " 4
0 d
i
6.
6 "
1
.
0 8 6" 6 " 4
0 d
i
5.
0 "
1
.
0 1 6C
.P. 6 Vo
lts 6
0 A
.11
. 6
0 Hours
1
.
0 2 6" 6 " 6
0 " 3
0
1
.
0 4 6. 6 " 6
0 i
t
1
5 "
1
.
0 6 6" 6 " 6
0 1
1
,
1
0 "
1
.
0 8 6" 6 " 6
0
7
.5 "
1
.
0 1
0 6 i
d 6 " 6
0 4
4
6
.0 "
1
.
0 1
2 6 " 6 0 6
0 4
4
5
.0 "
1
.
0 1 2C
.P. 2 Vo
lts 1
0 A
.H . 1
0 Hours
1
.
0 2 2 i
d 2 " 1
0 " 5
.0 "
1
.
0 4 2 " 2 " 1
0 " 2
.5 "

1
.
0 1 2C
.P . 2 Vo
lts 2
0 A
.H. 2
0 Hours
L
O 2 2" 2 " 2
0 " 1
0 "
1
.
0 4 2 id 2 . 2
0 " 5
.0 "
1
.
0 6 2 4
4 2 4
4 2
0 " 3
.3 "

i
nvariably floated i n the c el
l i t
self, a nd t his i st he b est me thod
f
or accuracy i n read ing g enera lly. •
The h ydrome ter f loats a t ad iferen t d epth
i
n t he e l
ec tro ly te a t v arious d ens ities , the
r
ead ing b eing n oted o n t he s ca le o f t he
i
ns trument a t t he p oint where t he s urface
o
f t he e lec troly te s olution s trikes t he h y
-
d
rome ter s tem .
There a re t wo s cales i n c ommon u se f or
hydrome ters ; the s pec if
ic g rav ity s ca le, a nd
t
he B aume s cale. The s pec if
ic g ravity s cale
i
s mos t u sed , and i sd ivided u p in t wo w ays.
Some h ydrome ters , f or i nstance , may r ead
.2 S
1 p
. G r, mean ing t ha t, at t ha t s cale d iv
i-
-ion , the d ens ity o f the s olution f loating t he
hydrome ter , i ss uch, t ha t iti s 1 .2 t imes t he
dens ity o f w ater. O ther s cales wou ld r ead.
F
ig. 4. perhaps , 1 ,
200 d egrees S p
. G r
. wh ich i s the
equ ivalent o f 1 .2 S p
. G r
. b ut i s u sed o n
c
ertain work t o p erm it o f closer r ead ings, b eing t aken .
F
loa t
ing a h ydrome ter i n t he e lectroly te a nd n o
ting t he
s
urface r eading, d oes n ot m ean t hat t he d ens ity i ndica ted i s
what it should b e. T he d en sity v arie s d irectly w ith t he t em -
p
erature o f t h
e e lec troly te
, a nd s o i t i s a lways c orrec ted t o
s
ome s t
andard t empera ture, u sua lly 7 0 d eg rees F ahrenhe it f or
a
l
l c ommerc ial p rac tice.
The d ensi
ty o r s pe-
c
if
ic g rav ity i s lowe r
ovo,r5 D .C. t
han n orma l i f t he
t
empera ture i s above
10 Vol.T s tandard a nd h igher
16 C
. P
LA M PS
. t
han n orma l, i f t he
t
empera ture i s b e
low
s
tandard , ( say 7 0 d e-
g rees F ah.) ; i .e
.,
F
t c.
t
he d ens ity d ecrease s
with i ncrease o f t em -
perature , a nd v ice
v
er sa
. T he c
oef f
ic
ien t of c hange i n S p
. G r. f or o ne d egr ee
c
hange i n t
empera ture Fahrenhe it i s . 32 deg ree. Hence i f the
h
ydrome ter i
ndicated a d ensity o f 1 ,
200 d egrees, a t 54 d egree s
F
ahrenhe it a
s t aken b y a f l
oating t hermome ter i n t he e lec-
t
rolyte
, then t
he d ensity corrected t o 7 0 degrees F ahrenhe it o r
s
tandard must b e lower t han 1 ,
200 d egrees .

•S
ee S
tandard E
lec
trica
l Eng
ineer
's Handbook
.
2
4
 The d iference b e tween s tandard o r 7 0 d egrees F ahrenhe it
a
nd t h e o bserved t empera ture o r 5 4 d eg rees F ahrenhe it, i s 1 6
d
eg ree s. Hence 1 6 t ime s t he c hange i n S p. G r. p er d egree ,
(
.32 ) g ives a s ub trac tive c orre ction i n d ensi ty o f 5 .
12 d egree s.
Thu s t he d ens ity c orrec ted
t
o 7 0 d egrees F ahrenhe it i s
C
on._
1
,200 d egrees m inus 5 .
12
d
eg rees o r p rac tica lly 1 ,
195
d
egrees . I f t his o bserved
d
ens ity h ad b een 1 ,200 d e-
g
ree s a t 1 6 d egree s F ahren -
h
eit a bove s tandard , o r 8 6
d
eg ree s F ahrenhe it t hen t he AMME TE R .
c
orrec tion c
oef f
i cien t f or
t
he c or re c
ted d ens i ty a t 7 0 0
Fig. 5 -A .
d
eg ree s F ahrenhe i t w ould
h
ave b een a dd it ive , o r t he
Sp
. G r. w ou ld h ave b e
en 1 ,200 d eg rees p lus 5 .
12 d egrees o r prac ti-
c
ally 1 ,20 5Klegrees . I n t hese r ead ing s, i ft he f r action i s. 5o r mo re
i
ti s c alled o ne d egree . I n t he a bove i ti s o nly . 12 a nd i s d is-
c
arded .
The e l
ec tro ly te c an b e p repared b y m ixing 5 p arts o f p ure
d
isti l
led w ater a nd 1 p art o f p ure s u
lphur ic a cid ( acid m ade
f
r om s ulphur , n ot p yrites a s t his c onta ins i ron mos t a lway s )
b
y v olume . T he a cid mus t a lway s b e p oured s l owly i n
to t he
wat er, s t
irring t h e m .x ture m eanwh ile w t h ag l ass s patula o r
r
od . T he m ix ing c an b e d one
i
n ag l ass, e ar thenware , l ead,
o
r e name led v es se l
, t horough ly
c
leaned o ut
. When f i
rstm ix ed
c
ons iderab le h ea t i s p roduced
owing t o t he d iference i n t he
V
.M
0
1 d
ens it
ie s a nd m ake -ups o f t he
S F
a.
Bis.5--13. tw o f luids. T he e lectroly te
mus t b e c old b efore f i
l
ling t he
c
ells, o r e l
se t he p l
a tes w ill b e
c
oa ted w ith a w h ite p rec ipi tation , a nd i s t ermed s u
lpha t
ing .
Thi s p rac tica lly p u ts t he b a t
tery o ut o f z omm iss ion , u n
le ss t he
p
la te s a re r emoved a nd t he s ulpha te s craped o ff, o r s t
ill b etter
t
h e s ulpha te c an b e r emoved b y aq uick o vercharge c arefu lly
a
dm in is tered s ome times . C harg ing h as t o b eg in s oon a f
ter
t
he e lec tro ly te i sp u : i nto t he c ell
.
T he b attery g ases q u
ite v iolen tly, w hile w ork ing , a nd t o c om-
p
ensa te f or t he e vapora tion o f e l
ec trob rte i n t his m anner , a
l
i
ttle w ater i sa dded f rom t ime t o t ime a s r equ ired , t o k eep t he
p
la tes a lways c overed b y a t l e
as t 1 /2 , i
ncn o f e lec troly te. A bou t
e
very s ix mon ths o r s o
, a l i
ttle f resh e lectro ly te o r a cid i s
added t o t he c ell t o k eep t he d ens ity a t t h e p roper f igure.
The d ens ity f al ls c -n d i
s -
c
harg ing t he c e
l l
, b ut r e-
g
ains i ts f o rmer v alue w hen
r
e charged , t h e r ange o f r i
se
and f all v ary ing f rom 1 00
deg r ee s t o 2 00 d egrees S p.
Gr. A u sual d ischarge
den sity v alue i s 1 ,20 d e-
gree s i n l ead c ell l ractice
and t hen t he r e charge i s
carr ied o n, u ntil t he d ensity
r
eache s 1 ,200 d eg rees o r
1
,
2 10 d egrees S p. G r. T he
v
oltage i s a lso w atched
c
lose ly, a nd c harg ing i sg en -
e
ral ly c omp le te w hen t he
v
ol tme ter i n t he c harg ing
c
ircu i t r egis ters 2 .
! t o 2 .
6
v
o
c
l
p
l
o
ts p
sed
er c
, a
el
er c

l w
nd a
i
ell, w

th c
bou
i
i th c
t 2
rcu i
.
2 v
t o
i
rcu
ol
pen
it
ts
.
CE
) f
r;c. G
Read ing s o f v o ltage h ave
2
5
 no p rac tica l s ign if
icance when t aken o n o pen c ircui t
, a s t he
c
ell's E . M . F . d rops a s s oon a s t he l oad i s
.p u
t o n i t. A bou t
1
0 p er c ent, more v oltage t han t ha t given b y the c e
ll i sr equ ired
o
f t he c harg ing mach ine , ' b
ut t his i s v aried s o a s t o
k
eep t he c urren t i n a mperes a t a c ertain v a
lue . A s a n
i
lu stra tion , o n a 4 00 ampere -hour b attery , w hich d eliv ers
5
0 ampere s, ' n
orma lly f or 8 h ours ( 8 h our r ate), t he c ha rg ing
r
ate i s abou t t he s ame, i .e
., 5 0 amperes a re p ut i nto
i
t f or a l i
ttle more t han 8 h our s
, o n r egu lar c harge . T he
i
nitia l c harge o n t h
is b at
tery w as o f 2 ,500 ampere -hour s v alue ,
t
o f orm t he p late s. T he i nitial c harge w as s tarted o n a n e lec-
t
roly te d ens ity o f 1 ,
250 d eg rees wh ich, o n c losing t he c harg ing
switch , i mmed ia tely d ropped t o a bou t 1 ,130 d egree s d en sity.
From t his v alue o f the S p. G r. i ts lowly i ncreased , w ith c harg -
ing c urren t a t 5 0 amperes c ons tan t
ly , u nt
il t en c on secu tive
and s im ilar h ydrome ter r ead ing s w ere o btained , when t he c harge
was s topped . T he d ura tion o f t he i nitial c harge w as b etw een
40 a nd 5 0 h our s; c urren t a t 5 0 a mperes . Regu lar c ha rg es
ther eaf ter w ere made a t 5 0 a mpere s f or a bou t 8h our s, n o ting
the d ens ity a lso. T he m anner o f c onne cting u p a n a mme ter
i
n t he b attery c i
rcu it i s shown a t diagram F ig. S A, wh ile F ig.
5 B
, d ep ic ts t he c onnec tions f or a v o
ltme ter VM , w ith s t orage
c
ell SB .
Grea t c are
mus t b e e xer -
c
ised t ha t n o
impur ities o
r
f
o re ign b odies
get i nto t he
c
ell, o r t hey
may cause
r
ap id d eter iora -
t
ion i n t he l i
fe ,
o
r a s hor t-cir -
c uit , which
wou ld c ause
s
e rious _ harm ,
and p robab ly
r
u in t he c ell
c
omp le te ly, d i s-
i
nt eg ra ting t he
a
c t
ive ma teria l
c
ompos ing t he
p
la te s.
T he s tate o f c harge i n ac ell c an b e f a
ir ly j udged b y a n
e
xpe r ienced b attery m an , b y t he c olor o f t he p osi t
ive a nd
n
ega tive p late s. T he p osi
tive p lates a ssume a d ark c hoco la te
c
olor a nd t he n ega tive a l ight g ray when n ear ing f u
ll c harg e
.
On d ischarge t he d en-
s
ity v alue i s av ery g ood
gauge o f i t
s magn itude ,
a
s t he d ens ity o r S p.
G r
. f a
lls i n d irec t p ro -
port ion t o t he amPere -
hours t aken f rom t he
c
e l
l.
In l arge b attery i n-
s
t a
l lations , a c harg ing
r
heos ta t o r v ariab le r e-
s
istance i su sed i ns eries
with t he b attery a nd
t
he s ource o f c urren t
.
For c harg ing s mall
c
ells , i t i s o f
ten c on -
v
en ien t t o connec t t hem
up t o aD . C . l igh t c ir-
Charg ing B attery w ith
c
uit, w ith a f ew i ncan -
Charg ing P lug. d
escen t l amps i n s er ies
o
r s eries mu ltip le w ith
i
t
. F ig . 5d ep icts a w iring d iagram f or t he c harg ing o f a
2
6
f
ew c ells o n mu ltiple a nd a c ut o f a c harg ing b oard a t
F
ig . 7 . A s a n e xamp le, t o c harge a 2 0 ampere -hour c ell
f
rom a 10 v olt D . C . c ircu it
, a bou t f our 1 6 c and le-power
c
arbon l amp s, p a ssing Y2 ampere e ach , may b e u sed o n
mu ltip le a s s hown i n t he d iag ram , a llow ing t he b attery t o
r
ece ive 2 amperes f o r 1 0-11 h ours . T his may b e i ncreased
i
n c ases o f u rgen t n ecess ity, g iving t he b attery i t
s c harge
a
t ah igher r ate o r c urren t v alue f or as horter p eriod .
T he a rrang emen t o f t he c ir-
c
uit i n c harg ing mus t b e s u ch,
t
ha t t h e p ositive p ole o f t he
c
ircu it c onnec ts t o t he p ositive
p
ole o f t h e b attery , wh ich i s
u
sua lly m a rked w ith a p lus
c
ro s s (+) o r ar ed s eal o n i t
.
A s imp le w ay t o a scer ta in t he
p
o la rity o f t h ec ircu it
, i st od ip
two o ppo site ly c harg ed w ire s
i
n ag la ss o f a cidu lated o r s alt
wa ter . T he w ire f r om w hich t he
mo s t g as b ubb le s a r e e so l ved ,
i
st he n ega tive p ole. P ole t e
st F
aa .9 - 0
pape r i s v e ry h andy f o r t h
is
purpo se, a s a l
so i s t h e l i
qu id MINER S ELECTRIC HA:4D LAMP.

pola rity i ndica tor s old o n t he

m a rk et. A v oltme ter , w hen a th and , f orm s t he b est w ay t o fi
nd
the p olarity, p rov id ing i ti so f t he p ermanen t m agne t t ype, s uch
as t he We s
ton .
A s torage c ell s hou ld n ever b e d ischarg ed b e
low 1 .
7 v o
lts,
a
nd b etter y et
, n ot b elow 1 .
75 t o 1 .
78 v o
l t
s.
Often time s i ti sd esirab le t o p ut as torage b attery o u t of c om -
mis sion f or a w h ile. Th is i sa ccomp lished b y d raw ing o f
f t h e
e
le ctro ly te a s f o
l low s: A fter g iving t he b a
t tery a c omp lete
c
harge , s iphon o r p ump o ut t he e l
ec trolyte i n
to c arboy s o r
l
ead l ined v e ssel s
, w hich h ave n ever b een u t
ilized f or a ny o ther
a
cid . When e ach c ell i s e mp tied, f i
ll t h
em u p i mmed iately
with c l
ean w ater , a nd w hen a ll t he c e
lls a re f i
lled, s t
ar t d is-
charg ing t he b attery , u ntil t he v oltag e d rops t o a bou t 1v olt
under n o
rma l l oad . T he w a
ter c an n ow b e w ithd rawn .
To s tart u p a n i dle b at tery, f i
ll t he c el
l s w ith e l
ectro lyte, a nd
beg in t o c harg e a t n orma l r a
te; 2 5 t o 3 0 h our s c ons tan t c harg -
i
ng w ill b e r equ ired t a g ive a c omp lete c harge .
Storage c e
lls a re av ery u se ful e l ectrical u t
ility, b ut t h ey
h
ave t o b e t rea ted i nte lligen tly, i f t he b est r esu lts a re t o b e
e
xpec ted o f t hem . I n t he c ut F ig. 6 , i s s hown a p ortab le
s
t orage c e
l l f or a c a rriage l i
gh t. A s t
orage c ell a dap ted t o
as ma ll p or table s hop l igh t
, a nd s uitab le f or w atchmen , p ho to-
g
raph d ark r ooms , e tc.
, i s dep icted b y F ig. 9 , w hile c ut 1 0
,
s
hows a s to rage b a t
t ery l i
ghting o utf
it f or b icycle u se
.
SU M MARY OF . STORAGE BATTERY DATA .
S
to rage b at
te r
ie s a re made f or e i
ther st
at
ionary o r portable
s
ervice. B oth p ositive a nd n egative,pla
tes a re of pure l ead
s
o tha t local ac t
ion i sr educed to am inimum. T his f
eature r e
-
s
ult
s i n h igh e ficiency , l ong life a nd ab
ili
ty t o hold c harge
t
hrough a l ong p eriod o f o pen ci
rcuit
The mechan ica l d e
-
s
ign o f t he p la te i s
s
uch t hat t he a ct
ive
mater ial i s i n a t hin
l
ayer s uppor ted b y a
c
onduc tor, a nd a cces -
s
ible t o the c urrent a nd
e
lec trolyte. P
rov ision
i
s made w ithin t he p os-
i
t
ive p late i tself t o a c-
comme idate a ny d i
stor -
t
ion o f t he a ctive p or-
t
ions . F
ig
. 10
The a pprox ima te d ischarge v o
ltage of a c e
ll is t
wo v o
lts
2
7
 Therefore , t he b attery d ischarge v oltage i s t he n umber o f c el
ls
i
n s eries mu l tip lied b y t wo. T he a mpere h our c apac ity , t he
r
ate o f d ischarge a nd t he r ate o f c harge o f ab attery a re d e
-
t
erm ined b y t he s i
ze a nd n umber o f p lates i n ac ell.
T he v oltage r equ ired t o c harge a c ell v arie s f rom 2 .1 v olts
at t he b eg inn ing t o a s h igh a s 2 .8 v o
lts a t t he e nd , t he c el
l
charg ing a t a c ons tan t c urren t, u sua lly t he 8 -hour d i scharge
rate . T he c harg ing c urren t i s u sua lly c on tro lled b y ar heo s tat
i
n s eries w ith t he b attery , b oo ster g enera tor , o r g enera tor f ield
con tro l
.
The max imum l i
ne v o
l tage t o b e p rov ided f or c harg ing a
g
iven n umber o f c ells i n s e r
ie s i st he n umber o f c ells mu ltip lied
by 2 .8
. The c harg ing c urrent w i ll d epend u pon t he s ize o f
t
he c el
l.
When a c ell d ischarges , t he e lec tro ly te ( su lphur ic a cid s olu -
t
ion) f orms t he a ctive ma ter ia l i nto l ead s ulpha te a nd b e-
c
omes w eaker i n a cid w ith a n i n creas ing p er c en t o f w ater ,
a
nd c onver se ly, o n c harge t he s u
lpha te i s c hang ed b ack t o
a
cid . A d efin ite amoun t o f s ulpha te i s formed f or e ach a mpere .
hour d ischarge , t herefore , t he d ens ity o r s pec ific g rav ity o f
the e lectro ly te c hanges a g iven amoun t
.
T his c hange i n s pec ific g rav ity o f t he e lec tro ly te i s p ropor -
t
i ona l t o t he ampere -hours o utpu t a nd i sp rac tica lly i ndependen t
of t he r ate o f d ischarge . A v ery c onven ien t a nd a c cura te
m ethod o f c harg ing i sa vailab le b y u s ing a h ydrome ter t o m eas -
ure t he c hange n i s pec ific g rav ity b e tween t he c ond itions o f f ul
l
c
harge a nd f ul l d ischarge , a nd t hen c harg ing u ntil t he o rig ina l
s
pec ific g rav ity o f t he e lectro ly te i s r eached .
The e nergy r ema in ing i n a c ell a t a ny t ime d ur ing a d is-
c
harge c an b e f ound b y n o ting t he c hange i n s pec ific g rav i ty o f
t
he e lectro ly te f rom t he v alue a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he d is-
c
harge a nd c ompar ing i t w ith t he t otal r ange f or t he g iven
discharge r ate.
The r ange i n d ens ity o f s pec ific g rav i
ty o f t he e lec tro ly te
between f u
ll c harge a nd d ischarge , a t t he 8 -hour r a te, i sa pprox i-
m ate ly f rom 1 ,
200 t o 1 ,
160 f or a s tandard c ell i n ag la ss j ar,
t
h e t empera ture b eing 7 0° F . T he r ange w i l
l b e a pprox ima tely
from 1 ,
200 t o 1 ,
180 f or a d ischarge a t t he o ne -hour r a te .
T he e xac t c hange i n g rav ity s hou ld b e d eterm ined f or e ach
p
ar ticu lar s ize o f c ell a s i tv ar ies w i th t he s ize a nd t he n um -
b
er o f p lates .
The n orma l ampere -hour c apac i ty o f a c ell i s b ased u pon
t
he 8 -hour r ate o f d i scharge a nd i s a rb i
trar ily t aken a t 1 00% .
When t aken a t o ther r ates t he ampere -hour c apac ity v arie s
.
The a va i
lab le ampere -hour c apac i ty v aries w ith t he t empera -
t
ure a nd r ate o f d ischarge . F or a l i mited r ange o f t empera -
ture a t t h e 8 -hour r ate o f d i scharge , t he c apac i ty v ar ies a pprox i-
ma te ly o ne -ha lf o f o ne p er c en t, f or e ach d egree F ahrenhe it
change i n t empera ture a bove o r b elow 7 0° F . An i n crease i n
t
empera ture w il l r aise t he c apac ity a nd a r educ tion w ill l ower
i
t
. T he l ower t he r ate o f d ischarge , t he l ess w ill b e t he v aria -
t
ion d ue t o t empera ture .
S
torage b atter ies may b e u sed t o g rea t a dvan tage i n mai n-
t
ain ing a c ons tan t l oad on a g enera ting s ystem when t he l oad
f
a c tor i s p oor . A s amp le o f s uch r egu la t
ion i s s hown i n r e-
p
roduc tion f rom r ecord ing amme ter r ecords o f ab attery a nd
r
egu la tor m ain ta in ing a c ons tan t l oad u pon t he g enera ting s ys tem
w
i th a n e xceed ing ly v ar iab le e xterna l l oad..
When i ti s d esired t o m ain ta in a c ons tan t a l
terna ting -curren t
l
oad , t he s ame d eg ree o f r egu lation may b e o bta ined a s i n
d
irec t-curren t work , b y c onnec ting t he b attery a cro ss t he d irec t-
c
urren t s ide o f a b oos ted r otary c onver ter c ontro lled b y t he
r
egu la tor .
SO ME DON 'TS .
Don't run each c el
l be
low 1 .8 volts
.
Don't wait long t o h
ave itr echarged.
Don't te
s t it wi
th a n amme ter a lone.
Don't lay as crewdriver or fi
le across the c
onnec
tions t
o make
i
t spark.
Don't recharge w ith al
terna
ting c urrent
.
2
8
 Don
't u
se the w
rench t
o ti
ghten b
inding p
osts
.
Don
't b
ring a l
i
ghted c
i
gar near a b
at
tery d
uring t
he c
harge
.
USEFUL RECEIPTS AND ME MORANDA .
P
ole T e s
t ing P aper . —Make a t h
in s olu t
ion o f wh i te s tarch a nd
s
oak s tr
ips o f t hin w hite b lotting -paper i n i t
, a nd s et a s
ide
i
n a c l
ean p lace t o d ry. D isso lve o
z. o f p otassium
i
od ide i n 1p int o f w a:er . I mmer se t he strips i n t he s olu -
t
ion f or a f ew s econd s a nd a gain d ry. Th is R aper, when
mo istened a nd u sed i n t he u sua l w ay, t urns v iolet a t t he
positive p ole.
Varnish . —A g ood v arn ish i s made o f 1l b
. o f s hel lac d issolved
i
n 1p int o f p olisher 's f i
nish. I t f o
rms a t ough , c oheren t
sur face a nd a dheres s t
rong ly i f t he a rticle t o b e c oa ted
i
s w a rmed b efore t he v arnish i s u sed . I t i s b est t o a pp ly
i
t i n t wo o r t hree t hin c oats, a llow ing e ach c oat t o d ry,
rather t han i n o ne t hick c oat.
B
ee swax C ompound . —Equa l p arts o f b eeswax a nd r es
in w el
l
boiled a nd u sed h ot
.
I
nsula ting C emen t
. —A g od c ement i s made f or L eyden j ars
and i n sulating s t ands: S ulphur , 1 00 p ar
ts; t allow , 2 ; r esin,
2p ar ts, m elted t oge ther u ntil o f t he c onsis tency o f s yrup ,
and s uficien t p owdered g lass a dded t o make a p aste. T his
c
emen t mus t b e h ea ted when a pplied , a nd w ill b e f ound t o
resist mo st a cids .
Marine G lue. —Pure I ndia -rubber ( cut s mal
l), 1p art; c oal-tar
naph tha , 1 2 p art s; d iges t in ac overed v esse l w i
th g en tle
h
ea t a nd a g
ita tion , a nd w hen t horough ly d issolved a dd
"powder ed s hellac 2 0 p arts. C on t
inue t he h eat a nd s t
irr ing
until p erfec t l iquefa ction h as t aken p l
ace a nd p our t he
f
u sed ma ss, w hile s t
ill h ot
, o n s labs o f p olished me ta l o r
s
tone , s o a s t o f orm t hin s hee ts. When r equ ired f or u se
h
ea t i n a n i ron v esse l t o i t
s m elting -po int, 2 48° t o 2 50° F .
and a pp ly i n al iquid s ta
te w ith a b rush. I t c an b e made
a
s h ard a s r equ ired b y i ncreas ing t he p ropor tion o f s hellac.
STORAGE BATTERY TER MS .
Amperc . —The u nit ( for p ractical w ork ) o f e lectric c urren t.
Amper e-hour . —A p ractica l u nit o f q uan tity; b eing t he q uan t
i ty
which a c urren t o f o ne ampere w ould c arry p as t ag iven
p
o int i n o ne h our.
Buck l
ing . —A t erm , w ho se m ean ing • i
s e v ident, t echn ically a p -
p
lied t o the d istor t
ion o f a ccumu la tor p lates b y b adly d is -
t
r
ibu ted c urren t.
Ebon ite. —A b l ack, h ard p repara tion o f I nd ia-rubber ( Vulcan ite
.)
E
lec trodes . —The c onduc tors b y w h
ich c urren t e nter s a nd l eave ;
an a ppara tus: Anode = e ntering; C athode = l eaving
e
lec trode.
E
l ectro lysis
. —Chem ica l d ecompo s
ition c aused e lec trica l
ly.
E
lec tro lyte. —The c onduc ting m ed ium b etween e lec trodes wh ich
undergoes e lectroly sis.
E
l emen t. —The a ctive e lec trode o f ac ell
.
E
.M .F. —Abbrev ia tion f or e lectromo tive -force ( see a bove) .
Grid. —The s kele ton f ramework o f a n a ccumu lator p late.
Lead P erox ide. —An o xide o f l e
ad w ho se c hem ica l s ymbo l i s
P b0 2
.
L
itharge . —Lead p ro tox ide; P b0 .
Min ium .—Read l ead; P b
30 4
.
Nega tive . —Po le, t erm ina l
, p late, e tc
., t he p o
le, t erm ina l o r pla te
by wh ich t he c urrent r e
turns t o ag enera tor o r l e
aves a n
instrumen t.
O hm . —The u nit ( for p rac tica l work) o f e lectrica l r es
istance .
Po le
. —Equ iva len t t o term ina l. '
Pole -testing P aper . —Used f or d eterm ina ting t he p o s
itive a nd
n
ega tive p o
les o f a ccumu lators .
Pos it
iv e. —The c onver se o f " nega t
ive ," i .e
. " outgo ing" a s a pplied
t
o ag enera tor, " ingo ing" o f a n i n s
trumen t.
Spa tula. —An i nstrumen t l i
ke a s poon w ith a f lat b ow l.
T
erm ina l
. —The c onnec t
ing s crew b y wh ich a c onduc tor is c on -
n
ec ted e lectrica lly.
2
0
Thernv
opile
. -An e l
ectr
ic genera
tor e xc
ited by heat
.
Volt
.-The u n
it ( for pract
ical w ork) o f electr
ica
l p
ressure
.
Vulcan
ite
. -Ano ther name f or eboni
te, which s ee
.
T
empera
ture C
orre
ction T
able f
or S
pec
ifi
c G
rav
ity o
f E
lec
tro
lyte
.
Exp lanal lon . -In t he v ertical c olu mn h eaded w Ith •lhe reare d t e mperature t o the lenwl
bowl ine o f t he c ell find t he z Pecitic g ravity g iven b y t he hydro meter . The heavy f aced
Im a ms on ar m e h orizontal r ow i s t he s pecific g ravity c orrected t o 7 0%
Exa mp le. - Te mperature o f electro lyte. o x• Fahrenheit; otwerved «ween ie
. g ravity . 1.20 V
la c o
lu mn h eaded 6 1' fin
il 1 .205. fo l
lo w a cross I n r n me hot ic minl r ow t o colu mn wI tIL li .vy
tared I leu m.« and f led use wh ich I s l b* obaerved s pec ific g ravity c orrected t o PO
RV SS' SI 6
1. 6 4' 67' n • 73' 74' 7
9' L
I' 15. 31
1. 9
1' 9
1 9
7' 1
00 9 1
2
1 1720 g
, I
s 1
7 14 1
.2 10 71 13 1
3 I 1710 0
9 O
A 07 e
t 05,
1720 1
1 I
l
l 17 I
I 15 1
.211 18 12 Il 1.210 .
09 0
8 0
7 04 OS 01,
1
1 II 17 1
4 1
5 11 .213 It 1 1 .210 09 08 0
7 0
6 07 0
4 0
3
II 17 II 1
5 I
I 131.212 1 1 .210 09 OR 0
7 0
6 0
: 04 03 07
1
7 16 15 1
4 1
3 • 1 2 1. 211 1.210 09 01 0
1 0
6 0
5 0
1 03 0
1 0
9'
.
1 1 I
S 1
4 1
3 II I
t 1.210 93 00 03 00 O
S 0
4 0
3 07 0
1 1700
I
S 14 13 1
2. I 1.110 1 .201 08 07 06 05 -04 0
3 0
2 0
1 1 .100 1 .1917
1
4 13 1
2 f
i 1.110 02 1
.201 07 06 05 01 0
7 0
2 0
1 1.200 1 .199 911
I
13 12 II 1.210 0
9 0
8 1.207 06 05 01 vo. 02 0
1 1.200 1.199 91 971
I
S 1 1 .110 0
9 O
S 0
7 1.206 05 01 ' 0 3 02 01 1.300 1.199 98 9
7 9
4'
1
.211 1 .210 1 .709 1 .708 1.202 1. 200 1.209 L204 1703 1. 2 02 1.200 1 .200 I I I 1.101 1.197 1 .196 1 .797 .
LE N 1 .209 1 .201 1 .207 1.206 1.205 1 .201 1 .203 1 .201 1 .201 1 .200 1 .191 1 .190 1.197 1.196 1 .105 1 .104
09 01 07 0
6 0
5 0
4 1.203 02 01 1.200 1 .191 9
3 0
7 9
6 95 91 91
OS 07 06 0
5 0
4 0
3 1.202 01 1.700 1 .192 98 9
7 9
6 9
5 94 93 9
2
07 06 05 0
4 0
3 0
21 .201 1 .200 1 .199 98 97 94 9
5 9
1 93 92 9
1‘
at OS 04 0
3 .
02 0
1 1.200 1 .199 98 97 96 95 9
4 9
3 92 91 1.
094
e
s 0
4 .
03 0
2 0
1 1700 1 .114 40 17 96 95 94 9
3 9
2 9i 1.19n 69
04 03 02 0
1 1700 1 .199 1 .198 97 90 95 91 93 9
2 0
1 1.130. SY SR
03 02 01 1.100 1.190 9
31 .197 06 95 94 93 9
2 7
1 1.190 85 81 97
Of 0
1 1 .200 1 .199 9
8 9
7 1.193 93 91 93 92 91 1.190 3
9 88 87 86
01 1 .100 1 .139 9
1 9
7 9
8 1.194 91 93 92 91 11 90 0
9 I
I 87 si 01
1
.200 1 .113 98 3
7 9
5 9
5 1.194 93 N. 0
1 1 .190 8
1 8
8 6
7 86 s7 • I f
1
.199 90 97 9
6 9
5 9
41 .193 92 9
1 1 .199 09 89 3
7 8
8 95 14 93
II 9
7 94 9
5 9
4 9
21 .192 91 1.190 69 89 8
7 I
C 8
5 84 89 82
97 96 95 0
4 9
3 . 9 21.191 1 .1 % 81 ss sr 8
6' 7
5 9
4 s
z s
z m
II 00 5
8 0
3 .07 I
I 1193 53 00 80 00 65 9
4 5
3 02 61 1
30
In 94 9
3 9
2 9
1 1.190 1 :189 88 87 84 •85 " 8 4 3 8
2 81 LI N "7 9
94 .93 9
2 9
1 7.790 6
91 .188 97 86 05 11 03 2 0
1 1.180 79 7
8
93 9
2 9
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7* 100 -

t
able is g
iven here, w h
ich i s of g
reat c onven
ience, s
how-
i
ng at ag l
ance the spec
ific gravity at a
ny t emperature u
sual
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e
ncountered
, correc
ted t o 70 d egrees Fahrenheit
, wh ich i
s t
he
u
sual st
andard
.

LESSO N No . 4.
Rect
ifiers and T ransformers .
I N certain p hases o f the e
lectrical art
, i ti ss ome ti mes v ery
des
irable t hat as imple means o f re c
tifying a n a lterna ting
or osc
illating e l
ectric c
urren t in
to a c on tinuous o r d i
rec t
one be a t h and. Th
is r equiremen t i s f ulfilled b y t he
e
l
ectro
ly t
ic rectif
ier, ac ut of as t
andard o ne b eing i lu s tra ted i n
F
ig. 1 . Th is p articular
t
ype i sc omposed o f four
e
lectroly tic c e
l ls i n
ter -
c
onnec ted s o tha t t he a p-
p
ara tus w ill o pera te o n
b
oth a lterna tions o r h alf
c
ycles o f t he a lterna ting
c
urrent .
Only o ne j ar i s n ec-
e
ssary f or sma l
l work
r
equ iring l i
ttle c urren t,
b
ut h ere t he e f
ic iency
i
s o nly o ne -ha lf t hat o f
t
he f
our c
el l t
ype ,
a
s o
ne -ha lf o
f e
ach
F
ig. L c
ycle i s r ec t
ified i nto
d
irect c urren t
. T his a c-
3
0
t
ion w il
l b e r ead i
ly p erceived b y l ooking a t t he c urren t
d
iag ram s d epic ted a t F igs
. 2 a nd 3 . I n F ig. 2 i s s een
t
he r egu lar c urve a t the t op for an al
terna t
ing c urren t, i .e .
, o ne
c
hang ing i ts d irection f rom p osi
tive to n egative p eriod ically, a t
a c ertain n umber
o
f r eversa ls p er
s
econd . The d i
- 4
-
r
ect c urren t w ave
for m, resultan t
f
rom i nse rting a T
IME
s
ingle r ectifier c e
ll
i
n t he a l
terna ting
c
urren t c ircuit i s
s
hown a t t he b ot- ICYCLE
t
om o f F ig. 2 . I t
i
ss een t hat t he d i
-
r
ect c urren t i s
v
ery p ulsa tory a nd
i
nterm i t
ten t
, h av- D
.C .
i
ng d ead i nterva ls
c
orrespond ing t
o
o
ne -ha lf o f t he c y- — T I ME
de
, w hen t he r ec t
i- F
l
f
i
er d oes n ot o pera te
. T
his means p oor e ff
iciency.
T o• overcome t h
is d isadvan tage, the four c e
ll type o f r e c
tifier
was d eve loped , a s a ioremen t
ioned. T he r e
sultan t direc t c urren t
wave f orm , o ccurr ing f rom i ts c
onnection i n the A . C. c ircuit, is
s
een a t the b ottom o f Fig. 3. H ere itise viden t the e f
iciency o f
r
ectif
ica tion i s much h igher , in fac
t 1 00 per c ent, h igher , t han
w
ith t he s i
ng le
cell t ype, a s
t
here a re t wo
d
irect curren t
p
ulsations n ow,
f
or e very c ycle
1 o
f A . C . o r
I t
here i s one
I pu
lsation for
ICYCLE I each a lterna -
t rI t
ion.
I
I The e lec-
1 t
rolytic r ectifier
D
.O
i 1
s b ased u pon
t
he w ell known
p
rinc
ip le tha
t i f
-
'TIM an a luminum
F
IG .3 a
nd i ron pl a
te
o
r el
ectrode a re i m mersed i
n an e
l
ectrolyte
, t hecell so f ormed
w
il
l p ass currents com ing i
n one d
irection, bu
t p ract
ica lly none
o
f the c urren t coming i n t
he opposite d i
rect
ion. Hence t he
RECT
IFIER C
ELL CH AR G
IN G STOR AGE
.
AL I
RON B AT T
.)

A.C
. 10V
.
60 CYCLE5
RE S
I STAN CE
.
F
IG.4
a
ction of the r
ec
tifier o n an A. C. circui
t ist o.clip of the reverse
h
alf w ave of each c ycle
, a nd a llowing o nly i mpu lses of a
u
nidirectional c
harac ter t o p
ass through t he c e
ll. The a luminum
(when i tforms the c athode o r nega t
ive electrode) w ill n o
t pass
a c urrent can pass f rom t he i ron t o t hea c urrent
, b ut
a
lum inum . From t h
is i tisseen t hat if ar ect
ifier does n ot work
r
i
gh t i tis o
nly nece ssary t o reverse its connec tions
. The c on-
 n
e ct
ions o f the single cel
l and t he four c ell t ypes of e l
ect rolyt
ic
r
ectifier are shown d iagramma tical
ly i n F ig s
. 4a nd 5. T he n ega-
t
ive —D .C. t e
rm inals represent t he bind ing p osts o n the alum inum
e
lect rodes w hi
le t he p os
itive - 1 D .C . t erm ina ls r epresen t the
b
ind ing p os
ts o n t he p ol
ished s teel
, o r l ead e l
ectrode s
. T he
ef
iciency o f the f our c e
ll t ype i s gi ven b y t he manu fac turers
(The E lectro I mporting C o.) a t 8 5 p er c en t. Th is t ype w il
l
p
as s a s much a s 5 amperes , a nd c on t
inuous ly a s in c harg ing
s
torage c e
lls at 2 .
5 amperes . The o ne a nd t wo c e
ll type s pass
a
bou t 1 /3 of t he above c urren t. T he e lectroly te bath i n w h
ich
t
he e l
ectrodes a re i mmersed c an b e o f s evera l d iferent c ompo-
s
itions ,b ut av ery g ood one i s an eu tral s o
lu tion o f ammon ium
p
ho spha te i n wa ter.* C . F . B urgess a nd C arl Hambue chen
(Transac tions o f the Amer ican E lectrochem ica l S oc
iety) e mploy

A
. C
.

—
"RES
ISTAN CE

-
--
- I
RON

D
. C
.

I
RON AL IO
N
D
.C
. MOTOR
F
IG.5
afu
sed elec
tro
lyte of mol
ten s odium ni
trate
, w
ith a
n aluminum
a
nd an ir
on elec
trode
. A s aturated s
olut
ion o
f bi
carbonate of
s
oda isal
so a very good el
ectrolyte m
ixture
, a
nd is much used
f
or l
arge X-Ray tr
ansformer sets.

Transforners . T ak ing u p t he s ubjec t o f transformen s, itm ay

b
e s aid t hat i n genera l t here a re t wo p r
incipal c omme rcial t ype s
i
n u se, v iz
., the o pen c ore a nd c losed c ore, respectively. At rans -
f
ormer , i n i t
s s imp les t d ef
in it
ion , i sa n electr
ical d evice t hat c an
c
onver t o r t r
ansform t he E . M. F . o r v ol
tage a nd c urren t v alue s
o
f o ne c i
r - CORE OF
e
.• c
uit, i nto a SHEET I RON
t
u.. d
ife ren t se t
o
f v alues o n
another 2000 Y A C .
s
epara te a nd
( d
i
c
u
s
i
t
t
.
inc t c i
r
T he
-
PRIMARY
CO IL_
j l 5ECONDARY
COIL
c
ut, F ig . 6 , 0
N0 - FREQUENCY I N CYCLES
d
epic ts s che - IG 6
F
matica lly a
t
rans former a nd i ts p art s, and w il
l s erve t o explain i t
s mode o f
o
pera tion.
A t ransformer , o ft he f orm s hown i n Fig. 6,i so f the c losed
c
ore t ype, i .e.
, t he i r
on m agne tic c ore i s continued o n a round ,
f
orm ing a c losed magne tic c i
rcu it
, a nd g iving much g reater
e
ff
iciency t han t he o pen c ore t ype a s i n Fig. 7.
The a ct
ion o f t he t ransformer i sa s follows : —An a lterna ting
(or s ome times a p ulsating , a s i n t he i nduc t
ion c oil) c urren t i s
s
upp lied t o o ne c oi
l o r w inding o n t he i ron core, marked p r
imary
c
oil, a nd t he c urren t t r aver s
ing t his w inding, s e
ts u p or c reate s
ap owerfu l magne t
ic f ie
ld o f vary ing s trength a nd p olar
ity, c orr e-
s
pond ing t o t he c hanges a nd v aria t
ions o f the p r
imary c urren t.
T h
is f luc
tua ting magne tic f ie
ld c ontinues a round t he i ron c ircuit.
I
n d o
ing s o, i ta l
so s imu ltaneous ly c r eates a magne t
ic f i
eld i n t he
a
ir a bou t t he c ore a s w e
ll. On t he o ther l imb o f t he core i sa
•A
. Nodon
. " Transac
tions o
f t
he I
nterna
tiona
l E
lec
trica
l C
ong
res
s, S
t
.
L
ouis
, 1
904, VP
1
. I, p
age 510
.
3
2
 s
econd i ndependen t w ind ing o r c o
il, wh ich o f c ourse l i
es w ith in
t
he f i
eld o f m agne tic f o rce . A s t he m agne t
ic f l
ux o r f i
eld r i
ses
a
nd f alls o r r everses i t
s elf, i ts ets u p i n t h
is s econd o r s econda ry
w
ind ing a n e lectric c urren t
,
s
eco /
404 W who se v o
ltage i s d ep enden t
T
eRM INALS u
pon t he n umber o f t urns o f
uvita• TED w
ire i n it
, a s c ompared t o t he
c
an e n
umber i n the p rimary w ind ing.
I
f t he t ran sformer w as d e-
,
PRIMARY TERM INAL, s
igned t o h ave t he v oltage r e
-
F
lo.7 t
a
lions e x
isting i n t he d iag ram
F
ig . 6 , then t o h ave t he s ec-
o
ndary c oi l d el iver 2 ,000 v olts, f rom 2 00 v ol ts i n t he p rimary
c
o
i l, w ou ld n e ce ssita te t he r atio o f t he t urns i n t he t wo c o
ils
b
e
ing a s 1 0 t o 1 ; i .e ., t he s econdary c oi
l wou ld h ive t o h ave
•10 t ime s a s
"
.m any t urns
i
n i ta s c on-
t
a
ined i n t he
pri m ary
wind i ng.
Tak ing i ta s
a
n e xamp le
• t hat the
p
rimary c oil
had 150
t
urns , t
h en
t
he s econd -
ary coil
w ould n eed
t
o c on ta in 1 0
x 1 50 o
r
F
ig. 8 .
1
,500 t
urns
• t
o d eliver
2
,
000 v olts. T hus i ti s
. t hat t he r atio o f t he p r
imary a nd s ec
-
o
ndary v ol tage s d epend u pon t he r a
tio e xisting b etw een t he
t
urn s o f w ires i n t he t wo s epara te c o
ils.
I
n t his e xamp le, i f t he s econdary
wa s s upp ly ing 1 0 t ime s t he p rimary
v
ol tag e, s t wou ld s upp ly o nly 1 /10 t he
p
rimary c urr en t i n a mpere s, t heore tt-
.
,
, c
ally, a s t he t otal wa tts,* i n t he s ec-
o
nda ry c ircu i t c ould n o t b e g rea ter
t
han t hose i n t he p rimary c i
rcu it. I n
p
rac t
ice , h owever , t he e f
iciency o f
t
r ansfo rma tion o f l a
rge c losed c ore
t
r ansformers i
s e xtreme ly h
igh ,
r
each ing 9 8 t o9 9p er c en t. o ften time s.
I
n t he s ma l
ler o nes i td oe s n ot e x -
c
eed 7 5 t o 8 0 p er c ent. A s l
igh t l os s
i
n t r
ans fo rma tion o f e nergy a s o cca-
s
i oned i n t h e i ron c ore, a nd a lso i n
t
h e c opper w ire w ind ing s. T hese a re
known t e chn ica lly a s t he i ron l oss
and c opper l o ss. T he i r on l oss i sd ue
princip ally t o h ys teres is o r a pparen t
magne tic f r
ic t ion , o ccas ioned b y t he
mo lecu le s o f i ron r efus ing t o q uick ly
f
ollow t he c hanges i n d i rec tion o f t he
magne tizing c urrent . I
t i s p ara -
moun t t ha t t he p rimary c urren t mus t
c
hang e i n s treng th p er iod ica l
ly o r i n
s
treng th a nd d irec tion b o th, t o c rea te
av ary ing magne tic f l
ux i n t he i ron .
A d irec t c urren t w ould o nly c rea te a Fig
. 9 .
c
hang ing m agne tic f i
eld , w henever i t
wa s c onnec ted t o a nd d i
sconnec ted
f
rom t he p r
imary w ind ing . Th is i st he p r
inc iple o f t he f am iliar
•Wa
tts m p
roduc
t o
f •
olta t
imes amperes
.
3
3
•
i
nduc tion o r s park c oil
. Av ibrator o r other i nterrup ter
, p eriodi-
c
ally m akes a nd b reaks t he p rimary c i
rcu it
, r esult
ing i n ap ul-
s
ating d i
rec t c urren t p assing
t
hrough i t
. Th is c auses t he i ron
core t o b e magne tized a nd d e-
magne tized r apid ly , a nd i n c on-
s
equence t he s econdary c oil h as
i
nduced i n i t
se lf, a c urrent o f
s
im i lar f requency t o tha t i n t he
pr
imary c ircu i t
. I nduc tion c oils
i
nvar iab ly h ave a n o pen c ore o r
magne tic c ircu it a s s hown a t
F
ig . 7 . They a re c onsiderab ly
l
ess ef icient t han t he c losed
c
ore t ype o f d esign , in t ha t t he
magne tic f lux l eaves t he c ore a t
e
ach e nd a nd c omp letes t he mag -
P
ig. 1 0
.
n
e tic c ircu it t hrough t he a ir,
which o fers av e- y h igh r eluc tance t o t he f l
ux . The e fic
iency
o
f e nergy t rans forma tion i n t he o pen c ore t ypes d oes n ot
e
xceed 6 0 t o 7 0 p er c ent. The v ol tage r e
la tions a re the s a me
a
s i n c losed c ore t ransformers .-
A c ut o f a n o pen c ore t ransformer i s seen a t F ig. 8 , this
p
ar t
icu lar o ne b eing c a
lled a t ransformer c oil
, a nd u sed f or
s
tepp ing u p t he v oltage o f a 10 v olt A . C. o r D. C . circuit t o
s
ever al t housand a t t he s econdary .t erm inals. I t i s used f or
w
ire le ss t elegraph p urposes , i n c onnec t
ion w ith a G erns back
e
l
ec tro lyti c i nterrup ter. An i nduc tion o r spark c oil i s at ran s-
f
ormer o f t he o pen c ore t ype. A 1i nch c o i
l d el
ivers a 1i nch
s
pa rk f r om t he s econdary w ind ing a t av o
ltage o f a bou t
2
0,000 , f ro % 6 v olts i n t he p rimary c ircuit.
Referr ing t o t he G ernsback e lectro lytic i n
terrup ter, m en t
ioned
a
bove , a s u sed i n c onnec tion w ith t he t ransformer c o
il, its a p-
p
earance i ss een f rom F ig. 9 . I tc ons ists o f ag lass jar con taining
a
n e ledtrolyte
o
f a c
idu lated
10 AMP -IRON CORE water , i n
to
—S INGLE WIND ING which a i-s
d
1
00 p
l
i
na
sced
tab a
le cn om -
VOLTS p
e
l
o
es
ci
t
tr
ion
d er
ao
nd
PR
IM ARY a f
i
xed l
ead

1
1
1
w
2
0 AMP e
lectrode.

I0 50 VOLTS
SECONDARY f
To
rm
h e er t
ran coi-
sl
4 wo rks v ery
5 well w ith t h
is
in t errup-
1
0 AMP , « 20 AMR electro ly t
ic
r
ectifier o f t he
F
IG .1 I t
er p ar ticu lar-
l
y w he re a n
f
our c ell t ype
i
s also c onnec ted i n circu it as t he in
terrup ter o pera te s b es t o n
d
irect c urren t.
The i nterrup ter i t
self i s w ell b u
ilt
, h aving a l
l t he e lectrode
c
onnec tions s ealed i n ap orcelain c over, s o t hat t hey c anno t b e
a
ttacked b y a cid. The s pecia
l r od at the c entre s ets i n ap orce -
l
a
in t ube w i th a c onstric ted lower o pening , a nd t he g as b ubb les
f
ormed e lectro lytical
ly a tt he p ointo f the r od, s e
rve t o m ake a nd
b
reak t he c ircu it. T he f requency o f i n
terrup tion d eve loped b y
t
his instrument i se normous , r eaching 5 ,000 t o 7 ,
000 p er s econd .
The interrup ter c auses t he secondary w ind ing t o d el
iver a v ery
h
eavy c urren t
, r esemb ling a f l
ame, a nd a l
so wo rk s t o g ood
a
dvan tage o n s park c o
ils .
The a ction o f any t ransformer i sq uite u n
ique u nder d ife ren t
c
onditions , a nd s ome o f t hem w ill be cons idered h ere.
I
f at ransformer , o f e i
ther t he open o r c losed c ore t ype, i s
c
onnec ted t o a n a l
terna ting c urren t ci
rcu it, w ith t he s econdary
3
4
•
 I

w
ind ing o pen, i twill t ake av ery s mall c urren t f r om t he c ircu it.
T
hi s i sd ue t o t he f a
ct t ha t t he p rimary c o
il m agne tizing c urren t
s
o r e acts u pon i t
se lf
, t hat t h e r e ac tance e fec t g ive s ag reater
r
es
i stance t ot he c oil. T he r eac tance i si nt he f o rm o f asc oun ter
o
r b ucking E . M . F . a nd h ence t end s t o l ower t he e fec t
ive
E
. M . F . p as sing t hrough t he p r
imary c oil. S o, w h
ile t he
s
econda ry c o
il i so pen c i
rcu ited a nd n ot c onnec ted t o a ny l oad ,
t
he t ransformer p rimary w ind ing c on sume s v ery l i
ttle c ur ren t,
d
ue t o i t
s r eac tance o r s elf-induced c oun ter E . M . F .
When t he s econdary c oil o r w ind ing i s conne cted t o al oad
o
f s ome k ind, i tw ill i mmed ia tely b eg in t o d eliver c urren t t ot ha t
l
oad. C onsequen tly t he p rimary w ind ing mu st b e t aking mo re
c
ur ren t f rom t he s upply w ire s, a nd i td oes, i n d irec t p ropor t
ion
t
o t he s econdary l oad. T he p assage o f c ur ren t t hrough t h e
s
econda ry w ind ing i si n o ppo site d irec tion a t a ny i nstan t t o t ha t
i
nt he p rimary , h ence t he m agne tic r eac tance o f t he p rimary c o il
i
st o s ome e x ten t c oun terba lancea b y t he m agne tic f i
eld o f t he
s
econdary w ind ing, a nd t he p rimary c ur ren t ist h ere fore g rea t e
r
i
n p ropo rt
ion t o the l oad o n t h e t ran sfo rmer . I f t he s econdary
w
ind ing i s s ho r t
-circu ited , t he t r an sformer w ou ld p ass s o g rea t
ac ur ren t that i tw ould b e b urned o ut
.
Tran sformer s a re k nown e i
ther a s s tep-up o r s tep-down ,
a
cco rd ing t ow hether t he s econdary w ind ing r ai ses o r l ower s t h e
p
rimary v o
ltage . This, a s a l
ready e xplained , i s d ependen t
u
pon t he r atio o f t he t urns o f w ire u pon t he r e spec t
ive c oil s.
Expre ssed i n af ormu la , i tb ecome s: —
S
econdary t urn s
K
Primary t u rn s
Whe re K i s t he r at
io f actor . I f at ransformer c ontained a
s
econdary c oil w ith 1 0
0 t urns a nd ap rimary c oil w ith 2 ,000 t u rns
t
hen t he ratio o f t r
an sfo rma tion w ou ld b e 1 00 d ivided b y 2 ,000
o
r 1 /20 ;o rt he s econdary v o
l tage w ould b e 1 /20 o f t he i mpre ssed
p
rimary E . M . F . T his t ran sfo rmer w ould b elong i n t he c la ss
o
f s tep-down t ypes.
I
f t he t ran sformer j ust c i
ted w as, s a y, of 1k ilowa tt* c apac i ty,
had a c l
osed c ore, a nd a n e f
iciency o f 8 0 p er c ent., t hen t o g et
1k ilowa tt o u tpu t a t the s econdary t erm ina ls, w ould r equire a n
i
npu t a t the p rimary t e rm ina ls o f 1 2 t ime s 1k ilowa tt o r 1 ,200
wa tts. T he s econdary v oltage a s r emembe red i st o b e 1 /20 o f
t
h e p r
imary E . M . F . w h
ich i st aken a t 1 00 v ol ts. H ence t he
s
e conda ry v ol tage i s1 /20 o f 1 00 o r 5v olts
. T he s econdary o ut-
put i s1 ,
000 w atts o r 1k ilowa t
t, a nd s o t he s econda ry c urren t i n
ampe res w ill b e 1,000 d i v
ided b y 5o r 2 00 a mpe res.
T he p r
ima ry v oltage i s1 00 ;t otali npu ta tf ul
l l oad 1 ,
200 w at ts;

BELL-

FUSE PB
.

10 V A C
.
60 —
C
IRC U
IT

FUSE
F
IG.12

a
nd current input consequently 1,
200 divided by 100 or 12 a m-
p
ere
s; t h
is al
lowing f or th
e l o
ss in e f
ic
iency of trans
forma tion
d
ue to ir
on core and copper l o
sses
.
The primary and s e
condary w ires are designed of such s i
ze
t
hat th
ey c on
tain 1 ,
000 ci
rcular mils of cros
s-sect
ional area for
e
ach ampe re o
f current t
hey are tocarry
. F rom t h
is, t
he p
rimary
w
ire w ould r
equire to be of 12
,000 ci
rcular mil
s and the second-
•1k
i
lowa
tt i
s 1
,
000 w
stt
s, o
r 11/
3 h
orsepowe
r.
3
5
 a
ry w ire o f 2 00,000 c ircu lar m ils. T he s ize o f w ire c o rrespond -
i
ng t o t he se a reas c an b e t aken f rom a ny s tandard w ire t able,
such a s t he " Brown a nd S harpe ," o r'" Amer ican g aug e." T he
s
ize o f w ire c orrespond ing t o a n a rea o f 1 2,000 c ir
. m ils i s
No . 9B : & S . c opper w ire , whose a rea i s 1 2,996 c ir. m i ls. T he
neares t c orrespond ing s ize o f s econdary w ire h av ing a n a rea o f
2
00 ,000 c i r
. m ils i s No . 0 000 B . & S . G auge c opper w ire . T he
wire f or t ransformers i s u sua lly d oub le c o tton c overed . T he
proper s ize o f i r on c ore f or t his 1 K .W . t ransformer o pera ting
on 1 00 v olts, a t 6 0 c yc le f requency , i s1 5 i nches b y 8 34 i nche s b y
2i nches t h
ick . The w id th o f t he l eg s o n a ny o ne o f t he f our
s
ide s o f t he r ectang le i sa lso 2 i n ches . F or a c hange i n v oltage
on t he p rimary ma ins t he n umber o f t urns o n t he p rimary c oil
w ould b e c hanged . F or a c hange i nt he f requency o f t he p rimary
s
upp ly c ur ren t t he i r on l am ina ted ma ss w ou ld a l so c hange , b e-
c
om ing l ess i n q uan tity a s t he f r equency i ncreased , a nd v ice
v
er sa .
T hese c onsidera tions a ll h old g ood f or t he o pen c ore t ype
o
f t ransformer , e xcep t o f c our se t he e f
i ciency i s much l ess,
a
nd more p rimary c urren t f or a g iven s e condary o u tpu t mu st b e
p
u t i nto t he t ransformer .
A s tep -up h igh t ens ion w ire less t ransformer o f 1 /4 k ilowa tt
c
apac ity i s i lus tra ted b y F ig . 1 0
. I t i s s ubs tan tia lly b uilt a nd
moun ted i n a wooden c ab ine t
, w ith t e rm ina ls o f p rimary a nd
s
econdary w ind ings o n t he e xter ior o f t he c ase. I t o pera tes
o
n 10 v olts, 6 0 c ycle A . C . a nd d elivers 1 5,000 v olts a nd a f rac -
ti
on o f a n a mpere a t t he s e condary t erm ina l s. Wire le s s t ran s-
f
ormers o f t he c lo sed c ore t ype , s uch a s t he o ne j us t d escr ibed
o
r t he o pen c ore t ype , h ave l arge ly s uperceded t he s park c oil
f
or c harg ing t he c ondensers a nd a eria l w ire a s t hey a re more
con stan t a nd r eliab le i n o pera tion a nd g ive a v ery h eavy a mper -
ag e i n t he s econdary c i
rcu it. T he e ficiency o f t he t ran sformer
in c on trast t o t he i nduc tion c oil i sq ui te d iferen t t oo; t he l atter
being a pprox ima tely 2 0 p er c en t. o r more , l ess e ficient t han t he
former . The t ransformer c an b e b uilt i n a ny d es ired s ize a nd
ope ra tes v ery s ucce ssfu lly i n t he l arger f orm , w hile l arg e i nduc -
t
ion c oils a re v ery e xpens ive a nd a lso h ard t o o pera te p roper ly
i
n t he b ig s i
zes .
Wh ile d iscu ss ing t r ansformers , t he a uto - transformer o r s ing le-,
c
oi l t ransformer mu st n ot b e o ver looked . T he s chema t ic a r-
r
angement o f i ts v ar ious s ections a re p or trayed , i
n F ig. 1 . A s
observed , t here i sa n i r on c ore o f b uilt-up s hee ts o f t hin a nnea led
s
tock , a s i n regu lar p rac tice , b u t o n ly o ne c oil i s s hown . T his
c
oil may c onta in , s ay 2 00 t urns o f w ire, f or e xamp le.
The s ing le c oil h as a p ar t o f i t
s t urns i n u se f or t he p rimary
w
ind ing a nd a p ar t o f t hem f or t he s e condary w ind ing o f t he
t
ran sformer , a s i nd ica ted b y P a nd S r espec tive ly . We c an
t
ake t he s ection P , o r p r
imary c o
il, a nd h ave i te mbrace , s ay, a l
l
o
f t he 2 00 t urns o f w ire o n t h e t ransfor iner . T he s econda ry , o r
S t u rns , may b e t aken a t 5 0 t urns , o r o ne -ha lf t he p rimary
n
umb er.
The n umber o f t u rns o n t he s ingle c oil o f a n a uto - tran sfo rmer
i
st he s ame a s wou ld b e r equ ired i fi tw ere e mp loyed e xc lu sive ly
f
o r t he h igh -tens ion w ind ing , a nd a s epara te a dd itiona l c oil
were p rov ided f or t he l ow - tens ion w ind ing . When t he r a tio o f
t
ran sfo rma tion i s 2t o 1o r 1t o 2 , t he amount o f c opper i n
t
he o ne c oil i s e xac tly t he s ame whe ther i t i s u sed a s a n
a
uto - transformer o r a s ah igh t ens ion c oil o f ar egu lar t wo
c
oil t ransformer o f t he s ame o utpu t. L ess c opper i s r equ ir ed
f
or a n a u to -transformer t han f or a t wo c oi l t ype , a lso l ess i ron
i
sr equ ired t o s urround t he c opper .
Referr ing t o t he d iagram , F ig . 1 , i ti s s e en t ha t t he s ingle
c
oil i s d esigned t o c arry 1 0 amperes t hroughou t ( con sider ing
a 1k ilowa t t u nit ) a nd f or a t ota l v oltage o f 1 00. T he v oltage
p
er t urn o f w ire t hroughou t i s i den tica l, s o i f i ti s d e sir ed t o
o
bta in 5 0 v o
lts o n t he s e condary s ide, i t i s o nly n ece s sary t o
c
onnec t t he s econdary l ead w ires t o a ny t wo p oin t s o n t he c on -
t
i
nuous c o il
, s o t hat b u t o ne-ha lf o f t he t o ta l n umber o f t urns
i
se mb raced b etween t hem . A lso i f as e condary E . M . F . o f 2 5
v
olt s w as r equ ired , t he s econdary l ead w ire s s hou ld e mbrace
3
6
2
5/100 o r 1 /4 o f t he t otal t u rns o n t he w ind ing. T he l oad o r
s
econda ry c ur ren t i s2 0 a mpe res f or a r ating o f 1 ,
000 w atts ( 1
k
i
lowa tt) a t 5 0 v o
lts, a nd i so ppo sed i n t ime p ha se p osi
tion b y
t
he s upe rpo sed 1 0 a mpere s o f p rima ry c u rren t, s o t hat e ven i n
t
h
i s part o f t h e w ind ing , t h e resu ltan t c urr en t i so nly 1 0 ampe res.
The a uto -t ran sfo rmer i s v ery e ficien t f or c ertain v oltage
r
at
ios a nd e xceed s t ha t o f t he t wo c o
il t ype, b eside s r equ iring
l
e
s s m ater ial i n i ts c on st ruc t
ion . Au to- tran sfo rme r s a re u sed
f
or av a riety o f p urpo ses c hie f a mong t hem b eing, t o c on trol
t
he a moun t o f c u
r ren t s upplied t o a l
terna ting c ur ren t mo tor s
whi
le s tarting , a nd a l
so f or s peed r egu lation; b alance c oils, i n
2w ire t o 3w ire s upp ly s ystems ; t uning c oils a nd h e
lice s i n
w
irele ss t e
leg raphy ; r e actance c o
il s; e t
c.
Auto -transformer s a re u sed s uc ce ssfu lly a nd t o a dvan tage i n
o
pera t
ing s ing le-pha se e lec tric r a
ilway mo tor s
. T hey a re u sed
h
ere t o s upp ly l ow v oltage f or t he m o tor s f rom t he h i gh v oltage
s
upply w ire s
. T he a uto -tran sfo rmer s a re a rranged i n this c ase
w
ith n ine i n te rmed ia te l ow -po ten tia l t aps , a nd a re u sed o n
l
ocomo t
ive s a nd mo tor c ar
s, w ith t he l i
ne w ire p oten t
ia l a t
1
,000 v olts. T he e mp lo ymen t o f a uto -
t rans forme rs i n this c a-
p
acity w as d icta ted m ore b y c onven ience t han b y e conomy ,
a
l
though a n a uto -tran sformer w ith a r atio o f 2 t o 1a s u sed
h
ere, w ould b e a t rifle l e
ss e xpen sive a nd more e f
icien t i n
o
pera tion t h an a t wo c oil t ran sformer f or t he s ame p urpo se.
I
n g enera l, t he f ollow ing f e
a tu res a re t he p rincipa l o ne s
, i n
t
he c on struc tion o f mode rn t ran sfo rmer s: T he c ore s, f or c er-
t
a
in s i
ze s a nd d esign s, a re o ften m ade u p o f aq uantity o f
c
har coal a nnea led i ron w ire, s u ch a s N orweg ian c ore w ire. I t
must b e a s s of t a s p ossib le, o the rw ise i tw ill l ower t he e f
iciency
o
f t he t ran sformer . F or l ow v oltage t ypes , n ot e xceed ing 5 00
v
olts, Emp ire c loth m ay b e p laced a round t h e i ron c o
re t o
i
nsulate i tf r om t h e w ire c oils t o b e p laced o ver i t
.
Fo r l ow t en sion 10 o r 20 v olt p rimary w ind ing s
, t he w ire
c
an b e d oub le c o tton c ov ered o r e name l; i ft he f ormer i ts hou ld

F
ig. 1
3
.

b
e w ell sh e
llacked o r i mpregna ted w i
th w ax , o r, b etter s ti
ll,
s
oaked w i
th s ome g ood i nsu lating v arnish o r c ompound a nd
b
aked u n
til t h e compound h as p ermea ted a ll t he p ores i n t he
i
nsula tion.
The s econda ry w ind ing s c an b e s imi
la rly m ade u p
, a s a bove
d
es cribed f or o rdinary l ow v oltage s
. C ommon p rac t
ice i s to
i
mme rse t he w hole t ran sformer i n o i
l
, s uch a s t ransit o i
l,
p
araf f
ine p il
, o r d oub le-bo iled l i
nseed o il
. T he o il u sed s hould
h
ave a h igh f l
ash v alue . F or v oltage s o ver,1 ,
000 , i ti sr ecom -
mended t hat t h e trans former w ind ing s and c o re b e o i
l i nsulated,
b
u t t h e prac tice i n w irele ss t rans former b uild ing s eems t o b e
t
o m ake t h
em t ho rough ly p ortable , and s o o il i s n ot u sed i n
t
hem g enerally . I n p lace o f t h
e o i
l aw ax -ro sin m ixture i s
p
oured o ve r t he trans former w hen i tisp laced i n i t
s c abinet a nd
t
hey s e
em t o s t
and u p v ery w ell, n otwith s
tand ing t hat t he sec-
o
ndary p oten tials o ften r e ach 5 0
,000 v o
l ts o r m ore. I n t hese
c
las se s o f t ran sforme rs
, t h e i n
su lat
ion i s k ep t u p t o av ery
h
igh s andard b y s ubd ivid ing t he h igh t ension w ind ing i n
to a
number , of s mal
ler s ect
ions o r p ies a s t hey a re n icknamed .
Each p ie i s w e
ll i mp regna ted w i th h ot p araf f
ine o r b eeswax ,
b
e fo re o r a fter w ind ing.
I
n t he d esign ing o f o pen -co re t r
ansfo rme r s, u sed mo st
ly f or
wir e
les s p urpo ses, w ith h i gh p oten tial secondary c o
ils, i tisb e s
t
t
o p lace a m ica, f i
br e o r h ar d-rubber t u be o f c on s
iderab le
t
hickn es s o ver t he p rimary w ind ing a nd c ore, o therw ise t h
e
3
7
 d
ischarge o f t he s econdary w ill t ake place into the p r
imary a nd
c
ore, instead o f b etween t he s econdary t erminals.
A s mall t ransformer i s o ften e mployed f or r inging b e
lls,
r
unn ing e lectric t oys s mal
l mo tors , et
c.
, a nd t he a ppearance o f
o
ne o f t hese i s shown a t F ig. 1 3, while F ig. 1 2 ilustrate s t he
c
onnec t
ions o f t he t wo w ind ing s, primary a nd s econdary . T he
p
rima ry c oil i s connec ted t o a 10 o r 2M - volt
, a l
terna ting c ur-
r
ent c i
rcu it
, w ith f use s as i ndicated. S evera l voltages m ay b e
o
btained f rom t he s econdary c oil, by connec ting o n t o dife ren t
n
umbers o f t urns , s u
itable l eads b e
ing b rough t o ut t o b inding
p
osts. T hese t ransforme rs c onsume p ractical
ly n o c urren t from
t
he A . C. ma ins , and t ake t he p lace of troublesome b atterie s
.
One o f t he l argest, a nd p robab ly the l a
rges t
, use o f c ommer -
c
ial transformers i s i n the s tepp ing u p o f g enerator v oltag es
f
or long d i stance p ower t ransm ission, a nd s tepping d own t he
h
igh t ension c urrent o f feed w ires or p rimar ies t o as uitab le
o
ne f or o pera ting i ncandescen t lamps, mo tors, and a h undred
o
ther p ieces o f a ppara tus i n t he h ome a nd workshop . T he
t
ransformer a nd a l
terna t
ing c urrent h ave made e lectricity t he
g
reat mas ter i ti st o
-day .

LESSON No
. 5
.
SMALL ELECTRIC L
IGHTING PLANTS
.

T
HE s ma ll e l ec tric l ighting p lant wh ich i s usua l ly i so-
l
ated o r away f rom a ny o rdinary s ources o f c urren t
supp ly, h as g rown t o b e l egion n owadays , t hank s t o
the wonder fu lly d eve loped g aso line e ngine , a nd t he
s
imp lifica tion o f t he e l eètric g enera ting a ppara tus . Every
f
armer c an n ow h ave h i s own e lec tric p lant, a nd i tw ill c ost
him p rac t ica l
ly n oth ing i n mos t i nstances , e spec ia lly where
w ater -power o r w ind -m il
ls a re a t h and , w ith wh ich t o d r
ive a
dynamo . F ai
ling t hese f acilit
ies i n t he l i
ne o f p r
ime -movers
or d riv ing p ower , ag aso l
ine o r k erosene i nterna l e xp losive
eng ine i s q uite c heap ly p rocured , a nd o ften t o d o d uty f or
driving o dd mach inery a round t he p lace , a nd t he d ynamo
s
imp ly a bsorbs p ower d uring t he i dle momen ts , t o c harge a
s
torage b attery f loa ting a cross t he l i
ne w ires l eading f rom
-
the d ynamo . I n t his a rrangement a n a utomat ic c u t-ou t mu st
be i n serted i n t he l ine s o t hat whenever t he d ynamo v oltage
f
alls b elov , t ha t o f t he s torage b attery o n c harge , i t w ill
automa tica lly d isconnect t he b attery , o therw ise t he b a t
tery
wou ld d ischarge b ack t hrough t he d ynamo . Th is c u t
-ou t
i
s s old b y t he E lec tro Impor t
ing C o.
A t ypica l f armhouse , o r i s
olated e lec tric l igh t
ing p lan t i s
i
lus tra ted b y c ut F ig . 1 . S uch a p lant a s t his, o f cour se , i sa
l
i
t t
le a bove t he a verage b ut d oes n ot c ost o ver a f ew h un-
d
red d ollars f or t he i nitial i ns
ta l
la tion . The u p-keep , ma in -
t
enance a nd s afe ty c anno t b e e s
tima ted i n d o
llars a nd c ents .
A f a rm o r dwe ll
ing e quipped w ith s uch a p lant o r as im ilar
one, c an p roduce e lec tric c urren t a t af rac tion o f t he c os t
c
harged b y t he c en tra l s tation c ompan ies .
The p rinc ipa l mer its o f t he e lec tric s ystem f or l i ghting
t
he p rem ises , d riv ing sma ll mo tors a nd mach ines , e tc.
, i s i t
s
c
ompara t
ive s afety , c lean l
iness , a nd ef iciency , a s c ompared
t
o a ny o ther s cheme f or a ccomp l
ish ing l ike r esu lts. For
i
nstance , t he f ollow ing f eatures w ill s erve t o p rove t he v as t
s
uper ior ity o f t he e lec trica l s ystem o ver a ce ty lene , g as, o il
,
e
tc.
To b eg in w i th a n e lectr ic i ncandescent l amp , s uch a s t he
c
arbon o r t ungs ten f i
lament t ype, c onsumes n o o xygen wha t -
e
ver f rom t he a t mosphere , a nd h ence i t d oes n ot d evita l
ize
t
he a ir
, a s i s t he c ase w ith a ny f orm o f o il, w ax o r g as
i
lum inant . An o rdinary g as l ight c onsumes a s much o xygen
i
n a n h our a s s i x f ull g rown p eop le , a nd a p etro leum o r
k
ero sene o il lamp c onsumes a much g rea ter q uant ity i n t he
s
ame s pace o f t ime .
3
8
 Mo
re f i
res are c aused b y,the u psetting o r e xplosion o f oit
l
amps a nnua lly, than b y a l
l o ther a genc ies p ut t ogether , as
p
roved b y insurance s tatistics. S o one o f t he g reat f e
atures
o
f an electric plant, isi t
s a bi
lity to lower t he i nsurance r a
tes.
A common c ause o f fi
re, when t he o rigin i s u nknown , is of
c
ourse the n ow fam il
ia r " crossed e l
ec tric w ires." The w ires
i
n the first place, are r ubber c overed, a nd r arely e ver s hort
c
ircu
it o r c ome i n con tact w ith e ach o ther 's me ta
l s ections,
a
s the rubber i sthick e nough t o h o
ld t he e lectric charge o n
t
hem e asily
. I f the wires a re p roperly i n
stalled , and r igidly
s
upported i n place o n p orcelain i nsulating c leats o r k nobs,
o
r installed i n i r
on c ondu it, n o t roub le wha tever w ill b e
e
xperienced w ith t he s ystem .

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The somewha t el
abora te plant s hown i n the f i
rst i lus r
a-
t
ion
, is made u p of ag asol
ine o r kerosene o i
l e ngine d r
iving
a dynamo . The e ngine a nd d ynamo i n t his t ype o f pa nt
a
re usually r un d ur
ing t he d ay, to charge t he s torage c el
ls
s
een at t he l eft of the p icture
. A t the e nd o f t he d ay
's
c
narge, i. e.
, a t evening, t he d ynamo i s s topped a nd the
s
torage b at
tery i s connected b y means o f t he s w
itchboard
t
o the light w ires or c i
rcuits. The l ights t hus t ake t he
ir
e
nergy f rom t he battery a ll night, and t he n ext d ay it is
r
echarged a gain. The p hilosophy o f t h
is s cheme i s that,
3
9
i
n mos t c ases o f priva te h ouses a nd t he l ike, i t i s not d e
-
s
irab le t o h ave a n e ng ine o pera ting d uring t he n ight o n
a
ccount o f n oise
, a t
ten tion n ecessary , etc
. However , aw el
l
r
egu lated s y
stem c an b e r un p erfectly s at
isfac tory a l
l o r a
part o f t he n ight w ithou t a ny u ndue t roub le o r a nnoyance .
A c ompact e ngine a nd d ynamo moun ted o n as ingle b ed-
p
la te i ss hown a t Fig . 2. The e ngine i s fi
tted w ith a n e x
tra
heavy f ly-whee l t o g ive a s teady t urning e fort o r to rque
t
o d r
ive t he d ynamo , s o t ha t the l ights w i
ll n ot flicker. No t
every e ngine i s suited t o d rive a d ynamo f or l igh ting p ur-
poses . I f t he s peed i s n ot s uff
iciently s teady , then n either
w
i ll t he v oltage o f t he d ynamo b e
, a nd c onsequen tly t he
l
igh ts w i
ll fl
icker more o r l ess. Heavy f l
y-whee ls a nd spec ial
govern ing d evices o n t he e ngines o bviate t he f l
i ckering t o
ag rea t e xtent. I f as torage b attery i s used i n c onjunc tion
w
i th t he e ngine, the l igh ts w ill n ot b e subjec t t o a ny f l
icker -
i
ng wha tever , a s t he c urrent s upplied b y t he b attery i s
p
er fec t
ly s t
eady a t a ll t imes . Sl
igh t irregu larities i n t he
s
peed o f the e ngine d oes n ot ma tter s o much i n this c ase, a s
t
he d ynamo s imp ly forces c urrent i nto the b a ttery, much a s a
p
ump f orces wa ter in to a r eservo ir; the b attery s teady ing t he
l
i
ne v o
ltage .

The t wo simp lest systems f or li

ghting incandescent lamps ,
a
re those emp loying a d ynamo a nd storage bat
tery separately.
The c ommon c i
rcuit for the d ynamo s ys
tem a ppears a
t Fig. 3,
t
he shun t fi
eld w inding h aving a v ariable res
istance in ser
ies
w
ith i t
, to r
egu late the v o
ltage a ppl
ied at the lamps; but this
i
sn ot necessary i n sma l
l d ynamos u nder 1/6 H. P. I n F
ig. 4
i
ss hown a s torage b at
tery c ircuit
, the 6 ce
lls being connected
i
n series to give 12 v ol
ts ( abou t 2v o
lts each).
I
n t
he dynamo s cheme, t
he engine or waterwhee l must be
k
ept c
onstant
ly g oing to d
rive the dynamo, a s long as the
l
i
ghts a
re w anted
. Wi th the storage b
attery a rrangemen t
,
s
ome means o f recharg
ing the b at
tery i
s n ecessary. G en-
4
0
 e
rally a d ynamo i s emp loyed t o f ulfil
l t his f unc tion , b ut in
s
ome c ases t he b atteries a re r echarged a t an earby p ower
s
tation, owned p ossib ly b y an eighbor .
A f ew r u
les r egard ing t he s ize o f c harg ing d ynamos f or
c
ertain s i
ze s torage b atteries may b e o f service t o t he i solated
p
lan t owner . The s tandard p rac tice i n t he Un ited S tates
f
or c harg ing a nd d ischarg ing l ead c e
ll s torage b a tter ies, w ith
d
ilute s ulphur ic a cid f or e lectro lyte, i s the 8 h our r ate, as
i
t is c alled. Th is r ule wo rks o ut a s f o
llows : I f ac e
l l has
a rated n orma l c apac ity o f 4 00 ampere h ours ( be ing t he
p
roduc t o f t he amperes b y t he h ours) , t hen t o d ischarge i t
a
t t he s tandard 8 h our r ate wou ld mean t hat 4 00 d ivided b y
8
,o r 5 0 amperes f or 8 h ours wou ld b e t he n orma l r ate. The
r
echarg ing c ould b e a t the s ame r ate o r the e quiva lent f or
as l
igh tly l onger t ime.* The v oltage o f af resh ly c harged
c
ell i s a bou t 2 .
4 t o 2 .5 v olts. The u sua l c harg ing v oltage
p
er c e
ll v aries f rom a round 2 v o
lts u p t o 2 .6 v olts , a t e nd
.o
f c harge . The d ynamo v oltage must b e a lways s l
igh tly
h
igher ( abou t 1 0 p er c en t.) t han t he s torage c ell v oltage
o
therw ise t he b at tery w ill d i
scharge b ack t hrough t he d yna-
mo, w hich i s like ly t o r uin t he b at tery. To p reven t s uch
a
n o ccurrence a s this, ar everse c urrent magne t
ic r elay i so ften
i
nterposed b etween t he b a ttery a nd d ynamo , s o t ha t a ny
s
urge o f c urrent i n t he o ppos ite d irec tion t o t hat d e
livered
by t he d ynamo w ill i mmed iately o pen t he c ircu it
, a nd p ro-
t
ect b o th s ets o f a ppara tus .
Some u sefu l d ata i s g iven h ere r ela t
ive t o t he s ize o f
dynamo , b attery, n umber o f l amps , l oad a llowab le, e t c
.:

Candle p ower 8
4
.7 3
.6 8
3
.3
Average c ost l
amp $
1
.04 .
2
4 .
5
95
Average l i
fe lamp, h ours 1
,000 6
00 6
00
Renewa l c ost per 1,000 h ours $
1
.04 .
4
0 .
9
917
Power c onsumed p er 1 ,000 h ours in
K
. W.H . 1
00 1
W 2
48
Cost p ower a t 5e. K . W.H $
5
.00 5.00 1
2
.40
Cost p ower a t 10c
. K . W.H $
10
.03 1
0
.00 2
4.80
Cost of r enewals a nd p ower a t 5 c $
6
.04 5
.40 1
3.39
Cost of r enewals a nd p ower a t 10e $
11
.04 1
0
.40 2
5.79
Compar ison o f li
ght f or s ame cost 1
00% 4
2.8 % 4
2
.8 %
Per c ent. s av
ing f or e qual li
ght, Sc
K
.W .H. 5%
Per c ent. s av
ing f or e qual li
kht, 10e
K
.W .H. 5
7%

ér
e
2
1
8 C
C4i
-a g
o
▪ -;
1 . 7
4, 8
a- a
5 9
-
c- • kr
•
z
u e
s
. w
.
g e
t2
,
2
0 4 1
V2 3
00 8 1
,
800 1
0 .
22 1 7 1
0 1
20
2
0 4 2 4
25 8 1
,
800 1
0 .
22 1 7 1
0 1
20
2
0 4 1 4
50 8 1
,
8 00 1
0 .
22 1 7 1
0 1
20
4
0 9 1
5, 3
00 1
6 1
,
800 2
0 .
50 2
5 1
5 2
0 1
20
4
0 9 2 5
00 1
6 1
,
800 2
0 .5
0 2
5 1
5 2
0 1
20
5
0 1
3 2 6
00 2
5 _- 1
,
800 2
0 .7
2 3
6 2
0 2
5 1
20
8
5 1
3 3 6
00 2
5 1
,
800 5
0 1.
44 3
6 2
5 3
5 1
60
1
05 3
2 3 6
00 r 1
,
800 5
0 1
.
40 8
0 4
2 5 1
20
1
60 1
3 5 5
75 2
5 1
,500 1
25 3.
60 3
6 2
5 3
5 1
60
1
80 3
2 5 5
75 5
7 1
,
500 1
25 3
.50 8
0 4
2 S 1
20
3
25 3
2 1
0 5
00 5
7 1
,500 2
70 6.
15 6
5 4
2 5 1
20
6
00 3 2
0 2
80 5
7 1
,
100 5
20 1
.85 6
5 5
7 8
0 1
60

• Dynamo b
elt d
riven
.

•S
ee L
esson No
. 3o
n S
torage Batter
ies f
or d
eta
ils
.
4
1
 The m ethods •of w iring up ac omp lete plan t, including s tor-
a
ge b attery , d ynamo a nd l amps i s shown d iagramma tically
i
n F igs. 5a nd 6 . I n F ig. 5i s represen ted o nly t he simp lest
p
lan t
, w i thou t v ol
tme ter or amme ter t o ind
ica te t he streng th
o
r q uan tity, o f c urrent p assing i nto o r o ut o f t he b attery
while c harg ing o r discharging . I n F ig. 6t he diag ram s hows
two " Elec tro" magne tic vane measur ing i nstrumen ts i n the
b
a t
tery c i
rcui t
, wh ich ( as they i nd
ica te with c urrent i n either
d
irec t
ion) w ill s how t he v oltage a nd amperage wh ile t he
b
attery i s being c harged o r discharged . The b attery g en-
e
rally , receives c harg ing c urren t d uring t he d ay, a nd d i
s- ,
'
c
harges o n t he lamp l oad at nigh t
.
The s ize of w ire to b e used f or any g iven l ength o f circuit
and l oad i sb est found f rom t he regu lar formu la b e
low :
Length o f run in feet x amperes x 2 1.6
C
.M . - •
Vol
ts l ost in circuit
.
C
. M . i sa rea o f wire i n
c
ircu lar m ils, a nd t he c or-
r
espond ing s ize o f w ire i s
r
ead ily f ound f rom a ny
w
ire t able.
The v olts l o st in the c i
r-
c
uit i s u sua lly t aken a t 2
t
o 3v olts f or g ood s er-
v
ice, o n o rdinary v o
ltages
o
f f rom 5 0 t o 10 v olts.
The w ire s hou ld b e r ub-
b
er c overed , s i
ng le b raid-
e
d'
, i fi ti s t o b e s uppo r
ted
o
n c l eats o r k nobs . I ft he
w
ire i s t o b e i nstalled i n
c
ondu i t o r pipe , i t mus t be
doub le b ra id, r ubber c ov-
e
red . F or a ny th ing a bove
1
0 v olts, t he F ire Under -
writers ' Ru les f or e lectric
w
ir ing mus t b e c omp l
ied
w
ith . A c opy o f t heir
b
ook c an b e h ad b y a d-
d
ress ing t he F ire Under -
writers ' A ssoc iation , in the
p
rinc ipa l c ities .
Some t ungs ten l amp d ata
i
s a ppended h erew ith, t he
u
ng sten l amp b eing t he
grea tes t boon t o s mall
F
ig. 2
.
l
i
gh ting p lan ts e ver, a s it
consumes a bou t 1 /3 t he
s
ame in
tensi
ty of ilumination as t
he c arbon f i
lamen t l amp .
A f
ew of the "
Electro" storage ce
lls wh ich a re s uitable f or
e
lec
tric l
ight
ing plants are ilustra
ted i n F ig . 7 .
S
ome electric li
ghting fi
t
tings a nd supp
lies a re s een i n
.
F
ig. 8
, i
ncluding s ocke
ts, s
nap s w
i tches, w
all bracke ts wi th
r
eflectors, shades ,
e
tc
.,etc. As tand -
AR MATURE LAMPS a
rd tungsten lamp
i
sd ep
icted a t Fig.
9
,the o nly difer -
e
nce b e
tween i t
a
nd ac arbon lamp
b
eing thatt he fi
la-
u
I n
ient iscompo sed
o
f the metal tung -
F
IELD COIL s
ten, i nstead o f
F
IG.3 c
arbon.
A fe w more
4
2
p
retentious c
handeliers f
or el
ectr
ic l i
ght
ing, are shown at F
i
g.
1
0
. These a re made of b
rass
,a nd make a fi
ne appearance i
nany
h
ou se
. Any s tyle shade can b e fi
tted to the chandel
iers o
r
d
rop l i
ghts
, according to the tastes of the purchaser
.
Is olated AMP
f
arms u sua lly t
u
emp loy ag aso - -
J
l
ine e
ng ine ,
s
team e ng ine ,
water whee l o r
w
indm ill. A F
IG. 4
f
ew r ules f or a rrang ing t he p lan ts, o f wha tever s i
ze may
b
e o f u se t o t he b ui
lde t
•a nd o pera tor.
The d ynamo , t o s tar t w ith, i s g enera lly p urchased r eady t o
r
un , a s i td oes n ot p ay t o b uild t hem n owadays . The d ynamo
s
hou ld b e l oca ted i n as po t free f rom d ampness , o r e lse t hor -
ough ly h oused o ver b y a wooden c over . I fo f g rea ter c apac ity
t
han 1 /2 H . P . i ts hou ld b e par ticu lar ly w el l set u p a nd s ecured
t
o ac oncre te f ounda tion , o r i t may b e f astened t o awood b ase
bu
i lt o ut o f f i
lled y ellow p ine.
The d ynamo p la te o f most d ynamos s upp ly t he n ecessary
data a s t o t heir c apac ity,
s
peed t o b e d riven a t, etc.
MAIN F EED W IRE5 The c apac ity i sf requen t
ly
g
iven i n k ilo watts o r
, BRAN °, C IRCU IT horsepower . To f ind t he
number o f wa tts t his r at -
i
ng i s equ iva lent t o, mu l -
t
i p
ly t he K . W. b y 1 ,
000 o r
L
INE 5VV
ITCH t
he H . P. b y 7 46. To f ind
CH ARD MG DY N AMO W . the K . W. d iv ide t he p ro -
F
USES
d
uc t o f t he v olts mu lt i-
p
l
ied b y t he amperes , b y
F
us
i
,
11
,1
,11,1
, 1
,000; a nd f or H . P . b y
7
46. Wi th a g iven n um -
S
TORAGE D ATT DYNAMO . b
e o f wa tts , t he v o l
ts a re
F
IG 5 f
ound b y d ividing the
watts b y t he amperes ; o r
t
o f i
nd t he' amperes , d ivide t he t o ta l wa t ts b y t he v o lts. The
wat ts t aken b y a l amp o f c er ta in c and lepower ( C.P .
) i s
a
scer ta ined f rom t ables i n c a talogues o r t extbooks . Hence ,
f
rom t he a bove i t ,s s een t ha t t he n umber o f g iven s i
ze
l
amp s t ha t c an b e l i
ghted b y ac er tain s ize o f d ynamo i s
e
qu iva len t t o t he t otal w atts c apac ity o f t he mach ine , d iv
ided
by t he t ota l wa tts p er l amp . A 10 v olt, s tandard t ung sten
l
amp c onsumes , 2 5, 4 0 o r 6 0 wa tts , e tc., a t a bou t 1 .2 w atts
per c and lepower a s c ompared t o t he c arbon l amp 's c onsump -
t
ion o f 3 .1 t o 3 .5 w atts p er c and lepower .
End less b e
l ts a re t he b est f or d ynamo d rives , a s ac ommon
l
a ced o r p aten t h ook s plice g ives r i
se t o i rregu lar ity i n speed .
The mos t i mpor t- 'MA IN FEEDERS
an t p ar t o f a r-
rang ing t he b elt
i
s t o h ave t he
dyna mo and
pri me - mover
pulley s o r ela ted ,
t
ha t t he s peed o f
t
he f ormer i sc or -
r
ec t. The r ule _
pr
b
f
or f i
nd ing t he
s
ize o f o ne p ulley
f
or a c ertain
drive when t he 11
0 I . 4
other i sk nown , i s STORAGE B ATT Fi D FIELD .

as f ollows ; The
4
3
 d
iame
ter i
n i
nches o
f t
he unknown pu
lley is e
qual to t
he
d
iame
ter i
n i
nches o
f t
he k
nown pul
ley, t
imes it
s .
speed i
n

T
HE
ELECTRO T
HE
STORAGE ELECTRO
BATTER Y S
TORAGE
1
111
1 1
11
111
111
1111
11 1
1
11
111
111
111
11
'
B
ATTERY
.
...
I
II
JIÍ u
h
III
jIIs
IIl
III
ILj

F
ig
. 7
.
r
evo
lut
ions p
er m
inu
te (
R.P
.M.
), a
nd t
h
is p
roduc
t d
iv
ided b
y

F
ig. 8
.

t
he desired s peed i n R.P.M . o f the n ew o r unknown p ul
ley
.
A
s a n e xamp le, s uppose t hat a2 0
-inch
pul
ley r o
ta tes o n a n eng ine s haft a t 1 ,
500
R.P.M . a nd t he d ynamo i s t
o b e driven a t
2
,000 R . P. M ., t hen wha t must b e t he d ia
-
meter i n inches o f the dynamo p ul
ley t o in
-
s
ure t he p roper s peed? So
lu tion: D
ia-
meter o f the d riv ing p ul
ley ( here 2 0 inches )
t
imes i t
s s peed ( 1
,500 R .P.M .) e
quals
3
0,000. 3 0,000 d ivided b y t he dynamo s peed.
v
iz. 2,000, g ives 1 5 inches a s t he di ame ter
o
f the d ynamo p ulley. Th is c onsiders t hat
t
he sb
elt transm ission i sp erfect
, b u
t i n prac-
t
ice it is n ot, a nd i t i
s u sua
l t o al
low a n
i
ncrease i n t he c alculated d ynamo s peed o f
F
ig. 9
.
2per cent, f or s lippage . Every f r
iction b elt
s
l
ips s ome , a nd f requently o n h igh s peeds itc reates such a
q
uan t
ity o f s ta t
ic o r fr
ictional e lectr
ic ity, tha
t s pecia
l means
h
ave t o be p rov ided t o d
issipate i tint he g round. Ag rounded
w
ire, c onnec ted t o aw ire c omb o r s et of me tal teeth in
4
c
lose proxim i
ty to the mov ing b el
t, wi
ll d
iss
ipate or c
arry
o
ff any sta
t ic d
ischarges to e ar
th.
The required width of l
eather b elt f
or a
ny horsepower i
s
g
iven b y t
he f o
llowing fo
rmu la:
1
92 5XH

DX N
2
,
750 X H
A
lso
, Ws
DX N
Where: W i st he w id th i n inches o f as uitable d ouble l eather
b
elt
.
1
,
925 i s ac onstan t
.
H i st he h orsepower t o b e t ransm i t
ted.
Di sd i
ame ter i ni nches of l arger p alley.
N i st he r evo lutions p er m inu te c f larger p ul
ley .
W 2 i
st he w idth i n inches o f as irgle l eather b e
lt.
The d istance b etween t he c en
tres o f I wo p ulleys c onnec ted
mechan ically b y ab el
t, s hould n ot b e l e
ss t han 3 t o 4t imes t he
d
iame ter o f t he l arger p ul
ley. Hor izon tal d rives a re a lways
p
refe rable t o v ertical d rives, a s the t ension o n v er
tical s ystems
h
a s t o be r a
ised t o ah igh d egree t o k eep t he s l
ippage d own .
The i deal d rive i s aw e
l l spaced h orizon tal o ne, w ith t he l oose
r
unn ing s ide o f t he b el
t o n top. F or s For t belt d rives, w here
i
ti s n ot p o
ssib le t o s p
ace t h e indiv idual p ul
leys a t l e
ast t wice
t
he d iame ter o f t he l arger p ulley a part
, t hen r e course m ay b e
had t o the i dler p ulley, a s iti scalled . An i dler p u
lley d rive i s
i
lu s
tra ted i n F ig. 1 , the p os
ition o f t he i d
ler p ulley b e
ing p la
inly
ind
ica ted. I
ts f unc t
ion i s to increase t he a rea o f p u
lley f ace
covered b y t he b elt
, o r t he arc o f b elt c ontac t
.

l
'
lg. 1
0

Where the speed o f the pr

ime-mover p ermit
s, t he mode rn
me
thod i s t
o direct connec
t the d ynamo
, by am etal coupl
ing,
t
o the eng
ine or w ater-wheel shaf
t. T h
is is t
he mo s
t eff
ic
ient
me
thod, as some p ower, e
ven though but 1
0 per cent
., is l
os
t in
t
he bel
t transmission.
4
5
 Where w ater p ower i s a vailab le , i t b ehooves t he i n
tend ing
p
lan t b ui
lder t o l ook i tover, a nd i fp oss ible h arness i tu p t o aw a
-
t
er w heel o r t urb ine. Wa ter p ower c osts n o thing i n mo st i nstance s
,
a
nd t he e f
iciency o f t he w a
ter t u
rb ine i s v ery h igh , b eing
s
omewhere a t a bou t 80 p er c ent, f or m edium s ize a nd h ead o f
water . T he p res sure i n p ounds p er s quare i nch o f a ny h ead o f
water i s f ound b y mu ltiplying t h e h eads i n f eet b y . 433 ; ( .433
l
b p er sq. i n. p er 1 f oot o f h ead) .
Windm ills a re a pp l
icab le t o d ynamo d rives, b ut mu st b e
spec ially e qu ipped w ith a utoma tic c ut-ou ts i n t he s torage b attery
c
ircu it, so t ha t i ft he m ill slows d own t o ac e rtain d eg ree , w h
ich
a
lso l ower s t he c harg ing d ynamo v o
l tage , t he d ynamo w ill b e
cut o ff from t he b attery . When t he m i
l l h as a gain p icked u p
s
uf icient s peed , a nd t he c harging d ynamo v oltage i s g rea ter
t
han t he b attery E . M . F . t hen t he a utoma tic s witch c loses i t
s
c
ircu it w ith t h e b attery a gain, e t c
. Ano ther a utoma tic c ut-ou t
i
s a r ranged t o c u
t o ut t h e d ynamo , w hen t he b attery h as
r
e ceived f ul
l c harge .
T
he d ynamo i t
self, ifn ot given p roper a tten t
ion , g i ves t roub le
o
nce i n aw hile, a nd t he f ol
low ing a re s ome o f t he p oin ts t o b e
wa tched i n o pera t
ing i t
:
The c ommu ta tor i s the mo st d if icul t p ar t o f t he d ynamo t o
k
eep i n g ood c ond it
ion . T he c leaner a nd f reer f r om o il a nd
g
rea se i t i s k ept, t he more s atisfac tory i t
s s e rvice .
I
f the b rushes t end t o c u t o r g r
ind , t hey may b e i m-
p
roved b y s oak ing i n h ot p araf f
ine w ax. A c arbon a nd
g
raph ite m ix ture makes t he b est b rush , o r t hose h aving a
woven w ire c en ter o r core a re e xce llen t.
I
f ad ynamo f ails t o g enera te c urrent u pon f i
rs t b eing
s
tar ted , i t may
I
DLER P ULLEY b e p ossib le
t
he d
irec tion
o
f r o ta tion i s
PULLEY #I b
ackward . I f
B ELT
u
pon r
eve rs-
i
ng t he d irec -
t
ion o f r o ta-
t
ion i
t s t
ill
r
e fuses t o gen -
e
ra te c urren t
,
shift the
p
ULLCY l e2 brushes o r
F
16.11 r
ocker arm
b ack an d
f
or th . I f n o v oltme ter i sa t h and , al amp may b e c onnec ted
a
cross t he t erm ina l p osts c onnec ting t o t he a r ma ture b rushes .
When t he a bove t r
ials h ave b een made w ithout s uccess ,
t
he n ex t b es t t hing t o d o
, i s to c harge t he f i
eld b y p assing
a d irec t c urrent t hrough i t
s w ind ings f r om a f ew b a
ttery
c
ells , o r ar egu lar D . C . c i
rcu it. I n d oing t his t he a r ma -
t
ure s hou ld b e d isconnec ted f rom t he c ircu it.
To t es t t he f i
eld o f a r ma ture f or o pen c ircu its o r
g
rounded win d -
i
ng s, u se may b e F
IELD STG I SATt
made o f ab a ttery LAMP S
a
nd b ell o r ar egu -
l
ar t est
ing mag -
CUT OUT (>(>/)
n
eto b e
ll, s uch a s - COIL
used b y e lectri
-
c
i ans c an b e u til
-
i
z ed.
Care mus t a l
- F
16,12
w ays b e o bserved, •
i
n s mal
l p lants p articularly
, t hat the d ynamo i s no
t o ver-
l
oaded a t anye t
ime , as such a n occurrence i sa lmost cer
ta in
t
o b urn out t he w inding s
, n ecess
i ta
ting a r ewinding of t he
mach ine. To t his e nd, ar e
liable v o
ltme ter a nd amme ter
s
hou ld a lways b e in circuit to s how t he tota
l l oad on t he
d
ynamo a t a ny instant. The p roper c urrent in amperes f or
4
6
a
ny g iven h orsepower a nd v ol
tage i s readily f i
gured o u t a s
e
xp lained p rev ious ly.
Pract
ically a l
l o f the b e
st a u
tomob iles and mo tor b oats to-day
a
re e quipped w ith e l
ectric li
ghts. An o u
tfi
t compo sed of Electro-
Impor ting C o.
's g oods i ss hown d iagramma tically at Fig. 1
2. T he
d
ynamo s hou ld d eliver 8 v ol
ts o r more, for recharg ing a 6 v olt
s
torage b attery, a nd t heir No . 165 generator i s af i
ne mach ine
f
or a uto a nd mo tor b oat l i
ght
ing p lants
. I t is w a
terproof a nd
v
ery r ugged . S uch a n o utf
it should c omprise t he d ynamo , a n
automa t
ic c ut-out a t $ 9
.00; a No . 55 6 v olt
, 6 0 A. H . storage
battery, a nd t he d esired 6 v olt tungsten l amps . This o utfi
t
will ignite the e ngine b y the jump s park coils
, a nd also furnish
severa l lights s imu ltaneous ly. An 8 0 A. H . battery a t $
12.00 i s
o
f ten d es
irab le f or a uto l i
ghting.

LESSO N NO
. 6
.

TH
E
ELECTRICAL WIRES AND THEIR CALCULA TIONS.
me
tallic coneuctors o
r wires wh ich are employed
t
o c onvey t he el
ectr
ic cur
ren t for v ar
ious purposes
a
re usual
ly o f c
opper. I
n s ome c ases
, as i
n te
legraph
a
nd t e
lephone line work
, i ron w ires are u
sed, iron
w
ire h
aving a bout seven times t
he re s
istance of copper wire
o
f s im ilar d iame ter a nd l eng th.
I
n a ll p rac tical c alcu la tions f or e lec tr
ical wiring , e tc.
, t he
c
ros s-sec t
iona l a rea o f t he w ire i s s poken o f in c i
rcular m ils,
a
nd s ome times i n s quare m ils; o ne m il b e
ing e quiva lent t o o ne
o
ne -thousand th o f a n i nch . A c i
rcu lar m i
l is t he a rea o f a
c
ircle o f 1m i
l o r 1 -
1000 th o f a n i nch i n diame ter, o r a lso i t
e
qua ls t he d i ame ter i n m ils s quared . T his follows f rom t he
well k nown r ule, t hat t he a rca o f ac ircle in c
ircu lar i nches i s
f
ound b y s quar ing t he d iame ter i n i nches, o r e. The a rea i n
square m ils, i se vo lvec b y t he u sua l circle formu la ; d x. 7854
=
- a rea ; o r a rea i n s quare m i
ls, o f w ire, equals d iameter i n
mils, mu ltiplied b y i t
se lf, a nd t hen b y t he constant . 7
854. The
a
rea o f aw ire i n s quare i nches i so f c ourse found b y the r ule—
d
iame ter i n i nches s qta red , times . 7854.
Al
l w ire s u sua lly c onform t o s ome s t
andard g auge o r s er
ie s
of a rbitrary n umber s. T he g auge s tandardized a nd u sed e n-
ti
rely i n e l
ec trical work i n t he Un i ted S tates, is tha t developed
b
y t he B rown & S harpe Mfg . C o., a nd k nown a s t he Amer ican
Wire G auge , ( A. W. G .) o r s imp ly t he B rown & S harpe
Gauge ( B. & S . G .) T he v arious g auges in u se a nd t heir
c
lassifica tion i s g iven b elow:
B
rown & S harpe 's Gauge .
The B. & S . G auge i sstandard f or c opper w ire and isu nder-
s
tood t o apply t o a l
l c a
ses where s i
ze o f c opper wire is men -
t
i
oned i n a ny w ire g auge n umber .
By referring t o the table itw il
l b e s een t hat in t
he B. & S .
Gauge, to a ll p ract
ic al purpo ses, t he a rea i n circu
lar m ils
, is
d
oub led for e very t hird s i
ze h eav ier
, b y g auge n umber, a nd
h
alved f or e very t hird s i
ze ligh ter
, b y g auge n umber.
Every ten th s ize heavier b y g auge n umb er has ten times the
a
rea i n circular m i
l s
.
E very No . 1 0 B . & S . G auge w ire h as a n area of approx i
-
mate ly 10
,000 c ircular m ils, and f r om t his b ase the o
ther s i
zes
c
an b e fi
gured , i f at able s hou ld n ot b e at h and.
C.ass
ificat
ion of G auges.
I
n add
ition t o the confusion cau
sed by a mu l
tipl
ici
ty of wire
g
auges
, several of t hem a re known by var
iou s names.
F
or examp le:
B
rown & S harpe ( B. & S .) = Amer ican Wire G auge ( A
W. G
.).
4
7
 N e w B ritis h Stan dard ( N
. B. S.) = Br
itish I m per
ial
, E n g-

l
is h L e gal Stan dard and Standard W ire G au ge an d i
s vari ously
a bbrev
iated by S. W . G. an d I
. W . G.

0
1 e s
o •
••
•

F
ig. 1
.

Bir min gha m G a u ge ( B

. W . G.) = St ubs
, Ol d E n glish Stan-
dard an d Iron W ire G au ge .

R oeblin g = W ash burn M oen, A mer

ica n Steel & W ire C
o.
's
Iron W ire G au ge
.

L on don = Old E n glish ( N ot Ol d E n glis h Stan dard).

As a further co m plication:

St u
Bbir
s 'min
Stee
gha
l m
W ire
or S
Gtau
ubsge
' . Iron W ire G a u ge i
s n ot the sa me as

T
able No
. 1
.

0
0
.11 MIGHT MGM 1
/5
11
17/
1
162 1
1 7
9
.9 P
.
C
. r
al
M
ire«
a
i
l
!
a
s (
e)
il -
.
00
1 (
6
1
Pr
. 104
.7 161) I
ON I
L o
P
e
et
s IS
. F
e
e t
I
z
p
e
r
l
oor
thOm
.

.
9 .
2
I192 lemon° 72400 7
07
.0. .1275
I015 mo w° 2
11U. .
4100 95100. .
01051 0000034426 10 1 000 . ..
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49500 135. .MR) 76100. .
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2820 . .0780 1 00019423 1 50 2 20 0 0
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8
312 14 6
5733 2
52.8 3.99
2 2176 6
6373 5
2130 2
03.5 4
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12104 00048094 1 07 1 56 1
3 2294 5
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59.0 6.29 0
703 .7 .
126 40 00078015 9
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39546 0049866 4
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005 .2 .
19871 0
079294 3
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114 1
5094 1
0231 3
0.50 2 5.2 8 1
500 .3 .
1D ISI 0
12608 33 4 8
10 1018 1
0
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15.1 3
1.37 3 1.38 1
261.3 .
70D 31 0
20012 28 38 9
1
1 0007 8211 6
167 2
1.88 4 0.20 1
000 .0 1. 0
31380 24 33 10
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520 5
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9.73 5 0.69 7
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50697 2 al 27 1
1
3 0719 5
178 4
067 0
05 .02 1
.5898 0
80 :163 17 23 12
1
5.65 1 1.91
1
4 0640 4
106 3
225 1
2.41 8 0.38 4
98 .83 2
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2841 1
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1
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570 3
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557 3113.60 2
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9
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1900 .. 17
1
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57 . 47 156.47 6
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2
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02 2 3
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24 .00 123.99 8
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2
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284 810 1 0
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08 .56 9
8.40 1
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170 320 1 2
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ar 30
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03 3
3175 . 2
.4 6
0 411.24 5
497 .4
.
9521019.7 3
1823 . 4
0

For i
.e. above No
. 0 0
140 the tab
le r efers to
*
t
rended copper cab
le. Due to the c onditions O
ne f oot of none c
opp
er wire o
f o ne c
ircular
I
d
tPmed b y p
ropre -lor
ior - of t
he s t
rands , the m
il cro
ss ., c
tional a
rea (d
iamete
r, . 001 Inch),
A
gorae f
o
r ci
rcular mi
leage, diameter
, . . Wince , 0
.
18 S coi r
taure 0
110.74 o
hms at 1 r a
5 •C o re
e
tc
.. can be ge m w ith o n
ly approximate s c.
c
uracy
.

G
enera
l U
ses o
f V
arious G
auges
.
B
. & S. G. - All for ms of roun d wires used for e
lect r
ical con-
d uctors
, S heet C opper
, B rass an d G er ma n Silver
.

U. S. S. M . G. - S heet i
ro n an d steel. L e galize d by act of
C o n gress, M arc h 3
, 1893.

4
8
 Tab
le No
. 2
.

T
ABLE -O
F CKR
RYING C
APAC
ITY 6
F-W
IWES
.
Below is a t
able s
howing t
he a
llowable carrying capac
ity of wires conta
ining
t
i
lnety-eight p
er c
ent pure c
opper
, which must b e fo
llowed in p
lac
ing i n
terior con
-
duc
tors:

R
UBBER C
OVERED W
IRES
.
B
.a S
.Gauge Ampere
s. C
ircular Mil
s. Ampere.
.
... . 3 2
00,000 200
1
6 6 300
,000 270
1
4 1
2 406
,000 330
1
2 1
7 500,000 390
1
0 2
4 600,000 450
.
.... ...... . 3
3 700.000 600
6 4
6 8
00,000 650
5 6
4 900
,000 600
4 6
6 1000,000 650
3 7
6 1.
100 ,000 690
2 9
0 1,
200,000 730
1 1
07 1
.300.000 770
0 1
27 1,
400 ,000 810
0
0 1
50 1,
500 ,000 850
0
00 1
77 1
,
600000 890
0
000 2
10 1
,
700 ,000 930
1
.
800 ,000 970
1
,
900 .004
) 1
,
010
2
,
000 ,000 1
,
050

The low lim

it i
s specIf
lel f
or rubber c
overed wires to p
reven t g
radual de
teriora
-
t
i
on of the high I
nsu
lations by the beat o
f the w
ires, but not from fear o
f ign
iting
t
he i
nsulation. The q uest
ion of drop l
e not t
aken i n
to considerat
ion in the above
t
ables
.

B. W. G . -Ga lvan ized iron w ire. Norway i r

on w ire.
Amer ican S crew C o.
's Wire G auge. -Numb ered s i
ze of ma -
c
hine a nd wood s crews, p articular
ly u p to No . 14 ( .2421 i
nch).
S
tub's S teel Wire G auge . -Dr i
ll rod.
Roebling & T ren ton.- Iron a nd s t
eel w ire
. T elephone a nd
t
e
legraph w ire
.
N
. B. S . -Hard d rawn c opper . T elephone a nd t e
legraph wir e
.
L
ondon G aug e. -Brass w ire.
The B rown & S harpe w ire g auge, is given b elow , see tab
le
No. 1 . T he a reas i n ci
rcular a nd s quare m i
ls a re b oth g
iven,
a
lso t he resistance i n o hms p er 1 ,
000 feet of l e
ng th, etc
. T h
is
r
esistance i si n I n
terna tiona l ohms, n ot i
n B A u nits.

Tab
le No
. 3
.
CURRENT REQU
IRED T O -PU
SE W IRES OF COPPER, G ERMAN S ILVER
A
ND IRON
.
7
3 é8 . C
opper
, G
erman S
i
lver
, I
ron
. B
.& S
. C
opper
, G erman S
i
lver
, I
ron
,
G
auge
. Ampere.. Ampere.. Ampere.. G
ang.. Amperes
. Ampere.. Ampere..
1
0 3
33. 1
69. 1
01. 2
6 2
0
.6 10
.6 6
.22
1
1 2
84. 1
4f. 8
6. 2
7 1
7.7 9
.1 6
.16
1
2 2
36. 1
20.7 7
1.2 2
8 1
4.7 7
.5 4
.46
1
3 (
00. 1
01.6 6
3. 2
9 1
2.5 6
.41 1
.79
1
4 1
66. 8
6.2 5
0.2 3
0 1
0.26 6
.26 3.11
16 1
39. 7
1.2 4
2.1 3
1 8.76 4
.49 2
.66
16 1
17. 60
. 3
5.5 32 7
.26 3
.73 2
.2
17 99
. 5
0.4 3
2.6 3
3 6.19 3
.18 1
.88
18 82
.8 42
.6 26
.1 3
4 6
.12 2
.64 1
.66
19 66
.7 34
.2 20
.2 3
6 4
.37 2
.24 143
20 68
.3 289 1
7.7 3
6 3
.62 1
.86 1
.09
31 49
.3 26
.3 14
.9 37 3
.08 1
.58 ,
9
8
22 4
1
.2 21
.1 12
.5 38 2
.55 1
.31 .
7
7
2$ 34
.6 117 10
.9 89 1
.20 1
.13 .
6
1
54 28
.9 14
.8 8
.76 49 t86 .
9
15 .
54
46 2
4.6 1
2.6 7
.46

T he tab
le of c arrying c apacity o f v arious w ires, table No . 2,
i
s t hat recommended b y t he F ire Underwr iters, w hose r ules
must b e str
ict
ly f ollowed f or al
l e lectrica l w ir
ing a nd i ns
talla-
t
ions.
Some o ther usefu l wire d ata i salso a ppended h ere, t able No .
3
, i nc
luding a t abl2 o f the c urren t r equ ired t o f use w ires o f
var
ious s izes a nd k inds. A ta b
le o f e quivalent w ires, t able
No . 4, wh
ich s how s h ow many s mal
ler w ires a re equ ivalen t in
a
rea t o one large o ne
. The o ther d ata i s f or annunc iator w ire;
4
9
 T
able No
. 4
.
EQU
IVALENTS OF WIRES
. —S
. & S
. GAUGE
.

M OO = 2
.0 = 4
-3 = 8
-6 = 199 = 3
2-12 = 5
4
.15
000 = 2
-1 = 4
-4 = 8
-7 = 1
6-10 = 3
2-13 = 6
4
.16
0
0 = 2
-2 = 4
-5 = 8
-8 = 1
6.11 = 3
2-14 = 6
4
.17
o = 2
-3 = 4
-6 = 8
-9 = 1
6-12 = 3
2.15 .
1 = 2
.4 = 4
-7 = 8
-10 = 1
6
-13 =
- 3
2-16
2 = 2
-5 = 4
-8 = 8
-11 = 1
6
-14 = 3
2-17
3 = 2
-6 = 4
-9 r
.
-- 8
-12 = 1
6
-15 = 3
2
-18
4 = 2
-7 = 4
-10 = 8
-13 = 1
6
-16 .
5 = 2
-8 = 4
-11 = 8
-
14 = 1
6
-17
4 = 2
-9 = 4
-12 = 8
-
15 = 1
6
-18
7 = 2
-
10 = 4
-13 = 8
-
16 . .
8 =
- 2
-11 = 4
-14 = 8
-
17
9 = 2
-12 = 4
-15 = 8
18
1
0 = 2
-
13 = 4
-16 =
1
1 = 2
-
14 = 4
-17
1
2 = 2
-
15 = 4
-18 .
1
3 = 2
-
16 = 4
-
19
1
4 = 2
-
17
1
5 = 2
-
18 ••
••
1
6 = 2
-19

d
amp -proof o f
fice w ire; fi
xture w ire; c opper t
rolley wire
, e tc
.,
s
ee tab
le No . 5.
Where r heosta ts o r r
es
istances o f various kinds are n eces
-
s
ary in e l
ec tr
ica l work , r
esort ish ad to so me metal whose r e-
s
is
tance i s many t imes grea
ter t han t hat of copper
. R
esist-
a
nce w ires a re e mployed for mo tor s tart
ing boxes, fi
eld r heo-
s
tats
, b attery c harg ing r
heos tats
, a nd n umerous other a ppli-
a
nces, s uch a s h ea
ting utensils
, e t
c.
Resistance Wires .
The m any n ew a pplications o f e lectricity, e spe cial
ly t hat
b
ranch d evoted t o wireless, h as n ecessitated t he p roduc t
ion o f
w
ires made o f a l
loys h aving a h igh s pecif
ic r esistance .
A resistance w ire, to m eet t he r equiremen ts of p resent p rac-
t
i
ce mus t p o
ssess, in addition t o ah igh s pecific resistance, s ome
o
r all of t he following p roperties, n ame ly: d uct
ility, h igh m e
lt-
i
ng p o
in t
, h omogeneous s t
ructure, l ow t empera ture c oeff
icient,
b
e n on-corro sive, have a l ow t hermo -electric e fect, c ompared
w
ith c opper ; its res
istance mus t b e u niform a nd u nchangeab le,
a
nd f i
na l
ly i t must n ot b ecome b rit
tle w i
th r epea ted h eat
ing
a
nd c ooling.
T
able No
. 5
.
ANNUNCIATOR WIRE. DA MP
-PROOF OFF
ICE WIRE .
S
ize P
ounds per D
iameter S
ize B
. &S
. P
ounds p
er 1
,
000 F
t
B
. d8 . 1,
0
t0 Ft
. Over A
l
l.
1
4 1
6. 1
2 3
4.
16 9
.5 1
4 2
4
.
18 6
.5 1
6 1
3
.5
20 4
.6 1
8 1
0
.
2
0 8
.

F
IXTURE WIRE —HEAVY W ALL
. TROLLEY WIRE
.
1
4 2
7 3
/16 P
ounds p
er M
lle
.
1
6 1
7 5
/32 0
000 3376
1
8 1
2 1
/32 0
00 2
677
1
9 1 1
/8 0
0 2
123
2
0 1
0 1
/8 1
684

L
IGHT W ALL
. W EATHERPROOF T WISTED PAIRS.
00
1
6 1
2 1
/8 1
4 P
er 1
, F
t
.
6
3
1
8 9 7
/64 1
6 3
2
1
9 8 7
/64 1
8 2
3
2
0 7 3
/32 1
9 2
0

W EATHERPR OOF I
RON WIRE
.

S
i
ze B & S
. P
ound. p
er M
ile
.
8 4
70
9 4
00
1
0 350
1
2 2
30
1
4 1
50

Obviously it would be qu
ite impo ssib
le for any o ne al
loy t o
p
ossess a l
l the p ropert
ies c
ited
, b ut a n umber o f a l
loys a re
manufactured e ach o f which p ossesses certa
in c haracter
istic
p
roperties render
ing e ach e
specia
lly a daptab
le f or c
e r
tain lines
o
f wo rk.
5
0
 German s i
lver w ire i sd rawn f rom a n a lloy o f c opp er, n icke l
a
nd z inc a nd t he g rade mos t u sed i n e lec trica l w ork i st he o ne
k
nown a s 1 8 p er c ent. G erman s ilve r a nd w h
ich c on tains a p-
p
rox ima tely 1 8 p er c ent, o f n icke l, wh i le i ts r esistance i s a p-
p
rox ima tely 1 8 t imes t ha t o f c opper . A 3 0 p er c ent. G erman
s
i
lver w ire c on tains 3 0 p er c ent. o f n icke l a nd i t
s r esis tance i s
abou t 28 t imes t hat of c opper . T h is w ire i sn o t recommended
where i t is s ub jected t o r epea ted h eating a nd c ooling , a s i t
b
ecomes e x
treme ly b ritt.e.
Advance i s th e trade n ame o f aw ire o f ac opper a nd n icke l
a
l
loy a nd c ontains n o z inc. I ts s pec if
ic r esistance i s 2 8 t imes
t
ha t o f copper a nd i ts tempera ture c oef f
ic ient i sp rac tica lly n i
l.
This w ires d oes n ot b ecome b rittle w ith r epea ted h ea t
ing a nd
c
oo l
ing a nd i sa bsolutely n on -corro sive; w ire made o f t his a l
loy
i
s l argely u sed i n the c onstruc tion o f m easur ing i ns trumen t s
,
r
esis tance u n
its, mo tor s tarters , e tc. I
t c an b e p rocur ed i n
s
hee t, r ibbon o r w ire, a nd t he l a
tter m ay b e h ad e i
ther w i th
h
air, c o
tto rfor s i
lk i n
su lation .
Ano ther r e
sistance w ire t ha t h as a r esis tance o f 5 0 t imes t hat
o
f c opper g oes b y the tr ade n ame o f C limax , a nd ag enera l i dea
o
f w hat t h
is m eans m ay b e u nders tood w hen i t i s st ated t hat
o
rd inary i ron w ire h as b ut 7 t o 8 t imes t he r esistance o f a
c
opper w ire o f t he s ame d iame ter . Un like G erman s i
lver w ire,
C
limax w ire w ill n ot b ecome b rittle w ith r epea ted h ea ting a nd
c
oo ling a nd i ts h igh s pecific r e
sis tance r enders : t an e conom ical
s
ub stitute. I t i sl argely u sed f or r heos ta ts, r e
sis tance u n i
ts, a re
l
amp s, r esistance p o
ten t
iome ter s f or w ire le ss r ecep tor s, e tc
.

F
IG. 2
A n ew w ire k nown a s N ichrome , h as s evera l i mpor tan t f ea-
t
ures w h
ich makes i t d ist
inc tive a nd h igh ly e f
icien t f or e l
ec-
t
r
ica lly h eated a ppara .us a nd r es
is tance e lemen ts w here s ev ere
c
ond itions a re to b e c onsidered . I ts s pecific r esistance i s a bout
2
0 p er c ent. higher t han a ny o ther a l
loy. N ichrome w i thstand s
e
xtreme ly h igh t empera ture w ithou t o xid iza t
ion , i s p ractically
n
on -corro sive a nd w i.1 n o
t b ecome b rittle w ith r epea ted h eat-
i
ng a nd c ool
ing . I t may b e obtained i n e ither r i bbon o r w ire
f
orm .
A w ire manufac turad e spec ia
lly f or•use i n m easur ing i nstru-
men ts a nd s t
andard r esistance a nd t herefore e xtreme ly s uitable
f
or w ireless a pparatus i s k nown a s Mangan in. An i mpor tant
f
ea ture i s it
s e xceptiona lly s mall t empera ture c oef fi
cien t, w here
o
nly a d iference o f f rom 1 0 t o 3 0 d egrees c entigrade n eed b e
c
ons idered , the c hange i n r es
istance i s s o s mall i t c an b e n eg-
l
ected . C ut Fig. 1s hows t he r elative s i
zes o f w ires t o c arry
ag iven c urrent
.
The v alue o f t he n ecessary r esistance f or a s pecific c ase is
r
aad ily f ound f rom Ohm 's l aw, viz: —

R = —;

Where R i
s t
he r
equired res
istance i
n o
hms
.
E i
s t
he d
rop i
n vo
lts requ
ired.
5
1
 And C i s the current to be passed.
For e
lectr
ica l c
ircuits the w
ires a re alway s de
signed to c
arry
t
he required l oad i n amperes o r w a
tts, w ith a certa
in loss,
k
nown a s t he drop i n volt
s. T he u sual d rop for low vo
ltage
s
ystems
, is 3t o 5p er cent
, of th
e l ine vol
tage o r a
bou t 3vo
l t
s
o
n 10 v olt systems, e t
c.
+ A

F
IG.3
T
he s imp
lest method o
f find
ing the s
i
ze o f wire r
equ
ired for
a c
erta
in l e
ngth of ci
rcu
it, to c
arry a given load in ampere
s,
w
ith a k nown drop in v
olts
, is f
rom O hm's law: —
E
R = —;

Where R r epresents the res

istance in ohms o f the t o
tal wire
i
n the circuit
.
E is the drop in v o
lts al
lowable on the circu
it, usually 3 to 5
v
olt
s o n 10 v o
lt systems.
Cist h e c
urrent i n amperes to b
e passed over th
e c ircuit
.
F
inding t he r e
sistance of the tota
l w ire (both s i
des) i n the
c
i
rcuit
, t he size of w ire B. & S . Gauge, having this r es
istance
p
er required l o
ugth i n fe
et, i
s eas
ily found.
2
1
.6 xd x C
C M —
V

FIG
.4
The st
andard f ormula employed for a
ll commerc
ial wir
ing i
s
g
iven be
low, with the nomenc
lature or no
tation i
nvo
lve:
Where C M . is the ci
rcu
lar m ils a
rea of wire r
equ
ired, (
to
b
e compared with t he B
. & S . wire g
auge.)
2
1
.6 = a c onstant
.
5
2
 2
1
.6 x d xc
V —
C
. M
.
V
R
C x2d
V
2
d —
CxR
d = d istance o f l oad, o r le ng th o f c ircuit o ne way t o c en-
t
re o f distribu t
ion i n fe e
t.
C = c urren t r equired i n amperes .
V = v olts drop a l
lowed .
Other u seful f o rms o f the a bove e xp ression a re a s f o
llow s:
Where R = - res is
tance i n o hm s p er f oot o f w ire t o b e used.
2 = ac onstan t
.
The a moun t of c urr ent r equired f or v ariou s c lasses o f load,
i
s d ependen t u pon t he w atts c onsumed b y t he a ppara tus
. A
50 w att mo tor o n 10 v ol
ts w ill c onsume 50 d ivided b y 10
o
r 5 ampere s. Carbon f i
lamen t l amp s, t ake a bou t . 5 ampere
fo
r t he 1 6 c andlepowe r u ni
t, a nd o ne ampere f or a 3 2 c andle-
power l amp . Tung sten o r G em me ta l
lized f i
lamen t l amps t ake
t
he w attage d esigna ted o n their l a
bel, a s 4 0 w at
ts, e t
c.
, a nd t h
is
d
ivided b y t he vol tage o f t he c ircuit g ives t he ampere s o f cur-
r
ent c onsumed b y t heir.
Whe re a b ank o f l amps a re c onnec ted o nto t he c ircuit in
multiple t he t o
tal c urren t taken w ill b e t he n umber o f l amps,
t
imes t he c urrent p er l amp. A s a n e xamp le: —If 8 -16 c andle-
power c arbon f i
lamen t l amp s w ere c onne cted o n mu l
tiple, the
t
otal c urren t taken b y t hem wou ld b e 8t imes . 5 amperes o r 4
amperes . 8 -32 c and lepower l amp s o n mu l
tiple wou ld r equire 8
C
.
13

2
20
G
.
-

FIG
.5
t
imes 1 ampere o r 8 amp eres. T he l oad c urrent f or a b ank o f
t
ungs ten l amps may b e ascerta ined b y f i
nding t he t o
ta l w a
t ts
c
onsumed b y the b ank, a nd t hen d ividing t h
is v alue by t he v o
l t-
a
ge o f t he s ystem.
When i nstall
ing w ires f or D . C . mo tors, a n extra a l
lowance
must b e made f or t he s tarting c urren t
, w hich i s s omewha t
g
reater t han t he n orma l r unn ing c urren t. I t is usual t o c al -
c
ulate o n 25 p er c ent, greater c urren t t han t hat norma lly t aken
b
y t he mo tor , b u
t 5 0 per c ent, o ver a llowance i s bet
ter . The
r
egular r unn ing c urren t consumed b y a mo tor i s not o nly t ha t
g
iven b y t he n umbe r o f h or sepower mechan ical o utpu t
, b ut
a
lso p lus t hat amount l ost i n t he mo tor, d ue t o its tr
ansform -
i
ng o f e lectrical i n:o mechan ica l e nergy . This e f
iciency o f
c
onvers ion v ar
ies f rpm 7 0 p er c en t. u p t o 9 8 per cent, i n t he
l
arger s i
zes.
Ef ic
ienc ies o f v ar_ous s i
ze D . C . mo to r
s i s given b e
low: —
Mechan ical
H. P . o u
tpu t .
5 1 2 5 7 .5 1 0 2 0 2 5 5 0 1 00
Eff
iciency .
73% 7 8 2 8 4 8 6 8 6 8 7 8 9 9 1 9
2
5
3
 •A f ormula may be deduced f
or the p
urpose of fi
nding t
he r
eq-
u
is
ite si
ze of conductors for a
ny si
ze D. C. mo tor
, which t
akes
i
n
to c ons
iderat
ion t he 25 per c
ent
, excess current requ
ired by
t
he Fire Underwriters
' R ule
s: —
(
Px 7
46 x L x 2
2 x1
25)
A — ,i
n C
. M
.
(
E x ex E
ff
ic
iency)
I
n which :—P ist he ra
ting o
f the motor in mechan
ical H. P
.
Listhe dis
tance i n f
eet t
o t
he motor
.
E i
s the impressed v o
ltag
e of the circu
it.
And ethe a
l
lowab le drop i
nvolt
s inthe ci
rcuit; (
varying f
rom
4t
o 8v o
lts
.)
When t he p roper s i
ze o f w ire h as b een f ound f rom t he a bov e
o
r o ther r u
le , t he t ab le o f c arry ing c apac itie s o f r ubber c ov-
e
red w ires mu st b e c onsu lted , a nd i f t he w ire c alcu la ted h as
t
o c ar ry more c urrent t han t hat i ndica ted i n t he Underwr iter s
'
t
able , t hen t he s ize o f w ire r ecommended b y t hem mus t b e
e
nip loyed e ven t hough i ti sl arger , a nd more e xpens ive t han
t
he o ne c alcu lated . ( See t ab les No . 1a nd 2 .)
I
n a lterna ting c urrent s ystems , a s s ing le p hase t wo w ire,
where t he l oad i so nly i ncandescent l amps , t he r ules a nd f or-
mu la emp loyed a bove f or D . C . c ircu its c an b e a pp l
ied ; t he
induc tive s kin, a nd o ther e fec ts b eing n eg lig ible f or o rd inary
lamp c ircu its n o t e xceed ing 5 00 t o 1 ,000 f ee t i n l eng th . One
impo rtant i tem , i n t he i nsta lla tion o f A . C . w ires mus t n ot b e
over looked , a nd t ha t i s; t ha t t he t wo w ires c ompos ing a c ir-
cuit must b oth b e p laced i n t he s a me i r
on p ipe o r c ondu it,
o
therw ise s erious i nduc tive e fec ts, a nd c onsequent h eating
will b e s et u p. F or t his r eason i ti sa dv isab le t o a lways i ns tall
t
he t wo w ires o f ac ircu it i n t he s ame i ron c ondu it, e ven i fit
i
st o b e u tilized f or D . C . a s l ater i t may b e d esired t o c hange
t
he s y stem t o A . C . a nd i tc an t hen b e r ead i ly d one , w ithou t
any c hanges i n t he w iring .
Excep t i n f ixture w ir ing , ( where No . 1 6 o r 1 8 r ubber c ov -
e
red f ixture w ire may b e u sed) , n o sma ller w ire i st o b e i n-
s
t al
led t han No . 1 4 B . & S . Th is may b e a sbes tos c overed ,
o
r w ea therproo f r ubber c overed , where t he w ires a re e xpo sed
t
o v i ew a nd r igid ly s uppor ted o n p orce lain k nobs o r c lea ts,
s
paced e very f
eet. Where t he w ires a re t o b e p laced i n
i
ron p ipe, f l
ex ible c ircu lar l oom , o r i n o ther c oncea led l oca -
t
ions i t mus t b e r ubber c overed , d oub le b ra id. S ing le b raid
r
ubber c overed w ire i sp erm iss ib le f or e xposed w ork , where t he
w
ires a re i n v iew a t a ll p ar ts o f t he c ircu it.
The s o-ca lled B X c ab le , i s av ery g ood c omb ina tion o f f lex -
i
ble s teel c ondu it a nd i mpregna ted w ires , wh ich i se xtens ive ly
a
pp lied . I tc omes i n a ny d esired s ize, a nd h as o nly t o b e f a st-
e
ned i n p lace , t o make t he f inished j ob.
For most w iring , i ti s d if icu lt t o i ns tall s olid c opper c on -
d
uc to rs h aving g rea ter a rea t han No . 4B . &S .r ubber c overed ,
a
nd s o s t
randed c ables , b ui lt u p o f n umerous sma ll c opper
w
ires , s o as t o be more f l
ex ib le, a re emp loyed . The e qu iva len t
a
rea , o f as tranded c ab le o f a ny s ize, i sf ound b y mu ltip ly ing
t
he t o ta l n umber o f w ires i n i t
,b y t he a rea i n c ircu lar m ils o f
o
ne o f t he i ndiv idua l w ires , wh ich g ives t he e quiva lent a rea i n
C
. M . C ab les o r c onduc tors o f g rea ter a rea t han No . 0 000
B
. & S . g auge a re a lways r ated i n C . M ., t hus : -2 ,000 ,000
C
. M . c ab le; 4 ,500 ,000 C . M . c able , e tc.
I
n t hree w ire D . C . s ys tems i ti sc ommon t o d ivide u p t he
l
amp l oad b e tween t he c entre o r n eu tra l w ire, a nd t he t wo
o
u tside w ires . Mo tors a re i nvar iab ly , e xcep t t hose s mal ler
t
han o ne-quar ter h orsepower , c onnec ted a cross t he o u tside
w
ires . The v oltages o f t he t hree w ire D . C . s ystem a re g ener -
a
l
ly 10 v olts b etween e ither o utside w ire a nd t he n eu tra l, a nd
2
20 v olts, ( for mo tors) , b e tween t he t wo o uts ide w ires . Th is
s
aves c ons iderab le c opper , a s t he c urrent r equ ired b y mo tor s
o
n 2 20 v olts i so nly o ne -ha lf t ha t r equ ired o n 10 v olts, a nd
t
wice t he d rop i n v ol ts i s p erm iss ible o n 2 20 v o
lts , a s c om -
p
ared t o t ha t o n 10 v olt c ircu its .
5
4
 • .
,F or i ncandescen t l amp l o ads o n t he t hree w ire s ys tem , i t
may b e c ons idered t ha t t he l amps a re e ven ly b a lanced o n t he
two s i des o f t he s y stem , i n wh ich c ase n o c urren t wou ld
t
raver se t he n eu tra l o r c en tre w ire a t a l
l. I n f igur ing o ut t he
l
eads , e tc., i ti ss een t ha t w i th t he l amp s, to i ns e r
ies , o n 20
volts , t he c urren t w ill b e b u t o ne -ha lf t ha t, i ft he l amps w ere
a
l
l o n mu ltip le, o n 10 v ol ts. I n o ther words , t he c urren t t ob e
f
igured o n, i sb ut o ne -ha lf t he r egu lar 10 v olt r ating , a nd t he
c
ircu i t v o
l tage i s d ou bled , w i th t wice t he d rop p erm is sib le o n
10 v olt s. T he o u tside w ire s a re c alcu la ted f o r t he m otor l oad
c
urr en t i n t he u sua l m anne r, a t 20 v o
l ts r at
ing . T he n eu tra l
w
i re i s a lway s m ade e qua l t o t he o ut side w ire s
, i n s i
ze , i n
g
ood c omme rcia l i nsta lla tions . A c t
ing o n t he p o ssibil ity , h ow -
e
ve r
, t h at t he s ystem w ill n ever b ecome t otally u nba lanced , t he
n
eu tra l w ire i s o ften m ade s maller t h an t h e o utside w ire s
. I f
af u se s hou ld b low i n o ne o f t h e o uter f eed w ire s, h owever ,
t
he r esu lting l oad o n o ne s ide o f t he s ystem , w ou ld h ave t o
b
e c arr ied b y t he o ut side w ire a nd t he n eutra l; a nd h ence i t
i
s a lway s a dv isab le t o m ake i ta t l e
a st a s l a
rge a s t h e o uter
w
ire s.
The t hree w ire E di son s ys tem i s u tilized w i th v ariou s c om -
b
ina t
ions o f p ower g ene ra to r s a nd b a
lancer s
. T he o rig ina l a r-
r
angemen t w as t ha t m ak ing u se o f t wo d ynamo s o f 10 v olts,
c
onnec ted i n s e r
ie s. T he n eu tra l w ire w as c onnec ted b e twe en
t
h em a s i lu stra ted b y t he d i agram , F ig . 2 , M , b e
ing a mo tor
a
c ro ss t he o utside l eads; L , t he l amp l oad, b a lanc ed o n t he
two s i
de s o f t he s ystem a s n ear a s p oss ible ; ô , a nd G 2, t he t wo
10 v olt g ene rator s.
Ano ther d eve lopmen t o f t he t h ree w ire s cheme i st h at a t F ig .
3
,w here a s torage b at tery o f v oltage e qu iva len t t o t ha t a c ro ss
t
he t wo o ut er w ire s i s f l
oa ted a cro ss t he g en era tor, a nd b al-
a
nce s t he l oad r e quiremen ts o f t he t wo h alves o f t he d ivided
s
y stem s upp ly ing l amp s.
The l a
te st w ay o f a rrang ing t he t hree w ire s y stem , w he re i t
i
sd e s
irab le t o h ave 10 v olt s f o r af ew l amp s, a nd . the m ain
p
l an t s upp lies . 220 v olt s, D . C . i s t he m otor b alancer s et, i lu s-
t
ra ted b y F ig . 4 . T he r egu lar 20 v olt mo tor l oad i s t aken
f
r om t he l eads o f t he g enera tor , G . T he t wo s ma l
l mo to rs
M M , c onnec ted r igid ly t o t he s ame s haf t, o pera te a lte rna tely
a
s a mo tor a nd a g ene ra tor a s t he l amp l oad i nc rea se s a nd
d
ecrea se s o n e i
ther s i
de o f t he t hree w ire c i
r cu it. When t he
l
o ad o n o ne s ide b ecome s t oo h eavy t he mo tor o n t ha t s i
de a cts
a
s ag ene ra tor , h elping t o c arry t he l oad , a nd t he o ther mo to r
on t he o ppo site u nder loaded s ide o f t he s ystem , a cts a s a mo to r
t
o d rive t he g enera tor o n t h e o ther e nd o f i ts s ha ft, a nd v ice
ver sa, a s t h e l oad f l
uc tua te s.
F
ig . 5 ,g ive s aw ork ing d i ag ram o f ac ommerc ia l b a lancer s et
,
includ ing t h e c ircu it b reaker , C . B . ; f i
eld r egu la t
ing r heo sta t
,
F. R .; a mme ter , A . M .; g ene rator ( 220 v o
lt D . C .), G .; s hun t
fi
eld w ind ing , S . F ., c ompound f i
eld w ind ing , C . F .; a rma ture s
,
A.; a nd s tar t
ing r heo sta t, S . R .
When t h e s ys tem i s p e rfec t
ly b alanced , n o c ur ren t p as se s
t
hrough t he n eu tra l w ire , t he b alanc er s et r unn ing i dle a t a
s
p eed s uf i cien t f or e ach a rma tu re t o g enera te a c oun ter E .M .F .
(
vo l tage ) v ery n ear ly e qua l t o o ne-ha l f t he v oltage a cro ss t h e
outside w ir e s
. A s a n e xamp le, i f the o utside w ire v oltage i t
s
s
ay 2 20 , t hen i f t he E . M . F .
: o n o ne s ide o f t he t hree w ire
s
y stem s hou ld d rop b elow 1 09 v o
l ts f or i nstance , t he a rma ture
o
f t h e mach ine o n t ha t s ide o f t he s y stem , w ou ld a c t a s ag en -
e
ra tor t o m a
in ta in t he v o
l tage , w hile t he r i
se o f p re ssure o n
t
h e o t her s ide o f t he s ystem , w ould c au se t he a rma tu re c on -
nected t o i t
, t o o pe ra te a s a mo tor, a nd d rive i t
s ( now g en -
e
r ato r ) e lemen t a t n ea rly c on s
tan t s peed .
It i sw ell t o h ave e ac'h f i
eld o f t he mach ines o f t he b alanc es
s
e t
, e qu ipped w ith a f ew s erie s f i
e
ld c onvo lu t
ions , a nd s o c on -
nected t ha t
, w hen e i
ther m achine o pe ra te s a s ag ene ra tor i t
s
fi
eld i sc umu lative ly c ompounded , a nd w hen r unn ing a s a mo to r
,
i
ti s d ife ren tia lly c ompounded . B y t his m eans t he v oltage o f
t
h e g enera tor w ill b e s ligh tly r a
ised , o wing t o t he i ncrea sed
fi
eld s tr eng th a nd a l so t o t he g rea ter s peed o f t he mo to r
, d ue
5
 t
o i
t
s w eakened fi
eld
. When t he s
hunt fi
e
ld and se
ries f
i
eld act
i
n un
ison, they are te
rmed c umulat
ive a nd when they oppose
o
ne ano
ther, they are r
eferred to a
s diferen
tia
l. (
See Lesson
No 8
, Mo tor
s a nd Dynamo s
.)

E
lectr ical Un i
ts.
The e l
ectrica
l u nits are a s follows:
Volt —Un it of mo tive force. F orce required to send o ne am -
p
ere o f current t hrough o ne o hm o f res
istance.
Ohm —Un it of r es
istance. T he r es
istance offered to t he p as-
s
age o f one ampere , when i mpelled b y o ne vo
lt.
Ampere —Un it of c urrent. T he c urren t which o ne v ol
t c an
s
end t hrough a r e
sistance o f o ne o hm.
Coulomb --Un it o f quantity. Quan t
ity o f current wh ich i m
-
p
elled b y o ne volt wou ld p ass t hrough o ne ohm i n one s econd.
F
arad —Un it of c apacity. A c onduc tor or c ondenser wh ich
w
ill h old o ne coulomb u nder t he p ressure of o ne volt
.
Joule —Un i
t o f w ork. T he w ork d one b y o ne w at
t i n o ne
s
econd .
Wa t
t —Un it o f energy , a nd is the p roduct of t
he ampere a nd
v
olt
. T hat i s
, one a mpere o f c urren t fl
owing under a pressure
o
f o ne v o
lt g ives o ne w att of energy .
One E lectrical Hor se P ower i s e qual to 746 wat
ts.
One K i
lowa tt ise qua l t o 1000 w atts.
Ohm's L aw c onnects t he three u nits
, v o
lt, ohm and ampere .
The current i n any c ircui t i
s dire c
tly p roport
iona
l to the e l
ec-
t
romo t
ive f orce, a nd i nversely p ropor t
ional to the res
istanc e
.
The units a re s o chosen s o that w hen t here is o
ne ohm r e
sist-
a
nce i n circu i
t a n e l
ec tromo tive f orce o f one vo
lt produces a
c
urrent o f o ne ampere .
Ohm's l aw i s
:
E
lec
tromo
tive f
orce i
n v
olt
s
C
urren
t i
n a
mpere
s—
R
esistance i n ohms
Abbrev
iated in
to: C , curr
en t; E, volts; R, r es
istance.
E
. E
.
1
. C= — 2
. E=CR . 3.
R
.
C
.
(
1.) A d ynamo w i
th a n electromotive f orce of 60 v o
lts wil
l
s
end through a res
istance of 5o hms ac urrent of 12 ampere s
.
6
0
C= —=12 amp eres.
5
(
2
.) A d ynamo to send a current of 2 ampere s through a re-
s
i
stance of 2 5 ohms mus t have a n e l
ectromo tive f orce of 50
v
ol
ts.
E=2x25=50 v ol
ts.
(
3.) The r
es
istance o
f ac i
rcuit when an e
l
ectromo
tive o
f 8
0
v
ol
ts se
nds a c
urrent o
f 10 amperes t
hrough i
tw i
ll b
e 80 o
hms
.
8
00
R= —=80 o hms.
1
0
T o fi
nd the w atts c onsumed i n ag iven e l
ectrical ci
rcu i
t, s uch
a
s al amp, mu ltiply t he v olts b y the ampere s
.
T o fi
nd the v olts, d iv
ide t he w atts b y t he a mpere s
.
To find the ampere s, divide t he w atts b y the v o
lts
.
To f i
nd t he elec trica l horsepower r equired b y al amp , d ivide
t
he w atts o
f t he l amp b y 746.
To f i
nd t he n umber o f l amp s t hat c an b e supplied b y o ne
e
lectr
ical hor sepower o f energy , divide 7 46 b y the wa t
ts o f t he
l
amp .
To find t
he e lectr ical h orsepower n ece ssary, mu lt
iply the w atts
p
er l amp by t he n umber o f lamps a nd d ivide b y 7
46.
To find the m echan ical h orsepower n ecessary t o genera te t he
r
equired e l
ec tr
ica l h orsepower , divide t he l at
ter b y t he e f
f
ici-
e
ncy o f t
he g ener ator.
To f i
nd t he ampere s o f ag iven c i
rcui t
, o f wh ich t he v olts
a
nd o hms r e s
istance a re k nown , d ivide t he v olts by the o hms .
5
6
 T
o f
i
nd t
he v
ol
ts w
hen t
he ampere
s a
nd w
att
s a
re k
nown
,
mu
ltip
ly the amperes b
y th
e o
hms
.
To fi
nd th
e resis
tance i
n o
hms
, w
hen t
he v
olt
s a
nd ampere
s
a
re k
nown
, d
iv
ide t
he v
o
lts b
y t
he a
mperes
.

C
urren
t R
equ
ired t
o F
use Wires of C
opper
, G
erman S
i
lve
r
a
nd Iron
.
Ca
lcula
ted f rom t h
e formula ad 3-
2 = C , w here "a" is a
c
onstan
t d epending on t
he na
ture o
f the w
ire
. F or copper
, a=
1
0244, German s i
lver = 5230
, and i
ron = 3148
. ( Th
is formula
i
sdue t
o W
. H
. P
reece
, F
. R
. S
.
)

B
. & S
.
G
auge C
oppe
r G
erman S
i
lve
r I
ron
1
0 33
. Amp
. 1
60
. Amp 1
0
1. Amp
.
1 2
84
, 1
46
. 86
.
1
2 2
35
. 1
20
.7 712
1
3 2
00. 1
02
.6 6
3
.
1
4 1
66
. 8
5
.2 5
02
1
5 11
9 7
12 4
2
.1

1
6 17. 6
0 3
5
.5
1
7 19
. 5
0
.4 3
2
.6
1
E e
2
.i. 4
2. 2
5
.1
1
0 ( 3
4
.: 2
0
.2
4
) 5
0
.0 2
9
.9 1
7
.7

2
1 4
9
.3 2
5
.3 1
4
.9
2
2 4
1
.2 2
1
.1 1
2
.5
2
3 3
4
.5 1
7
.7 1
0
.9
2
4 2
8
.9 1
4
.8 8
.
76
2
5 2
4
.6 1
2
.6 7
.
46

2
6 2
0
.6 1
0
.6 6
.
22
2
7 1
7
.7 9.
1 5
.
36
2
8 1
4
.7 7
.
5 4
.
45
•2
9 1
2
.5 6.
41 3
.
79
3
0 1
0
.25 5
.
26 3
.
11

3
1 8
.
75 4
.
49 2
.
65
3
2 7
.
26 3
.
73 2
2
3 6
.
19 3
.
18 1
.
88
3
4 5
.
12 2
.
64 1
.
55
3
5 4
.
37 2
.
24 1
.
33

3
6 3
.
62 1
.
86 1
.
09
3
7 3
.
08 1
.
58 .
9
3
3
8 2
.
55 1
.
31 .
7
7
3
9 2
.
20 1
.
13 .
6
7
4
0 1
.
86 9
5 .
5
6

5
7
 Me
tric C
onvers
ion T
able
.

Mi
l lime ters X .
0
3937 = I
nche
s
Millime ters = 2
5
.400 X I
nche
s
Met er s X 3
2809 = F
eet
Me te r
s — .
30
48 X F
eet
Kilome ters .
X .
6
21377 = M
iles
Kilome ter s = 1
.
6093 X M
iles
Square c entime ters X .1
5500 = Square inches
Square c ent
ime ters = 6
.45 15 X Square inches
Square m e
ter s X 1
0
.764 10 = Square feet
Square m e
ters = .09290 X Square feet
Square k i
lo-ne ters X 2
47.1098 = Acres
Square k i
lo n eters = .
00 405 X Acres
Hec t ares X 2
.47 1 = Acres
Hec tare s = .
4047 X Acres
Cubic c entime ters X .
0
6 1025 = C
ubic inches
Cubic c entime ters = 6 -
1 3
3 56 X C
ub ic i
nches
Cub ic m e
ter, X 3
5
.3 156 = C
ub ic f
eet
Cub ic m eter: = .
02832 X C
ubic feet
Cub ic m eters X 1
.308 = C
ubic yards
Cub ic m eters = .7
6 5 Y y
ards
L
iter s .
X 6
1.023 . = LUDIC In
ches
L
iter s = f
1639 X Cubic 1he s
L
iter s .X 26
48 J
r
' 'IsS . ge m s
L
iter s = 3
.
78r -'C. ,D. g alICI nS
Grams X 1
5
.43_, a
ins
Grams = .
o
6
e X Grains
Gram s .
X .
03527 = Ounces,av
'dupo is
Grams = 2
8
.3495 X Ounces,av'dupois
K
ilog rams x .2
20 46 = Pounds
K
ilog rams = 4
536
. X Pounds
K
ilog 's p er sq. c ent
ime ter X 1
4
. 23 1 = Lbs
.p er s
q
.i nch
K
ilog 's p er s q
. c ent
ime ter. •••X 0
•703 X Lbs
.p er s
q
.i n
ch
K
ilog ram p er c ubic m eter. •••
X 0
6243
• = Lbs
.p ercubic ft
.
K
ilog ram p er c ubic m e
ter = 1
6
.01890 X Lbs
.p er c
ubic ft
.
Met ric t ons ( 1
,000 k ilog's) X 1
,1023 = Tons (2
,000 lbs
.)
Metr ic t ons = .
9072 X Tons (2
,000 lbs
.)
K
ilowa tts X 1
.
3405 = Horse-power s
K
ilowa tts = .
7
46 X Horse-power s
C
alor ies X 3
.9683 = B. T. uni
t s
C
alor ies = .2
520 X B. T. uni
t s
F
ranc s X .
193 = Dol
lars
F
ranc s = 5
.
18 X Dol
lars

5
8
 LESSON No
. 7
.
TELEGRAPHS AND TELEPHONES
.

T
HE e l
ec tr
ic telegraph w as t he fo
rerunner o f t
he t e
le-
phone, a nd so w e may n atural
ly t ake up t
he study of
i
t
s o pera t
ion f i
rst
. S . F. B. Morse o f the Un ited
S
tates, w as the fi
rst o ne to perfec t a
n el
ectro- mag-
n
etic te
legraph s ignal
ling instrumen t, wh ich al
so in
cluded a
r
ecorder emp loying a mov ing p aper t ape, upon which t he

Code d ots a nd d ashes w ere r ecorded . The t ape r egister i s

s
t
ill u sed i n many c ases, b ut g enera lly t he f am iliar " sounder ,"
t
i
ck s o ff t he d ots a nd d ashes , s ignif
ied b y t he s hor t a nd l ong
d
u rations o f t he c urrent t hrough t he s ounder .
The s imp les t t elegraph s et f or e xperimen ta l u se i s easily
made o f t wo o rdinary " buzzers ," t wo p ush b ut
tons , a nd a
b
a tte ry a s i lus trated b y F ig . 1 .
I
n t he d i agram s hown t wo l ines o f c opper o r o ther w ire
a
re r epresen ted , b u t o ne o f t hese may b e s ubs tituted b y t he
g
round , t he l a
tter b e
ing d eno ted a s o ptiona l b y t he d ot ted
l
ines g oing t o G . G . The o pera tor a t e i
ther e nd o f the l ine
p
re sse s t he p ush b u t-
t
on P , as hor t i n
ter -
v
al f or a d ot
, a nd
i
n i nte rva l' t wice a s
.
ong f or a d ash. T he
v
ar iou s l e
tter s o f t he
a
lphabe t a re made u p
o
f d iferen t c omb ina -
t
ions o f d ots a nd
dashe s a s e xhibited
b
elow , a nd make u p
"Mor s e" c o de . I n Fig
. 2 .
wha t i sk nown a s the
w
ire le ss t e
legraphy , t here a re t hree c odes i n common u se, vi z:—
t
he Mo rse , U . S . N avy, a nd C on t
inen tal. The a dvan tage o f t he
Continen ta l C ode l i
es i n the f act t h
a t itc ontains n o s paces i n
t
he l etters o r f i
gure s
, a s in t he Morse C ode .
The a verage s peed o f s end ing a nd r eceiv ing t elegr aph
messages v aries f rom 1 5 t o 5 0 words p er m inu te; a ccord ing
t
o t he c ond ition o f t he l ine, a nd t he a dro i
tness o f the o per -
a
tor . I n w ire less work t he s peed i s u sually 4 0 wo rds p er
minu te, b etween e xpert o pera tors. No b ad w ea ther c ond i-
t
ions h amper t he s peed o f transm ission h ere, a s wi th the o rdi-
nary w ire l ines , wh ich e xperience c ons iderab le l eakage , i n
w et w ea ther , c aus ing t he l ine a ction t o b e v ery s luggish .
5
9
 The s imple l earn-
e
r's telegraph s e
t i s
d
epicted a t Fig . 2 ,
a
rd c ompr ises a f our
°
Ern sounder a nd k ey.
Two c el
ls of dry b a
t-
t
ery will work this set
o
ver lines not exceed -
S
tandard Key
i
ng 50 f eet in length.
I
t c an b e used o n
l
onger l ines b y em-
p
loying ar elay in c
on-
n
ection w ith it, o
r it
s
magne t coils may b e
r
ewound t o higher r
e-
s
i
stance, al
low ing itto
work w ith l e
ss cur-
r
ent
. A c ommon r e-
s
i
stance f or s ounder
s
o
n l arger l i
nes is 20 F
ig. 3
.
o
hms .

A cut of as tandard k ey i s s
hown b y Fig. 3, t
he sma l
ler
o
ne b e
ing a s trap k ey a dap ted for li
ght work , s uch a s a
b
uzzer circuit
. S everal f o
rms o f r
elays are s een at F igs. 4,
5and 6 . A t Fig. 4i s the G ernsback relay. F igs. 5a nd 6
s
how t he make -up o f ap olarized re
lay. These r e
lays work
w
ith t he c urrent c om ing i n o ne certain d irect
ion o n
ly.
R
everse c urrent d oe
s n ot e f
fect them. Hence t hey a re util
-
i
z
ed o n dup lex and o ther t e
legraph work , where more t han
t
wo signals a re to be s ent o ver a li
ne s imultaneous ly.
F
or ordinary l
ines n o
t over 2
0 miles l
ong, a 1
50 o
hm
r
elay i
susually emp
loyed. H igher r
es
istance r
e
lays a
re u
sed
f
or l
ong dis
tance ci
rcuits
.

For t h e b e
-
g
inner , the b es
t
p
rac tice i s had
by t eaching b y
an e xpert oper-
a
tor. W here
t
his i s not p o
s-
s
ible, a n a uto-
matic sending
i
nstrumen t, c
ap-
a
ble o f b e
ing
r
egu lated for
an y s
ending
F
ig. 1
.
s
peed , i s t he
"Omx igraph," a
c
ut o f w hich is
s
hown a t F ig
.
7.
The b attery
genera lly u sed
f
or all commer -
c
ia l t
e
legraph
service i s t he
so-called " grav-
i
ty" ce
ll
, o
r
"Blue V itriol"
b
a ttery. Cop-
pe r S ulpha te
c
ry stals a re
p
laced i n w ater
t
o make t he
e
lectrolyt e ,
while a z inc
F
ig. 5
.
a
nd c opper e lec-
6
0
t
rode a re i m-
mer sed i n t he
solution t o
f
orm t he c oup -
l
e
. When f i
rst
s
et ting up a
g
rav ity c ell, i t
sh o ul d b e
s
ho rt -c i
rcu ited
b
y a p i ece o f
c
opper w ire f or
s
evera l hour s.
T he g rav i ty c ell (
i
s e ssent ia l ly a
c
l osed - c ircui t
o
a ttery , an d
mu st b e c on -
s
t an tly worked , F
ig. 6 .
or i t d eter iora tes v ery r apid ly
. F or i nterm itten t s erv
ice , a ny
ba tter ies may b e u sed . T he E dison o r G ordon p r
imary c ell
may b e u sed f or h eavy d uty o n c losed c i
rcu it, a nd g ive g ood
r
esu l ts, w he ther s tand ing i dle o r n ot
. T he v ar ious c haracter istic s
of t he g rav ity a nd o ther c ells i s t horough ly d iscussed i n t he
c
hap ter o n B atter ie s. A c u t of ad ry c el
l a nd a G ordon 3 00
ampere -hour p rimary c ell a re s hown a t F ig. 8 .
A f ew words w ill n ow b e d evoted t o t he c onnec ting u p
o
f t he i ns trumen ts o n s evera l l i
nes. I n F ig . 9 , is shown t he
c
onnec tions f o r al earner 's s et
, c ons is t
ing o f S ounder , S .D ,
Key , K , a nd B at tery , 1 3
. I n F ig. 1 0, i s s een t he h ook -up f or
a meta llic l ine ( two w ires) w ith t wo s ets o f i nstrumen ts ,
hav ing a l ocal b attery a t e ach e nd o f t he l ine. A g rounded
c
ircu it w ith l ightn ing a rres ters c omp lete i s d epic ted a t F ig.
1, w he re X i s t he l ightning a rrester s, R t he h igh r esistance
r
elay s, S , t he s ounder s, K , t he k ey, L .B .
, t he l ocal b atte ry f or
a
ctua t
ing t he s ounders; M .B., t he ma in b at te ry f or w ork ing
t
he r elay o ver t he l ine, a nd G , t he g round c onnec tion . A s
will b e s een , t he d epress ing o f t he Key K , a t e ither e nd o f
t
he c ircu it , s ends b attery c urrent t hrough t he o ppos ite s ta-
t
i on 's r elay magne t c o
ils. Th is c auses t he r e
lay a r ma ture
to d raw t oward t he magne t p oles, a nd i n s o d o
ing i tc loses
the c on tac t f o
r t he l oca l b a
ttery c ircu it, t hrough t he
sounder , S .
I
n c ommerc ia l o pera tion n ow ,
not o nly o ne m es sage i s s en t
over t he s i
ng le w ire a t o ne
time ; b u t f our i n e ach d irec -
t
i on, o r e ight s imu l taneous ly;
w hich f orms w ha t i sk nown a s
the " Quadrup lex ," o r s imp ly Fig. 7 .
the " Quad" S ys tem . The q uad -
r
up lex s ys tem i s q uite c omp li-
c
ated , a nd i nvo lves t he u se o f l oading o r b alanc ing r esis tances
a
nd c apac ities. Maver 's B ook o n Amer ican T elegraph P ractice.

Omn
igraph w
ith S
pring Motor
.

g
ives a
l
l t
he d
etai
ls o
f t
his a
nd other s
ys
tems. The la
tes
t achieve-
ment i
n t
he r
ealm o
f te
legraphy isthe "De
lany Te
lepost," which
6
1
 make s p ossible t he w onderfu l speed of 1 000 words p er m inu te
,
over a w ire s evera l hundred m iles l
ong. T he T ele post u t
ilizes
ap erfora ted p aper t ape, p repared i n a mach ine r esemb ling
at ypewr i ter, wh ich i st hen p laced in the t r ansm itting i ns
tru -
men t, a nd p assed t hrough
i
t s o f ast
, t ha t 1 000
words , a nd more , h ave
b
een t ransm itted i n a
m
inu te . This r emarka -
b
le a ch ievemen t w on f or
Patrick B . D elaney , t he
inven tor , t he F rank lin
Institu te Meda l
.
Submar ine t e
legraphy
i
s al arge b ranch o f t he
busine ss a nd m akes u se
of n umerous c ables s unk
i
n t he o cean , a nd p ro-
j
e c
t ing a round th e
wor ld n ow . The ir u se
will p robab ly b e s hor t-
Fig. 8. l
i
ve d, n ow t ha t the w ire -
l
ess s ys tem c an s o r ead -
i
ly b ridge d istances o f s everal thousand m iles . A r eflecting g al-
vanome ter o r K e
lv in S yphon r ecorder i s emp loyed f or S ub -
mar ine s igna lling. The c urrent received i s o f c ourse v ery
weak , a nd a lso g rea t
ly r e-
t
arded o wing t o t he h igh S
b
c
apac ity o f t he s ubmerged
c
ab le. C ab le me ssage s a re
u
sua l
ly t r
ansm it
ted a tspeeds
not e xceed ing 1 2 w ords p er
minu te.
The T e
lephone i s one o f
t
he mo st u seful i nventions
D
f m
ank ind , m any t ime s
more s o t han t he t e
legraph .
p
erhaps , b ut b oth f i
ll their F
IG.9
p
ar ticular f unc t
ions w ell.
The fi
rst successful speaking t elephone w as p erfected
b
y A lexander Graham B ell
, a nd w as e xh
ib i
ted a t the C en-
t
ennial Exposit
ion h e
ld a t Philadelphia i n 1876
. I
t was a
weak and puny affair
, that fi
rst te
lephone , b ut i
tt a
lked, a nd
now w e would n ot k now wha t to d o withou t it
. I ts loss
would para
lyze the wor ld
's business
, a t le
ast i n such c en
tres
o
f a c
tivi
ty as New York o r L ondon, where b uildings 5 0
s
tor
ie s h
igh are b u
ilt
.
The various p
arts going to make up the simples
t t e
le-
p
hone, are shown at Fig. 12
, and cons
ist o
f the tr
ansm it
ter,
r
ece
iver, bat
tery, a
nd h ook-swi
tch.

L
INE

S
ET I

FR
S.10

A c
ut o
f a"Telimphone" isseen at F
ig. 1
3
. Th is i
ns
tru-
ment wi
ll t
alk s
atisfac
tor
ily on circu
its not over 4
000 fe
et
l
ong, a
nd se
lls a
t av ery r
easonable pr
ice
.
Referr
ing to Fig
. 12 agai
n, w e w
ill now di
scuss the v
ar i
-
o
us p arts of ate
lephone and their i
ndividua
l funct
ions.
The b a
ttery is u
sua
lly of dry ce
lls, two b
eing generally
s
uficient, and s
upplies c
urrent for t
he set. The transmitter
i
s usually made u p of two carbon discs
, between wh ich i s
6
2
p
laced a small quantity o
f c
arbon g ranules. When t he vo
ice
i
s spoken i n
to t he mouth-piece of the transmitter
, t he ai
r
c
urrents se
t u p
, i mp
inge aga
ins t athin ir
on diaphragm a bout
2% inche
s i n diameter. To t he c
en ter of th
is diaphragm i s
s
ecured one o f t
he carbon d
i scs o
r b u
ttons, and as the vo
ice

—LB L
B —
K
X X
S

M
B M
B

G G
F
i G
il

a
:r w aves c ause t he i ron d iaphragm t o v ibra te, t he a ttached
c
arbon d i sc a lso v ibra tes , wh ich c auses t he c ontact b etween
t
he c arbon g ranu les a nd b oth d i
scs t o v ary , a nd t he r esist-
a
nce l ikew ise v aries a ccord ing t o t he s treng th o f t he a ir
waves o rig ina lly p roduced .
T he r ece iver h as a s im ilar s oft i ron d iaphragm , p laced
b
e fore a p ermanent magne t
, u pon t he e nd o f wh ich i s wound
ac oil o f f i
ne i nsu lated c opper w ire . The - variations o f t he
c
ur ren t s treng th i n t he c i
rcu it
, c reated b y t he t ransm itter,
r
eac t u pon t he r ece iver , a nd c auses c orrespond ing v arying
e
lec tromagne tic f orces t o a ct u pon t he s oft i ron d i aphragm ,
wh ich i s as hort d i stance a way f rom t he p ole f ace o f t he
magne t.
T he a ction o f t he v arious p arts i n r eproduc ing a rticu late
s
peech , i s more r ead ily p erce ived b y l ooking a t F ig. 1 4.
He re i ti s s een t hat t wo s im ilar e l
ec tromagne ts a nd s e
ts o f
i
ron d iaphragms a re c onnec ted t oge ther b y c opper w ires . I f
t
he v oice i s p rojected i nto o ne o f t he r eceivers , t he s l
igh t
movemen t o f the d iaphragm a t t ha t p articu lar i ns
trumen t w i
l l
c
ause c urren ts t o b e g enera ted i n t he c oil o n t he e nd o f the
s
trong p ermanen t magne t, a nd t hese c urren ts w ill s urge o u t
over t he l i
ne w ires , a nd i nto t he c oil o n t he r ece iver , a t the
o
ther e nd o f t he line. When
t
he se v ary ing c urren ts p ass
a
round t he c oil o f t he s ec-
ond r ece iver , t hey c rea te
varia tions i nt he s t
reng th o f
t
his m agnet ic f l
ux a fec ting
t
he d iaphragm , a nd h ence
the d i aphragm i s a t
trac ted
and r elea sed s imu ltaneous ly,
g
iv ing r i
se t o a i
r c urren t
s,
corre spond ing t o, a nd t hu s F
IS
. 12
reproduc ing t he v oice a tt he
tran sm itting e nd o f t he l i
ne.
For s hor t d istances t wo g ood t elephone r ece ivers c on -
nec ted i n s eries may b e u sed f or a t e
lephone l i
ne , t he r ece iver
acting a s at ransm it ter a s w ell. Th is w as t he me thod f ol-
lowed i n t he e arly i nstrumen t, t here h aving b een n o t rans -
mit ter, u nti
l Em i l B er liner p er fec ted h is t ype. The t roub le
with t he r eceive r a cting a s a t r ansm itter, i s t ha t i t
s v ari-
a
tion i s n ot s uficien tly d istinc t o r p ronounced f or t he v o
ice
air c urrents a ctua t
ing i t, a nd h ence t he d ec ided c hange i n
r
e sistance o f t he c arbon t ransm itter f or c hang ing v o
ice
w aves , h as p roved a b oon .
In t he s et s hown a t F ig. 1 2, n o i nduc t
ion c oil i s s hown ,
this a r rangemen t b eing a dap ted t o s ho rt l i
ne s erv ice, b ut
with w ell made a ppara tus t he t a
lk ing d istances h ave r eached
6
3
5
0 m
iles
. The Anders P
ush B utton . T elephone i s as eries
i
n strumen t, emp loy ing n o i nduc tion
c
oil. T he h ook -sw i
tch s een a t S ,
i
sf or t he p urpo se o f c utting o u
t t he
battery w hen t hrough t a
lking , a nd
t
he r eceiver s imp ly h ang s o n i t
. I t
s
norma l p osi
tion i sa fec ted b y m ean s
o
f as pring p ush ing i t i nto c on tact
w
i th o ne o r more c ontac t s pring s.
A s tandard t e
lephone s et
, w ith i n
-
duc t
ion c o
il
, f or b a
ttery s ervice i s
d
iagrammed a t F ig
. 1 5
. P a nd S
a
re t he p r
imary a nd s econdary w ind -
i
ng s o f t he induc tion c oil, respec t
ive -
l
y
. T he p rimary w inding h as al ow
r
esistance a nd t he s econdary c oil a
h
i gh r esistance. I ts p urpo se i s t o
s
tep u p t he v oltage of t he t alking
c
ircu it
, s o t hat the v aria tion s w i
ll b e
more s uited t o tr ansmiss ion o ver t he
l
ine w ire s. A c ore o f f i
ne i ron w ire s
F
ig. 13
. i
si nserted i n the c entre o f t he c oil
.
R
, i s t he r eceiver , g enera lly o f 7 5
o
hms r
esistance, wh
ich i
s standard f or a ll t e
lephone work .

F
ig. 1
4
.

T
he r
ing
ing of t
he b
e
ll a
t the opposi
te st
ation i
saccom-
p
l
ished b
y push
ing t
he b
ut
ton of the double c
ontac
t p
ush bu
t-
6
4
 t
on , P .H . When t his b u tton i s i n t he n orma l p os ition , i t
c
l oses t he b ell c ircu it, a s s hown ; p rov iding t he r eceiver i so n
t
he h ook - sw itch , wh ich d epresses i ta ga ins t t he r inging c on -
t
a ct s pring . Wh ile t alking t he r inging c ircu it i s o pen , t he
hook -sw itch mak ing c on tac t a ga ins t t he t wo u pper s prings
3a nd 4 , s een i n t he d iagram .
For at wo p ar ty l i
ne , iti so nly n ecessary t o s t
ring a c oup le
o
f i nsu la ted w ires , s uch a s b el l w ires , a nd c onnec t t heir
t
erm ina ls t o t he l i
ne ' pos ts o f t he i nstrumen ts 1 L , a nd 2 L ,
r
e spec tive ly.
A h ook -up f o r ac en tra l b a
ttery ' set o f t wo t e
lephones ,
which h as many g ood p oin ts t o c ommend i t
, i s d ep ic ted a t
F
ig . 1 6
. I n t he s et
, w hich i s n o t i ntended f o r.l ines o ver
am ile l ong , n o i nduc tion c o
il i su sed. T he c en tral b attery ,
p
laced a t e ither s tation , C . B ., s upp l
ies e nergy f or t alk ing
a
s w e
ll a s r ing ing f rom e i
ther s t ation . To r ing t he o ppos ite
s
ta tion , t he r i ng ing k ey, R . K ., i s d epressed wh i
le t he r e-
c
eiver i so n t he h ook . T his t e
lephone i s as eries i nstrumen t,
a
nd i so f s tanda rd manu fac ture. C . K . r epresen t r esis tance
c
oi ls.
For l i
ne w ire s, No . 1 8 t o 20 B . & S . g auge c opper w ire i s
g
enera l
ly emp loyed . B ell w ire i sv ery g ood , i fk ept s epara ted
a
long t he r un ; o r i f more t han t wo w ires a re r un, ag ood
p
l an c ons ists i n mak ing u p ac ab le o f t hem , a nd t ap ing t he
who le b unch t oge ther , b y w rapp ing a round w ith b lack f r
ic tion
t
ape , l etting i to verlap a bou t h a lf o f i t
s w id th . T his c ab le
• i
se asily a nd n ea t
ly r un, a nd makes av ery f air j ob .
I
ntercommun ica ting t elephones a re t ho se i ns
ta lled i n f ac-
t
o ries, a nd n umerous o ther p laces , wh ich a re p rov ided
with a mu ltipo in t s witch t o a l
low o f t alk ing t o a ny i nd i-
v
i dua l s t ation o n t he s ystem . F
ig . 1 7 i lus trates a f our
s
t ation i nte rcommun ica ting s et
, e i
ther o ne o f t he t h ree i n-
s
trumen ts b eing a ble t o r ing u p a ny o ther i nstrumen t. The
c
ab le o f l ine w ires f or t his s ys tem mus t c on tain o ne more
wire t han t he t ota l n umber o f i n s
trumen ts c onnec ted , t he
o
dd w ire b eing c a
lled t he
c
ommon r etu rn w ire, a s
a
l
l t he t elephone s h ave
o
ne o f t heir l ead s c on -
n
ec ted t o i t
. T his s et i s
n
o t n on-in ter fer ing , a nd
o
ne p arty • c an i n
ter rup t
a
ny o ther , o r l i
st en i n.
Some s ystems o f t h
is
t
y pe a re s o a rrang ed ,
that i nte rference b e-
tween t he v ar iou s p artie s
i
si mpo ssib le. F
IG. 1
5
I
n r unn ing t e
lephone
c
ircu its, i ts hou ld b e a r-
r
anged t ha t e ach l ine i so f e qua l l ength, o r e l
se t he c apac ity o f
t
h e t wo l i
ne s w il
l b e u nequa l a nd g ive r i
se t o u nsatis fac to ry
s
e rvic e
. E lec tro- magne t w ind ings, s uch a t b ell m agne ts, o r t he
• B
ELL l
ike s hou ld b e
k
ep t o u t o f t he
11 t
alking c ircu its.
L
I Long c
ircu its
¿ i st
l
r
eturn ing by
the e ar th o r
g
round , S hou ld
._rt be a voided i n
t
e
lephone s era-

e ,
.
ri
K C
K R
K i
ce
, a s this cre-
a
tes n o
ise i n
1
6 t
he instrumen ts.
For l i
nes n ot
e
xceed
ing one
-half m
ile,ground r e
turns a
re genera
lly s a
tisfactory.
I
n la
rge te
lephone exchanges , serv
ing such c it
ies a s N ew
York or C h
icago, the battery p ower fo
r a l
l t alking a t t he
6
5
e
xchange o r s ubscr iber 's i nstrumen t i sc entralized a t t he e x
-
c
hange . A s torage b attery o f 2 4 v olts p o
tential s upp l
ies t he
t
alking c urrent . R ing ing c urren t i s u sually a lterna t
ing o r
p
ulsa ting a t a bou t 7 0 v ol
ts p oten tial Ca
ll
ing t he o per ator
i
s d one b y s imp ly r e mov ing t he r eceiver f rom t he h ook,
which a c
t r elea ses t he h ook , a nd t his s pring ing u pward
c
loses t he c ircu it t o t he e xchange . I n th
is circui t is as ensi-
t
ive r elay , wh ich c loses a l o cal c ircu it through a 2 4 v olt l amp
on t he s witch -board b efore t he o pera ior. When t he l amp
l
igh ts u p, t he o pera tor p lugs i n
to t he c orrespond ing c ircuit
j
ack , a nd a scer tains wha t n umber i s wanted . Hav ing f ound
out t he d esired n umber , t he d esired p arty i s r ung u p b y
p
ress ing a r i ng ing k ey , a nd when t hey r espond , t he o pera tor
c
onnec ts t he t wo p arties t oge ther b y means o f flexib le c ords
a
nd j ack p lugs .
The a utoma t
ic s witch -board i s c om ing a head r apid ly, a nd
h
as a h ost o f c ommendab le f ea tures . No manua l o pera tors
a
re emp loyed , e xcep t f or e fec ting l ong d i
stance c alls. Where
t
here a re n o c entra l g i rls, t here c an b e n o in
ter ference , a nd
h
ence many p eop le w ill w elcome t he a u
toma t
ic s witch -board .
Ch
icago , I l.
, a nd L os Ange les, C a l
., h ave t wo o f t he l a
rg-
e
st a utoma t
ic s witch -board e xchanges e xtan t
. Numerous
o
ther s ma l
ler c ities a re n ow e quipped w ith a u toma tic e x-
c
hanges , h aving n o o pera tors .

F
ig
. 1
7
.
The a verage time consumed i n making a c onnection b e-
t
ween t wo parties in modern te
lephone p rac
tice v ar
ies f rom
4to 1 2 seconds .
The t e
lephone h as g
rown to b e o
ne o f the mos t high ly
d
eveloped i fn o
t the mos t h
ighly developed b ranch o f elec-
t
r
ical e ngineering to-day. It employs over 200,000 peop le in
t
he Un ited S tates alone
.
Telephone e ng
ineering is ap ay
ing a nd h ighly interest-
i
ng p rofession. There are thousands o f p roblems t o b e
s
olved y et by t he coming generat
ion.

LESSON NO
. 8
.
DYNA MOS AND MOTORS
.

D
YNA MOS a nd Mo tors are e lectrica
l mach ines em -
p
loyed for the c onversion o f electr
ica l energy into
mechan
ical energy o r vi
ce v ersa. They d epend for
't
heir o
perat
ion u pon t he repulsion o f li
ke magne tic
p
olar
ities
, a nd t
he attraction o f un
like magnet ic polar
ities
.
P
rimar i
ly, the re
la t
ion b etween magne t
ic p olari
ty a nd
6
d
ir
ect
ion of curr
ent i sas s
hown in fi
g. 1,w he re A s how s t he
c
urrent t raveling a round a
c
oil of w ire c lock-wis e
, o r
r
ight-handed , w i
th t h
e m ag-
n
etic pole r e
sultant
, S outh.
At B , t he c urrent t ravels
a
rgund t he c o
il le
ft-handed
o
r c ounter -clockwise, w ith
t
he m agne t
ic p ole resultan t
,
North.
F
i;.J . The f undamen ta
l l aw i n
"Magne t
ism ," i s that l i
ke
p
oles repel e ach ot
he r
,w hile
u
nl
ike po
les at
tract one ano
ther
. O n t h
is l aw r ests t
h e ope ra-
t
i
on o f d
ynamo s and mo to
rs. Its exact a rrangemen t i n t he
e
l
ectr
ic motor is d
epicted s
chemat
ica
lly b y F ig. 2 .
I
n t he d iag ram s hown ,
F
. P . i s t he s tat
ionary
f
i
eld m agne t p ole, ( the re
a
re a lway s t wo , o r mo re
i
n a ctua l mo tors a nd
d
ynamo s) , w ith ac o
il o f
i
nsu lated m agne t w ire
wound a round i t
. T his
c
oil r
ece ives c
ur r ent
f
rom a b attery B , a nd 81
g
ive s ar esu ltan t Nor th EL G
p
ole a t t he f ace t owa rd
t
he a rma ture . Fig
. 2 .
T he mov ing a rma ture p ole A . P .
, h as a c oil o f w ire
a
round i t
, ( there l i
king t wo o r more i n p rac t
ice ), a nd t his
c
oi l a lso r ece ives c urren t f rom t he b attery B , t hrough t he
c
on tac t b rushes o f s pring b rass B I a nd B 2.
A ' commu ta tor o r curren t r ever ser i s r epresen ted b y C ,
i
nf igure , a nd c ons ists o f two s em i- circ les o f brass o r c opper .
These r ota te w ith t he a rma ture . Now a t t he i nstan t s hown
h
e re, t h e a rma ture c o
il i s c rea t
ing a m agne tic n or th p ole,
a
nd a s u nlike p oles a t
trac t e ach o ther , t he a rma ture p ole i s
d
rawn t oward t he s ou th f i
eld p o
le . A t t his i nstan t
, h owever ,
t
he c ommu tator h as a l
so moved , a nd t he c urren t t hrough t he
a
rma ture c oil h as b een r eversed , t he n ega tive b rush b ea ring
on t he o ppos ite s trip o f the c ommu ta tor , a nd t he a rma ture
p
ole c rea ted i s s ou th, i nstead o f n orth , w ith t he c ons equenc e
t
ha t t he a rma ture p ole i sr epu lsed o r p ushed a way f rom t he
f
i
eld p ole , e t
c.
I
t i s r ead ily s e en, NM D E
AR IC
f
rom t his d iscu ssion , MATUR
E)
t
ha t i f t he re a re a r- C
O
MMUTATOR r
oller
r
ang ed t wo f ield p oles r
e
c
to %W ET
I
MORM M
O
LOIR3 W
ITR F
RONT REAR M
h
av ing n or th a n d
s
ou th p ole s, r espec -
t
i
ve ly, a nd t h e a rma - î î
t
ure p rov ided w ith t wo
o
r m ore p ole s, t hat a
c
on tinuou s r
otation
w
ill b e a tta ined , d ue
to the c on stan tly
c
hang ing o r r ever sing
p
ola rities o ft he a rma - 1
110
1110 P
OST!

8g
t
ure p ole s.
A s ma ll mo tor f or r
oar301
11,
u
se w ith b a t
ter ie s
, i s
s
hown b y f i
g. 3 . T his
mach ine h as a t hr ee Fig. 3 .
p
ole a rma ture t o p re-
v
en t i tb e com ing s et o n d ead c entre. T he f i
eld i s as ing le c o
il
b
i
-po lar ( two +
vpe. T he f ield a nd a rma ture c oi ls a re
6
7
 •

çonnec ted i n s eries t o t he t wo t e r

-
mina l p osts s hown o n t he b ase .
I
t i s o nly i n s ma ll b at tery
mo tors , u sually , t ha t t he p ole t ype
o
f a r ma ture i se ncountered . I n t he
better c lass o f mach ines , t he a rma -
t
ure h as a s lot ted o r s moo th i ron
drum , b uilt u p o f many t hin s hee ts.
In t he s lots o r o n t he s urface , a re
p
laced a n umber o f c opper w ires ,
and a s e very c onduc tor c ar ry ing
current h as a magne t
ic f ield s e t u p
Fig. 4 . a
round i t
, t he r eac tion b etween t his
f
ield c rea ted a bou t t he c onduc to rs
o
r w ires , a nd t he f i
eld magne ts i s r espons ib le f or t he a c tion
o
f t he mach ine . The e arly e xper imenta l mach ines h ad n o
i
ron i n t he a r ma ture a t a ll, a nd t he p resen t d ay i nteg ra ting
watt-hour -me ter mo tors h ave a n a r ma ture w ithou t i ron , a lso
af ield w i thou t i ron.
The mo tor i n F ig. 4 , r uns o n
as ing le c ell o r d ry b attery , a nd
i
s v ery u se fu l f or o pera ting
mode ls , e t c. The mo tor i lus-
t
rated b y F ig . 5 , i s p rov ided
w
i th a 6 s egment c ommu ta tor
a
nd 6 s lo t a rma ture . I
t d e-
v
elops c ons iderab le s treng th o n
6v olts b at tery c urrent .
Before g oing f ur ther i tw ill b e
p
erhaps a dv isab le t o d efine t he
e
xac i: d
iference be tween a
d
ynamo a nd a mo tor .
A Dynamo , t he p rinc ip le o f
which w as d iscovered b y F
ig. 5 .
Michae l F araday , i n 1 831 , i s a n
e
lec tr ica l mach ine f or t he c onvers ion o f mechan ica l e nergy
i
nto e lec trica l e nergy .
A Mo tor , t he p rinc ip le o f wh ich w as a cc iden tally d iscov -
e
red a t a n E xpos ition i n G ermany , h a lf a c en tury a go , i s
an e lec trical
RES
.C OILS
m ach ine f or
t
he c onver -
s
ion o f e le c-
F
L/SESi o Se L
EVER NO V
OL: 1 t
rACe rica l e n
eergy
I . R
E
l
MleN
A U i
nto mchan -
0 i
c al e ne rgy .
s
.
BO X D ynamo s
are v ar iou s-
l
y c alled
g ene r ato rs
,
a
lt erna to rs,
e
tc
., a n a l-
-
,F. t
e rna tor b e
-
1
46.7 i
ng a d yna -
mo d elive r
-
i
ng a n a lterna t
ing o r c ons tan tly r evers ing c urren t, i n c ont ra -di s
-
t
inction t o t h e d irec t c urren t mach ine , who se d elivered c ur ren t i s
a
lways t r ave ling i n a c ons tan t d i rection; o ne t erm ina l b eing
k
nown a s t he p ositive, a nd t he o ther a s the n ega tive t erm ina l.
Referr ing t o t he d iag ram f ig. 2 , ift he mov ing a r ma ture
poles a nd w ind ings a re d riven p ast t he e xc ited f i
eld p o
le , t hen
t
he c hange i n magne tic i nduc tion b etween t hem w ill i nduce
o
r s et u p. i n t he a rma ture w ind ings , ac urrent o f e lectr ic ity;
whose s treng th o r v ol tage , d epends u pon t he n umber o f
t
urns o f w ire i n t he mov ing c oil
, i ts s peed i n r evo lu tions p er
g
iven i nterva l o f t ime ; a nd t hird ly u pon t he s treng th o f t he
f
i
e ld p ole, i n l i
nes o f f orce p er s quare u nit o f c ro ss -sec tion .
The c urrent i n amperes i sd ependent u pon t he c ros s- sec tiona l
6
8
 a
rea o f the a rmature w ire; a bout 600 circular m ils p er a mpe re
b
eing a c ommon a l
lowance .
Hence, f rom t he above , i tis seen t hat, w ith a c ons tant
f
i
eld s treng th, raising ,.
the s peed o f rota t
ion o f the a rma ture
o
r t he n umber o f c onduc tors i n its coils, raises t he v o
ltage
d
elivered a nd v ice v ersa; i n direct p ropor tion t o t he m ag-
n
i
tude o f the a bove q uanti
tie s
, also the g reater t he area o f the
w
ire i n circular m il
s, the g reater the c urrent p ermissib le
.
I
n g enera l
, t here are t hree principa l types o f mo tor o r
d
ynamo , a s r egards t he a rrangement o f the a r ma ture a nd
f
i
eld magne t wind ings. T hese t ypes are k nown a s t he series,
s
hun t a nd c ompound , a nd a re shown d iag ramma tically i n
f
i
g. 6.

S
erie
s Wound G
enera
tor
. aun
t Wound G
ene
rato
r

C
ompound Wound G
enera
tor
.

F
ig. 6
.

The s eries mach ine h as s evera l g ood a nd b ad features.

As a mo tor, it tends t o r un away i f the l oad i s sudden ly
r
emoved ; b ut for f ans, or o ther r igid
ly c onnected l oad
, a s
o
n s t
reet c ars, et
c., this mo ton h as many i deal funct
ions , the
c
hief one b eing its p ower ful s t
ar t
ing t orque , or p ower. I n
g
enera l
, i t
s s peed v aries w i
th t he l oad
, u nti
l w i
th t oo g reat
aload itw ill stop, and p robab ly b urn o ut
.
The s hunt mach ine h as i t
s f i
eld w ind ing c onnec ted i n
p
arallel with i t
s arma ture, and i s the mos t w ide
ly emp loyed
t
ype e xtant.
6
9
 I
ts popular
ity i
s due to i
ts nearly constant speed under
a
l
l loads, the d
rop i
n speed from n o load to f
ull load
, n o
t
e
xceeding 3 to 5p
er cen
t. o
f the in
itia
l speed, i
n mos t c
ases
.
S
er ies mo tor s i n s ma ll s izes may b e e asily s tar ted b y
c
onnec t ing d i
rec t t o t he s upp ly c ircu it, b ut s hun t mo tors ,
w
i th t he ir l ow a r ma ture r esis tance t hrown d irec tly a cross t he
c
ircu it, wou ld s wamp t he l ine f or c urren t, u ntil i th as r eached
s
uf icien t s peed t o g enera te e nough c oun ter -elec tromo tive -
f
orce t o c heck t he r ush o f c urren t a t s tar ting .
A s tarting r esi st-
a
nce , k nown c ommer -
c
ially a s a s tarting „„ ,
b
ox , i s c onnec ted i n„ MAGNET'

t
he c ircu it, t o p erm it
o
f f eed ing t he c urren t SBOX
t
o t he a rma ture s low -
l
y
, g radua lly i n creas -
i
ng i ts v alue , a s t he
mo tor s peeds u p. A
d
i agram o f an o-vo lt- SH
.F 0
age magne tic r elease Fl e
s
tar t
ing b ox , i s s een
a
t F ig. 7 ,f or a s hun t mo tor, a nd f or a c ompound mo tor a tF ig. 8.
I
n ,t he d iag rams , SW ,
i
s t he main knif e
switch . A , t he a rma -
t
ure o f t he mo tor . SF
t
he s eries o r c ompound
f
i
eld w ind ing , a nd SH ,
t
he r egu lar s hun t f ield
w
ind ing .
Compound wound
mach ines a re t hose
h
av ing b oth s eries a nd
s
hunt w ind ing s. The
c
ompound mo tor i st he
most c
ons tant speed
t
ype , wh ile t he c om-
pound d ynamo i s t he
F
ig . O . mos t c ons tan t v oltage
g
enera tor , u nder v ary -
ing l oads . There a re t wo me thods i n u se, f or t he c onnec tion
of c ompound wound mo tors , o r d ynamos . When t he s eries
fi
eld c oils a re s o c onnec ted t ha t c urren t t rave ls a round t hem
i
n t he s aine d i rec tion a s t ha t i n the s hunt c oils, t he t wo f ie
lds
are s aid t o b e h ooked -up " cumu lative ." I f t he c urren t p asses
around e ach o f t he m i n ad iferent d irec tion , t hen t hey a re
said t o " buck" e ach o ther, o r t hey a re h ooked -up " d
if fe ren-
Holly." I n o pera ting a s a mo tor, i f t he f i
elds a re h ooked -up
cumu la tive , t hen t he c omb ined c oils t end t o s treng then t he
fi
eld f lux , a s t he l oad i ncreases . The a r ma ture c urren t p asses
t
hrough t he s er ies f i
eld c oils, a nd t he f i
eld f l
ux i n l ines o f
f
orce i sd irec t ly p ropor tiona l t o t he n umber o f t urns i n t he
c
oils a nd t he amperes o f c urrent t rave l ing t hrough t hem .
Th is i s r e fe rred t o a s t he r esu l
tan t ampere -turns , o r ampe res
t
imes t urns o f w ire . I f t he mo tor i s c onnec ted u p d iferen -
t
ially, t hen a s t he l oad c urren t ( arma ture c urren t) i ncreased ,
i
t wou ld p ass t hrough t he s er ies f i
eld c oils a nd b uck ing t he
r
esu ltant f i
eld s treng th wou ld b e w eaker . Th is c auses t he
mo tor t o s peed u p s ligh tly, a nd s o k eep t he mean s peed v a
lue
nearly c ons tan t. The d raw -back t o t h
is me thod , h owever ,
l
ies i n t he p oss ib ili ty o f t he l oad b ecom ing s o s evere , t hat
t
he g rea tly w eakened f i
eld wou ld c ause t he mo tor t o f a
il i n
i
ts d uty , a nd i t wou ld g radua l
ly c ome t o a s top a nd b urn
out. The d iferen tia lly wound mach ine i s u t
ilized q uite e x
-
7
0
t
ensively where i t
s p ecu l
iar c harac teristics a re o
f g
rea
t v
alue
.
The s peed o f a ny mo tor i s in creased b y
weakening i ts fi
eld . T his c an b e accomp lished
i
n an umber o f w ays. T he mos tc ommon i st o
i
nsert ex tra r esistance i n t he fie
ld c i
rcuit. A
h
andy a djus table r heo s tat f or t h
is p urpo se o n
smal
l m achines i st he " Electro" R heos tat R eg -
u
lator s een a t c u
t 9 . T his r heosta t h as a c ar-
r
ying c apac ity o f t wo amperes , c ons tan t l oad.
I
ts res
i stance i s1 0 o hms . T he a d
ju stmen t o f
t
he r es
is tance i s e xtreme ly f i
ne, t here b eing
o
ver 2 00 s teps i n the i nstrumen t.
This r heos tat i s a lso v ery u sefu l f or c on -
n
ecting u p ind ynamo s hun tf i
eld c ircu itst oa d-
j
ust the v oltage. T he v ol
tage o f ad ynamo i s
v
aried b y c hang ing t he r esistance o f t he s hun t
f
i
eld c oi
l s, b y m eans o f ar heosta t; a lso t he
s
peed o f r o
tation o f t he a rma ture may b e
v
aried d irectly. F
ig
. W
.
A w el
l b uil t water motor
, having a
n operat
ing e
ff
iciency o
f
8
6 p er c ent. i ss hown in F
ig. 1
0. This wonderfu
l l
i
ttle motor
,
when c onnec ted
t
o t he " Type
S" dyna mo
s
hown i n f i
g
.
1, w il
l l i
ght 4
t
o 5, 6v olt, 6t o
8 cand le-powe r
Tu n gsten
l
amp s, which
make s ita n a d
-
m
irab le a djunc t
f
or l a unch
l
ighting, a uto-
mobile head
a
nd t a
il l igh ts
,
e
tc. T he max i
-
mum p ower d e
-
v
eloped b y t he
water mo tor i l
-
l
ustrated i so ne-
h
alf h orsepow -
e
r o n a t wo-
i
nch ma in p ipe
fee d , a t 6 0
p
ounds pre s
- F
ig. 1
1.
8
1
/re
.
A g enerator especial
ly d es
igned f or s turdy s erv ice, a nd
a
dapted t o be d r
iven from t he fl
ywhee l of a n engine b y c on-
t
act w ith the f r
ict
ion p ulley supp lied w ith t he mach ine i s
s
een a t fig
. 12. The o utput of t his d ynamo , when r o tat
ing
a
t as peed of 1 800 revo
lu t
ions p er m inu te ( R. P . M .) i s 18
v
olts a nd 5 amperes .
The e quivalen t of t his rat-
i
ng i n wa tts, is e qua l t o 18
t
imes 5 o r 90 wa tts, or n early
1/10 o f a K i
lowa tt; a lso
90/746 o
f a h orsepower ,
there b e
ing 7 46 w atts t o one
h orsepower . The t otal w atts
ou tpu t of a ny mach ine d ivid-
ed b y 7 46 g ives t he e quiva-
lent h orsepower o utpu t, a nd
tota l w ats d ivided b y 1 ,
000
gives t he o utpu t i n K ilo-
watts. (One K ilowa tt
1
.34 h orsepower o r 1,
000
Electra 8 Volt
, 10 Ampere
Dynamo. wat ts
.) Th is g enera tor j ust
7
1
d
escr ibed w ill l ight u p seven 1 8 v olt Tungs ten l amp s a t o ne
t
ime . The mach ine i s s upp lied i n t wo v o
ltages , e ither 1 6
volts, 5 amperes , 00 wa tts) o r 6 v olts 1 4 amperes , ( 84
wa tts).
A v ery u se -
f
ul l i
t tle d y-
namo known
a
s t he " Elec -
t
rodyn" i s d e-
p
ic ted a t f ig
.
1
3. I ts o utpu t
a
t 3 ,500 R . P .
M., i s 7v ol ts
on o pen c ir-
cuit. Safe
max imum l oad
4 volts , 1/ 12
amperes . I
t
w
i ll l igh t u p Co mplete Ligh t
ing P lant
f
ive 4 volt
Tungs ten l amps . A s ap ower mo tor i t r uns a t h igh s peed
on 6v olts.
For l abora tory p urposes , d emons tra t
ing , e tc., a h and
power d rive f or s mall d ynamos h as b een d eve loped a nd
p
laced o n t he marke t. I t
s a ppearance i s s een a t f i
g. 1 5, a nd
a
s w ill b e a t o nce p erceived , iti sd oub ly c ompounded , . s
o a s
t
o d rive t he d ynamo a t g reatest s peed w ith t he m inimu m
exer tion u pon t he p art of t he man ipu la tor. S pec ial s pring
b
elts a re s upp l
ied w i
th i t
, wh ich p reven t a ny o rdinary t r ou ble,
s
uch a s s l
ippage , e tc. D yna mos
and mo tors ,
excep t i n t he
sma ller s
izes
below one-
s
i xth h
orse -
power , a re i n-
t
erchangeab le
e
ither a s g en -
e
ra tors o r mo -
t
ors . They a re
t
he s a me i n all
e
s sen tia l de-
t
ails, a n d
when o pera t-
i
ng a mo tor a s
a d ynamo ' by
gear ing i t u p
t
o a mechan i-
c
a l d
rive , i t
may b e n eces -
F
ig. 1 2
s
ary t o c hange
th e p osi t
ion
of t he b rushes s l
igh tly. Some t
imes t he d ynamo r e-
f
uses t o g enera te c urren t, a nd t his may b e d ue t o av ar iety •
o
f c auses , v iz: —broken w ire , d irt o n t he c ommu tator o r
bru she s; p oor c ontac t o f the b rushe s; t oo l ow a s p eed ; d emag -
n
e tized o r weak f i
eld. The l a
s t troub le i s s oon r emed ied
by c onnec ting u p af ew d ry c ells, s torage b at
tery o r o ther
d
irect c urren t s ource t o the f i
eld c oils
, a nd p assing a c ur ren t
t
hrough t hem , f or a f ew m inu tes . Th is w il
l magne tize t he
i
ron a ga in.
I
f t he d ynamo s ti
ll refuses t o b uild u p, it may b e n eces -
s
ary t o r everse t he f ie
ld c onnec t
ions . A ll b a ttery mo tor s
a
re d i rec t c urrent mo tors, i .e .
, t hey u til
ize a c urren t t hat
t
r avels c on tinuous ly i n the s a me d irec tion .
Some mo tors o pera te o n a lterna ting c urrent , ad iag ram
f
or t he c onnec tion o f at hree p hase A . C . mo tor , w ith s tart-
i
ng s witch , a nd s peed r egu la tor i s ilus tra ted b y t he c ut a nd
d
iagram , f ig
. 1 4.
7
2
 Ord
inary d irect curren
t mo tor s can some times b e operated
o
n a l
terna ting c urrent (single p hase), b y simp ly short-cir-
c
uit
ing t he b rushes b y ap i
ece o f h eavy c opper w ire, a nd
p
assing A . C . through t h
e f i
eld w inding. T his arrangemen t
c
onsti
tu tes wha t is commerc ially t e
rmed , ar epuls
ion m otor,
ow
ing t o t he fact that t
he rotation o f the arma ture, or more
p
roperly, ( the rotor), isdue t o the repulsion o f the induced
magnetic p oles in the arma ture, b y the constan t
ly reversing
magnetic p o
les o f the stat
ionary f i
eld o r st
a tor
. Sma ll D .
C
. mo tor s a re some times c onnec ted as s er
ies mach ines t o
A
.C. circu i
ts.

M O TO R

-
S W
ITC H

STA R rm e sox
'
F
ig. 1
4
.

There are v ar
ious t ypes of A. C . mo tors in use now, prin-
c
ipa l
ly, induc t
ion mo tors, r
epulsion mo tors, a
nd t he s
ynchron -
o
us mo tor. T he squirrel c
age i nduct
ion mo tor h a
s ar otat
ing
member , having no electr
ical connec t
ion w ith the main circuit
.
The r otat
ing member i s much t he same a s an ordinary arma -
t
ure, c ompo sed of p unched s teel shee ts
, w i
th a n umber o f
s
lots around i t
s periphery. I n t he s
lots are placed sol
id c op-
p
er i nducto rs
, al
l'soldered or r
ive ted to each other at t
he e nds
7
3
o
f t he s t eel d rum . The c ons tantly c hang ing magne tic f i
eld
a
cting f rom t he s tator, o r
f
i
eld p ortion, s ets u p o r i n-
d
uces magne tic p oles a nd
c
urren ts i n t he r otor o r
a
rma ture . T he r eac tion b e-
t
ween t he i nduced r otor
p
oles, a nd t he c ons tan tly
c
hang ing s t
ator f i
eld d rag s
t
he r otor a round w ith i t
.
I
nduc tion mo tor s a re s ub-
j
ect t o as l
igh t s l
ip, o r l ag-
g
ing b ehind t he t heo retica l
s
peed .
The r epu ls
ion mo tor h as
a
lready b een ment ioned . I t
h
as i ts b rushes s hor t
-c ir-
c
uited, a nd A . C . i s p assed
t
hrough t he r egular f ield
w
ind ing s. Usua l
ly t here Fig . 13
h
a s to b e ac hange made i n
t
he f i
e
ld w ind ing s f or u se
o
n A . C . a s the D . C . r esistance i st oo grea t, o w
ing t o the high
s
elf-
impedance i ncurred w hen A . C . is a pplied. T he J andus
A
. C . f an mo tors a re o f t h
is t ype.
The s ynchronous A . C . mo tor i s ac ons tant speed mo tor,
r
unn ing i n step o r s ynchron ism w i
th t he s upp ly A. C. f eeding
t
he mo tor . These mo tors a re v ery u sefu l f or certa
in p ur
-
p
oses , where s ynchronous s peed i s essen tial. They r ema in
p
ract ically i n p erfect s tep w ith t he s upp ly c urrent u n
ti l they
a
re c ons iderab ly o verloaded , when t hey i nstan
tly f a
ll o u
t
o
f s tep o r p hase , a nd c ome t o a s udden s t
op. P rope r p ro
-
t
ective a ppara tus s hou ld b e p laced i n t he mo tor c ircuits
,
s
o t ha t i n e vent o f t he ir b ecom ing s talled f or any r eason,

F
ig. 1
5
.

t
hey wil
l not be th
rown a cross the line w ires
, wi
th conse-
q
uent heavy current s
urges, which a re l i
kely to burn out
t
he main al
ternator
. Th is has occurred s everal t
imes with
d
isas
trous r
esults
, in t
he author
's exper ience.

1
1
 LESSON NO
, 9
,
SWITCHES
, BURGLAR ALAR MS AND MISCELLANE
-
OUS CONNECTIONS.

T
HE c ontrol of al
l electrica
l c i
rcuits is made p ossib
le
b
y the use of some sor t o
f mechan ical curren t br
eak -
i
ng device, known a s as w
itch, circu
it-breaker , et
c.,
a
ccording to the sty
le a nd function of the a pparatus.
S
ome standard s w
itches are s hown a t fi
gs. 1a nd 2. These
a
re of t
he type known a s knife s w
itches, the con tact being

F
igs
. 1a
nd 2

made a nd b roken b y ak nife b lade o f c opper , f i

tting i nto a
s
pring j aw a l so o f c opper . The movemen t o f t he l i
ve b lade
o
f t he s witch i sa ccomp l
ished w i th-
out a ny s hock , b y means o f t he i n
-
s
ula ted h and le s hown .
The s w
i tch a t f ig
. 1i s c alled a
s
ing le-po le t ype , as i tc an o n ly o pen
o
r c lose o ne . po le, o r -l
ine o f ac i
r-
c
uit. The s w
i tch a t fig. 2,i st ermed
ad oub le-po le t ype f or t he r eason
t
ha t i t c an . con tro l t he, t wo p o les
o
r l ines o f a c ircuit. For s o me
purposes t he s ing le-po le t ype w i
ll
s
erve , b ut i n o ther i nstances t he
, doub le-po le f orm i s n ecessary .
For l ow v ol tage work a nd sma ll
c
urren ts, t he " Elec tro" B aby k nife
switches , moun ted o n ab lack c om - J
. •
pos
i tion b ase , a s in c uts 3a nd 4 ,a re
very u seful
. The l a rger o f t he t wo
s w
itches h as a d oub le b laded k nife,
arranged t o s wing i n
to a c ontac t
a
t, e
ither s i
de , giving q uick c ontro l
of either o ne o f t wo c ircu its. The
Fig, 4 , smaller s i
ng le-po le s w
i tch o f t his
t
ype i s n ea tly made a nd i s e qua l
ly s erviceab le. The d ou -
b
le c ontac t s witch i s r eadily u sed t o g ood a dvan tage f or t he
c
on tro l o f al ight f rom t wo d iferent l oca tions , a s d epicted
by t he d iagram ' f
ig. S. I n o pera ting t his c i
rcu i t
, t he s witches
a
re • t
hrown e i
ther t o t he l eft o r r ight-hand c on tact, a nd
e
ither s witch c an
t
hen • be made t o
l
ight o r ext
in -
g
uish t he l amp .
In c ommerc ial
l
igh t
ing t his is a
s
tandard a rrang e-
men t, a nd t hree
way p ush -bu tton
FIG.5 o
r s nap -sw itches ,
a
re emp loyed i n
p
lace of t
hese
switches , wh ich a re p erm issib le o n
ly f or l ow v oltage c ir-
c
uits.
7
5
 Am in ia ture snap s witch f orl ow v ol
tag e w o rk iss een a tf ig
.
6
. This i sv ery useful f or low v oltage l i
ghting c ircu its, and i s
areplica o f the heavier b uilt commerc ial s nap s witches . I ts
c
urrent c arrying c apac ity i s 5 amperes .
The c ap c over i so f me tal, nicke l plated ,
while t he b ase i s of p orcelain.
Av arie ty of wood b ase a nd me ta
l b a se
switches s ui
tab le f or b ell
, a nd b urglar
a
larm work a re i lustra ted b y t he c uts
f
igs. 7t o 9. F or mak ing q uick j unc tures
b
e tween t wo p ortions o f a c i
rcu i
t, t he
s
eparab le c onnec tor s een a t f ig. 1 0 i s
P
ig . e s
erv iceab le. Th is connec tor i sa dap tab le
t
o a ny p ortab le a ppara tus , wh ich i sc on -
n
ected t o i ndependent s ources o f p ower , when i n u se, etc.
Having s hown t he d iferent s tyles o f s tandard s wi
tches ,
afew words o n t he u se o f t hem may n ot b e out o f place .
The p roper c onnection o f as ing le p ole k nife s witch i nto
alighting c ircu
it i s i
nd icated a t f ig
. 1 A . The c onnec t
ion
f
or ad oub le pole single t hrow k nife s witch i s s hown a t B .
A
t C i s o ne me thod o f emp loy ing t he mu lt
i-po in t l ever
s
witch f or t he control o f b attery p ower, s upp l
ied t o ac ir-
c
u
it. Ano ther •u
se o f t he mu lti
-po in t l ever s wi
tch i s t ha t

F
igs
. 7
, 8a
nd 9

s
hown a t D w ith r esis
tance w ire c onnec ted b etween t he
c
on tact p o
in ts, to form a r heostat ( for mo tor s peed c ontro l
,
e
tc. The u se .of ad ouble .po
le, d ouble t hrow k ni
fe s w
itch
f
or r eversing t he ;po
lar i
ty o f ac ircu i
t fe eding a motor o r
o
ther a ppara tus, is gleaned f ro m f i
g. 1 E . Throw ing t he
kn
ife•b lades t o the one s ide or the o ther, gives e ither o f t wo
p
ola r
ities o n t he a ppara tus c i
rcui ts. Th is i s t he s tandard
method o f r eversing t he di
rec t
ion o f mo tors. The d iagram
f
or t his p articular
p
urpose b eing o ut-
l
ined a t f i
g. 1 2.
I
n d
iagram 12
,
MS , i s t he ma in
switch i n t he s upply
c
ircui t
; A i s t he
Fig. 1
0 a
r ma ture o f a s e-
r
ies mo tor; F , t he
f
i
eld w ind ing, a nd S ,
t
he d ouble p o
le, d oùble throw k nife swi tch, f or r evers ing
t
he f i
eld c urren t
, a nd a lso the r ota t
ion o f the mo tor a r ma-
t
ure.
7
6
 ••
*.

D
iag ram f ig
. 1 3 i s for t he r evers ing s witch c onnec ted u p
t
o as hun t wound mo tor w ith a r ma ture s tar ting r es istance
SR . I f ac ompound mo tor i s to b e r eversed , t he c ompound .
o
r s eries f ield
w
ind ing i s c on -
w #1:1SP
0 .
4 PO
INT n
ec ted i n s er ies
MAINS A L an )
? I
-EVER SW . w
i th ar ma tu re
a
t X .
e uIC.B
i P
t SW
. o A d
ec ided ly
u
se fu l f i
e ld f or
e
c
MAINS L
IGHT t
i
electric al
E :
35 a
larms , i s t ha t
KU » TO i
nvo lved i n t he ,
APPARATUS / 4PO NT detec tion o f
e LE
N/ER Sw. midn ight p row l-
F
IG.n e
rs , o r b urg la rs.
The s afes a nd
s
t rong b oxes o f t he b est b anks a nd p r
iva te r esidences a s
w ell a s a ll w indows a nd d oors a re w e
ll p rov ided w i th c om -
p
le te e l ectr ica l a larm s ystems . I n t he f ollow ing p arag rap t4
af ew o f t he b es t a larm s ystems w ill b e d iscussed .
Probab ly t he v ery s imp lest b urg lar a larm c ircu it
, i s t hat
opera ting o n t he o pen c i
rcu it p rinc iple , i .
e. n orma lly t he
c
i rcu it i s o pen , a nd t he b a
ttery c an b e o f d ry o r o rdinary
w et c e lls. S uch a n o pen c ircu it sys tem i s s een d iag ramma ti-
cally a t f ig. 1 4. B i s t he d ry o r w et c e
l l b attery a nd S i s
t
he s ing le p ole s witch t hrow ing i n t he b attery , s ay a t nigh t
before r etiring . A t W, W, W, W, a re t he w indow s pring s
,
wh ich c lose t he b ell c ircuit whenever a s ash i s r aised . D
may b e ad oor s pring , wh ich c loses t he a larm c i rcu it when -
ever t he d oor i s
sl
igh t
ly o
pened .
T he me thod o f
moun t ing th e
window s pr ing i s M A
INS
p
la inly s hown b y
f
ig. 1 5. When t he
s
ash i sr aised t he

a
.
insu la ted s
pr ing
S
, i s a llowed t o
c
urve o
u tward ,
and i n s o d oing ,
i
t makes c ontac t F
IG .12
with t he f r ame o f
t
he a l a rm . A t K
i
s t he c am s haped p ortion a ctuated b y t he s ash a s i tr a
ises
and l owers .
Burg lar a l arm s ystems a re u sua lly a rranged s o t ha t o nce
t
he a larm b ell h as b een s tarted r i nging , i tw ill c on tinue t o
r
i ng u ntil s hu t o f
, i r
respec tive o f t he p osi tion o f t he w in -
dow o r d oor s pring . There a re t wo ways o f a ccomp l
ish ing
this f unc t
ion : o ne i s t hat emp loy ing a s elf-sw itch ing b el
l,
and t he o ther b y t he i n
terpos ition o f ar elay d rop , i n t he
c
ircu i t
. The c ircu its o f t he
S
R c
on tinuous or s
elf-
sw
i tch ing b ell
, w i l
l b e
MAINS u
nders tood f rom f ig.
. 1 6
,
which s hows t he work -
i
ng d eta ils ; Si s ap ivo t-
e
d a rm h e ld n orma lly i n
t
he o pen c ircu it p os ition
s
hown , b y means o f t he
p
ro jec tion o n t he a r ma-
ure o
t f t he b el
l. I f t he
r
egu lar c ircu it o f t he b el
l
r
ie,is i
s n ow c losed , b y p ush -
i
ng t he b utton P , t he
a
r ma ture moves t oward t he magne t c ores , a nd i n s o d oing
i
t r eleases t he p ivo ted a r m S wh ich i s p ushed u pward
7
7
 aga ins t t he a ux i
liary c on tact s crew V , a nd t he b el l h a s a
c
omp lete work ing c i
rcu it e stab l
ished s epara te ly f rom t he
push b utton c i
rcu i
t. I t w il
l c ontinue t o r i ng u ntil s hu t o f
b y as witch , o r t he t rip
arm i sr ese t.
The manner o f h ook -
i
ng i t u p i n ab urg lar
alarm c i
rcu it i s s een a t
f
ig
. 1 7, where S i s a
s
a
witch ; B t
nd W, W, w
he b at
indow o
tery
r D B
E
L
other a larm s prings .
T he c ircu i t i s o f t he
o
pen t ype , i .
e., n or-
ma lly t here i s n o c ur-
rent p ass ing t hrough
the c ircu it. F
16 .14

The c
losed c
ircu it
system o f a larm i s o ne o f t he b est a nd mos t w ide ly u sed.
It h as o ne g rea t mer it: t ha t is
, i f aw ire i sc ut, t he b ell w il
l
start r inging , a nd a s mos t o f t he wou ld -be s econd s tory
electr ica l e xper ts c ut t he w ires a t t he s t art, i t i s seen t hat
this s ys tem i s i ndeed q uite mer itor ious . The ma in d ife r-
ence i n t he c losed c ircu it f orm o f a larm , i s t hat t he b at tery
i
s o f t he g rav ity o r o ther
c
losed c ircu i t t ype, s uch a s
t
he Gordon P rimary C el
l.
The s pring c on tacts a t t he
windows a nd d oors, are n or-
ma l
ly _c losed i nstead o f
o
pen , a nd t he r elay k eeps
t
he a r ma ture p ulled t oward
the magne ts a t all t imes .
When a w indow s pring i s
open -c ircu ited b y r a
is ing
t
he w indow , t he c ircu it i s
broken , a nd t he r elay r e-
l
e ases i t
s a r ma ture, wh ich
f
alls b ack a gains t t he c on -
t
act s crew s hown , c los ing
F
IG. 15 . - 0 t
he b ell c ircu it. The b ell
used h ere , may b e ac om -
mon o r c on tinuous r inging p attern , a lready d escr ibed .
Some e labora te b urg lar a larm s ystems h ave a c omb ina -
t
ion o f t he c losed a nd o pen c ircui t, e nab ling t he a larm b ell
t
o r i ng , i ft he c ircu i t i s- opened o r c l
osed a t ad oon o r w in -
dow , o r i ft he w ires a re b roken o r c rossed a t a ny p oin t
.
E
lec trica l a l arms a re o ften a pplied t o c locks , f or s igna lling
the s t ar t
ing a nd s topp ing t ime i n f a ctor ies , a rous ing p ur-
poses , e tc. A s imp le method o f r i nging a b e
l l, o r an umber
of t hen ', f rom a l arge c lock i s i lus tra ted b y f ig
. 1 9. A s
many i nsu la ted b rass s crews a re f a
stened a round t he d ial,
a
s t imes i ti sr equ ired t o r i
ng
t
he b ell, i n t he f ash ion i ndi-
c
a
t
ha
c
on
ted . They a
t t
tac
he h
t w i
re a
our h
th t
d
jus ted
and makes
hem a t t
, s

he d e
o

-
'
OP
s
ired t ime . The b e ll c ircu it B

i
s c l osed t hrough t he h ands
o
f t he c lock a nd t he c on tact
s
crew . A s imp le a nd e fec-
t
ive me thod o f mak ing a n
e
lec trica l a l arm c lock o ut o f L A

a
n o rd inary a larm c lock .
(
a
wh
larm
ich o
), i
rdinar
s s
ily r
hown b
e fuses t
y t he
o
L
.
_ F
,
Gi
t
)
s
ke tch , f ig. 2 0
. An i nsula ted
s
pr ing S , i s moun ted o n t he
c
lock movement , s o t ha t when t he r egu lar a larm g oes o ff
,
7
8
 i
t
s s pring g radua lly e xpands a nd makes c on tact w ith t he
i
nsula ted s pr ing . T his c loses t he b el
l c ircuit a nd i t con-
t
i
nues t o r i ng u nt
il s hu t o f b y t he s wi
tch wh ich may b e
n
ear t he b ed . The m e thod o f mak ing c ontac t in t h
is c ase
i
sv ery p osi tive , and i n 10 w ay h urts the cloèk movemen t
.
I
ns trumen ts c apab le o f giving a n electrical a larm when
t
he t empera ture i n ac er
tain l ocation h as r eached a g iven
d
egr ee, a re c lassed u nder t h
e h ead o f "thermos tats." A c om-
mon f orm o f t hermo -
s
tat
, i s made o f ac om -
p
ound s trip o f t wo d is-
s
imilar s ubs tances , u su -
a
lly m eta l
, s uch a s i ron
and c opper , a rranged i n
t
he manner s hown b y f ig.
2
1. I n t he s ketch S , i s
t
he c
ompound s
t
rip ,
abou t 3 i nch w ide a nd
6i n ches l ong , w ith t he e
two dissim ilar meta l
F
IG. 1
7
portions r ive ted t oge th -
er
. A s t he t empera tu re
ri
ses, t he s tr
ip h aving
t
he g reates t c oeff
icien t o f expans ion p er u nit l ength, t ends
t
o c urve t he c ompound s tr
ip t oward o ne o f t he c ontact
s
crews, C 1o r C 2. B y means o f these a djustab
le s crews ,
t
he t h
ermos tat may b e set for any rise or f al
l in tempera -
t
ure
, a nd when a c erta
in d egree has b eer
} r eached in e i
ther
e
xtreme , the corresponding b e
ll, A o r C, w i
ll be made t o
r
ing. B i st he bat
tery cammon t o b oth bells. I n the pl ace
o
f t he bel
ls m ay be i n
serted a r elay, f o
r t he c ontrol o f
v
alves, et
c. A c ommon u se of thermos tats w ith bel
l a larm
i
si n greenhouses , whe re iti sd esirab le to k eep t he tempera -
t
ure be tween c ertain l imits at all t imes.
Another f o
rm o f t hermos tat i st he m ercur ial type, b uilt on
t
he same o rder a s t he e veryday t hgrmome ter. F ig. 22 s hows
t
he make -up o f this p attern, cons isting o f ag lass tube a nd
b
ulb f i
lled w ith mercu ry. A s t he mercury r i
ses i t e ventu-
a
l
ly t ouches t he s ealed -in platinum w ire A , a nd c loses t he
b
ell c i
rcuit t hrough b attery B ; t he o ther p o
le o f t he c ir
-
c
uit being l ed into t he mercury t hrough t he s ealed i n plati
-
n
um w ire C
. Th is
•makes a v ery g ood f i
re
a
larm t hermos tat, h av -
i
ng t he t op p l a
tinum
wire even w i
th t he t em -
perature ma rk, of a bout
10 or 15 d egrees . s
w
I
n c ommerc ial f i
re
alarm wo rk, a s pec ial
f
orm o f t hermos tat i s
r
ie. 1
8
used. T here a re s ev -
e
ral types n ow i nf avor ,
b
ut a c ommon o ne i s
t
hat c ompr ising a t hin a i
r tigh t m e
tal c hamber . When t he
s
urround ing t empera ture i ncrea ses t o ac ertain p o
in t
, t he ex-
p
ansion o f the a ir i n t he m e
ta l c hamber c auses i ts w all to
e
xpand , a nd i n so d oing , itcloses a n electrical circuit
. T he
t
hermos ta ts are w elld i
stributed t h roughou tt he b u
ilding wh ich
7
3
 t
hey a re d esigned t o p ro tect ; s pacing t hem f rom 1 0 to 1 5 f eet
,
apar t o n t he c eiling s. A
d
iagram o f ac ommer -
C
ONTACTs c
ial f ire a larm i nsta lla-
.
t
ion i s d ep ic ted a t f i
g.
23
. The v ar ious g roups
of t hermo s tats i n d if-
ferent s ec tions o f a
building , a re c onnec ted
with a n a nnunc iator ,
wh ich i
nd ica tes j
us t
wha t s ec t
ion a n a larm
comes f rom . The c ir-
cu
i t a lso i nc ludes a r e-
P
IG
.I C l
ay a
nd c
lockwork
s
end ing mach ine .
Now i f a f i
re o ccurs i n a ny o f t hese s ections , t he h ea t
c
auses t he a ir t ight c hamber t o close t he c ircu i t
, t hrough
t
he b at tery B 2, s w
itch SW , ( here s hown o pen) , a larm b ell
d
rop magne t D , c lockwork r elay R , a nd t he a nnunc iator d rop
n
iagne t c orrespond ing t o t he s ec
tion f rom wh ich t he a larm
c
ame .
I
n p rac tice f i
re a larm BELL
s
ystems a re t ested r eg -
u
larly , a t 3 0 d ay i nter -
v
als, t o s ee t ha t t hey
a
re i n p erfec t work ing
o
rder . The c lockwork
t
ransm it ter C l, i s r e - CLOCK MOVE MENT
l
n
e
e
ased b
t, c on
y ar
tro l
elay mag
led b y t he
- AL ARM SPR ING C
D
20
li
ne r e
lay R . Its s pring
motor d rives t he t oo thed d i
sc F , a round s low ly , a nd i n
rotating , i t passes b y t he f ixed c on tact b rush P , ac ertain
pre -arranged s et o f s ig-
nals o r r ings, b eing
dansm itted t
o f
ire
headquar ters .
O Ano ther c lass o f a u-
A Cs RI VETS t
oma tic a larm o r s igna l
i
s t ha t emp loyed f oe
i
nd ica ting t he h igh a nd
l
ow wa ter s t ages i n a
c2 C
O
M
PO
U
N
D
S
T
R
I
Pwater t ank . The c om -
mon s cheme f or a r-
)
E r ang ing t his a l arm , i s
F
IG .2i by means o f a b all,
f
loa t
, a s i n f ig. 2 4.
When t he b all H , ( and wa ter )
, r ise t o t he h ighes t s tage s
p
erm iss ible , t he a rm L , p ivoted a t P , makes c on tact a t A ,
and r ings t he h igh wa ter b el
l
B. When i t s inks t o t he l ow A
w ater l im i t, it makes c ontac t a t
D, a nd r ings t he b ell E . By
s
ubs t
i tuting r elays f or t he b ells,
i
t may b e a rranged s o t hat t he
wa ter a nd b a
ll f l
oa t o pen a nd
c
lo se t he wa ter f eed v alve.
MERCURY

The c onnec tions o f t he v ar i-

ous w ires i n electr ica l c i
rcu its i s
o
f g rea t i mpor tance . The j o
in ts
s
hou ld a lways b e s o
ldered t o e n-
s
ure p ermanent work ing c onnec -
t
ions . Unso ldered j oin ts , espe -
c
ially o n l ow v oltage c ircui ts,
s
uch a s b ell s ystems , p resent a F
IG .22
h
igh r esis tance t o t he p assage o f
ac urrent , a nd s o me times b ecome s o c orroded t ha t n o c ur -
8
0
r
ent p asses a t all
. A ll j
o
in ts b
etween w ires s
hou
ld b
e m
e-
c
han ically and
e
lectrica l
ly p erfec t
,
b
efore s
older ing.
An i d ea o f t he
method o f f orm -
i
ng j o
in ts o n w ires
w
ill be g
leaned
f
rom a n e xam ina -
t
ion o f f ig. 2 5
. A
N.
For s older ing t he
j
oints a r egu lar
s
older ing copper
may b e u sed , a
whole o
u tfi
t in
-
c
luding copper , IG
.
s
older and f
lux
b
eing i lus tra ted i n F
IG 23
f
ig
. 2 7, t his b eing
t
he " Elec tro" s et
.
For s older ing b y means o f a b low t orch , t he " Elec tro"
automa tic s elf-
b
low ing t
orch
s
een i n f ig
. 2 6
,
will b e f ound
very u sefu l
. I t
r - w
b
urns 2 h
ith o ne f il
l
our
ing
s
,
h ff lQ and u ses a lco -
hol f uel.
For j oin ts o n
. copper w ire, a ny
s
tandard f
l
ux
may b e u sed t o
make t he s older
t
ake h old , s uch
a
s t he A llen o r
No- Koro de
c
ompound u sed
b
y t he e lectrica l
t
rade v ery e x-
t
ens ively. B efore a ttemp t
ing to make a s oldered j oin t
, t he
s
urfaces o f t he me tal
lic wire mus t b e t horough ly s craped
c
lean , either w ith a k n
ife or apiece o f emery c l
o th. Hav ing
h
ea ted t he j unc ture b y the application o f ah ot s older ing
i
ron, o r ab low t orch f l
ame, the f l
ux may b e a pplied , a nd
t
hen t he s o
lder .
The sol der
sh oul d r
un
t
hrough t he j o
in t
t
horough ly , a nd
p
ermea te a l
l t he
c
onvo lu t
ions of
wire . W h en
c
old , i ti su sua l ly
t
aped w ith b lack
f
r
ic tion t ape. F or
e
lec tric l
ig
jhoting
a
re a
ll o
ini
nts
ts
a
re f i
rst c overed
with g um r ubber
t
ape , a nd t hen
w
i th b lack f ric-
t
ion t ape. P ain t-
F
ig. 2
Œ.
i
ng t he t ape w i th
b
lack a spha l tum
o
r s hellac t ends t o preserve i
t
. A cids of a ny k ind s hould
8
1
n
ever b
e used f
or any e
l
ec tr
ical join
ts as t
hey s
oon corrode
t
he me
tal
. Any t roub
le experienced in t
i
nning t
he s
oldering

F
ig. 2
7.

c
opper, may be o
vercome b y f
i
ling i
tbr
igh t
, and wh
ile h
ot,
r
ubbing in s
a
l-ammon iac a
nd apply
ing s
older.

2
5
.

S
ome electr
ical conduc
tors a
re f
urnished wi
th a thin coating
o
f "t
inning." Th is makes the wires much e as
ier t o so
lder,
a
s
, they do n ot hive to be t
inned with the soldering i ron
.

8
2
 LESSON NO
. 1
0
.
EXPERI MENTAL ELECTRO -
PHYSICS
.

T
HE p hys ics o f e lec trici
ty wou ld n ot b e c omp le te, w ith -
out ab rief s u mmary o f t he e arly h istory o f t he a rt
,
and s o t he o pen ing p arag raphs h ave b een d evo ted t o
t
he more i n
teres ting e pochs i n t his c onnec tion .
Many c entur ies a go, b efore s cien tists h ad b egun t o e ven
f
ain tly u nders tand t he p he-
nomena o r mean ing o f e l ec-
t
rica l man ifes ta tions a s t hey
occur i n n ature , i th ad b een
observed t ha t when a mber
w as rubbed w i th c erta in
other s ubs tances , s o t hat
fr
ic tion was crea ted, t
he
amber e xh ib ited a n ew p rop -
erty , v iz : t hat o f a ttrac ting
and h old ing sma ll b i ts o f
thread , h air, s traw , e tc. A t
that t ime , i t was t hough t t o
be s ome mys ter ious f orce ,
and w as r eferred t o a s
"harpaga ," s ign ifying the
Fig.L harp ies, o r " a t hing t hat
c
lutches ." The o rigin o f this o dd c ognomen , was d ue t o
t
he d iscovery b y the women o f S yr ia, t ha t t he amber d istaf fs
o
r s p
ind les , f o rm ing p ar t of t heir s pinn ing whee ls, t ended
t
o a t
trac t s ma ll p ar t
i -
c
les o f t hread , s traw ,
e
tc., when t he s p
inn ing
t
hread had b
rushed
a
ga inst t he amber f or
a s hort wh ile.
The word amber , a nd
i
t
s d eriva tion h as n ot
b
een e stab lished p os i-
t
ively, b ut i t h as b een FIG . Z
a
scr ibed t o e ither o ne
o
f t wo s ource s; v i
z: —The A rab ic w ord " amber ," s ignify ing
"
ambergr is," a nd t he G erman v erb , " anbrennen ," m ean ing ,
"
the t h
ing t hat w ill b urn."
Lodes tones o r n a tura l magne tic o re, a s f ound i n t he
e
ar th, were n o
t u nknown t o t he
a
nc ien ts e ither , h aving b een
men tioned i n t he w ri t
ing s o f
Aristo t le, who a
scr ibed. t o
Tha les o f M ile tus , c hie f o f t he
A S even Wise Men o f G reece , a nd
who was t he c on temporary o f
Aesop , t he v iew t ha t t he a ction
o
f amber a nd t he l odes tone s ug-
gests t he e x
is tence o f a n " a
l ter
ego," o r s oul, i n t hese s ub-
s
t ances , mean ing u ndoub ted ly
when p hilosoph ica lly i nterpre t
-
e
d a nd c ons trued , a n i nherent f orce i ndependent o f a ny e x
-
t
erna l a gency .
Accord ing t o t he l egends a nd t rad it ions o f t he C hinese ,
who w ere a t o ne t ime t he w ises t p eop le o n t he e arth , t he
p
roper t
ies o f t he l odes tone o r
n
a tural magne t
, were k nown N S
f
ully t wo t housand y ears b efore Pi 4- M4 f r / / t.
.
. A
t
he d awn o f t he C hristian e ra.
Humbo ld t r ela tes, i n h is " Cos -
F
IG 4
mos ," t hat t he C hinese emp loy -
ed t he l odestone magne t to d i-
r
ec t their c aravans i n v oyages , t he magne t h aving b een u sed
t
o a ctua te a sma ll r evo lving d ev ice , wh ich was c aused t o
8
3
p
oint c ontinua l
ly i n t he s a me d i
rect ion. A
ll t he a ncient
wri
tings o n t he s ub ject
, h owever, were o f l i
tt
le p rac
tical
s
ignificance, a nd i t was n ot u nt
il the 1 4th c entury , that the
s
cientific application o f e l
ectrical p heno mena t ook a ny d ef
i-
n
ite s hape.
As n early a s k nown , it was a bout 1 320
, t hat F lavia Gioia,
an a
tive o f Nap les, Italy, invented the c ompass t hat w e actu-
a
l
ly h ave r ecord o f
. Th is instrumen t varied f ro m t he true
n
orth, b ut C hristopher C olumbus a nd S ebastian C abot added
t
o t h
is k now ledge, t hat wh ich c an c ertainly b e c laimed a s
i
mpor tant s c
ien t
ific f a
cts. F
rom t ime t o time , o ther scat-

F
ig. 5
.

t
ered f acts a nd p henomena w ere o bserved a nd d iscussed,
but t o D r
. Wi lliam G i
lbert
, b orn i n 1 543 a t C o
lchester,
about 5 0 m i
les n ortheast of L ondon, Eng land, i s due t he
c
red i
t o f fi
rst p ub l
ishing a book, giving a c onnected a ccount
o
f e lectro magne t ic phenomena .
Among t he foremos t of Dr
. G i
lbert's di
scover ies, was t hat
our globe , the e arth, was in it
self a great s pherical magne t
.
For t h
is i mportant d iscovery, Gilbert received g reat praise
f
r om t he em inent a s
tronomers , G al
ileo a nd Kep ler
, a nd
many o thers .
S
tat
ic e l
ectric
ity i s the usual form met w ith in n a
ture,
a
nd is di
stinguished f rom v o
ltaic or galvanic e l
ectr
ici
ty, b y
i
t
s exceedingly h igh voltage or potent
ial, and sma ll current
v
alue
. I n i t
s n ature
, s ta
tic el
ectr
icity i s the sa me as a ny
8
4
o
ther f orm . E lec t r
ic ity i n o ther f orm u sua lly f l
ows i n c ur -
r
en ts c on tinuous ly , b ut s ta tic
e
lec trici ty i s a ccumu lated i n
c
ondensers a nd i t
s d ischa rge i s N . •SA S
it
. SE S
i
nstan taneous , a s when l igh t- ( dg :2 M fe .
s. 0.4 -•.
•-- -:'
;1
n
i
c
l
ng p
oud t
asses f
o a no
rom o
ther .
ne t
T
hunder
he s ta t
-
ic
F
IG. 6 e
g
enera tor a nd e xper imen ts w ith
i
ta re t r ea ted e xhaus tive ly i n a no ther c hap ter . •
The f i
rs t s c
ien tis t t o b u
ild a f ric tiona l mach ine f or t he
g
enera tion o f e l
ec tric ity, w as O t to v on G uericke , a G er-
man . A bou t t he y ear 1 750, h e c ons truc ted a r ather c rude
mach ine , c ompr ising a r ota ting b all o f s u lphur , wh ich when
h
eld b etween t he h ands , p roduced e lec tric ity b y t he f r
ic -
t
ion i ncur red . •
From t his e xper imen t, t he s t atic g enera tor was s low ly
improved , u ntil i tf ina lly r ea ched t he f orm o f ag lass p la te
r
ota ting b etween l ea ther c ush ions . T he f ric t
ion t hus s et
u
p c rea ted e l
ec tricity , a nd l a
ter a c ondenser w as c onnec ted
t
o t he ma ch ine t o c ollec t t he e l ec tric ity . A c ut o f a mode rn
s
tatic e lec tric g enera tor i ss hown i n F ig . 1 .
Other s our ces o f e lec tr
icity b esides t he s tatic mach ine, a re
a
s f ollows :—
Percuss ion .— If a v io lent b low i s s truck b y o ne s ubs tance
u
pon a no ther , o ppos ite e l
ec trica l s ta tes a re p roduced o n t he
t
wo s u rfaces . Vibrat ion c an
p
roduce e lec tr ici ty, a s d emon -
s
tra ted by Bolpicell i, who
s
howed t ha t v ibra t
ións s e
t u p
w
i th in a r od o f me tal, c oa ted
w
ith s ulphur o r o ther i nsula t
ing
s
ubs tance , p roduced a s epara -
t
ion o f e lec tric ities a t t he s ur -
f
ace , s epa ra ting t he me tal f rom
t
he n on -conduc tor . D isrup t
ion
16 .7 a
nd C leavage : —Tear ing a c a rd
apar t i n t he d ark p roduces v is -
i
ble s pa rks , a nd t he s epara ted p or tions w hen t ested w ith a n
e
lec t roscope , w ill b e f ound t o b e e lec trica l ly c harged . L umps
o
f s ugar c runched b etween t he t ee th i n t he d a rk e xh ib i
t p ale
f
lashes o f l igh t. The s udden c leavage o f as hee t of m ica a lso
p
roduces s pa rks , a nd b oth l am inae a re f ound t o b e e lec tr i-
f
ied. C rys talliza tion a nd S ol id ifica tion : —A n umber o f d if-
f
eren t s ubs tances , a f
ter p assing f rom t he l iquid t o t he s olid
s
t ate, e xh ib i t e lec trica l c ond i tions . F or i n stance , s úlphu r
f
u sed i n ag lass b ow l
, a nd t hen a llowed t o c ool, b ecomes
s
t rong ly e lec trified , a s made e viden t b y l i
fting o ut t he c ry s-
t
alline mass , w ith a g lass r od . Ano ther s ubs tance b ecom ing
e
le ctrified d uring s ol
id ification i s c ommon c hoco late. When
a
rsen ic a cid c rys tallizes o ut f rom i ts s olu tion , i n h ydro -
chlor ic a cid , t he f o rma tion o f e ach c rys tal i s accompan ied
by a f lash o f l igh t
, d uc mo s t l i
ke ly t o a n e lect rical d is-
charge . * Combus t
ion : — The
genera tion o f e lec tricity b y
combus tion w as d emons tra ted
b
y V olta. A p iece o f b urn ing
c
ha rcoa l p laced i n c onnec tion
w
ith t he k ndb o f a g old-lea f
e
lec troscope , w ill c ause t he
l
eaves t o d iverge . E vapora tion :
— When l iqu ids a re e vapora ted , P
ie
: 0
e
lec trifica tion o ften o ccur s
, t he 8
l
iquid a nd t he v apor a ssum ing
oppo site s tates . A tmospher ic E lec tr ic ity : —Th is i s c lose ly
a
ll
ied w ith e lec tr
ic ity o f e vapora tion , a nd i st he a tmospher ic
c
harge a lways p resen t i n t he a ir, a nd d ue , i n p art a t le as t
,
t
o e vapora tion g oing o n o ver t he o ceans . An ima l E lec -

*
See Lowe
's Compend
ium o
f App
lied E
lectr
ici
ty.
8
5
t
rici
ty : —A n umber o f s pecies o f c rea tures i nhab iting t he
water, h ave t he p ower o f p roduc ing e lec tric d ischarges b y
c
erta in p or t
ion o f t heir o rgan ism . The mos t w ell k nown
o
f t he se a re t he " Torpedo ," t he " Gymno tus ," a nd t he
"Si
lur is," f r
equen ting t he N ile a nd t he N iger R ivers . The
"Raia Torpedo ," o r e lec tric r ay, o f wh ich t here a re t hree
s
pec ies i nhab iting t he Med iterranean a nd A tlan tic, i s p ro -
v
ided w ith a n e lectr ic o rgan o n t he b ack o f i t
s h ead . Th is
o
rgan c onsis ts o f l am inae c omposed o f p o lygona l c ells t o
t
he n umber o f 8 00 t o 1 000 o r more ; a nd s upp lied w ith f our
l
arge b und les o f n erve-f ibres . The u nder s ur face o f t he f i
sh
i
s n ega tive ly e lec trified a nd t he u pper s ide p ositive ly . I
n
t
he "Gymno tus E lec tricus ," o r S ur inam e l, t he e lec tric o r-
gan e x
tends t he who le l eng th o f t he b ody , a long b o th s ides ,
a
s s een i n c ut 2. I t isa b
le t o give a most s evere s hock , a nd
proves i t
selft i v ery f orm idab le a ntagon is t when i t h as a t-
t
ained i t
s f ull l eng th o f 5o r 6f eet.
It h as b een s hown t ha t t he
n
erve e xc ita tions a nd muscu lar
c
on trac tions o f h uman b eing s
,
a
lso p roduce f e eble d ischarges
o
f e l
ec tric ity . There i sa lso t he
e
lectricity o f v ege tab les ,
t
hermo -elec tr ici ty , c
on tac t o f
d
issim ilar me ta ls , a
nd o ther
s
ources .
Magne tism , t he b as is o f mos t
a
l
l c ommerc ia l e lec trica l a ppa -
r
atus t o-day , i s av ery i nteres t-
i
ng s
ub jec t. As a
foremen -
t
ioned , t he p roper t
ies o f n atura l
magne ts o
r l
odes tones was
f
ound i n Magnes ia, A s
ia M inor ,
a
nd was c alled t he magnet
stone , ow ing t o t he n ame o f t he c oun try i n wh ich i t was
f
ound . The p roper ties o f t he l odes tone may b e c onveyed
t
o o ther s ubs tances s uch a s i ron o r s teel , b y f riction o r
r
ubb ing . Nicke l a nd c oba lt a re a lso s ligh t ly i nfluenced b y
magne tism .
S
tee l was f ound t o h ave t he g rea tes t r eten tivity o r h old -
i
ng p ower f or magne tism , a nd h ence i t was a lways emp loyed
f
or magne ts a nd n eed les i n mar iners ' c ompasses , i n t he e ar ly
d
ays a s w e
ll a s n ow . Magne tism , l ike e lec tricity , r equ ires
matter a s i t
s med ium t hrough wh ich t o man ifes t i tsel f
, a nd
t
he p resen t t heory i s t ha t i ti s a mode o f mo lecu lar mo tion
g
enera ted b y v ibra t
ion o f the mo lecu les , a nd u ndu la tions o f
t
he a l
l p ervad ing l um iniferous e ther , wh ich p ermea tes a ll
matter a nd f i
l
ls a ll s paces n ot a lready f il
led b y o ther s ub -

- -
N
S - -- --
_ 4- -

r MB
.

F
ig. 1
0
.

s
tances o
r ma
t ter. The s peed or v eloc
ity o f propagat
ion
o
f e l
ec tric
ity through t he ether is 1
86,000 m i
les per second,
o
r i n t he metr
ic s cale, i
ti s equ
iva
lent t o 300
,000 kilometers
•o
r 3 00,000,000 me ters.
There a re two c ommon f orms of permanen t stee
l magne ts
i
n u se, o ne being t he h orseshoe shape a nd t he other the
s
t
ra igh t bar. The f ormer i sseen at Fig. 3
,a nd the bar mag-
8
6
net a t F ig. 4 . Magne ts, n o ma tter wha t t he ir s hape , a re
a
lway s s urtounded b y a " f
ield o f f orce ," a s i t i s termed ,
c
aused b y t he magnet ic f l
ux o r l i
nes o f f orce t end ing t o
r
eturn f rom t he n or th p ole t o t he s ou th p ole . To r eal ize
t
he max imum ef iciency a nd l i
fe, t he magnet s hou ld h ave a
c
omp lete p ath t hrough i ron , a nd s o a n a r ma ture o r k eeper
A
, i ss upp lied w ith h orseihoe
magne ts, a nd when n ot i n N
u
se t he k eeper s upp lies a
l
ow r esis tance p ath f o r t he
f
l
ux , t
hus p reserv ing t he
magne t's p ower .
The a ppearance o f t he
f
i
eld o f f orce a bou t a mag -
n
e t i s s een a t F ig . 5 . S uch
af lux d iagram i se asily made A7LA R/TY Or a zczeo f r
ee- w ere
f
or a ny magne t b y s prink ling
f
ine i ron f i
lings o n a «p iece Fig. I L
o
f g lass , a nd p lac ing t he
magne t u nden t he g lass . T app ing t he g lass g ent ly w ill s erve
t
o make t he f i
lings e ven ly d istribu te t hemse lves , when t hey
may b e p ho tographed , o r ap r
int may b e made d irect b y p lac -
i
ng t he p rint ing p aper u nder t he g lass , a nd e xpos ing i tt o t he
l
igh t. c
Every magne t h as t wo p oles , e ach o f o ppos ite p olar ity
o
r n ature . They a re d es igna ted r espec tive ly , a s t he n orth
and s ou th p oles . L ike p o
les r epe l e ach o ther , a nd u nlike
poles , a t trac t e ach o ther . The e nd o f t he c ompass n eed le
magne t s eek ing t he e arth 's n or th magne t ic p ole, i s r ea lly
t
he s ou th p ole o f t he n eed le magne t, b u t i s o ften r eferred
t
o a s t h e n or th p ole o f t he n eed le. Nor th -seek ing p ol e i s
more c orrect . The p rinc iple o f e very magne t h aving t wo
d
i ssim ilar p oles i s made more man ifes t, b y b reak ing a b ar
or o ther p ermanent magnet , w ith t he r esu lt s hown a t F ig.
6
. A s s een e very i ndiv idua l magne t h as a ssumed t wo u n -
l
i ke p oles a t t he e nds . The b es t way i n wh ich t o o bse rve
the c hang ing a ction o f t he magnet p o les , i s b y means o f a
s ma ll c ompass o r magne t ized n eed le, p ivo ted , s o a s t o s wing
free ly a bou t af ixed p o
in t
. The n or th p ole o f t he magne t
is u sua lly marked i n s o me way , e i
ther b y a n a rrow h ead ,
o
r b y b lu ing i t
. I f s uch a n eed le i s p resen ted t o t he p oles
o
f t he h orseshoe magne t s een i n F ig . 3 , t he n or th a nd s ou th
p
o les o f t he n eed le w i ll b e a t
trac ted a lterna te ly . The p oles
o
f a n e lec tromagnet c an t hus b e t e sted a lso.
There a re t wo me thods o f mak ing p ermanent magne ts
f
rom h ardened s tee l b ars , b y d irec t t ouch w ith a nother
p
ermanent magne t. The f i
rs t i s k nown a s t he s ingle t ouch
me thod , a nd c ons is ts i n s trok ing t he s tee l b ar A , fr om t he
c
en tre t o t he e nd , i n t he d irec tion o f t he a rrow , r e mov ing
t
he magnet B , r eturn ing i t t hrough t he a ir t o t he c en tre ,
and ( with t he s a me p ole) a gain s trok ing i tt o t he e nd. The
polar i
ty i nduced i n t he b ar A , i so f c oun se o ppos ite t o t ha t
existing i n t he magnet p ole B , a s i nd ica ted b y t he p olar ity
s
i gns i n t he s ketch . U sua lly 1 5 t o 2 0 s trokes a re s uff
icien t,
when t he o ther h ail o f t he s tee l b ar i ss troked w ith t he o ppo -
s
ite e nd o f t he magnet B , f rom t he c en tre t o t he e nd , a s
prev ious ly , a nd a s im ilar n umber o f t imes . Magne tizing b y
doub le t ouch i s a ccomp lished b y u s
ing t wo magnets , a s i n
Fig. 8 , a nd b o th p oles ( of o ppos ite s ign) a re moved f rom
t
he c en tne o utward , s imu ltaneous ly . Abou t 1 5 t o 2 0 s trokes
are s uf f
ic ien t. The s tee l u sed f or mak ing p ermanen t magne ts
shou ld b e v ery h ard , s uch a s Tungs ten s tee l. The h arder
t
he s tee l, t he g rea ter t he r eten tiv ity , a lso t he s treng th .
S
teel magne ts a re b es t magnet ized , b y p lac ing i n c on -
t
ac t w ith t he p oles o f a p ower fu l e lec tromagne t
. This
i
s t he me thod p ursued i n mos t c ommerc ia l u ses o f t hem ,
espec ially f or magne tos . S ome times t hey. a re magne tized ,
by w ind ing a c o
i l o f i nsu lated c opper wi re a round t hem ,
and t hen p ass ing c urren t t hrough t he c o ils. U -shaped mag -
8
7
 n
et bars may be magnet
ized by d i
rect touch with a
nother
U
-shaped magnet a
s shown in Fig
. 9, s
troking t
he new mag-
n
et f
rom the po
les t
o the U-bend, or v
ice ver
sa.
All e lec trica l conduc tors when
carrying c urren t, a re s urrounded
by a magne tic f i
eld o f f orce, a s
depic ted i n F ig. 1 0. Here t he
current (
direc t curren t) i
s
shown p ass ing away f rom t he
observer , t ha t is
, t he e nd n ear -
e
s t him i sp ositive , a nd t hen t he
whir l o f magnet ic f orce o r f lux
i
s r ight -handed o r c lock -wise ;
f
a c
ing t he n ear e nd o f t he c on -
CM. ductor . I
f t he c urrent w ere
F
IG. 1 2 4
-.) c om ing t oward t he o bserver ,
t
he wh irl o f magne tic f lux wou ld
b
e l eft-dianded , o r o ppos i te t o
t
ha t s hown .
The e fec t o f w ind ing t he c onduc tor i n
to c o ils a bou t mag -
ne
t p oles o f s o
f t i ron , gives t he r e su lt s een a t F ig . 1 . Th is
s
hows t ha t i f t he c urrent p asses a round t he c oil c lock -wise
t
he r esultan t magnet ic p ole i s s ou th ; b ut i fi tp asses a round
t
he c oil c oun ter- clock -w ise; t hen t he r esul tant magne tic
po
le i s n orth . Th is i s one o f t he most f requen tly o ccurr ing
r
ules i n e lectrica l work o f a ll k inds , a nd s hou ld b e w e l
l
memor ized .
P
robab ly o ne o f t he mos t i nteres ting a nd i mpor tant l aws
i
n e lectro - phys ics , i s t hat t here i s ad irec t rela tion b e tween
magne tis m a nd e lectr ici
ty . Magne tism a nd e lec tr ici ty a re
r
eciproca l o r i nterchangeab le a nd c an p roduce e ach o ther ,
which may b e r ead ily s hown b y s udden ly p lung ing a p er -
manen t s t
ee l b ar magnet i n
to t he i nterior o f a s oleno id ,
o
r c oil o f w ire, a s in F ig. 1 2
. C onnec ted t o t he c o
il o f w ire
i
s ag alvanome ter CM , wh ich i s eas ily made b y w ind ing a
c
oi
l o f ad ozen t urns o f fine w ire a bout a s mall c ompass c ase
a
s s een f rom t he d etail
, o r t he " Elec tro" G alvanome ter
c
an b e emp loyed . The c oi l of w ire i sp laced p ara lle l t o t he
n
eed le o f t he c ompass . Th is makes q uite a s ens itive g al-
v
anome ter.

F
ig. 1
2A.

Now i fthe steel magne t bar M , i s suddenly p lunged i nto

t
he c oil of wire D , ad eflec
tion o f the g a
lvanome ter n eedle
wil
l b e noted. Upon w ithdraw ing t he magne t b ar from t he
coi
l D , a no
ther d ef
lec
tion o f t he g alvanome ter n eedle w il
l
be n o
ted, b ut in the oppos i
te d irection, t o that of t he fi
rst
def
lection, occurring from t he i nsert
ion o f the magne t. This
i
s the p r
inciple u pon which t ransformers a nd i nduction c o
ils
operate, the second c o
il o f wire b eing p laced o u ts
ide t he
c
oil D , shown h ere. I
nstead o f mov ing a p ermanen t s
teel
magne t, in and o ut of the c o
il; t he magne t
izing c urrent in
t
he c oi
l D , is made t o p u
lsate o r alternate g iving t he sa me
r
esults. The c ore i s s
tationary a nd o f the s oftes
t i ron
, s o
8
8
a
s to l ose a ll t he magne t
ism p ossible , a t e ach c hange i n the
c
urren t. I ns tead o f u sing a s teel magne t
, as oft i ron c ore
wound w ith a magne tiz ing c oi l
, may b e u sed a s a t Fig . 12 A.
This s hows t he g enera tion 9 f elec tricity f r om magne t
ism .
To d emons trate t he p roduc tion o f magne tism f rom e l
ec-
t
r
icity , i t is o nly n ecessa ry t o p ass c urren t f rom a b attery
o
r other s ource t h rough t he c oil
,D , when t he magne tic f orce
c
reated w ithin t he c oil, w ill s uck i n a n i r
on b ar. A p erma -
n
en t i ron c ore f a stened w ith in t he c o
il, makes i t a n e le
c-
t
romagne t a nd t his i s• t
he b asis o f t he a ction . o f t he g reat
g
enera tors , . and mo to rs t urn ing t he whee ls o f c ommerce
t
o-day . When a n e lec tr i
c b ell s ounds , a n e lectromagne t has
a
ctua ted t he h ammer . When a s park s evera l i nches l ong
l
eaps t he g ap c onnec ted a cross a t r ans former , e lect ro- mag-
net
ism h as b een r espons ible f or it
.
To M ichae l F araday , w e a re i ndeb ted f or ag reater p ar
t
o
f o ur k now ledge c oncern ing magne tism a nd e lectricity a nd
t
heir c lose i nter -re la tionsh ip. F araday w as t he f i
rst t o show
how magne tism c ou ld b e c hanged i n
to , o r made t o g ive
e
lectric c urren t
, when a magne t was a cted u pon b y mechan -
i
cal mo tion . Be d i scovered t hat ac oi
l o f w ire wh en moved
t
o o r f rom a p ermanen t s tee l magne t o r a ctive c onduc tor'
had i nduced i n i ta no ther c ur ren t
, a nd o f o ppos ite d irection
t
o t ha t o f t he i nduc ing c ur ren t
. T his g rea t d i
scovery b y
Faraday , w as t aken u p b y o thers , a nd t he r eal d evelopmen t
of electrica l a ppa ra tus emp loy ing t hese p rinc ip les, •had b een
st
arted o n i t
s w ay.

LESSON NO
. 1
.

FL
E
C
T
R
IC
I
TY t
o t he medica
ELECTRO -
h
as n
l p ract
THERAPEUTICS
ow b
i
tioner a
.
ecome a p
nd s
ermanen
urgeon
t a
, i
djunc
n t he
t
ir
r
espect
ive dut
ies. E very h osp ital o
f a ny consequence
t
o-day, ha
s ac omp lete e quipmen t for t he appl
ica t
ion
u
f X-Rays, High Frequency c urren ts
, C autery c urrents
, e tc
.,
e
tc
., Some me thods of applying e lectrical current for certa
in
p
urposes are even a pp
licab le
, b y t he p a
tien ts themse lves,

—A—

a
lthough i n g eneral t his i s n ot recommended , a s there a re
p
lenty o f c hances f or t he unexper ienced t o do mo re h arm,
t
han g ood , excep t w ith t he Med ical C o
ils del
ivering F a radic
Current d escribed f ur ther o n
.
S
everal k inds o f c ur rent a re emp loyed f o
r e lec
tro- thera-
p
eu t
ical work , the p r
inc ipal o nes b eing as fol
lows :
G
alvanic C urren t
, w hich i so rdinary d i
rect current d erived
f
r om b a
ttery c e
lls, or f r om a d irect current li
ghting c i
rcu it
.
F
aradic C urren t
, wh ich i su sually under s
tood t o mean t he
unsyme trical, a l
terna ting , pulsa t
ing , current d e
livered f rom
t
he s econda ry w inding o f an i nduction o r medical coil
, a s it
i
s more p opu larly k nown .
8
9
 F
rank
inic u
rren t, o r t he c ontinuous h igh p otent ia l c ur ren t
d
el ivered f rom a s tatic o r
10 v oc influence mach ine, s uch a s
t
he Ho ltz, o r Wimshu r s
t.
Oud in and D
'Ar sonva l
Curren ts, s upp lied f rom
h
igh f requency a ir c ore
t
r ansformers , o f the T esla
t
ype ; t he p o
ten t
ia l a nd
f
requency b eing v ery h igh.
The u se a nd p roper ties
0 o
f Ga lvan ic o r low v oltage
F13.-2 d
i rec t c urrents w ill b e
c
ons idered f i
rs t
. * To b eg in
w
itn , x ne c urrent s t reng th emp loyed i s measured i n m ill
i-
amperes , o ne m illi-ampere b eing e qu iva len t t o o ne o ne-
t
housand th o f a n ampere . Hence a c urrent s treng th o f 1 00
milli-amperes i s t he s ame a s 1 00-1000 ths o r 1 -10th ampere .
The r esis tance o f t he h uman b ody , wh ich i s c onfined p rin-
c
ipa lly t o t he s kin, r anges i n v alue b etween 2 ,000 t o 5 ,000
ohms a nd h igher , b ut
t
his i s d ependen t t o a I
ntit
g
rea t p ar t u pon t he
cond ition o f t he s kin,
na ture o
f t he e l ec-
trodes , a nd a rea o f s kin
covered b y t hem . F or
a
ll galvan ic a
pp lica-
t
i ons i ti s n ecessary t o
keep t he b ody r esis t-
ance d own a s l ow a s
po ssib le, a nd t his i s
grea tly f aci litated b y
f
i
r s t wash ing t he s kin
with s oap a nd warm
'
wa ter, a fter wh ich t he Fig. 3
s
k in s urface i s w etted
w
i th s alt s olu tion . The e lectrodes u sed s hou ld h ave ' a
s l arge
ac on tac t s ur face a s p ossible a lso.
G
alvan ism i n most c ases i s a pp l
ied l oca lly, t he t erm ina l
a
pp l
ied t o t he d iseased p ortion b eing k nown a s t he " Active
E
lec trode ." I t isg enera lly o f sma l
l s ize, a s c ompared t o t he
"Pass ive E lec trode ," wh ich i s the c ognomen a pp lied t o t he
one f orm ing t he c ommon o r g enera l t erm ina l. A g ood
"
pass ive e lec trode" i s made o f ap iece o f s heet l ead o r block -
t
i n
, a fterward w rapp ing
it w ith s evera l l ayers
of s urgical g auze ,
soaked i n s alt s olu tion .
This e l
ec trode i s u su -
a
lly a pp l
ied t
o t
he
s
tomach o r a bdomen o f
t
he p atient . Ano ther
way t o f orm t he " pas -
s
ive" e lec trode , i s t o
have t he p atien t i m-
merse t he f eet i n at ub
o
f s a lt s olution , t he
s
olu tion b eing r endered
e
lec trica lly a ct
ive b y a
sma ll me ta l p la te d ip -
p
ing i nto i t
, b ut n o t
touch ing t he p a t
ien t
.
Fig. 4. A Wa ll S et Med ical Coi
l
The a rrangemen t o f
the g alvan ic c ircu it f or
b
at teries ( 20 t o 4 0 c e
lls u sua l
ly r equ ired) i sd epic ted a t f i
g. 1
A a nd B , where R i s ar heos tat o r s l ow ly a djus tab le r e-
*
For fur
ther d
eta
ils s
ee Dr
. S
trong
's t
rea
tise o
n "Modern E
lec
tro
Therapeut
ics:"

9
0
s
istance c oil; B T t he b attery o f w et o r d ry c ells; M A , a
mil
li-amper tne ter o r s imply m il -amme ter ; A E , t he a ctive
e
lectrode t o b e a pp l
ied t o the d iseased p or tion ; a nd P E , the
passive el
ec trode ,
s
hown a s at ub a t A .
I
n d i agram B , a IM
I
L1 I
,
1 '
L
l 1
1
,
11 1
'
ne e
,
1

mu lt
i-po int s elec tor r
.1
111
I
II1
11
1/, »ZIN,
e,
switch i s s hown f or
c
u tt
ing i n c el ls, o ne
by o ne , a s w ell a s
t
he r heos ta t R . The
method o f u s ing t he
d
irec t c urren t l igh t-
i
ng c
ircuit a
s a
s
ource o f g alvan ic
curren t, i s s een a t
f
ig. 2. S R , i s t he
s
hun t r esistance , a d-
j
us tab le in f
ine
steps . L
, a 1 6
Cand le p ower l amp .
A v ery ha n d y
rheostat i s t ha t
i
lus tra ted b y f ig
. 3
and i t c an c arry 2 F
ig. 5. Magne tic M il-A m meter
amperes contant
c
urren t o f 2 , 000 m illi-amperes . The r e sis tance i s adjus table
i
n n umerous s teps , e nabling v ery c lose work t o b e a ccom -
p
lished .
A t yp ical G alvan ic a nd F arad ic Sw i tchboard a s s upp lied
f
or c ommerc ia l p urposes i s depic ted b y f ig
. 4 . Th is s witch-
board i s f or u se w ith
BUL B ELEC TRODE batter ies a nd h as i n-
d
uc tion c o
il, r heo stat
,
necessary s witches , i n
-
FIG 6 t
e rrup ters , e tc.
, c om -
p
le te . O ther s tyles a nd
f
orms o f c ontro l b oard
are made f or 10 v ol
t
d
i rec t c urrent c ircu its.
POINT ELECTR uDL
All work o f t his n ature
sh o ul d b e d one
F
IG-9 me thod ica lly a nd a c-
cura te ly , t o a void h arm
t
o t he p atien t
; a nd f or
mea suremen ts , t he m i
l-amme ter i sessen t
ia l, ac ut o f as tand -
a
rd t ype b eing s hown b y f i
g. 5 .
One o f t he c ommones t t reatmen ts i s t hat o f " Genera l
galvan iza tion ." Th is h as a n e fec t o n t he e ntire o rgan ism .
Genera l g alvan iza tion i s applied c hief
ly f or t reating O rgan ic
SpinalD isease , O bes ity,a nd D iabe tes.
The e l
ec trodes u sed îa n b e o f block t in, a bou t 6i nches
square , a nd c overed
w
ith s urg ica l g auze , m mi li m m el l> _.,_
wetted wi
th sa
l t __
C
a
s th
ol ode
uti . (
on TNega
he tive F
ig
'. 7
. Need
le Ho
lder f
or Nega
tive E
lectro
lys
is

po
le ) is a pp lied o ver the u pper p art of t he spine, a nd the
Anode ( Pos itive p ole), over t he abdomen o r stomach . The
c
urren t streng th a pplied v aries from 2 0 t o 5 0 mi l
li-amperes ,
ex
tend ing o ver a p eriod o f a bout 2 5 m inu tes. I n a pplying
g
alvan ic currents , the fo
llow ing procedure s hould b e a dhered
t
o: The e lec trodes a re fi
rst placed in c ontac t with the p atient
's
body, then t he c urrent i s turned o n a nd g radua lly increased
t
o t he desired v a
lue. I n stopp ing t he tr eatmen t, the r everse
holds true, t hat i s
; the curren t isslow ly ireduced t o z ero, and
t
he e l
ectrodes r emoved .
The a pplica tion o f " Local g alvanization ," i s emp loyed i n
c
ast s of N eura lgia
, Rheuma tism, a cute a nd c hronic i nj
lam-
9
1
 mo
tion
, e
t
c. A s mall e lectrode , s ponge c overed , i s a pplied t o
the afec ted a
rea ,
t
he p ass ive e l ec trode
being t
he l
arges t
one a foremen tioned .
F
ig. 1 0
. N eedle Ho lder f or Electro lysis o f
B
irthmarks , Hemorrho ids, e tc. The p olar ity o f t he
a
c tive e l ectrode i s
determ ined l a
rge ly b y t he d isease t o b e t reated . The l ocal
efec t o f t he p os itive p ole, b eing s eda tive, h emos ta tic, g erm i
-
c
ida l a nd t end ing t o r elieve c ongest ion . The l oca l e fec t of
t
he n ega tive e lec trode , o n the c ontrary , i sp roduc tive o f c on-
gestion , l ocal s t
imu la tion , and c oun ter -irrita tion .
The t reatment c alled "Nega tive E lec tro lys is ," i s ad es truc -
t
ive p rocess , c aus ing d iseased t issues t o s o ften a nd d isin te-
grate , d ue t o t he c hem ical a ction o f c aus tic s oda wh ich
gathers a bou t t he c athode e lectrode a s ar esu lt o f t he s od ium
c
h loride i n the t i
ssues o f the b ody . I f ag alvan ic c urren t i s
passéd t hrough t he b ody , t he s odium h ydrox ide o r c aus tic
s
oda , c ollecting a t t he c a
thode e lec trode , w il
l d estroy t he
t
i
ssue s i n i mmed ia te t ouch w ith t he l a
tter , a nd w ill c onver t
t
hem i nto a s o
ft s oap -like s ubs tance .
"Nega tive e lec tro lys is" i sa pp lied f or many c ommon c om -
p
l aint s a nd a i
lmen ts, s uch a s t he e l
im ina tion o f s uperf luous
h
ai r
, w art s, mo les , e tc. I n f i
g, 6 , i s s hown t he s hape o f t he
e
lec trode t o b e u sed
i
n r emov ing s uper-
f
lous h a i r . I ts
sma ller e nd i s b ulb-
s
haped , t he ma ter ial
used f or mak ing t he
i
nstrument bei n g
s
tee l
. An i nsula ted
holder ,f or man ipu -
lating t he n eed le i s
seen a t f ig. 7.
F
irs t t
he bulb -
shaped e lectrode o r, F
ig . 1
need le i s c are fu lly
entered i nto t he " fo llic le" o r h air d uc t
, a s s een a t A , u sing a
magn ifying g lass i fn ecessary t o l oca te t he n eed le's p osi tion .
At t his j unc ture t he c urrent i sg radua lly a pp lied b y ins truc t-
i
ng t he p atient t o s low ly i mmerse h i s f i
ngers i n
to a b ow l o f
s
alt s o
lu tion , c on ta ining t he a node o r p ositive e lectrode . The
c
urren t a pplied v ar ies f rom 1t o 3m i ll
i-amperes , a nd when a
whi te b ubb le
, n o b igger t han a p in h ead s hows a t t he mou th
o
f t he h air f ollicle , t he p at
ient i s t old t o s low ly w ithdraw
h
is f ingers f rom t he s olu t
ion . The n ex t par t o f t he o pera tion
i
st o re move t he n eed le , a nd i ft he a ction h as b een c omp lete,
t
he h a
ir h as b een d isin tegra ted f rom i t
s r oo t, a nd a p a ir o f
l
igh t f orceps c an b e u sed t o s lide t he h a
ir f rom t he f ol licle
chamber . I
f the
hair d oes n ot c ome
ou t r ead ily , t he o p-
era t
ion h as n ot b een
successful , a nd
shou ld b e r epea t-
ed . The ti me
r
equ ired t o r emove
ah air i sf rom 1t o 2
minu tes . On ly a
f
ew h airs f rom a
g
iven a rea s hou ld b e
extrac ted a t o ne s i
t-
F
ig. 12 t
i ng.
I
n removing w ar
ts, bir
thmarks, mo les, a nd the l i
ke, use a
s
harp poin
ted n eed
le electrode
, like the o ne shown i n Fig. 9
.
The s
a me method of applying the current a nd stopping itare
f
ol
lowed as given above f or r
emov ing s uperfluous h a
ir. The
p
oint o
f the needle e
lectrode, connected t o the n egat
ive pole
9
2
o
f t he c ircu it, i s i nser ted i n t he g row th n ear i t
s b ase ; a nd
g
en t ly e nte red u ntil i tn ear ly p asses t hrough i t
. T he c urren t
i
st hen a pp lied b y a l
low ing t he p atien t t o s low ly i mmer se h i s
f
i
nger s i nto a b ow l o f s al t s olu tion a s p rev iou sly i ns truC ted .
The c urren t i s i ncreased t o a s h igh a s 1 5 m i lli-amperes i f
n
ece ssary , t o c au se t he who le g row th t o b ecome o f a wh ite
b
leached c olor . I n c ases o f l arge g row ths , l arger t han g i n.
d
iame ter, t he n eed le c an b e a pp lied more t han o nce , t he s ec -
o
nd a pp lica tion , b eing t ha t w ith t he n eed le i nser ted a t r i gh t
a
ng les t ot he f i
rst p o sition . An tisep tics s hou ld n ot b e a pplied ,
a
s t he g row th g enera lly d ries u p i nto ab rown s cab , a nd f al
l s
of o f i ts own a cco rd i n aw eek o r s o.
For r emov ing l arge g row th s
, s uch a s b irthmarks , a nd t h e
l
i
ke , as pec ia l mu ltip le p oin ted n eed le i s, emp loyed , em ilar
t
o t he o ne d epic ted a t F ig . 1 0
. T he n eed les a re i nser ted
r
epea ted ly a t d iferen t a ng les , u ntil t he who le a rea h as f i
na lly
b
een b leached a nd d est royed .
The f arad ic c ur ren t, s upp lied b y med ica l c oils, wh ich a re
sma ll s ize s pec ial ly wound i nduc tion c oils ,* o r t rans former s,
i
se xtens ive ly e mp loyed b o
th b y p hysic ians , a nd p atien ts i n
-
dependen tly. S evera l s t yles o f
farad ic i nstrumen ts a re i lus tra-
Ad b y F ig s. 1 , 1 2 a nd 1 3. T he
coil s hown a t F ig. 1 d oes n o t
deliver a f arad ic o r s econdary
curren t, b u t a n i nterrup ted g a
l -
van ic o r p ulsa ting c ur ren t. T h
is
i
su se fu l t o t r ea ting r heuma ti sm .
etc. 'T he c oils s hown a t F ig s.
1
2 a nd 1 3
, b oth h ave s econdary
wind ing s a nd d eliver a r egu lar
farad ic c urren t
, wh ich a s s ta ted
before i s a n u nsymme trica l,
«Zei,
al
terna ting , o ne o f l ow f re-
q
uency ; a nd v ol tages o f 1 ,000 o r
l
ess u p to 5 ,000 , a ccord ing t o t he
F
ig. 13 n
umber o f t urns o n t he s econd -
a
ry w ind ing . T he c urren t
d
ens ity i n m illi-amperes o f f arad ic c urren t a pplied , v ar ies
f
rom o ne o ne -thousand th u p t o o ne m ili- ampere , d epend ing
upon t he s ize a nd l eng th o f t he s econdary c o
il.
Mos t f arad ic c oils, o pera te w ell o n 2t o 4d ry c ells , b ut
s
ome times t hey a re o pera ted d irec tly f r om d irec t c urren t
l
igh ting c ircu its.
T he p hys io log ica l e ffec t o f f arad ic c urren ts d epend u pon
t
he ir v oltage a nd f requency o f i nterrup tion a nd r eversa l
. A
l
ow f requency , l ow p oten tial, c urren t a cts o n t he mus cles
a
nd m otor n erv es c hief ly, p
roduc ing "
interm itten t" o
r
"
clon ic" muscular c on -
trac tions , wh i
le a c urren t
of s im i
lar v oltage , b u t o f
higher f requency , c auses
a c on tinuous c on trac tion ,
t
echn ica lly t e rmed " te t a- CO R E
n
us" o r " ton ic s pa sm .'
High p oten tia l f arad ic
c
ur ren ts for t
r eatmen t •

s
hou ld b e o f h igh f r e-
quency . C urren ts o f t his 1 - 011 11
nature a re p ar ticu lar ly -
.
a
dap ted t o t rea ting c a ses F
IG I 4
o
f N eura lgia , S ci ati ca, a lso
other f o rm s o f a cu te p a in, e x cep t t hose c onnec ted w ith i n
-
F
or d
eta
ils o
f I
nduc
tion C
oils
, s
ee l
e
sson o
n S
park C
qils
.
9
8
f
l
amma
tion
, o
r S
ept
ic I
nfec
tion
. Low T ens ion, l ow f re-
quency f a
rad ic
curren ts, a re u sed
qui te e xtensive ly
t
o i ncrease m us-
c
u lar g row th, r e-
l
iev ing s
t
iffne ss
d
ue t or heuma tism ,
e
t c.
, a nd a lso f or
p
roduc ing muscu -
l
ar c on trac t
ions ,
a
s af orm o f e x-
e
rc ise , i n cases o f
p
ar tia l p
ara lysi s
,
e
tc . - The l
ow
po ten tia l f arad ic
c
urren t, i f em -
p
loyed w ith h igh
interruption
s
peed , may p rove
d
isas trous , and
e
xhaus t r ather
Fig
. 15
. A Power fu
l Static o
r Inf
luence Machine
t
h a n i
n v
i go rate
t
he musc les. T he
medium p o
tential fa
rad ic current can b e a
pplied a t either s low
o
r fast in
terrup t
ion s peed, for the purpose of incr eas ing c ircula -
t
i
on, a nd reliev
ing conges t
ive h eadaches.
The polarity ( apparen t)
, o f t he f aradic c urrent, d e
livered
by induction c o
il s econdary w ind ings may b e tested b y
means of p olar
ity t est p aper. The c i
rcui ts of af aradic co i
l,
i
nclud
ing s econdary a nd primary w ind ings a re s hown i n dia-
g
ram F ig
. 1 4. These c oi
ls u sually h ave t hree bind ing p os
ts, 1,
2and 3,connec ted u p a s shown ; t o e nable t he user to connec t
u
p the electrodes, f or e i
ther g a lvan ic (i nterrupted p rimary ),
c
urrent
, p osts 1a nd 2 ; F aradic ( Secondary) c urrent
, p osts
, 2
a
nd 3; or ac omb ina t
ion o f the t wo ( Galvano- faradic) cur -
r
ent
, which has b
een used successfu
lly f
or t
r
eatmen
t o
f c
on-
s
t
ipat
ion
, en
larged p
ros
tate. e
tc.
S
tat
ic g
enera
tors a
re e
xtens
ive
ly emp
loyed f
or t
r
eatment
o
f v
arious a
i
lments
. The c
urrent f
rom a static mach ine is
continuous , u
ndi-
r
ec t
iona l
, o f high
potential, b ut v ery
small amperage .
The c urrent f or
t
herapeutic p ur-
poses a verages b e-
tween 1 0
,000 an d
1
00,000 v olts
. The
c
urren t d ensity i s
f
rom o ne nne-thnu-
s
andth to two mill
i-
S
o me Typ
ica l High Frequency amperes
. The more
Electrodes
r
evolving p lates
t
here are, t
he mo re
t
he amperage; the g reater the plate d
iameter
, the h
igher the
v
oltage
.
Stat
ic insu
lat
ion a nd st
a t
ic b
reeze a
re two forms o
f t
reat-
men t by t
his c
urrent in wide u
se. Sta
tic i
nsu
la t
ion o
r st
atic
ba
th , is a
ccomplished as shown by Fig. 1
6
. Here P r epre-
s
ents a p
latform u
pon wh
ich t
he p
at
ien
t's b
ody B r
ests
. The
9
4
p
la tform s hou ld ` •e i nsulated f rom t he f loor b y 4g lass l egs
i
t l eas t 6 i n. l ong .
The p at ient may
s
tand u pon a me ta l
p
la te o n t he p la t-
:
f
orm , wh ich i s c on-
n
ec ted t o o ne t er-
mina l o f t he s ta tic
mach ine b y ac ha in,
o
r r od. The o ther
t
erm ina l o f t he ma -
c
hine i s c onnec ted
t
o t he g round G , o n
aw ater p ipe . I f t he
posi t
ive p ole c on -
nec ts w i th t he p a-
t
ient t he e fec t i s
s
oo th ing , a nd r e st-
f
ul. Hence t his
t
rea tment i s ef ica -
c
ious i n c ases o f
I
nsomn ia. Hyster ia,
a
nd R eflex Nervous
c
ond itions .
The s ta t
ic b reeze
i
sa pplied a s i n F ig.
1
7, t he b reeze e l ec-
t
rode bei n g c on -
-
17
nec ted t o t he p osi-
t
ive e lectrode , wh ich
i
s a l
so g rounded . T his i s of u se in treating Headache , l ocal
c
ong e s
tion o f N ervous e ng in, a nd i n Neuros is. T he p ole
may b e r eversed , g iving a n ega t
ive b reeze , b ut the f ormer
me thod i sb est , a s i tc reates l ess irri
ta tion .
A me thod o f a pp lying e l
ec tricity in e lectro- therapeu tics i n
g
rea t f avor n ow , i s b y means o f high f r
equency a ppara tus
a
f ter t he me thod o f N ikola T esla, D 'Arsonva l
, Oud in , a nd
o
ther s
. •
A c omp le te h igh f r
equency s et is d iagramed a t F ig . 1 8
.
Here a s t ep -up t r ansformer r aises the p rimary p otent ia l o f
t
he a lterna ting c urrent f rom 1 00 v o
lts, a t 60 c ycle fr equency ,
(F ), t o 1 0,000 v olts a t 6 0 cycles . A i s the a lterna tor o r c ir-
c
u it s upp ly ing t he p ower . I n t he c losed o scil
la t
ing c i
rcu it
i
nc lud ing t he g lass p late o r L eyden j a r c ondenser C , s park
gap G , a nd p rimary c oil P, of t he T esla a ir core t ransformer ,
T S ; t he f r equency o f the c urrent i s r aised ow ing t o t he
r
ap id c harg ing a nd d ischarg ing o f the c ondenser a cross t he
spark g ap G . Here t he f requency may e asily r each 1 00,000 .
cyc les o r more p er s econd . The p otent ial i s sens ib ly t he
s
ame . The n ext t ransforma tion i s d one b y means o f t he
T esla t r ans former , wh ich i ncreases t he v oltage t o 2 00,000 o r
mo re, t he f requency r ema ining t he sa me , i.e .
, 100,000 c ycles.
TS

o
G
1
00.
, TR 1
0
.0 00-V 1
0,000v. 200.0 oov
60 f 6Of 1
0 o
,000f t
oomoof

F
IG-18

The high f
requency curren
t surges a
cross t
he g
ap T G
. Th
is
current p
ossesses many c ura
tive p
ropert
ies
.

'
9
5
 LESSON No
. 1
2
.

T
INDUCTION COILS AND GEISSLER TUBES
.

HERE a re t wo g enera l c lasses o f s park c oils, o ne h av -

i
ng a s ing le c oil w ind ing a nd u tilized mos tly f or g as
l
igh t
ing , t he o ther .composed o f t wo w ind ing s
, k nown
a
s t he p rimary a nd s econdary , a nd u sed t o p roduce a
j
u mp s park , f or
.
- WIND ING wire less p urpos -
I
RON C ORE e
s, g as e ngine i g-
nition , X-Ray s,
e
tc.
H The s ingle
:--(
:— ___ _-_
— 1
. w ind ing t ype o f
SPARW co
i l p roduces a
c f
at s park a t t he
point where 'i t
s
H c
ircu it i s b roken ,
M
I i
s which i s o f mo -
men tary d ura tion .
It i s d ue t o t he
"
se lf i nduc tion"
o
f t he c oil, a nd i s t he r esu lt o f t he f o llow ing a ction . R e-
f
erring t o F ig . 1 ,t he c i
rcu i
t o f aw ipe s park c oil, w ith b at tery
B
, a nd make a nd b reak c ontac t C , is p lain ly s hown . When
t
he c on tac t i s c losed , t he b attery c urrent f l
ows a round t he
c
oil
, h av ing t he s oft i ron w ire c ore w ith in i t, a nd s trong ly
magne tizes t he c ore . A t t he i nstant t he c on tac t b reak s t he
circuit, t he magne t ism i n the i ron c ore c ol lapses o r dies d own
very q uick ly, a nd t his r apid c hange i n t he v alue o f the mag -
netic f lux, c auses a c urrent o f g rea t instantaneous v alue t o b e
genera ted i nt he c oil o r w ind ing , a nd t h
is i st he c urren t c rea t-
i
ng t he b right s park s een o n q uick ly o pen ing s uch a c ircu it.
It has g rea t c alor ific o r i gniting v alue, a nd i s much emp loyed
for ligh ting g as j e ts, e xplod ing g as e ngine m ix tures , e tc
. I f
two me tal h and les o r e lectrodes
a
re a ttached t o e ither s ide o f t he
break c ontac t, a s i ndica ted b y t he
dotted l ines, i n F ig . 1 , as hock w ill
be f e
lt, whenever t he c ircuit i s
b
roken . The s elf -induced b reak
c
ur rent , i s o ften t ermed a " kick
c
urren t," i n e lec trica l p arlance a nd
t
he c oil i s r eferred t o a s a" kick
c
oil" o r " induc tance c oil
."
I
n F ig . 2 , i si lus tra ted t he c om-
Box T yp e S park C oil
ponent p ar ts g oing t o make u p a
.
coil o f t he " induc tion o r j ump
s
park" c l
ass , h av ing b oth p rimary
a
nd s econdary w ind ings , t ogether w ith a s pring v ibra tor o r
i
nter rup ter , f or mak ing a nd b reak ing t he p rimary c urren t.
The c onnec tion o f t he v arious s ec tions w i
th t he b attery i s

F
ig. 2

s
een a
t Fig
. 3. Here P P, isthe pr
imary co
il te
rminals
, a nd
SS, t
he s
econdary c
oi
l terminals c
onnect
ing to t
he s
park g ap
SG. The vibrat
ing in
terrupter i
sat V, H be
ing the contact
9
6 .
s
pring and i
r
on h ammer a ttrac ted b y the core of the c oil
; Ci s
t
he c on tac t screw a nd p i
llar; K i s ap aper a nd t infoil con-
d
enser s hun ted a cross t he vibra tor to absorb the e xtra o r self
-
i
nduced c urren t a t b reak o f the p r
imary c ircuit
, s o a s t o cu
t
d
own t he s park ing a t the contac t p o
ints, and a lso t o assist in
q
uick ly d emagne tizing t he c ore, wh ich g reatly e nhances t he
efec t o n t he s ec -
ondary winding ; S6
a
s t he q uicker t he
core i s d emagn i- 5 H C
t
ized , t
he more
pronounced the
efec t o n t he s ec- I RON C
ORE
ondary c oi
l. The P P
.
v
ibra tor s pring i s V
a
t trac ted t
o t
he
5
core, b ut in s o d o -
« M
I

i
ng i t b reaks t he
c
ircu i t
, a nd h ence I 5
immed iately f
l
ies
back a gains t t he n6
. 3 8
contact s
crew ,
c
omp leting t he c ircuit again, much t he same a s in t he o rdi-
n
ary e lectric b e
l l
. Th is k eeps u p a s long a s t he c urren t
i
ss upp lied t o t he p rimary c oil
.
The p hys ica l a ction o f t he i nduc tion c oil i sprimar ily d ue to
t
he f ac t t ha t ac urren t p ass ing momen tar ily in t he p rimary
c
oil, c rea tes a bou t i tielf, a magne tic f i
e ld o f f orce , wh ich,
when a no ther c oi l o f w ire i s p laced w i th in it
, w i
th i ts a xis
p
ara lle l t o t ha t o f t he p rimary c o
il i nduces i n t his c oil a
s
econdary c urrent , a s i t i s t ermed . The v o
ltage o f t his
s
econda ry o r i nduced c urren t i s
p
ropor t
iona l t o t he n umber o f
t
urns o f w ire i t c on tains , i n c om -
parison t o t he n umber o f t urns i n
t
he p rimary w ind ing . Thus , i ft he
p
rimary c oil c on tains 1 00 t urns o f
wire, a nd t he s econdary 5 0
,000
t
urns , t hen i f 1 0 v ol ts p asses
t
hrough t he p rimary , t he s econd -
a
ry c o il w ill h ave 5 0
,000 d iv ided b y
1
00 o r 5 00 t imes 1 0 v olt s, o r 5 000
volts i nduced i n i t
. Th is i s s uf f
i- MAKI
c
ien t v oltage t o l eap a g ap i n o rd i-
nary a ir, o ne -quar ter o f a n i nch
l
ong .
The a ction o f t he c oil a t make
and b reak o f t he p rimary c urrent
i
s p erhaps b est e xp lained b y t he
d
iag rams s hown i n F igs . 4a nd 5 .
A s s een f rom F ig . 4 , the d irec tion
o
f t he i nduced c urrent i r
. t he s ec -
ondary c oil, S , i s o ppos ite t o t he
d
i rec tion o f t he p rimary c urrent 1- 44 i
-—
e
! - -1 10 1i. jP
a
t m ake. T he h alf w ave o f t he ORE N ®
secondary c urrent i nduced a t t he
snake o f t he p rimary c i
rcu it, i s F
ig. 5 .
not o f av ery h igh v alue , a nd i s
known a s t he " i nverse c urrent ." I t is v ery u ndes irab le i n
opera ting X -Ray t ubes , t end ing t o blacken t he t ubes . I
n
med ica l o r f a rad ic i nduc tion c oils, i t is a lways p resent , b ut
even t ho o f aw eak c harac ter, t he s econdary c urrent o f these
c
oils a re o f
ten r eferred t o a s p os it
ive o r n egative c urren ts.
I
n f act, p ole t est p aper w il
l s how a p redom ina ting p olarity.
The p olar ity o f t he s econdary c urrent i s read ily r ever sed
by s imp ly r evers ing t he p rimary c urrent . The r elation o f
t
he i nverse o r make c ur rent o f t he secondary i s g raph ically
s
hown a t F ig . 6 B. The s tronges t h alf w ave, t ha t r esult-
i
ng f rom b reak ing t he p rimary c ircu it isi nt he same d irec t
ion
9
7
as the p rimary magne tiz ing c urren t, a s s hown b y t he c ut
F
ig. 5 . The p oten t
ial v alue o f t he s econdary h alf w ave
r
esultant f rom b reak ing t he p rimary c i rcu i t i s seen a t F ig.
6
, A. The s pace
o
f time when n o
c
urrent p asses i n
t
he s econdary , C ,
i
s dur ing t he i n-
t
erval when t he
c
ontac t o f t he v i-
b
rator i s o pen .
The c urves
s
hown a t F ig . 6 , e
are more t yp ica l
of a med ica l c o
il M
I6
. 6
current , the s park
coi
l c urrent wave
form b eing more
peaked , l ike t hat
in Fig . 7 , ow ing
to the q uickness E min
of b reak ing t he e
p
rimary c
ircu it,
volt
which i sh ere a id-
ed b y t he c on- n
o,
denser s hunted
a
cross t he v ibra tor. Here A , A , a re t he s udden ly i nduced
s
econdary h alf waves o f as park c o
il a t b reak o f p ri mary
c
ircuit; a nd B , B , a re i nduced h alf waves p roduced a t make
o
f p r
imary c ircu i t
. The d otted l i
nes s how t he p rimary c ur -
r
en t
. I n mos t c ases , when t he s park g ap i s o f a ny a ppre -
c
iable l eng th, t he " break i nduced" h alf waves , wh ich may b e
e
ither p osi tive o f n ega tive , a ccord ing t o t he p olari ty o f t he
p
rimary c urrent , a re t he o nes l eaping t he g ap ; t he w eaker
"B" h alf w aves o f i nverse c urren t, n ot b eing a b le t o l eap t he
gap. In s uch a n e ven t, t he s park
t
akes o n ac ertain p olar i ty, a s w ill b e
eviden t; b ut if t he g ap i s s hor t, a nd
both " A" a nd " B" h alf waves s uc-
c
eed i n l eap ing i t
, t hen t he s park i s
f
ormed o f a n u nsyme tr ica l
, p ulsa ting ,
a
lterna t
ing c urren t. A r egu lar s i nu-
s
oid ia l a lterna ting c urren t i s o ne
whose b o th h alf waves , p osi t
ive a nd
n
ega tive , a re e qua l o r n ear ly s o, i n
magn itude a nd d ura tion .
The p olarity o f s park c o
il d is-
c
harges c an b e a scer tained b y a ttach-
i
ng t wo f ine i ron w ires t o t he s econ -
d
ary t erm ina ls. The w ire r ema in ing
c
old i st he p ositive o ne , wh ile t he o ne
b
ecom ing h ot i st he n ega tive p ole.
For o pera t
ing s park c o
ils a t max i-
mum e ff
ic iency o r v oltages o ver f i
fty,
a
lterna ting o r d irect c ur ren t, t he
Gernsback E lec tro ly tic I nter rup ter i s
av ery u sefu l ins trumen t. I t c ons is ts
o
f as pec ia l me ta l r od r es ting i n a
porce la in t ube , h av ing a s l
igh t o rif
ice
o
r o pen ing a t the b o ttom . The t ube
a
nd r od a re i mmersed i n a n e l ect ro-
F
ig . 8 l
yte o r a cid s olu tion , a nd when c on-
nected i nto t he p rimary c ircu it
, i ti n
-
t
errup ts t he c urrent a t e normous s peed , t he r a te o f make a nd
b
reak s ome times r each ing s evera l t housand a s econd . It
i
sv ery s imp le i n o pera tion , a lso i nexpens ive a s t o f i
rs t c ost .
a
nd ma in tenance . I ts a ppearance i ss een a t F ig . 8 . F or 10
v
olts o r 2 20 v olt c ircu its, ac hoke c oil c ons is ting o f ab und le
o
f i ron w ire, wound w ith s evera l l ayers o f h eavy c opper
magne t w ire , i s b es t c onnec ted i nto c i rcu it t o p reven t a n
9
8
e
xcess
ive current fl
ow ing and b
l
inking t
he li
ghts
. The man -
n
er of hooking u p the cl
:oke c
oil i
s s
hown a t Fig
. 9. The
s
park resu
lting from t he use o
f the e
l
ectro
lytic in
terrup
ter
,
i
sseen at Fig
. 9A.
S
park c o
ils o f the induc
tion t ype are also wide
ly used
f
or gas a
nd g asol
ine engine ign
ition. A diagram for c
onnect
-
i
ng up at 1/2" s
park co
il to as ing
le cy
linder gaso
line eng
ine
i
sshown a t Fig. 10
.

N
' 8000
CH I
L
F
USES I
NT. „
a
10
AC g
oOL
. !
co
0 /0
S
VL
8 050 K
.
c
.

p
ig. 9

A s
tandard f
orm o
f s
park c
o
il i
s d
epic
ted a
t f
i
g
. 1
. T
his
i
s the " Bull
-Dog" C oil pro-
d
uced b y the Electro Import-
i
ng Co.
, of N . Y. City
, and is
b
uil
t i n all s i
zes f rom 1 4 "
/
s
park up to 12" s
park capac
ity.
The fie
ld o f e xperiment w ith
s
park c oils i s e ndless, a nd
s
ome o f t he more i n
teresting
a
nd i nstruc t
ive e xamp les a re
c
ited b elow , b ut i t i s hoped
t
hat t hese w i
ll b ut s erve t o F
ig. 9A
l
ead t he way t o more e lab-
ora
te a nd e xtens ive e xperi-
ments
. I t may b e s a
id t ha t the b
igger the c o
il
, t
he more
e
laborate a nd s pectacu lar the exper
imen ts
.

A c ommon , y et
r e
t
uRs ex
treme ly i n
terest-
, i
ng exper imen t with
s
m
e
, vl
s er e rs
smr a
ny s park c oi
l i s
v
* s
park l
adder.
W ON W
IG Z e Two t h
in i ron wires
a
re b ent a s s hown
a
t Fig. 1 2
. B y al i
t-
tP0
I'lT S t
ie e xperimen t
, t he
p
roper s hape o f the
e" h
_
l w
ires w ill b e found,
1i when t he s park w il
l
O r
un u p t he ladder ,
s
top, b egin a t t he
bo
ttom , e tc.
, repea t
-
i
ng the p erformance
F
ig. 1
i
. i
ndefinitely . T he
h
eated a
ir caused by t
he passage o
f t
he s
park
, i
s t
he reason
f
or the s
park t end
ing to ri
se. Heated a
i
r is abe
tter con-
d
uctor t
han o
rdinary a
i
r.
A v
ery p
retty exper
i ment with spark co
ils
, is t
hat crea
ted
b
y st
rewing carbon or other f
i
lings upon a glass p
late. The
s
econdary w
ires are connected t
o o ppos
ite ends of the b
ody
0
9
 o
f f i
l
ings . The s park d ivides u p a nd t akes d evious p a ths
t
hru t he f i
ling s, form ing a v ery strik ing e xper imen t
.
A spark -board i s
easily made a nd
amp ly r ewards t he
builder, as i ti se x
-
t
reme ly p ret ty i n
t
he d ark, r esem-
b
ling a m illion
sparkling e ia-
monds . A t F ig. 1 3
A, i s s hown h ow
t
o make a r egu lar
s
park b oard.
This i s n oth ing
but ap iece o f d ry
wood we l
l shel-
l
acked , a nd c oa ted
on t he f ront f ace
w
i th tinfoil. D iag -
ona l c uts w ith a
sharp k nife a re
t
hen made i n b o th
F
ir. 1
directions a
s
s
hown d iv iding u p t he s urface i n
to a l arge n umber o f s mall
s
park g aps . Us
ing d iferent k inds o f me ta l f o
il, s uch a s
c
opper , a lum inum , e tc.
, g ives d iferent c olored s park s. A t
F
ig . 13B , i s s hown h ow t o c onstruct a s park word -board .
The l etters a re formed o f an arrow s trip o f tinfoil l eading
c
on tinua l
ly f orward t oward t he other e nd o f the b oard . The
f
oil may b e a bou t 5 i w ide . A fter g luing i t f a
st, as harp
knife i s u sed t o p roduce m inute s park
gaps, a bou t 5 4
" t o ! 4" a par t
. A t o ppo - ¶
4
si
te e nds o f t he word o r l e
tters, a re a t
-
tached t he t e rmina ls o f t he s park c o
il 1
10
11WIRLS
s
econdary .
The l eng th o f spark g iven b y ac er-
t
ain c oil i s a lways u nders tood t o mean
when measured b etween n eed le p oin ts.
When me ta l s pheres a re u sed a s e lec-
t
rodes , t he s park c anno t l eap s uch l ong 0
gaps, a s b etween n eedle p o
ints ; for t he
r
eason t ha t t he s pheres p resen t ag rea ter c apac ity, a nd p ar t
o
f the e nergy i su t
ilized i n c harging t hem . A s tr
iking f orm

F
ig. 1
4

o
f di
scharge i
sformed b etween one b
all a
nd a p
ointed e
lec
-
t
rode; w
ith t
he bal
l pos
itive the s
park i
svery d
iferent f
rom
t
hat when t
he ba
ll isnegative
.
1
00
 When a p iece o f g lass o r m ica i s p
laced b e
tween t he
e
lectrodes , the s park t ends t o branch o ut .a
nd s trike a round
t
he e dge o f the
s
hee t
. I
f n ot
t
oo t hick, t he rI P , I
'
1

sheet w ill b e %

p
unc tured , a
s J
IL P i
t
he v oltage o f
t
he s park i s no
,»
v
ery high , being
a
bou t 2 0
,000 v o
lts f or 1 inch s park b etween n eedle p oints.*
(Root means s quare v a
lue ; the max imum v alue p er 1" i nduc-
t
ion coil spark i sa bou t 50
,000 v olts.)
The s park c oil p resents a g ood means o f g ett
ing r id of
c
ats
, o r d ogs, wh ich p row l around t he y ard, o r for g iving a
n
ice surprise t o c h
icken t h
ieves . One t erminal o f the s econd -
a
ry i n this c ase, may b e g rounded o r connec ted t o ap iece
o
f s heet me tal. The o ther t erm inal i s carefu lly i nsu lated
a
nd l ed t o t he o b
ject w ith wh ich t he subject i s t o c ome
i
n contact.
Photographs o f e lectrca l spark d ischarges a re v ery b eau-
t
i
ful a nd i ns
truc tive. A c ut of ad ischarge i s s hown a t F ig
.
1
4
. Ordinary p hotograph p lates a re u sed, t he e xpo sure

F
ig. 1
5

b
eing made i n t he d ark
. T ake a smal
l w ide mouth b o
ttle
,
a
nd f i
ll ith a
lf f ull w ith dry p
ine s
tarch p owder or ta
lcum
p
owder . Over t he mou th of t
he bottle fasten a p
iece of
f
ine g auze, t o s erve a s
asieve. T ie t he g auze
a
round t he n eck o f t he
bot
tle w ith a s tr
ing .
Then t ake t he p hoto-
g
raph p late, a nd w ith
t
he emu lsion o r c oated
s
ide u p, p lace i t u pon
a piece o f s heet i ron,
t
in, etc. Connect t he
metal plate w ith o ne o f
t
he secondary t e rm ina ls
o
f the c oi
l. A t hin l ay-
e
r o f the p owder f rom
t
he b ottle isn ow s i
fted
o
ver t he p ho tograph ic
F
ig 1
6
p
late. A f i
ne me ta l
po
in t such a s ap in, i sset i
n t
he m
iddle o f the p
owder p re
-
1
01
p
ared s urface . The p in p o
int i s c
onnec ted t o the other sec-
ondary p ost o f Ñ he coi
l. C lose a nd o pen t he c o
il primary
c
ircuit q uick ly,
making one
spark . After
making t he s park ,
t
he p late i sw iped
of t o c lear i t o f
powder a nd d e- •
v
eloped i
n t he
r
egular way .
Chang ing t he p o-
l
ari
ty o f t he me t-
a
l p oint w ill g ive
d
iferent r esu lts.
F
ig. 1 4, ist he r e-
s
ult of c onnec ting
t
he n egative p ole
to t he point,
while Fig. 15
,
s
hows t he p hoto -
g
raph r
esu ltant
f
rom c onnec ting
t
he p ositive p ole F
ig. 1
7
t
o t he p o
in t. P at-
t
erns, a s o f as tar, y
our initia
ls, etc
., can b e cut out of paper,
a
nd p laced o ver t he p la
te, b efore s if
ting t he p owder o n
.
When t he s park i s made a nd the pla te developed , the d
esign
w
ill h ave t he s hape of the o utl
ine u sed.
The most
beautiful di s
-

high p otentia
l
d
i scharges of
F
ig. 1
8 the i nduction
coil are g iven
of b .
y e xhausted g lass t
ubes
, g enera l
ly c
a
lled " geiss
ler"
t
ubes
.
Ge
issler or e xhaus
ted tubes are made i n a v arie ty o f
f
orms a nd s tyles, some upright t ubes h aving p edes ta ls
f
ormed u pon t hem , a nd
con tain ing v arious m iner -
a
l s, e tc.
, a re i lus trated a t
Fig . 1 6
. These t ubes a re
ex traord inar ily beau tiful
i
n t he d ark , glow ing w i th
van-co lored h ues. Some
odd s haped t ubes c apab le
o
f g iving o f d if
feren t c ol-
o
rs a re d epicted a t F ig.
1
7. These a re h igh ly e x-
haus ted v
acuum t
ubes .
One o f t he f i
nes t t ubes
made i s t ha t seen a t F ig.
1
8, wh ich i s a t ube c on -
t
ain ing c er tain l iquid m ix -
t
ures , r esu lting i n a n i n-
d
escr ibab le d isplay o f c ol-
o
r, when e xcited.
Very l i
t t
le e nergy i s
c
onsumed i n l ighting
g
e iss ler t ubes , a nd a o ne
i
nch s park c o
il w ill i lum -
i
na te 1 2 t o 1 8 t ubes a t
once, d epend ing upon
t
he ir s ize. The a verage
s
ize i s 8o r 1 0 inche s l ong .
Geiss ler t ubes h ave b een
F
i
g.
1
9 made t o f orm a n ame , t he
t
ube b eing a c on tinuous
1
02
e
vacua ted c hamber , w ith me tal term inals sealed i n both e nds.
I
t may b e s a
id h ere, t ha t the me tal l ead-wire p assing t hru
t
ge glass, must b e platinum , as this has the n earest e xpansion
a
nd c on traction c oef f
icient t o glass.
The f inest a nd most e ntrancing d isplays f or l e
ctures o r
e
xperimen tal s tudy a re o btained f rom r evo lving G eissler
t
ubes. A s mall b attery mo tor s uch a s E. I . C o
., t y
lie S ,
s
erves t he p urpose a dm irably we ll.
A mo tor a ttachment f or rota
ting G e
issler t ubes i s seen a t
F
ig. 1 9
. Here H i s af ibre o r hard r ubber sl eeve, s erving t o
i
nsulate t he r ods R R , s uppor ting t he G eiss ler t ube. A
double c ontac t d rum a nd b rushes a re f i
t
ted t o c onduc t t he
c
oil current t o t he tube a s itrevolves .

LESSON No
. 1
3
.
THE X
-RAY
.

T
HE s o-ca l led X -Rays o r Roentgen R ays, were d is-
c
overed b y P rofessor Roen tgen, of Wurzburg , G er-
many , i n 1 895. He was a t t hat time e xperimen ting
w
i th e l ec trical d ischarges i n e vacuated C rooke 's
t
ubes , e xhaus ted t o o ne o ne-mill
ion th o f a n a tmosphere .
X-Ray s a re t he r e -
s
ult o f a n e l ectr ica l
d
ischarge s
etting
up o
r c
rea ting
w aves i n t he e ther ,
t
he s a me a s i n
wire les s t
eleg ra -
p
hy , w ith t he d if-
f
e rence t ha t t hese
w aves h ave a v ery
minu te l eng th , a nd
extreme ly h
igh
f
r equency ; a
s a
con tras t t o w ire -
l
e ss waves wh ich
are o f f a
ir ly l ong
l
eng th and l
ow
f
r equency .
I
n c onsequence
of t he s hor t wave
l
eng th o
f the
X-Rays , t hey a re
capab le o f p ass ing
t
hrough a g rea t
number o f s olid
s
ubs tances , n ear ly
as r ead ily a s l ight
w aves p ass t hru
g
lass .
S
olid s ubs tances
i
nclud ing me ta ls,
absorb t he X -Rays , PROF . ROENTGEN
i
n p ropor tion t o
t
he ir d ens ity g enera l
ly. L ead a nd iron a re almos t o paque .
Alum inum o ffers b ut sl
igh t r es
istance t o the rays. D iamonds
a
re n early t ransparen t
. G lass a nd q uartz absorb a .g reater
portion o f t he r ays . The b ones o f the human b ody a re fa
irly
opaque , wh ile t he v ital o rgans a nd musc les are n ot so opaque .
The l ung s a re n ear ly transparen t.
The f ollow ing d ata o n t he relative transparency o f v ari-
ous s ubs tances t o t he X -Rays may b e o f interest t o the
r
eader .*
*
See "
Standard Handbook f
or E
lectr
ica
l Eng
ineers
."
1
03
 TRANSPARENCY OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES TO
X-RAYS
.

(
Bate
lli a
nd G
arbasso
.)

Spec
ific Trans - Spec
ific Trans-
G
ravity. p
areney. G
ravity. p
areneY•
Ma
ter
ial
. Water Water Mater
ial
. Water Water
= 1 = 1
. = 1. = 1
P
inewood 056 2
.
21 N
icke l 867 0
.
093
Wa lnut 066 1
.
50 B
rass 8
70 0
.
093
Paraff
in 0.
874 1
.
12 Cadm ium . ...8.69 0
.
090
Rubber 0.
93 1
.
10 Copper 896 0
.
084
Wax . .. 0.
97 1
.
10 B
ismu th 982 0
.
075
Cardboard - 0
.
80 S
i
lver 1
0
.5 0
.
070
Ebonite 1
14 0
.
80 Lead 1
.38 0
.
055
Woo l-c
loth - 0
.
76 Mercury 1
3
.59 0
.
044
Cellu
loid - 0
.
76 Gold 1
9
.36 0
.
030
S
ilk . ..... - 0
.
74 P
la t
inum .2
.07 0
.
020
Cotton - 0
.
70 L
iqu ids.
Bone 1
.
9 0
.
56 Ether 0713 1
.
37
Coke - 0
.
48 P
e troleum . ..0
.836 1
.
28
G
lue - 0
.
48 A
lcoho l .
... 0:
793 1
.
22
S
u lphur .1 .
98 0
.
47 O
live O i
l . ...0
.9 15 1
.
12
&
lum inum 2
.67 0
.
38 Wa ter . ..
....1.00 1
.
00
G
la ss 260 0
.
34 G
lycer ine 1260 0
.
76
T
in 728 0
.
118 N
i tr
ic A c
id . ..1
.420 0
.
70
Z
inc .
.7.20 0
.
116 Chloro form . .1
.525 0
.
60
I
ron 787 0
.
101 S
ulphur ic Acid.1
.84 1 0
.
50

T he X -Rays a s em itted from a t ube made f or t he p urpo se,

a
re i nvisible to t he e ye
. T hey a re e asily r endered v isible,
however , b y observing t hem t hru a c ardboard s c
reen , coated
w
ith a f luorescent s ubstance s uch as, B arium -P latinum -Cyan -
i
de, C alc
ium T ung state, Wi llem ite, etc. T hese s creens b e-
come l um inous i n
propor tion t o t he
s
treng th o
f t
he
X-Rays f al
ling u pon
t
hem . T he manner
o
f o
bserv ing a
n
X-Ray v i ew o f t he
hand i ss hown a tf ig
.
1
, a nd a s s een, t he
hand i s p laced a
s
ho r t d istance a way
f
r om t he t ube, a nd
between i t a nd t he
f
luo rescen t sc
reen .
The s creen i s u su-
a
lly fi
t
ted w
i th
p
lush , f ur, e t
c., a t
t
he s ma l
ler o pening ,
and c ut t o f i
t t he
f
ace a bou t t he e yes.
F
ig.1. The p icture o f t he
h
and t hrown o n t he s c
reen, w ill show t he b ones a nd f l
esh
d
istinctly, ow ing t o t he much g reater a bso rb ing q uality o f
t
he b ones a s c ompared t o the f l
esh. T he b ones a ppear a s a
d
ark s hadow , the t h
icker t he b ones, the d enser t he s hadow .
Actually t he bones a re n ot s een through a " f
luro scope ," b ut
what iss een is as hadow p icture p roduced b y t he c onver sion
o
f t he X -Rays i nto l i
ght b y t he fluorescen t c hem ica l o n t he
s
creen.
1
04
 In f ig. 2 , i s shown t he me thod .of t aking a " skiagraph" o r
X-Ray p hotograph . The
t
ube i se xcited b y as park a
c
oi l o r s t at
ic mach ine .
At ai s t he p osit
ive e lec -
t
rode o r a node ; C i s t he
n
ega tive e l
ec trode o r cath -
ode; h t he h and o f t he
p
a tien t; P t he p ho to -
g
raph ic s
ens i t
ive p
la te
wrapped i n a n o paque e n-
v
elope o r e nclosed i n a
p
la te holder with the
s
l
ide i n ; a nd T , t he tab le.
The d ura tion o f t he e x -
posure t o t he X -Rays w i ll
d
epend u pon t he s treng th Fig. 2.
o
f t he e xci ting a ppara tus
a
nd t ube , a nd a lso u pon t he t h
ickness o f t he t i
ssue a nd
bone t hrough wh ich t hey h ave t o pass.
With l arge p ro fessiona l mach ines, s uch a s u sed i n h os-
p
i tals, i tv aries f rom a f ew s econds t o /2 m inu te a nd more ,
accord ing t o whe ther t he " skiagraph" i s of t he h and , t he
f
oo t
, t he h ead , the p e
lv is, ec . The p elvis i so ne o f t he h ard-
est p ar ts o f t he h uman b ody t o skiagraph , as i ti s s o thick.
Many i ngen -
i
ous i dea s a re
utilized t o o b-
t
ain sk i a-
graphs o f v ar-
i
ous p ar ts o r
o
rgans o f t he
body . As a n
examp le , be
-
f
o re t aking
one o
f t
he
s
tomach , t
he
patient i
s
f
ed a b i
smu th
mea l, c ons is t-
i
ng o f s pec ia l-
l
y prepared
b
ismu th t
ab -
l
ets. The d ens -
F
ig. 3 .
i
ty a nd t r ans -
parency of
b
i smu th i s many t imes h igher t han t hat o f the f lesh o r mus -
c
les , h ence a d iference i n the s hadows c as t u pon t he s creen ;
enab le t he s tomach o utl ine t o be d i
scerned f rom t ha t of t he
bones a nd f l
esh .
Av ery g ood s kiag raph c r
! the hand 'o f al ady , w ith wedd ing
and d iamond r ings o n t he f i
nger, isi lus tra ted a t f ig
. 3 . Th is
X -R ay p ho tog raph
was t aken a s p revi-
ously e xp lained , t he
l
eng th o f e xpo sure
b
e ing 1 0 m inu tes, d i
s-
t
ance o f t ube f rom
hand , 5i nches , pho to-
g
raph p la te 8 b y 1 0
i
nches . The e xciter
f
or t he t ube c onsis ted
o
f a 1 54 i nch " Elec-
t
ro" s park c oil
, w ith
French d oub le s pr ing
v
ibra tor , a nd a 6 v ol
t
dynamo e xciting t he
F
ig. 4 p
r imary c ircu it of t he
coil w ith 5 v ol
ts a nd
1
05
 2 amperes
. The t ube w as a s
tandard t ube designed t o be
o
perated on from 1 to 3i nch spark coi
ls. I n general, the
1
54 or 2i nch co
il gives the most sat
isfactory results
, a nd
t
he larger t
he co
il and tube, t
he q u
icker the skiagraph can
b
e taken. F or s
urgeons' u
se a 10 to 1
2 inch spark coil wi
th

I
F
i
g.5

e
lectro
ly t
ic o r mercury t urbine i nterrupter is genera l
ly em -
p
loyed. S ome h ospi
tals a nd priva te pract
itioners make u se
o
f as large as 20 inch spark co
ils, o r spec
ial transformer s e
ts,
u
til
izing a 1 20,000 v o
lt high t ension t ransformer, o perat
ing
f
rom t he al
terna t
ing c urrent ci
rcu it
.
An X -Ray o utf
it c omplete
, a nd c omprising a s pecial 1%
i
nch s park c o
il, X -Ray t ube
, f luroscope, w ire, switch, bat-
t
eries, and t rea
tise o n X -Rays, i s d
ep icted in
f
ig. 4 . Th is e nab les a nyone t o e xper imen t w ith
t
he wonder fu l X -Rays , a nd t he p rice i s v ery
l
ow , b e ing b ut $ 17.75 f or t he who le o utfi
t r eady
t
o s et u p
. The w iring d iagram f or t his s e t i s
s
hown a t f ig. 5 . The X -Ray t ube i s c onnec ted
a
cross t he s econdary c ircu it o f t he s park c oil.
To p revent p unc tur ing t he t ube a nd a s a n a id
s. t
o t he r egu la tion o f i t
, as afe ty s park g ap i si n-
N
, v
ar iab ly l eft c onnec ted a cross t he s econdary t e r-
mina ls o f t he c oil, t he l eng th o f t he g ap b eing
al i
ttle l ess t han t he s park l eng th r ating o f t he
c
oil.
The t ube u sed i n t h
is o utfit i s s hown a t f ig.
F
ig.6 6
. I ti sa n i mpor ted t ube , a nd i ss elf r egu la ting
a
s r egards t he v acuum .
I
n t he d raw ing f ig
. 7 , is o utlined t he a ction o f t he f ocus
X-Ray t ube. The c athode o rn ega tive e lectrode i sa t K , a nd i s
o
f a lum inum , c oncaved s o a s t o d irect t he t orren t o f r adiant
ma tter t o ac oncen tra ted f oca l p o
int o n t he a node o r a nti -
c
a thode A . A t t his p oint o f i mpact o n t he mo lecu lar t a rge t,
t
he X -Rays a re a bundant ly g enera ted, a nd a s t he t a
rge t i s
o
f p la tinum , i ti s n o t o ft
ly e nab led t o w iths tand a lmo st a ny
hea t d eve loped, b ut i t a lso a l
lows n o p ene tra tion o f t he
X-Rays t o i
ts reverse f ace.
The X -Rays wh ich a re g enera ted a t t he p oint o f i mpac t
on A p roceed r ad ia l
ly o utwards i n s traight l i
nes i n all d irec-
t
ions , a nd a s A i sp laced a t a n a ng le o f 4 5 d egrees , w ith t he
axis o f t he tube , t he X -Rays p ass o ut t hru t he g lass , o ppo -
s
ite t o t he centre o f t he p la te, w i thout e ncoun tering a ny c on-
s
iderab le o ppos ition . I n f ig. 7 , t he d irec tion o f t he c athode
s
tream t oward t he c oncentra ting p oint o n t he a node A , i s
r
epresen ted b y t he d otted l i
nes . The d i rec t
ion o f t he r ad ia -
t
ion o f X -Rays a re r epresen ted b y d ot a nd d ash l ines a nd e x -
t
end t hru t he c a thode K , b ut a re n ot d rawn i n t o make t he
c
u t cl earer.
As t he X -Rays p ass o ut t hru t he g lass wa l
l o f t he t ube ,
t
hey p roduce f luorescence , u sua lly o f ac anary y ellow o r a p -
,p
le -green c olor, b u t this v aries w ith t he c hem ica l st ructure o f
t
he g lass a nd t he d egree o f e xhaus t
ion . I t i s o ften b righ t,
a
nd o ccurs e xac tly o ver t he a rea wh ich i s e xposed t o t he
1
0
6
Roentgen r ays. T he r
esu
lts ob
tained w ith t he f ocus t ube
a
re wha t o ne wou ld
expect, when t
he
source o f the r ays "
:
,.
../ .
..
.,
i
s a lmo st a p oin t
, .
!
;
)• ' • :,'
i
.e.rad iograph ic and ,
,
, - *
"::
-.,
1:-,*
-. -
..
-
screen e fects a re ,
i,
.
.
"
,.?-
-
%• . -.•
.--
t
hereby rendered e'i&
----
-;
1
-
.
-
.
----
1.
much s harper a nd
more d etai
led, w ith-
o
ut t he necess i
ty o f ;
•
• '
•
•
•
'
working w i
th t he • s
.
,
t
ube a t s ome d is-
IV IO
.
‘»:
* • •
• '

t
ance f r
om t he p l
ate. y
i61
/
••.I•
; i
,I
i•.
\
•
.,.\
\.
, ,, ,:
,,,
••..
.,
..
. . .
,
,
A s pec ial w ater- f/l /Mi liI i\'\
;\' •\ •
c
oo led a node t ube .
//
1// l'/'
7 /
'i!I,.1 1\‘
.
\ \
‘\\
\ *\ s'\•\ \
i
s s een a t f i
g. 8 . / ,' /•/ .1 . ,,,
g1 'I I. . % ‘.
The a node e lec trode / /•j .1
t
ends t o h ea t u p a nd .
, I !.. % • ‘
t
he w a ter c ools i tto Fig.7
s
ome e xten t.
I
n t he X -Ray t ube o f s tandard p attern , t he p redom inan t
f
eature g overn ing i t
s b ehav ior u nder g iven c ircums tance s is
t
he r esistance o fered b y i tt o the p assage o f the d i
scha rge.
I
f t he r es
is tance b e t oo h igh t he r ays wh ich a re p roduced
h
ave g rea t p ene trative p ower , a nd p ass t hru b ones a lmo st
a
s e as
i ly a s t hrough f l
esh , p roduc ing s lr
iagraphs o f flat q ual-
i
ty, a nd w an t
ing i n c on tras t. A t ube o f t oo l ow a r esistance
p
roduces X -Rays wh ich h ave l i
tt le p ene tra t
ive p ower , a re
a
lmo s
t s topped b y t he f lesh , a nd e ntirely s o b y t he b ones,
which a ppear d ead b lack w i th n o s tructura l d eta il visible.
There i s aw ide r ange f or c hoice b etween t hese l imits, a nd
i
n r egu lar p rac t ice
, ad iferen t d eg ree o f e xhaus tion i s em -
p
loyed f or c er tain c lasses o f work .
A l ow r esis tance t ube o f s mall p enetra ting p ower i sc alled
l
ow , o r more u sua l
ly s oft; a nd o ne o f h igh r es istance w ith
grea t p ene tra ting q ua l
it ies i s k nown a s h igh o r h ard. The
resistance t ho p r
inc ipa lly g overned b y t he b ulb i s a lso a f
-
f
e cted b y the d imens ions o f t he c athode a nd i t
s d istance f rom
t
he a node .
The c athode , K , i n f ig. 7 , isi nva r
iab ly c up -shaped , a nd i s
made o f such c urvature t ha t t he r ays emana ting f rom i t
s s ur
-
face c onverge w ith ac er ta in d eg ree o f accuracy u pon a p o
int
in t he c ent re o f the a n ti-ca thode o r anode e lec trode s urface
A
.
Ah igh r es
is tance r esults from t he use o f as ma
ll c
a thode,
a
nd p ene trative r ays. Al arge cathode g ives a low re
sis tance
a
nd s oft r esul ts
. F or o rdinary work a c athode diame ter of
o
ne i n ch i sq uite s uitable.
Alum inum c athodes a re much i n, vogue , because the d i
s-
c
harge wou ld d isintegra te p ar
ticles fr
om a ny other meta l
, and
d
istribu te t hem a
ll
o
ver t he i nner s urface
o
f t
he b
ulb , a
nd
b
lacken ing i tt hereby .
The s ur face o f t he
e
lec trode s hou ld b e
uniform ly c urved , and
v
ery h igh ly p olished .
The g reater t he a c-
curacy e mployed i n
mak ing a nd moun t-
i
ng t he e lectrodes i n
the b ulb, t he more
f
inely t
he cathode F
ig. 8
.
s
tream ( s
ee f ig
. 7 )
,
c
an b e f ocused u pon a f i
ne p oint on the a node, a he mo
nd t re
s
harp a
nd d
eta
iled w
il
l b
e t
he s
k
iag
raphs o
bta
ined
.
1
07
• Th is i s due t o the f act that t he s ource o f the Roen tgen
rays i s this p oint o f i mpact, a nd f rom i t t hey p roceed in
s
tra ight radial l i
nes.
Ow ing t o the v iolent b ombardment o f t he a node s ur
face
by t he c a
thod5 ,-Stream , itt ends t o g et e xtreme ly h ot
, espe-
cial
ly i f the b ombardmen t i s centered e xac tly a t o ne s ma
ll
point, a nd a h ole wou ld s oon b e burned t hru i t
.
I
n p ractice, h owever , the c oncen tra t
ion i s never a ccurate
i
n o rdinary t ubes , a c omprom ise b e
ing made b e
tween t he
sharpness o f focus, a nd the h ea t
ing e fec t. F rom t h
is itis
evident, t hat any thing wh ich e nables t he a node t o l ose it
s
heat r apidly
, o r t o stand a h igh t empera ture w ithou t being
damaged , also a llows o f a more a ccura te c oncen tration of

F
ig. 9
.

t
he c athode s tream , a nd a g reater s harpness i n the e fects
p
roduced . A lso, s uch n on-damageab le a nodes p erm i
t o f a
heav ier di scharge t hru t he t ube a nd t herefore o f g rea ter
energy o f r ad iation.
The a node o r a n
ti-ca thode a s i tis s ome times c a
lled , c on-
sists u sually o f a sma ll p la te o f me tal f ixed o pposite t o t he
centre o f t he c athode , a nd moun ted a t a n a ng le o f a bou t 45
deg rees with t he a xis o f t he t ube.
The X -Rays wh ich a re p roduced r ad ially f rom i t
, a re t hus
.
d
irec ted o utwards t hrough t he s ide o f t he b ulb, where n o
.
e
lec trodes, t hickened g lass, o r b ther o bs truc tions a re me t
-
with .-
The ma ter ial emp loyed f or t he c ons truc tion o f the a node
.
e
lec trode makes a c ons iderab le d iference i n the ef iciency o f
t
he t ube, a s f ound b y Roen tgen . He s tates t hat there i s a
.
d
if ference i n d egree o f X -Ray em ission , b y a nodes o f d ifer-
.
ent ma teria ls, a nd t hat a t t he p oint o f i mpac t o f t
he c athode
stream , plat inum r ad iates much more p ower ful ly than a lum -
i
num ; p
latinum h aving a v ery h igh me l
ting p oint ( 3,000 d e-
g
rees F ahrenhe it), i s usua lly c ho sen f or t he ma teria l o ut of
which t o make t he a node e lec trode .
Excellent r esults h ave b een o b
tained w ith i r
idium ' u sed
.
as a sma ll c entre i n ad isc o f platinum .
X-Ray b ulbs t end t o r aise t heir v acuum a fter c ontinued
.
use, a nd c hange f rom a s oft l ow v acuum , t o ah ard h igh
1
08
v
acuum . There a re v arious me thods i n v ogue f or r egulating
t
he v acuum o f t ubes a utoma tica lly a nd o therw ise. Three
p
rincipa l s chemes emp loyed a re d epicted b y t he c ut f i
g
. 9 ,
a
t A , i s r epresen ted t he c hem ica l regu la tor, wh ich r equires
t
he a pp lica t
ion o f e xterna l hea t t o them , t o become o perative .
The s ea led g lass c hamber s hown , c on tains p otass ium c hlor -
a
te o r manganese d ioxide , wh ich l i
bera tes o xygen g as when
heated b y t he a pp l
ica t
ion o f as p
irit l amp t o t he o u
ter s ur -
f
a ce of t he g lass t ube .
The c onstruc tion s hown a t Bi sl i
ke t he o ne j ust described
with t he e xcep tion t ha t ap la tinum w ire i s s ealed i nto t he
portion o f t he t ube c on taining t he c hem ical. S parks f rom
t
he e xc iting a ppara tus a re allowed t o p ass i n
to t he tube f i
lm
t
he p la tinum w ire, a nd g as i sf ormed a nd l i
berated . The t ube
can thus b e r egenera ted a t w i
l l
.
The v acuum r egu lator i lus tra ted a t C , i s k nown a s t he
"Osmo tic t ype." I t i s c ompr ised o f av ery s mall tube 4 ,
1
metallic P allad ium s ealed i nto t he s ide o f. t
he X -Ray b ulb.
The i nner e nd o f t he me tal t ube i so pen e a t he o uter e nd
c
losed. T he t ube i s c overed o rd inarily b y ag la ss cap. I f
t
his cap i sr emoved , a nd t he f l
ame o f as pirit-
lamp a pplied t o
t
he c lo sed o uter e nd o f t he P a
llad ium t ube, h ydrogen I ons
f
r om t he i nterior o f t he f lame w ill be d rawn t hru t he i nter-
molecu lar s paces o f t he h eated me tal, i nto t he e xhaus ted
X-Ray b u
lb . T h
is f orm o i regu lator h as t he a dvan tage o ver
t
he p roceed ing t wo t ypes , i n t hat t he v acuum o f the X -Ray

F
ig. 1
0
.

b
u , c
lb an be adjus
ted any n
umber of t
imes
, bu
t t
he f
ir
st t
wo
a
r
el im
ited by t
he amount o
f c
hemical i
n t
he e
nd o
f t
he r
egu
-
l
a
tor t
ube, wh
ich issea
led of a
i
r ti
ght.
1
09
 X
-Rays p resent a v ery e n
trancing f i
eld for u n
limited ex-
p
erimen t a nd s tudy
, b ut caution shou ld be o bserved i n s
ub-
j
ecting the s kin to l
ong e xposures of t he r
ays, as they have a
p
roper ty o f p roducing s er
ious s ores o r g row ths, which if
no
t c hecked q u
ickly are i n
curable. G rave e f
fects are caused
o
n t he troph ic nerves, and v i
tal res
istance o f t he superf
ic
ial
t
issues of t he b ody
, f o
llowed i n aw eek o r more b y severe
i
nf
lamma tion a nd necrosis.
A l a
rge X -Ray g enerator w ith r egulating r heostat
, am -
meter, etc
., a re shown i n fig
. 10
.

LESSON NO
. 1
4
.
HIGH FREQUENCY CURRENTS
.

H
IGH fr
equency c urrents repr esen tth e most adv
ance d
f
i
eld o
felectr
ical experimen tat
i on ,n dbu
a t very fw of
e

t
he wonders of these currents, especial
ly when p ro-
d
uced at h
igh p otentia
l a re known . Hence , aw ide
s
cope i
s g
iven to the invest
igator a nd e xperimenter , in t he

1
- ALTERNATION OR
-CYCLE
.

M AX
. CURRENT
.

T
I ME

M AX - I

F 1/6 0
- SECOND

„ „ ÷ MAX
. CURRENT
.
I

Bo T
I ME

1
1
.•
L J - M AX
.' CURRENT

*
-1/6 0 SECOND -
3)
i

F
ig. 1
.

e
volv
ing o
f n ew laws a
nd p
henomena
, from r
esearches in
t
h
is most i
nteres
ting a
nd g
rowing b
ranch o
f t
he e l
ectr
ica
l
a
rt
.
10
 The p roduc t ion o f h igh f r
equency c urren ts f or e xper i-
men tal r e search , i s u sua lly a ccomp lished b y t he a id o f a
Tes la c oil, wh ich t akes i ts n ame f rom N iko la T esla, af am -
ous a uthor ity a nd i nves tiga tor o n t his s ub jec t. Two o f t he
p
rinc ipa l s cient is ts who h ave g iven u s d a ta a nd e xp lana t
ions
o
f t he se c urrents a re T esla a nd E liF i
r Thompson , who i n-
d
ependen tly a nd s imu ltaneous ly o bta ined p rac t
ica lly s imi la r
r
e su lts.
Befo re d elv ing i nto t he more i n
tr ica te d etails c oncern ing
t
he a rrangemen t a nd o pera tion o f T es la c oi
ls , Oud in c o ils,
e
t c., af ew p aragraphs w ill b e d evo ted t o t he e lucida tion o f
t
he mean ing a nd s cope o f h igh f requency a s a pp lied t o t he
c
urren ts i n q ues tion . I t may b e s tated f i
rs tly, t hat h igh f re-
quency c urren ts a re i nvar iab ly o sc i
lla tory i n Na ture , o r
a
lterna ting f rom p ositive t o nega t
ive , a nd b ack a ga in , many
hundred t imes p er s econd . I n t he d iagram , f ig
. 1 A, i sg iven
ag raph ica l r ep -
r
esen tation o
f 10 V
the "wave
f
o rm" a nd t ime I 60 S AC
value , o f a n o r -
dinary a lterna -
ting curren t,
such a
s used
f
or c ommerc ia l
l
igh t
ing , r
un-
n
ing mo tors , TRA r4s Mert it
power t
r ans-
miss ion , e
tc.
T his c urrent i s
known a
s a
s
tandard 6 0 c y-
cle c urrent ; o ne
c
yc le mean ing CeNor rysEn,
SP AM < GAP
t
he t ime c on -
s
u med f o r t he
c
ur rent t o r i
se
f
rom z
ero t o
max imum p os i-
t
ive v alue , b ack
t
o z ero , t hen t o
n
ega tive max i-
mum t
o zero
again . The
t
ime c onsumed
by t he c urrent
r
ising f rom z ero
to positive F
ig . 3
max imum t hen
t
o z ero , i s r eferred t o a s a n a l
terna tion; t wo a lterna tions
comp rising a c yc le. Hence , a6 0 c yc le c urrent i so ne h av ing
also 1 20 a lterna tions , a nd t he t ime f or t his s e r
ies o f c hanges
t
o t ake p lace i s o ne s i xtieth o f as econd . A lso 6 0 c yc les
w
il l t ake p lace i n 1m inu te. One a lterna tion o r c
yc le
r
equ i res f o r i ts t ransm iss ion 1 /120 o f as econd .
I
n t he c urve o f f ig. 1B , i s d ep ic ted a h igher f recfuency
c
ur ren t t han t he 6 0 c yc le j ust d iscussed , o r a s s een i n t he
s
a me t ime i nterva l, o
v
iz., 1
/60 second , P S

s
even t
imes as
many c omp le te c y -
c
les h ave o ccurred ,
o
r t
he f
r equency
p
er s
econd i
s 7
t
imes 6
0 or 4
20 F
ig . 2
cycles p er s econd . L ikew ise, t his f r
enuency i s e qu iva len t t o
8
40 a lterna tions p er s econd , o r a lso 2 5,200 c ycles p er m inu te
.
Commerc ia l l ighting c urren ts u sua lly h ave a f requency o f
3,600 c yc les o r 7 ,200 a l
terna t
ions p er m inu te .
1
1
 This exp
lanation is for t
he p urpose o f mak
ing c lear the
e
xac t mean
ing o f the t
erm h igh fr
equency . In actual prac-
t
ice
, t he t
erm h igh frequency i s invar
iably understood t o
mean a c urrent whose f requency i s somewhere b etween
1
0,000 and 1,
000,000 c
ycles per s
econd .
When s uch f requenc ies a s t hese a re emp loyed , many
wonder fu l a nd h itherto u n
looked f or p henomena a ppear .
Among o ther f eatures wh ich t hey p ossess , are t hose p er-
mitt
ing o f p assing i t.thru o r r a
ther o ver t he human b ody,
a
t ap o
ten t
ial of h alf a m i
llion v olts
, or more . T esla
, Thomp -
s
on a nd o thers h ave o f
ten d emons tra ted t he f eat of p assing
am il
lion v ol
ts t hru t he b ody f rom h and t o h and w ithou t e x-
p
eriencing t he s ligh test h arm o r il f eeling . O rdinari ly a s
i
n the e lectrocu t
ion o f c r
im inals, where l ow f requency a lter-
n
ating c urrent o f 6 0 to 1 20 c ycles is emp loyed , such p o
ten-
t
ia
ls a s 2,000 v o
lts a re suf f
icient to kil
l t he s ubject. G enera lly
b
ut X s t o I A ampere p assed t hru t he h ear t is suff
icien t t o
c
ause d eath. Wi th h igh f r
equency c urren ts, h owever , t he
c
urren t s trength a s i ndicated b y ah ot-w ire amme ter may
e
asi
ly r each s evera l amperes .
Currents o f s uch f requenc ies a s these, n o l
onger o bey the
l
aws g overn ing t hose o f l ow f requency . For o ne t h
ing ,
t
hey t ravel p rincipally o ver t he s urface o f conduc tors, n ot
t
hru t hem ; p enetrating b ut a f ew t housand ths o f a n
i
nch, this d epend ing u pon t he f r
equency v a
lue. The h igher
t
he frequency , the l e
ss t he p enetration . F rom t h
is i tis evi-
d
en t tha t sol
id c onduc tors f or h igh f requency c urrents are
aw aste o f ma terial and t h
in wa lled o r h o
llow o nes of large
d
iame ter, are t he best. S tranded c onduc tors are a lways b e
t-
t
er than s ol
id o nes o f s imilar c apacity, as t he f ormer h as
much g reater s urface a rea f or a g iven c ross-sec t
ion, a nd
t
his i
s wha t coun ts in t h
is c ase.

7.

- •
w
àle
03.11
,

"

.
e= ,

1
2
'
M
.E.
Au Oud
in C
oil
.

H
igh frequency currents can be p roduced i n s
everal ways
,
t
he p r
incipal methods b eing those i nvolv
ing the use of an
Elihu Thompson g enerator, a F essenden h igh frequency
dynamo, o r by means of the T es
la d isrupt
ive di
scharge set
.
The la
tter isthe commones t and easiest me thod of p
roducing
s
uch currents, a
nd iswidely uti
lized f or lec
ture work, e
lec
tro-
t
herapeutics
, exci
ting X -Ray tubes, e tc.
The genera
l arrangement o
f t
he f
unct
iona
l p
arts c
ompo
s-
i
ng the complete s
et i
soutl
ined i
n f
i
g. 2
.
1
12
 Referring t o t
he diagram , Ii s an i
nduc tion or spark coi
l,
p
referab ly of not l
ess than 2 " spark c apacity. T i s a
n air-
c
ore t ransformer, wh ich serves the p urpose o f s
tepping u p
t
he v o
ltage o f t
he current d e
livered by t he secondary of the
i
nduction c oi
l, to many t imes its orig
ina l value
. A t C is a
c
ondenser c omposed o f Leyden j ars, or glass pla
tes, coa
ted

F
ig. 4 •

on b o th s ides w ith tinfo iL A s park g ap i sp laced a t SG b e-

tween whose e lectrodes t he d isrup tive d ischarge o f the c on-
denser t akes p lace . G i s t he d ischarge a ir g ap o f the T esla
coi
l s econdary , a cross wh ich t he h igh f requency o scillations
s
urge .
The f unc tions o f t he v arious p arts o f t he a pparatus a nd
t
heir i nter -relat ion i sa s fo llows : The i nduc tion c oil or trans -
f
ormer Ii se xcited f rom t he b attery s hown a t B, or the r egu -
l
ar l ine f eed w ires ; a nd i ts s econdary c urrent e m ow v olts
o
r more p ressure i sc aused t o c harge t he c ondenser C , wh ich
immed ia te ly d i s-
c
ha rges i
tself
t
hru t he p r
imary
.
coil Po f t he T es -
la t ransfor mer
and t he s park g ap
SG . Now d ue t o
the c onditions
impo sed b y s uch
c
i rcuit, t he c on-
denser d ischarge
beco mes not a
.
s
ing le d ischarge
f
or e ach c ycle t if
i
nduct ion c oil
s
econdary c oil ,
but many t imes
grea ter ; s o t hat
,with c erta in p ro -
por t
ions t o t he
c
ircu its , a s r e -
gards t he c apac i -
t
y a nd i nduct-
ance , t he f re-
quency o f t he
c
ur ren t p assing R
ig. 5
thru t he Tesla
coil p r imary may e asily r each a m i l
lion a nd more c ycles
pee
r s econd ; r ender ing t he c urren t h arm less ow ing t o t he
efec t" a l ready men t
ioned . The c urren ts t hus p ro -
duced a re o f course h ighly d amped , i.e .
, t he s er
ies o f oscilla -
t
ions c orrespond ing t o e ach c yc le o f e xciting c urrent, d ies
down t o z ero, b efore t he n ex t s eries o f o scillat
ions s t
ar t.
The f r
equency o f the T esla c urren ts p roduced o bey a c er -
t
ain l aw , wh ich i sa s f o
llows : They v ary a s the s quare r oot
o
f t he p roduc t o f t he c apac ity a nd i nduc tance i n the c losed
o
sc il
la ting c ircu its. The f requency i n c ycles p er s econd i s
f
ound b y d ividing 1 06 t imes 5 .033 b y t he s quare r oot o f t he
13
 '

c
apacity. ,mu l
tiplied b y the induc tance; where t he capaci
ty
i
s in m tcrofarads , and the i nductance i n centimeters
. F or
f
urther p ar
ticulars see "W ireless C ourse" c hapters 17 and 1
9.
A
lso " Cons truction of Induction C o
ils a nd Transformers," by
H. W. S ecor.
Another f orm o f high frequency t ransformer emp loyed ex-
t
ensive
ly f or e l
ec tro-t
herapeu tica
l a pplications, is t
he Oudin
c
oil
. I ts appearance a nd connec t
ions a re given at f
ig
. 3. A s

F
ig.6

s
een t he b ottoni o f the p rimary a nd s econdary c oils a re
j
oined t ogether . Any T esla coi
l b ecomes a n Oud in t ype , i f
t
he p rimary o r heavy w ire w inding i s s imp ly p laced a t t he
e
nd o f the s econdary , instead of at the c en ter a s usua l
.
The r e
la t
ion o f t he fr
equenc ies a nd v oltages w il
l b e mo re
r
eadily u nders tood q ui
te p robably b y in spec t
ing f i
g. 4 . I t i s
s
een t hat t he c oi
ls o r t-ansformers d o n ot c hange t he f r
e -
q
uency i n themse lves at a l
l b u
t o nly t he v oltage , wh ich i s
d
epencen t u pon t he relative amount o f t urns o f w ire u pon
t
he diferent c oi
ls. ( See L esson No . 4)
. A c ut o f ap ower fu l
h
igh f requency g enerator d esigned b y Dr . F reder ick S trong ,
f
or electro-therapeu tical purposes, isilus tra ted b y fig
. 5 .
For e xper imen ta l re -
s
earch a v ery n ea t a nd
eficien te f orm o f T esla
t
ransformer i sd ep ic ted
a
t f ig
. 6 . I t isb uilt b y
t
he w ell k nown e lec -
t
r
ica l f i
rm , The E lec tro
Impor ting C o., o f New
York C ity, a nd s ells for
av ery r easonab le p r
ice ,
i
n c ompar ison t o t he
wonder fu l r esults a t-
t
ainab le w ith i t
. I n full
a
c t
iv ity , when e xcited
f
rom a 2 " s park c oil
opera ting o n b a tteries ,
i
tt akes o n t he a ppear -
ance d isp layed i n fig. 6,
but t he l i
fe a nd b eau ty
o
f t he d ischarge c an
only b e f ul
ly a pprec i-
a
ted b y a ctual o bserva -
t
ion , a nd n ot f rom a
mere b lack a nd wh ite
F
ig.7 print. Th is c o
il i s a d-
mirab ly s ui
ted t o t he
require ments o f the
p
rivate l aboratory , the Schoo l lec
ture p latform , a nd d emon -
1
14
 s
tra tions i n g enera l. A l arger e xci
ting c oil may b e emp loyed
t
han t ha t men t ioned , a nd o f course t he e fect i s grea tly e n-
hanced . ( See t he F eb ., 1 9
14 .
, E . E . f or a s pecial a rt
ic le o n
"Curren ts o f U ltra -H igh F requency a nd P oten t
ial.")
The a djustment o f t he c i
rcu its of T es la o r Oud in c oils h as
t
o b e c arefu lly t ried o u
t b y e xperiment t o a t
ta in t he max i-
mum r esu l ts. The l eng th o f t he s park g ap, t he amoun t o f
condenser c apac ity a nd n umber o f T es la c oil p rimary t urns
in c ircu it, a ll h ave a d irec t i nf
luence u pon t he f i
nal h igh f re-
quency d ischarge , a nd
t
hey s hou ld b e c are-
f
ully a d jus ted s imu l-
t
aneous ly o r s ucces-
s
ive ly, u nti l t he b est
h
igh f r equency d is-
c
harges a re o b tained .
A r otary s park g ap
i
s b es t f or t he o sc i
l-
l
ating c ircuit , a s i t
keeps v ery c oo l, a nd
p
reven ts t he g ap f rom
arcing , wh ich l owers
the f requency . The
shor ter t he g ap t he
• higher t he f r
equency ,
and v ice v ersa .
Having d escr ibed
t
he T esla t r ans former ,
i
ts a ction a nd c onnec -
t
i ons , a f ew e xper i-
men ts o f i nteres t w i
ll
be g iven : I t may b e
w ell t o s ta te t ha t t he F
ig.
mos t s pec tacu lar r e-
s
ul ts a re o nly o btainab le i n ag ood d ark r oom o r hal
l. When
t
he h igh f r equency c urrent i st o be h and led b y t he b ody , a n•
unp leasant s hock i se xperienced i fthe T esla s park i sa l
lowed
t
o j ump d irec t t o t he s k
in ; a nd a p iece o f me tal h eld i n the
h
and , o r aG e iss ler t ube, o r e ven a n i n candescen t l amp i s
b
es t; t he b rush o r s park b eing a bsorbed b y t hem , a nd c om -
mun ica ted t o t he b ody w ithou t s hock . G eissler t ubes a nd
t
he l ike a re v ery u sefu l f or d emons tra t ion , a s whenever t he
d
ischarge i s a bsorbed t hru t hem t hey l i
ght u p brillian t
ly ,
mak ing v isib le t he g reat a ctivity o ccurr ing . S everal p eople
may b e p laced i n ac ircle a nd a G eiss ler t ube p laced i n the
h
ands o f e very c oup le. When t he c urrent i s applied t o the
p
er sons a t t he e nds o f t he c ircle, the G eissler t ubes a ll w ay
a
round w ill s imu ltaneous ly l ight u p
, mak ing a n i mpress ive
efec t.
I
n Fig. 7a re s hown a n umber o f i n
terest ing e xper imen ts
which c an b e p erformed w ith t he T esla c oi
l ilus trated i n fig
.
6
. A t 1 , fig
. 7i s a n exper iment r equir ing t he u se o f t wo
v
ertical c opper w ires as n early p ara lle
l a s p ossible. When
t
he a ppara tus i s work ing i n g ood s hape, w ith t he f requency
h
igh, t he s pace ( 2-4 inches) b etween t he t wo w ires i s f
i
l
led
w
ith l ight, wh ile t he ends s how a h eavy b rush d ischarge .
The e lper iment s een a t 2i s performed b y arrang ing t wo
l
oops o f c opper w ire, and a t taching t hem t o the s econda ry
t
erm inals o f t he T esla c o
il. A s imilar a rrangement i s that
s
een a t 3,b u
t h ere t he inner l oop i s3 0 c entime ters i n d
iam -
e
ter ( 1 inch e qua ls cms.), wh ile t he l arger l oop i s 80
c
en t
ime ters i n d iame ter
. The s pace b etween t he c oncentric
l
oops i s fi
lled w ith m illions o f fine s parks, p resen ting a
v
ery p retty e fec t
.
1
15
 I
llumina ted n ames are p roduced a
s s hown a t 4, fi
g. 7 .
The names a re made o
f fine copper w
ire, p
laced o n o
ne side
o
f g la
ss p lates
. The b acks o f t
he g
lass plates are coated
wi
th t info
il al i
t
tle smal
ler t han t
he glass i
tself
. One t e
r-

F
ig. 9

m
inal of the T esla s
econdary isc onnected to t
he w ire name,
a
nd the other t ermina
l t o t
he opposite wire name. The t i
n-
f
oi
l c oa
tings o n the back of the glasses are connec ted t
o-
g
ether b y a p iece of c opper wire
. When t he c urrent is
t
urned o n the n ames are iluminated. Hard r ubber may b e
employed in place of t
he glass
.

F
ig. 1
. A La
rge "Electro
' "res
la c
•
pn

The ro
tating w
ire
, 5,at fi
g. 7,isvery amus
ing t o observe
.
The wire must be qu
ite f
ine
, a nd the l
ength determined by
exper
imen t
. When o f the right l
ength
, the wire wi
ll swing
a
round a c irc le c ontinua lly. I t i s c onnec ted t o o ne t e
rm i-
n
al. A s hort p iece o f thin, c otton c overed c opper w ire when
a
ttached t o o ne t e
rm ina l o f the c oil
, g ives o ut a b eautifu l
f
l
ame e fect, s een a t 6.
One o f the mos t astound ing s tun ts p erformed w ith h igh
f
requency , h igh p o
tentia l c urrents , i s tha t k nown a s " The
i
mpedance b ridge o r shunt," s een a t 7,f ig. 8. A h eavy p iece
o
f c opper w ire o r brass r od may b e b ent i nto a U -shape a s
s
hown , a nd when s hun ted b y al ow v o
l tage l amp b ulb
, t he
l
amp w ill light u p b r
igh tly; t he h igh f r
equency c urren t p re-
f
err
ing t o tr averse t he c ompara t ive ly h igh r esistance p a th
o
f the l amp i n stead o f the l ow r esis tance o fered b y the brass
r
od. Th is i sp robab ly s imilar t o li ghtn ing e ffec ts, e
tc., where
i
tis s een t ha t s uch h igh f requency s urges , t end t o take t he
s
hortes t p ath, i rrespective o f r es istance . For t h
is r eason
l
i
gh tning r ods a re a lways r un i n as s hort a nd s traight ap ath
a
s p ossible, a vo id ing s harp b ends. I n t he T esla c oi
l e xpe ri-

P
ig. 1
0
. T
esla
's "Wor
ld Wire
less" Tower o
n Long I
sland
, N
. Y
.

ment h ere men t

ioned, aL eyden jar o r o ther c ondenser i s
c
onnec ted across t
he s econdary coi
l t ermina ls, with a spark
g
ap i n one of the leads going to the c opper b ar. The t e
r-
m
ina ls of t
he 2 0 vo
lt l amps are t
ried i n different posi
tions,
u
ntil the maximum b rightness i
s obtained.
At 8, Fig
. 8, is ad isp
lay of weird a ppearance , cal
led t he
"E
lec tr
ical Phantom." Two t hin me ta
l d i
scs, a bout 1
" d iam-
1
17
e
ter, a re c onnec ted t o t he t wo s econdary t erm ina ls o f t he
Tesla T ransformer . The ir e dges a re g round t hin. Wi th t he
voltage a t ah igh v alue, wh ite r ays o r t hreads o f l igh t s tr
ike
out f rom t he e dges o f t he d iscs , wh ich a re s ome times o f c on-
s
iderab le l eng th .
E
lec trical w ind , as p erformed w i th s ta t
ic mach ines , i s also
r
eproduceab le f rom t he T esla c o
il. I ts e f
fect i si lus tra ted a t
9
. A sma ll s harp t oothed a lum inum d isc , a bou t 1 /64 i nch
t
hick , i s moun ted o n a n a xle, h aving v e ry l i
ttle f riction , a nd
when t he c urrent i s t urned o n, the l i
ttle d isc w ill r ota te a t
h
igh s peed , b ecom ing e nve loped i n s parks .
An i lum ina ted c one o f l i
gh t i s made b y h av ing a w ire
r
ing c onnec ted t o o ne t erm ina l of t he T es la c oil a nd a me tal
b
all o f V s the r i
ng d iame ter , c onnec ted t o t he o ther t e rm ina l
.
When c urrent i sa pplied t he s pace b etween t he r ing a nd b al
l
i
s f i
lled w ith mu ltitud inous f i
ne s parks , g iv ing a u n
ique a nd
b
eau tifu l di sp lay .
At 1 i s d epic ted N iko la Tes la's i dea l w ire less l ight
f
or i lum ina tion . Evacua ted g lass t ubes a re p laced i n p rox -
imity t o t he c harged me tal p lates, c onnec ted t o as ource o f
h
igh f requency , h igh p oten t
ia l elec tric c urren t
. The l amps
a
re t hus i l mn ined b y i nduc tion, w ithou t a ny me ta llic c on-
n
ec tions wha tever b eing made t o t hem .
J
ust wha t c an b e a ccomp lished when l arge amoun ts o f
e
lec trica l e nergy i s t ransformed i nto h igh f r
equency , h igh
poten tia l form , may b e g leaned f rom t he p hotograph o f s ome
e
lec trica l d i scharges o f t his n a
ture , a t f ig. 9 . Th is i s f rom
s
ome o f T esla 's e xper imen ts. The s parks s hown w ere 2 5
f
eet l ong , t he p oten tia l s evera l b il
lion a nd t he amperage 8 00
.
Tesla 's l abora tory a nd t ower e rected s ome y ears a go o n Long
I
sland , f or exper i ment ing w ith wor ld wave t elegraphy , i s
depic ted a t f i
g. 1 0.

LESSON No
. 1
5
.
ELECTROPLATING
.
PART I .
E
lectropla
ting isthe t
erm app
lied to t
hat ar
t invo
lving t
he
u
se of the e
lec
tric c
urren
t in t
he el
ectro -
depos
ition o
f meta
ls

F
i
g. 2
. AU
sefu
l C
opp
er
P
lat
ing Ou
tfi
t

F
i
g. 1
o
r t
he
ir s
a
lts o
n o
ther me
tals
, o
r me
tal
lica
lly c
oated s
ub-
1
8
s
t ances
. C ommon f orms o f e l
ectrop lating, w ell known t o
every o ne now, are the f amiliar n ickel plate on v arious f i
t-
t
ing s
, u tens
ils
, instrumen ts
; g o
ld p lat
ing a nd s i
lver p la
ting,
a
s e mployed in t
he finer arts
, i nclud ing jewelry, etc.
, e t
c.
B
esides these more w e
ll known p hases of elec
tro- deposition
o
f me tals is tha
t b ranch f ormer ly t e
rmed g alvanop lastic
,
which h as now b een abandoned f or the t e
rm e l
ectroplating,

F
ig
. 3
-A. B
uff
ing Head F
ig. 3-
B
. F
oot P
ower D
rive
.

o
r the electrotype p rocess. The s evera l i ndus
trial b ranches
o
f elec
tro- chem istry
, includ ing e l
ec trical r ef
ining a nd a na
lyz-
i
ng, el
ectrop lat
ing a nd e l
ec trotyp ing a re n ow embraced u n-
d
er the general n ame of electro -metallurgy .
E
lectrotyp ing was o riginally e volved b y De L a R ue
, in
1
836, who o bserved t hat i n a Dan iell
's c el
l, the c opper de-
p
osited from t he solution u pon t he c obper p late electrode
s
erving as ap ole, took t he e xact i mpress o f t he plate, i
n-
c
luding all scratches, inGen tations, e tc.
, u pon i t
.
During the y ear 1 839, Jacob i in St
. P etersburg, S pencer
i
n Liverpoo l
, a nd J ,rdun i n London , independent ly d evel-
o
ped o ut of this d i
scovery , a me thod o f obtaining b y t he
e
lec
trolysis of copper, i mpressions in r
eversed r e
lief
, of coins,
o
rnamen ts a nd s t
ereo type p lates, e
tc
. Murray , another i n-
v
est
iga tor
, made t he i mprovemen t o
f u s
ing mo lds o f plaster
o
r w ax, coa
ted w i
th a f ilm o f plumbago i n order to provide
aconduc t
ing sur face u pon wh ich the deposit could b e made .
The mak ing o f c opper e lectrotypes i s read i
ly a fected b y
s
uspend ing a s ui
tab le mo ld i n ac e
ll c onta ining a s aturated
s
olution o f sulpha te of c opper . Thru t he c ell ab attery c ur-
r
ent i s passed, the mo ld b eing c onnec ted t o the cathode o r
n
ega tive termina l. A c opper p la
te i mmersed i n the s olut
ion
o
f t he c el
l, a c
ts a s a n a node , o r p ositive t erminal. The
c
opper a node isg radua lly d i
sso lved i n
to t he s olut
ion a t ar ate
e
qual t o t he r ate o f d epos it
ion a t the c athode . U tiliz
ing
a
n e xterna l source o f c urren t
, i s more c onven ient t han p ro-
d
ucing t he el
ec trotypes i n the a ctual c e
ll i n a Dan iell
's b a
t-
t
ery, e xcept, i f it i s espec ially d esigned f or the p urpose.
This process i s w idely emp loyed a t the p resent t ime t o re-
p
roduce r epousse a nd c hased o rnamen ts, works o f a rt in
f
ac-s
im i
le, a nd p r
incipa lly f or t he p urpose o f mu lt
ip ly
ing
c
opies o f wood b lock c uts for p rinting.
The p rocess o f f orming e lectrotypes i s al
so s ometimes
c
alled me tall
izing. To me tallize a n on-conduc tor , such a s
s
ealing wax , or rubber , some f i
nely divided me tallic '
p owder,
s
uch a s b ronze p owder o r pulverized plumbago ( graphite) i s
d
us ted o ver i t
. B efore applying t he p owder, the a rt
ic le or
mou ld may , i f necessary, receive a v ery fine c oa t of w ax
.
Meta l
lizing may a lso b e a
ccomp l
ished b y chem ically c oating
s
uch ma ter
ials a s glass, or other o bjects too f ragile t o be
t
reated i n the manner u sually emp loyed i n elec trotyping,
w
ith s i
lver o r g old b y the o rdinary c hemical s i
lvering o r
b
ronz ing p rocesses.
1
19
 The f o
llow ing s imple e xperiment is o f i n
terest:
Having p rocured a b rass b ut
ton, o r o ther s tamped me tal
a
rticle with a d esign i n relief
, itis w el
l s oaked a nd c leaned
w
ith me thyla ted s p
irit t o remove l acquer o r grease. Now
t
ake a p iece o f c ardboard a nd, holding i t above a B unsen
g
as f lame, b u t n ot ign i
ting i t
, it is suf f
iciently warmed t o
melt g ood r ed s ealing w ax. The wax may t hen b e r ubbed
i
nto a p oo l o n t he u pper s ide of the c ard. An i mpression
i
s n ow made i nto t he w ax, having p reviously b reathed
on t he sur face o f t he b rass b u
tton j ust t he s a me a s i n
r
egu lar wax s eal
ing . The d ep
th o f t he i mpression a t t he
e
dge n eed n ot b e a nything much b elow t he c entre o f t he
e
dge o f the b utton .

I
f this has been d one success
fuly, the c ard is tr
immed
down, af ew drops o f al
cohol are put on the surface of the
wax mou ld when f ine p owdered plumbago i s b
rushed over
i
t by means o f as of
t c amel
's hair brush. The who le sur-
f
ace exposed should be thoroughly coated wi
th the plumbago ,
f
ina
lly brushing o f
f a l
l superf
luous ma ter
ial
.

F
ig. 4
. P
rimary C
ell
F
ig. S
. "
Elec
tro" Type S.S
. 6 Vo
lt,
4 Ampere G
enera
tor

The f r
ee e nd o f the c opper w ire c onnected t o the z inc
e
lectrode o f t he p lat
ing c e
ll d epicted at F ig. 1, is h eated
s
l
igh tly and embedded i n t he sealing wax , w i
th t he p o
in t
p
rojec t
ing j ust c lear of the mo ld. Over t his p oint a l i
ttle
p
lumbago i sb rushed t o comp le
te t he connec t
ion t o the f ace
o
f t he mo ld. The p repared mo ld
, w ith it
s p lumbago b oat-
i
ng, i s n
ow t o b e suspended i n the inner p orous p ot of t he
p
lating c e
ll, Fig . 1, as shown , uti
lizing a w e
igh t to h old it
down i fn ecessary. The w eight s hould be insulated i f used.
1
20
 The s etting u p o f the p lating cell ( of the " E
lec tro" make)
i
s done a s f o
llows :
The g lass j ar a nd p orous c up a re washed o ut, a nd t he
c
harge o f blue s tone ( vitr
io l) is emptied i nto t he p orous c up,
which i st hen f i
l
led t o w ithin l y
2"o f t he t op w ith h ot w ater,
not b o
iling. w ater. A fter l et
ting itc ool for t en m inu tes, t he
mixture may b e stirred w ith a wooden s tick. I ts color s hould
b
e d eep b lue. The z inc c yl
inder e l
ectrode i sn ext p laced i n
to
t
he g lass j ar
, a nd s ame i s f i
l
led with a s olu t
ion c onsis t
ing o f
twenty p arts wa ter a nd o ne p art sulphur ic a cid. The a c
id
must a lways b e p oured i n
to t he w ater, a nd n ot v ice v ersa,
o
r e lse t he c ontents o f the v essel may b e v iolen t
ly e jected
i
nto t he m ixer 's f ace
. The p orous c up w ith i t
s s o
lu tion i s
p
laced i nto the z inc c y
linder , not
ing t hat t he h e
ight o f the
two s olutions a re b o
th t he s ame.

F
ig. 6
. C
urren
t C
entre
Ile
r

F
ig
. 7

The o bject t o b e p lated i s attached a s s een , t o t he l ower

end o f t he c opper w ire h eld b y t he a djus tab le c l
ip , a llow -
i
ng o f r a
ising a nd l ower ing i t
. Once t he o bject i sa ttached ,
i
t i s l owered i nto t he p orous c up a nd t he p lating b eg ins.
A v ery g ood d epos it i s o btained i n f rom t en t o f i
fteen
minu tes , o n me tal o bjects . The d epos it
, o f c ourse , i sc opper .
Any me tallic o bject may ' be c oated w ith i t, d irections f or
p
repar ing a nd c leaning s uch o bjects b eing g iven f ully a l itt
le
l
ater o n
.
To r esume t he s ubject o f me ta l
lizing t he wax mou ld w ith
i
ts p lumbago c oating , i t i s l owered i n
to t he c ell s olu tion,
within t he p orous c up. If b y c hance , t he c urrent i s t oo
s
trong , e videnced b y b urn ing o f t he c opper d epos it wh ich
man ifes ts i ts p resence b y d ark b rown s mears a nd marks
a
round t he e dges , wh ich s hould n orma lly b e o f p a
le s almon
p
ink c olor , the z inc i s s uspended a t r
ifle o ut o f t he s olu t
ion .
The w ax mou ld i s left i n t he p lating c ell f or a pprox ima tely
twen ty -four h ours , when i t may b e removed a nd s t
ripped .
I
f t his d oes n ot o ccur e as ily, the w ax c an b e me lted o ff w ith
s
l
igh t h eating a pplied. The e lectro type may b e c leaned w ith
methy la ted s pirit. I f a ny p in h oles a ppear i n t he d epos it
, i t
i
sp rac tica lly c er tain i ti s d ue t o i mperfect d epos iting o f t he
c
opper , o r t o the p resence o f loose p lumbago o n t he s urface
o
f t he mou ld. When t he p rocess h as b een s uccessfu l e very
d
et ail o f t he o riginal i mpress ion i s reproduced e xactly . I f
t
he s pec imen i st o be o reserved , al i
tt
le c hlor ide o f z inc may
b
e b rushed o ver t he h o
llow b ack o f the el ec tro type , h aving
p
rev ious ly c leaned t he s urface w ell
. A s hee t o f t infoil c an
b
e b urnt o n b y s pread ing i t o ver t he s urface a nd h old ing
t
he e lectro type f ace d ownward o ver a B unsen g as f l
ame a fter
1
21
 which t he b ody o f t he s he ll c an b e f il
led w ith mo lten t i
n
o
r lead . The f ollow ing c urren t d ens ity v a
lues a ré .good o nes,
b
eing g iven i n amperes p er 1 00 s quare i nches o f s urface
e
xposed . F or c opper e l
ec trotyp ing f rom a n acid b a
th s olu-
,t
ion, b est q ua li
ty t ough d epos it 1 .
5 t o 4; g ood a nd t ough
d
epo sit, 1 0 t o 2 5 ; s olid d epos it s andy a t e dges , 2 5 t o 4 0;
s
andy a nd g ranu lar d epos it, 5 0 t o 1 00 . F or c opper d epo sit
f
rom a c yanide b a th, 2t o 3 ; z inc , for r ef
in ing, 2t o 3; silver,
1to 3 ; g old
, 5t o 1 ; b rass, 3t o 3 .5; i r on ( steel f acing ), .5t o
1
.5; nicke l, begin a t 9t o 1 0 a nd g radua lly d im inish t o 1t o 2 .
For c opper p la ting me ta l artic les, s uch a s brass , iron, e tc.
,
t
he o bject s hou ld f i
rst b e t horough ly c leaned . B
eg in b y
h
ang ing t he a rticle i n b oiling c aus tic s oda s olution f or five
t
o ten m inutes, wh ich s erves t o r emove a ll d ir
t a nd g rease
f
rom t he s urface . R inse t he o bject i n co ld wa ter a nd i ti s
t
hen r eady f or p lating . I n c ase t he o bjec t emerges f rom
t
he p lating b ath r ough w i th f i
ne h oles o n t he s urface , i ti s
most p robab ly d ue , t o insuf icient c lean ing ; a nd i ts hou ld b e
r
ecleaned . Brass a nd i ron o bjec ts s hou ld b e p articular ly
wel
l s crubbed w i th t he h o t c aus tic s oda s olu tion t o remove a l
l
d
irt from c rev ices , e tc. When t he p lating d epos it h as b een
made h eavy e nough , t he a rticle c an b e r insed i n cold w ater,
a
nd d ried b y r ubb ing w ith a p i ece o f f l
anne l
, o r b y rolling i n
f
i
ne s awdus t. The l at
ter i s the me thod u sua l
ly emp loyed i n
a
l
l c ommerc ia l p lating s hops .

‘
Fig
. 8
. Wa
ter Mo tor f
or D
riv
ing
Dynamos

Sma l
l anima ls, fl
owers , l a
ce, etc., a re me tal
lized b y fi
rst
c
leansing i n me thylated a lcoho l a nd wh ile mo ist
, t hey a re
t
horough ly d usted with plumbago , f i
l
ling a l
l the crevices a nd
i
nden tat
ions. A w ire is t hen f a
stened t o a ny p art o f the
o
bject a nd plumbagoed t o t he objec t to make p erfec t con-
n
ection. I t i s t
hen s uspended i n
to t he porous c up a nd t he
c
opper p la
ting b egins. V ery b eautiful and a rt
istic work c an
,
b
e a ccomp lished i n this manner . A c ut o f the " Electro"
c
opper p lat
ing o u
tfi
t i s s
hown a t F ig. 2.
For c lean ing u p ar
ticles p repara tory t o p lating, ap ower
h
ead o r b uffer h ead, consist
ing o f a n iron s tandard w i th a
s
hort s ha f
t t hreaded t o fi
t n uts a t e ach e nd, a nd moun ted
w
ith a d r
iv ing p ul
ley at t he c entre , a s seen i n Fig. 3-A , is
v
ery u se ful. The b uff
ing whee ls emp loyed f or p ol
ish ing
t
he plated a rticles a re soft and c omposed o f n umerous d i
scs
o
f c o
tton f lanne l
, s ewed i n c i
rcles a nd h e
ld o n t he buf f
ing
h
ead s pind le b y af l
ange p late a nd n ut, as s een i n Fig. 3 -C
.
S
cratch whee ls w ith wooden o r wire b rist
les c an a l
so b e fi
tted
o
nto t he b uf f
ing h ead as w el
l a s emery whee ls, for prepar ing
a
rt
icles f or p lating . To d r
ive t he b uf
f
ing h ead s p
ind le, a
f
oot p ower t readle w ill be f ound h andy i f mo tor p ower i s
n
ot at h and . A u sual form o f foo t power d rive i s s
hown a t
F
ig. 3-B .
1
22
 For s mall p lating work b at
ter ies c an b e emp loyed f or t he
source o f e lectrica l e nergy . S ome f orm o f closed c ircu it b at-
t
e ry i s i mpera t
ive , ag ood t ype b e ing t he Gordon p rimary
bat tery c e
ll, d ep ic ted a t F ig. 4 . These c el
ls g ive a bou t 7 /10
volt e ach , l i
nd h ave e normous ampere h our c apac ity, r ang -
i
ng u p t o s evera l h undrea ampere h ours i n t he l a
rge s izes.
T hey a re s uited t o c ons tant l oad a nd s uff
icient c e
lls c an b e
connec ted i n s eries t o g ive t he d esired v oltage . F or s ome
outf i
ts, ap la t
ing d ynamo may b e more s uitab le, a s when
wa ter p ower , e tc
., i sa vailab le t o drive i t
. A s u
i table d ynamo
i
s d ep icted a t F ig . 5 . P la t
ing d ynamos , a s ar ule, d o n ot
deliver o ver 6 v o lts b ut 1 5 to 2 0 amperes i n sma ll u n
i ts, a nd
t
hey a re g enera lly s hunt wound , v iz.
, t he f ie
ld w ind ing i s
connec ted o n mu l t
ip le w i
th t he a r mature b rushes ; s eries
dynamos a re t oo a pt t o b e reversed b y b ack E . M . F . f rom
t
he p lating t ank , wh ich a c
ts a s ab attery. The " Electro "
No . 810 a nd t ype " S S " d ynamos a re s uitab le.
A u se fu l v ariab le r e s
istance o r r heos tat f or c ontrolling t he
amoun t o r s treng th o f t he p lating c urren t, i s s een a t F ig.
6
. Th is r heos tat p erm its o f t he f inest r egu la tion a nd c an
c
arry 2 amperes f or a ny l eng th o f t ime. I t is c onnec ted i n
s
er ies w i
th o ne o f t he l ead w ires g o ing t o t he p lating t ank .
In p repar ing smoo th f inished a rt
ic les o n t he f lanne l b uffing
whee l t hey a re h eld a gains t itf i
rm ly , a pplying s ome p olish-
i
ng r ouge f rom t ime t o t ime t o the whee l
. Rough s urfaces
mu s t b e d ressed d own b efore a ttemp ting t o p late t hem b y
f
i
ling a nd g rind ing o n a n emery whee l, f inish ing t hem o n
t
he f l
anne l whee l w ith p o lish r ouge .
Hav ing g iven t hese d e
ta ils c onsidera t
ion , a ttent ion may b e
t
urned t o t he s ub jec t o f n icke l pla ting . The f i
rst p art w ill

The Am meter o
r Current
F
ig. 9
. The Voltme
ter or Curren
t "Quan
tity" Gauge
"Pressure" Gauge

d
eal with a s mal
l nicke lp lat
ing p lant. The i lustration , Fig. 7,
s
hows an ickel plat
ing s e
t c omp lete, w
ith g lass jar for h o
ld ing
t
he solution, nickel s a
lts, e tc
.
For plat
ing a rtic
les w ith n ickel not over 6 v o
lts isg enera l
ly
u
sed. To s upply t he c urren t wh ich mus t be steady , 2t o 4
Gordon p r
imary c el
ls may b e used, al
so C rowfoo t
, B unsen o r
Danie
ll c e
lls are a daptab le
. S torage c e l
ls form a n e xcellen t
s
ource o f current s upp ly. The t ype " S S " 6v olt
, 4 ampere
d
ynamo s hown a t Fig. 5,c an also b e emp loyed i fd esired. A
wa
ter whee l can b e ut
ilized t o drive itw ith. The w a ter whee l
a
l
so wou ld be very u seful f or dr
iving t he p o
lishing h ead
, c on-
t
a
ining t he buff
ing whee l
. A w ater mo tor d el
ivering t
o Xt
1
23 .
h
orse-power
, d epend
ing u pon t
he si
ze a nd p ressure o f t he
water ma in f eed ing
i
t
, i s shown b y t he
cut Fig. 8 .
I
t is d dvisab le t o
measure t he v oltage
and amperage o f the
p
la t
ing , c urren t f or
any s erious work ,
and t he i nstrumen ts
a
ppearing i n Fig. 9
a
re adm irab ly s ui
ted
t
o t h
is work . The
a
rrange ment o f a
co mplete p lat ing
p
lant, w
ith ba
ttery or d
ynamo B, r
heosta
t R , amme ter A , v olt
-
meter V, and ma in sw
itch SW, are shown i n t he d iag ram
F
ig. 10.
I
n the glass p la
ting t ank, shown at Fig . 7, two nickel g rids
o
r plates are placed in t he so
lution at either side of the t ank.
These form t he "anodes" o r pos
itive electrodes, and a re c on-
n
ectzd to the p osi
tive p ole of t
he plat
ing c ircui
t, as seen f rom
F
ig. 10 diagram . The b inding post at
tached t o t
he c entre r od
o
f the frame i s connec ted to the negative s ide of the feeding
c
ircui
t, and forms t he " cathode" of t
he t ank, when t he articles
t
o be plated are c onnected t o i
ta nd immersed i n t
he s olution.
Small copper w ises (18-24 ) may b e u
sed t o s w
ing t he o b
jec ts
f
rom t he centre o r cathode r od.
Much i mpor tance attaches to t he manner o f s
uspend ing t he
a
rtic
les t o b e plated in the tank. I f t
he a rt
icle is nearer o ne
a
node p late t han the other
, then t he s i
de n earest itw il
l receive
t
he h eaviest d eposit, and v
ice versa . The o bject mus t be spaced
a
s e qua l
ly d i
stant a s poss
ible, from b oth a node p lates, and in
t
his ma tter, t he shape of the objec t has much t o d o with de-
t
ermin ing j ust how i ts ha
ll be s uspended . A l i
ttle e xperience
a
nd r eason ing w ill soon teach t he e xperimen ter t he best w ay
i
n wh ich t o arrange a c er
tain artic le tp receive the mo s
t e ven
d
epos i t
.
The s
olu
tion f i
ll
ing t he p lat
ing t ank i s made u p o f t he nickel
s
al ts d issolved i nto 3 5
ounces ( the c apac ity o f
t
he t ank) o f w arm w ater.
The m ixture i ss t
irred w e
ll
w
i th a wooden s t
ick u nt
il
a
ll t he salts have b een dis-
s
o lved , when t he p la
ting
t
ank i sf i
l
led w ith t he solu-
t
ion . The f ollow ing a re
f
ormu las f or nicke l pla
ting
baths w ith s ulpha te as the
base :
—Par ts—
Am moniu m a nd
n
ickel s u
lpha te .. 4 ' 1
Dis t
illed w ater....100 1 0
Am moniu m e ar -
n
s
. II. Wa
ter m
oto
r dir
ect c
onne
cted t
o d
ynamo
. b
onate ( abou t).. 3
T
he d ouble s
ulphate
, as
g
iven above
, is wide
ly u
sed f
or ni
ckel pla
ting. T he ch
loride
may a
lso be employed a
s ab
asis f
or n
ickel pla
ting
, as p
er the
f
ol
lowing formula. P
arts
.
N
ickel c
hlor
ide 298
Water . 2
,
250
D
isso
lve and add
:
Ammonium c h
lor
ide 7
0
Water e
nough to make 1
0
,000
1
24
 The a ddit
ion o f b oric a cid t o n ickel p la t
ing s olutions i s
r
ecommended b y Edward Wes ton i n the f ollow ing p ropor t
ion :
Two p arts o f b oric a c id t o f ive p arts o f n ickel c hloride o r
one p art o f b oric a cid t o t hree p arts o f n icke l s ulpha te.
Too much a lka li i n an icke l b ath r esu lts i n ay ellow d epos it
.
Too much a c
id g ive s an on -adherent c oa t. The b ath mus t b e
p
er fec tly n eutra l. I t s hou ld h ave a s pecif ic g ravity o f 1.04 1 to
1
.056, a s measured b y ah ydrome ter . I f i ti sw eaker , t he b ath
work s s lowly; i fs tronger t han s pec ific g rav ity 1 .070, t he s alts
c
ry sta ll
ize o n t he a nodes . The b ath s hou ld b e c ons tan tly
watched f or c hanges i n i t
s d ens ity o r s pec ific g rav ity.
Articles t o b e n icke l p la ted a re v ery t horough ly s coured a nd
c
leaned , u s
ing as tiffs cour ing b rush a nd p um ice p owder , h aving
f
i
r st d ipped t he a rticles i nto b oiling c aus tic s oda s olution f or
t
en t o f iteen m inu tes. When w ell c l
eaned , a s a bove d escribed ,
af ine c opper w ire i s at tached , a nd t he o bjec t, i f o f ir on o r
s
teel, s hould b e d ipped i n ab a th c omposed o f 5 4-1b. h ydro -
c
hlo ric a cid p er o ne g allon wa ter , u sing a wooden t ank t o h old
t
he s olu t
ion . I f t he a rtic le i so f b rass o r c opper , t hey s hou ld
b
e d ipped i n ab ath o f 5 4-1b . c yan ide o f p otassium p er o ne
g
allon o f wa ter . Abou t t wo h ours ' i mmers ion i n t he p lating
c
ell h ere men tioned w ill g ive a g ood d epos i t
. I ron o r s teel
s
hou ld r eceive a c oppe r p late d epos it f i
rst, a s ab ase f or n icke l
o
r o ther p late t o make a f i
rst c l ass j ob. F urther d e
ta i
ls a re
g
iven i n the n ext c hap ter , No . 1 6. A t F ig. 1 , i s i lustra ted
a c omp lete h ydroe lec tric p lant , c ompr is ing a wa ter mo tor
a
nd D . C . d ynamo o n o ne b ed -p la te. Th is s et o n 5 0 t o 7 0
l
bs. w ater p ressure f rom a 3 /
4" ma in w ill d evelop 7 t o 8
v
olts a nd 8 t o 1 0 amperes .

LESSON No
. 1
6
.
ELECTROPLATING
.
PART I
.
I
n t his c hap ter f ur ther d etails a nd t nethods f or plating w ith
various me tals s uch a s s i
lver , g old , p la tinum , et c
., w i
ll b e d is
-
cussed . In t he f orego ing s ection , c opper -plating w ith t he
"E lectro" s elf-exc iting c ell c omb in ing b at tery a nd p lating t ank,
w as c overed , a s we ll a s n icke l-pla ting .
A few words a re a dded h ere, r elative t o c opper p lating i n the
r
egu lar manner , t ha t i s
, w ith a n e x terna l b attery o r d ynamo
cur ren t feed ing t he p lating v a t
. The b est p oten tials or v olt
-
ages f or d iferent me tal d epos it
ions a re t abulated h erein.
For a c opper p lating b ath t o b e u sed f or o b-
j
ec ts n ot attacked b y s ulphu r
ic a cid o r c opper
sulpha te, ag ood make-up i s as olu tion o f c op-
per s ulpha te, w ith o ne-tenth o f i ts v olume o f
sulphur ic a cid. The s pecif ic g rav ity a s meas.
'
u
red b y ah ydrome ter , ( see F ig . 1 ), s hou ld b e
1
.197 , a nd t he b ath c o
ld when u sed . I
f t oo
much c opper s ulpha te i s i n the b ath , c rys tals
will f orm o n t he s urface o f t he a node , o r
posi t
ive e lectrode . These c rys tals, a l tho q u
ite
i
nv isible , w ill p revent t he c urrent f rom p ass-
i
ng . T he b ath h ere ment ioned i sq ui te l im ited
i
n u se, a s i ti sn o t perm issab le f or p la ting i ron
or z i
nc , e tc. I
t c an b e emp loyed f or w ax
mou lds, s uch a s t hose u t
ilized f or e lec tro typ -
i
ng. The e xact f ormu la f or t he a bove c opper - A Hydro meter
a
cid s olution i s: S ulpha te o f c opper , 1l b
.;
s
ulphur ic a cid, 1l b
. ; wa ter , 1g al. The s ulpha te o f c opper i s
f
i
r st d issolved i n h ot wa ter , when t he r ema inder o f the w ater
may b e a dded c old . Then t he s ulphur ic a cid i sp laced i n
to t he
s
olu tion , allow ing t he m ix ture t o c oo l w e l
l b efore u s
ing.
For p lating c opper o n z inc, i ron , e tc., t he s o
lu tion s hou ld b e
t
he c opper -cyan ide m ixture , t he p ropor tions b eing a s g iven
1
25
h
ere : C arbona te o f p otash, 61 4 o zs.; c yan ide o f p otass ium , 2
l
bs.; wa ter , 3g als. The c yan ide o f p otass ium i s d isso lved i n
t
he ma jor p ortion o f t he wa ter, a nd t he c arbona te o f c opper
i
n ap or tion o f i t
, with t he carbona te o f p otash i n s t
ill a no ther
p
ce tion ; a dd t o t he
potassiu m s olu t
ion ,
f
i
r st t he c opper s olu -
t
ion a nd t hen t he p ot -
a
sh s o lu tion , t horo ly
s
t irr ing t he who le .
I
f t he s o
lu t
ion , o n
t
ry ing o ut, d oes n o t
d
epo s
it f reely, al i
ttle
s
no re c yan ide o r more
c
arbona te , o r b oth ,
may b e a dded u ntil
t
he r ight e fect i s o b-
t
ained .
In pla ting c opper o n
z
i nc, t he z inc o bjec t
i
s f i
rs t d ipped i nto a
mix ture o f 4 .
5 p er c ent . sulphur ic a cid , a nd a fter r i nsing w ell
i
n w ater , i ti sd ipped i nto a s olution o f c aus tic s oda o r s odium
carbona te, a fter wh ich i ti s r
eady f or t he p la t
ing t ank . One
princ ipa l u se f or c opper p late o n i ron i s f or a b ase o n wh ich
to d epos it a s ilver , g old o r n ickel l ayer . Th is g ives t he mos t
durab le f i
nish, w ith a s moo th e ven c oat.
For c opper p lating , t he plates f orm ing t he a nodes o r p o sitive
electrodes a re c opper g rids o f a s p ure a q ua lity a s p o ssib le.
In F ig. 2i ss hown t he me thod o f a rrang ing t he c opper a nodes
and a r tic les t o b e pla ted i n the b ath , t he s ketch b eing a v iew
f
rom t he t op o f the p lating t ank.
,
Below i s g iven a t ab le
o
f t he u sua l p oten tia ls
employed f or v arious
k
inds o f e lec tro- pla ting .
The v o
l tage s hou ld b e
specia lly a djusted f or
each c ase t o g ive t he
most s uitable c urren t
,
and d epends u pon t he
size o f t he p la t
ing t ank ,
t
he a rea o f t he a nodes ,
• A
rte es the s treng th o f t he s olu-
Co
ihod es
be
liy pe ed t
ion, a nd s evera l o ther
F
ig 3 t
hings , a nd mo st p laters
d
eterm ine t he b es t p o-
t
entia l a nd c urren t f or a c er in p
ta urpose b y e xper imen t.
Approx. Volts
Me tal.* Po
ten t
ial
Copper —cyan ide b ath .
5to 1 .5
Copper —ac id b ath 3
.
0 to 5 .0
S
ilver . .
5 to 1.0
Gold .
5t o 4.0
Brass 3
.0 to 5.0
I
ron , steel f acing • 1
.0 to 1.3
Nickel o n i ron, s t
eel, c opper, w ith n ickel a nodes ;
s
tart d epos it a t 5v o
l ts, diminishing t o 1
.5 to 2.0
Nickel o n i ron, s teel
, c opper , with c arbon a node 4
.0 to 7.0
Nickel o n z inc • 4
.0 to 7.0
P
la tinum . 5
.0 to 6.0
For certain p urposes , s uch as wireless telegraph c ondenser s,
e
tc .
, iti so ften d esirab le t o deposit a c opper c oating o n glass.
F or the very b est work , t he copper o r s ome times silver should
be b urnt i nto t he g lass t o minim ize b l
is tering u nder h eavy
charging . However , c opper p la t
ing i n the o rd
inary w ay i s
f
a r superior t o t he c ommon me thod o f p asting t i
nfoil on t he
*
Elec
trica
l E
ngineer
's Handbook
, I
nterna
tiona
l T
extbook C
o.
1
26
 g
lass, as there isb ound to be air spaces le
f t b
e tween t he f
oil
and the g lass
, and a t these points
, t he w eak s pots develop,
unt
il fi
nally the g
lass plate o
r jar fa
ils and isp unc tured by the
h
igh v ol
tage .
The fol
low ing scheme o f deposi
ting a me tal plating on glass
p
lates or jars isdescribed by S. Wein i n Modern E lectr
ics for
August, 1912.
Prepare a m ixture o f sulphur a nd o il of s p
ike, ( Lavendu la
spika )
, h aving ito f t he consistency o f mo lasses ; al
so a s atu-
r
a ted s olut
ion o f chloride o f gold in sulphuric e ther. M ix t he
two a nd e vaporate a t ag entle heat to the cons istency of pain t
.
After thoro ly c
leaning t he glass surface, pain t at h
in coating
o
f t his m ix ture o n the s urface to be p lated, a nd b ake in a n
oven o r furnace, t o d r
ive o f the sulphur a nd o ther volatile
i
ngred ients. The r esult i s av ery t hin me tal
lic f i
lm wh ich
s
trong ly a dheres t o t he g lass surface , wh ich f i
lm may b e
r
einforced b y electro- p
lating w ith c opper i n the o rdinary
manner . Th
is makes a v ery s ui
tab le c oating f or L eyden
j
ar s
, a nd t he li
ke.
A somewha t simpler me thod i s to roughen t he s urface
o
f t he glass b y means o f a pplying hydro-f
luoric a cid
, s and
b
lasting u nder ai
r p resstre, or g r
inding with emery o r c ar
-
b
orundum d ust
. The s urface after be
ing e ven
ly r oughened
i
s p a
inted w ith a sa
turat ed s o
lution of s
ilver nitrate. A fter
t
his h as dried, the treated s urface shou
ld b e e lectroplated
w
i th copper.
S
till a no ther s cheme d ifers f r om t he f orego ing , o nly t hat
i
n p ainting t he r oughened s urface o f t he g lass, t he p a inting
med ium i s av ery t hin f i
lm o f p repared A cheson g raph ite, i n-
s
t ead o f the s ilver n i tra te s olution .
S
ilver p la ting i s a n i mpor tan t b ranch o f e l ec tro- plating .
Ar t
icles wh ich a re t o b e si
lver p lated mus t b e c arefu lly p re-
pared , a nd s hou ld b e v ery smoo th o n the s urface .
The a rticle i sf i
rst b oiled i n a1 0 p er c ent
, s olution o f c aus tic
potash t o c ut a l
l o il
, g rease a nd d irt from t he s ur face. A f ter
boil
ing , t he o b ject i sr insed i n c o
ld wa ter a nd t hen d ipped i n a
1
0 p er c ent, solu tion o f s ulphur ic a cid a nd w ater, a nd t hen w ashed .
(
36 0) ,1 00 par ts ; salt, ( sod ium c hlor ide) , 2p arts; c alcined l amp -
b
lack , 2p arts. A fter a f ew s econds t hey a re thorough ly w a
shed
a
nd t hen i mmersed i n t he f o
llow ing b ath : Nitric a cid ( 36 °), 6 00
p
a rts; sulphur ic a cid ( 66 °),3 0p arts; s a
lt, (sodiu m chlor ide) , 4p ar ts
.
After emerg ing f rom t his t rea tment , they a re we ll w ashed
a
nd c leansed , when t hey a re d ipped i n t
he f ol
low ing q uicken ing
b
a th, u nt
il t he o bjec ts a ppear wh ite o n t he s ur face : Wa ter,
1
00 p a r
ts ; Mercur ic n itrate, 1p ar t; w ith s uff
icient s ulphur io
a
cid t o d isso lve t he mercur ic n itrate. The p i eces a re t hen
washed a nd p laced i n t he pla ting b ath.
The c ommon s olution f or s i
lver p lating i s the p otassium -
s
i
lver -cyan ide m ixture. A s o
lu tion of s i
lver n i
tra te i n w ater
i
sp recipi tated b y t he add it
ion o f lime wa ter, t he s i
lver o xide
a
ppear ing a s a b rown p owder . The p recip itate i s wa shed
c
are fully a nd i s k ept i n v essels f i
l
led w i
th wa ter. To p re-
p
are a b ath f or t he p latitg t ank a q uan t
ity o f t he b rown
o
xide o f s i
lver i s d i
ssolved i n as olution o f p otassium c ya-
n
ide i n distilled w ater.
Iron o r l ead w ire, n o
t c opper , mus t b e u sed t o s uspend
t
he a rt
icles i n t he b ath. A t l east 4i nches o f s pace mu st b e
l
ef
t b etween t he s i
lver a node g rid and t he o bject t o b e pla ted.
When t he p ieces h ave a cqu ired a s uff
icient ly h eavy c oating
o
f s ilver, t hey a re r emoved f rom t he b a
th, washed i n c old
'water, a nd t hen w ith s l
igh tly a cidulated wa ter, 'using a l i
ttle
s
ulphur ic
+a cid i n the wa ter, the s i
lver pla ted a rticles a re f i
na lly
b
rushed a nd p o
lished b y t he r egular p rocess .
Go ld p lating i sa ccomp lished b y us
ing a t ank b ath o f g old-
p
otass ium c yan ide . 1 54 parts o f g o
ld c hlor ide b e
ing d isso lved
i
n 2 000 p ar ts o f p ure w ater. A s eparate s o
lu tion o f 200 p arts
o
f p ota ss
ium c yan ide i n 8000 p arts of wa ter i s made . Then t he
1
27
 t
wo so
lutions a
re mixed a
nd boiled for ha
lf a
n h our. The bath
i
sused co
ld. To mainta
in it
s st
rength , go
ld ch
loride and p
otas-
s
ium cyanide may be a
dded in equa
l p ar
ts as required
.

F
ig. 5
. How v
arious —a
rt
icles are s
uspendee
i
n P lat
ing T ank

• For g ild ing w ith a w arm s olution t he f ollow ing b aths may
b
e u sed : (
1) (2)
Sodium p hospha te ( crys tallized ) 600 p ar ts 5
00 p ar ts
Sodium b i sulphi te 100 p ar ts 1
25 p ar ts
Potass ium c yanide . 1 0 p ar ts 5p ar ts
Gold c hlor ide 1
2 p ar ts 1
2 p ar ts
The f i
rst ( 1) isf or g old p la ting s ilver , c opper a nd a lloy s r ich
i
n c opper . The s econd . (2) i s for i ron a nd s teel.
The a node f or g old p lating i s ag rid o r p la te o f g old. I ft he
b
a th i s t oo r i
ch i n g old, i tc auses t he c oa ting d epos ited t o b e
b
lack o r r ed i n appearance . I f the c oa t
ing i sg ray , a nd f orm s
s
low ly, i ti ndica tes t oo much p otass ium c yan ide . The s uspen -
s
ion w ires h olding t he a node , e tc.
, a re o f p la tinum .

e
l
a
t
i
num
The p lating o f
o
n v ar iou s
objec ts i s o ften r e-
quired for e lectr ica l
appara tus, e tc. The
follow ing bath i
s
suitab le f or p la t
inum
depos i ts o n c
opper
and i ts a lloys : D
is -
solve 1 7 p arts o f p la t-
inic c hlor ide i n 5 00
par ts d istilled w ater .
Then d isso lve 1 00
parts ammon ium
phospha te ïn 5 00
parts o f d istil
led wa ter . The s olut ions a re n ow m ixed , g iving
ap recip ita te. S low ly, as olu t
ion o f 5 00 p ar ts s od ium p ho s-
pha te i n 1 ,000 p ar ts o f wa ter , i sa dded , a nd t he who le b rough t
t
o b oi
ling ; r eplac ing t he wa ter l ost b y e vapora tion , u ntil t he
ammon ia h aving b een b o
iled away '
, t he s olu tion b ecomes a c
id
and l o ses t he y ellow c o
lor i t f ormer ly p ossessed , a nd b e-
comes c o
lor less. Th is b ath i s emp loyed wh ile h ot
, a nd i t
s
streng th i s ma inta ined b y a dding ammon ium -pla tinum p ho s-
pha te p recip itate a s o b
ta ined a bove . The a node p late i n
platinum p la t
ing i s a lways p latinum .
Some times i ti s d esired t o b rass p la te c er ta in a rtic les, s uch
a
s sma ll c astings , o r p arts o f mode ls o r a ppara tus when t he
meta l i s o f s ome o ther ma teria l
. A b rass s olu tion i s e as ily
made o u t o f the c opper c yan ide b ath c i
ted a bove , b y a dd ing
z
inc c arbona te s olu tion . Th is i sp repared b y d isso lv ing 2 p arts
by w eigh t
, o f cyan ide o f p otass ium a nd 1p ar t o f zinc c arbona te
i
n w ater . The z inc c arbona te s o
lu tion i sa dded t o t he c opper
cyan ide b a
th u n
t il t he d esired c olor o f b rass d epo sit i s o b.
t
am ed . The a node i so f shee t b rass .
1
28
 •Z
inc pla
ting o n i r
on, has rapidly d eve loped into a la
rge in-
d
ustry. C ommerc ial
ly, itisreferred t o as galvanized iron, t
he
c
oating be
ing a p rotec
tior. against r usting. Mos t of t
he zinc
c
oating p rocesses i n v ogue i n t he Un ited S tates emp loy
s
oluble z
inc anodes , while Cowper -Co les, in England, uses i
n-
s
oluble
, (l
ead) , anodes, ina n electroly te contain
ing 3 5 ounces
o
f zinc su
lpha te
, ( Zn SO 4, 7 H , 0), a nd 0.
1 o unce sulphuric
a
cid
, (specif
ic grav i
ty M (1.84
), p er gallon o f water.
Av ery g ood z inc p la ting s olu tion i so bta ined , a ccord ing t o
Foer ster , b y d issolv ing 2 00 g rammes p ure z inc s u lpha te, ( free
f
r om i ron) , 4 0 g rammes g lauber s al t
, 1 0 g rammes z i nc
c
h lo ride , a nd 0 .5 g ramme b orac ic a cid , s o a s t o g et 1l i
ter o f
s
o lu tion . Wi th c urren t d ens i t
ies o f 0 .005 t o 0 .02 ampere p er
s
quare c en time ter, g ood d ense d e-
posi ts u p t o 0 .05 mm . t hickness a re +
t
hereby o bta ined a t t empera tures b e-
tween 1 8° a nd 5 0° c en tigrade . The
me thod o f p roduc ing t he z inc c oa ting
by e lec tro lys is h as' t he f oilow ing a d -
v
an tages o ver t he o ld d ipp ing p rocess ;
e
lec tro ly tica lly d epos i ted z inc , when
p
roper ly a pp lied , i s d enser , t ougher ,
more u niform a nd more r es is tan t
agains t c orros ion .
Elec trop lating o n a lum inum i sq uite
d
if icu lt, ow ing t o t he t hin i nvis ib le
f
i
lm o n the s ur face , (
oxide or
hydrox ide f i
lm) , wh ich p ers isten tly r e-
f
uses t o b e e l
im ina ted f rom t he b ase
me ta l i tself. Un less g rea t c are a nd
s
pec ia l c l
eans ing b aths a re emp loyed ,
t
he c oa ting o n a lum inum w ill n ot
s
tick f or a ny l e ngth o f t ime . The f i
lm
o
f o xide i sb es t elim ina ted b y u sing a F
ig. 6 .
solub le f l
uor ide i n t he p lating b ath . A P later 's Rheostat
Z
inc a dheres b est o f a l
l me ta ls t o
a
lum inum . ' Hence , a lum inum s hou ld a lways r ece ive a z inc
coa ting f irst. I f g old i st o b e p la ted o n a lum inum , t he g old
shou ld n ot b e d epos ited d irec tly u pon t he z i nc, a s t he g old
will s oon a lloy w ith t he z inc, a nd a pparent ly d isappear . F or
t
h is r ea son , t he z inc d epos it i s b est g iven a c opper p lating
and t hen t he g old p late o n t op o f i t
. The z inc p la ting s olu -
t
i on h as a bou t 1% o f h ydrof luor ic a cid a dded t o i t
, o r t he
equ iva len t amount o f p otass ium f luor ide . B e fore d epos iting
t
he g old c oat ing o n t he c opper p la ting , t he l atter s hou ld b e
w ell p olished , a s o therw ise a l arge amount o f g old w ill h ave
to b e d epos ited t o g ive a n e ven c oa ting .
The r everse o f elec tro p lating i st he e lec tro ly tic r e mova l o f
a me ta llic c oa ting f rom t he s urface o f a n a rticle . Th is i sg en -
e
ra lly c arr ied o ut a s a n a nod ic r eac tion . The most i mpo rtan t
i
ndus try i n t his f i
eld i st he d e tinn ing o f t in s crap , wh ich h as
assumed c ons iderab le p ropor tions i n r ecent y ears , a s ac on -
sequence o f t he e normous g row th o f t he t in c an i ndus try .
Wh i le f ormer ly o n ly t he t in s crap o f t he t in c an f ac tory , ( a
pure ma ter ial c ons is ting o f s hee t i ron c overed w ith t in), was
trea ted ; t he t reatmen t o f t in c ans , b oxes , e tc., wh ich h ave
been u sed , h as r ecen tly b een t aken u p o n ac ommerc ia l s ca le.
S
ince t hey c on tain many i mpur ities , t hese mus t f i
rst b e v ery
tho ro ly r emoved , ( carbon ized , e t c
.) . S ee " S tandard E lec trica l
Eng ineers Handbook ."
The e lectro ly t
ic p rocess i n t his f ield i s i nvoked f or t he.
p urpo se o f r embv ing t he t i, f r om t he i ron , s o a s t o g et b oth
t
he t in a nd i r on s epara te a nd p ure . The i ron i ss old a s s crap
t
o o pen h ear th s tee l works , e tc., a nd must t here fore b e a bso -
l
ute ly f ree f rom t in a nd i n g ood c ond ition . The p rocess
h
av ing b een t he mos t s uccess fu l o n al arge s cale , i s t hat o f
Theo . Go ldschm id t, i n E ssen , G ermany . I t i s as ecre t p ro -
cess , a nd emp loys t he s crap a s a node i n as olu tion o f c aus tic
soda . Recent ly ( 1906 ) d et
inn ing w i th c hlor ine , h as e ntered
1
29
i
n
to c ompe tition w ith e lec tro ly tic d etinn ing . De tinn ing w ith
c
hlor ine may b e c ons idered a s a n elec tro ly tic p rocess o nly i n
s
o f ar a s e lec tro ly tic c hlor ine i s emp loyed , wh ile the p roduc ts
o
f e lec tro ly tic d etinn ing a re t in a nd i ron ; t hose o f c hlo rine
d
etinn ing a re t in t ec trach lor ide a nd i r on .
-In l arge p la t
ing e stab lishmen ts, wooden t anks a re u sed ,
a
lso p osce la in b ath t ubs , in s ome p laces . F or t he b est r esu lts
t
he e l ectro ly te s hou ld b e a g
i tated wh ile p la t
ing i sg oing o n,
a
nd i n s ome c ases t he a rtic les a re moved a bou t, to make t he
d
epos it a s e ven ly d i str ibu ted a s p ossib le .
I
t i si mpera tive t ha t g ood v ent ila t
ion b e h ad f or t he c arry -
i
ng o f
f o f f umes f rom t he c yan ide o r o ther a cid b aths a nd d ip -
p
ing s olu t
ions , f or t hese a re s trong ly p oisonous a nd s hou ld
not b e p erm it ted t o c hoke u p o r s tagna te t he a tmosphere , i n
which t he p la ter i s work ing . Woo l c lo thes a re t he b es t a s
t
hey a re n ot a t
tacked b y a c
id . The a rrangemen t o f al arge
p
la ting v at, w ith s evera l a nodes , i s d ep ic ted a t F ig . 3 , t he
v
ar ious a rtic les b e ing s uspended b etween a ny t wo a node
p
la tes a s s hown .
In F ig . 4i s s hown a f air a rrangemen t o f a sma ll p la ting
r
oom . The b uild ing o r r oom may h ave o rd inary p la stered o r
wood wa lls. The f l
oor i s b est o f c oncre te , o r b rick s
, w ith
wooden s lat p la tforms a c oup le o f i nches t hick p laced i n
f
ron t o f t he t anks a nd s ink . The p la t
ing d ynamo a nd mo tor
t
o d r
ive i ta re i ndica ted a t P . D . The p la ting t anks c on ta in -
'
mg t he s olu tions a re P . P . D ipp ing v ats a re a t D . D ., wh ile
t
he s ink a nd d rain b oards a re S .
, S . D ., a nd T . i s at ab le. Ho t
and c old wa ter s hou ld b e p iped t o a l
l s i nks a nd t anks i fp os -
s
i ble. The f loor s hou ld d rain o n as l ope f rom t he v ar ious
t
ank s, s ink s
, e tc
., t oward t he c entre o f t he r oom . An e xhaus t
f
an i n t he wa ll o r u pper h alf o f aw indow , a s s hown , p roduces
ag ood d raugh t t o s uck o ut t he p oisonous f umes . Wha t t he
e
l ectro - pla ter p ays f or i n s e ttling h is b i
l ls f or elec tr icity o r
in r enew ing h is b at ter ies, i s t he n umber o f k ilowa tt h our s
consumed b y h im . The amount o f work p erformed b y h im ,
i.e .
, t he w eigh t o f me ta l p lated b y h im , d epend #s ole ly u pon
the ampere h ours , t ables o f t he c orrespond ing e lec trochem i-
cal e qu iva len t b eing g iven i n h andbooks a nd p laters ' t rea tises .
S
ince t he e lec trica l e nergy measured 'i n wa tt-hours . i
s t he
p
roduc t o f t he v o
l ts a nd t he ampere h ours , i ti se viden t t ha t
s
ince t here i s n o c hance o f s av ing a ny p ar t o f t he " a mpere
hour s" n ecessary f o r ac er ta in amount o f p lating , t he o n ly
p
o ssib ility o f r educ ing t he e nergy c onsump tion i sb y r educ ing
t
he v oltage a t t he p la ting t anks b y ar es is tance c onnec ted i n
s
eries w ith t he d ynamo a nd t ank .
I
n p ractice iti su sual t o la
cquer c ertain plated f i
nishes as
t
hey a re not capab le of holding t heir lustre for a ny l ength of
t
ime. L acquer c an b e b ought r eady t o a pply, b oth c old and
ho
t l a
cquer b e
ing s o
ld . Ho t l
acquer i sapp l
ied b y h eating the
p
lated o bject gently a nd t hen d ipping i ti n the lacquer , or it
may b e appl
ied b y means o f ab rush. C hande liers, ornamen ts
,
a
nd n umerous o ther a rt
icles d ipped o r p lated a re l acquered
t
o p reserve t heir lustre, a f
ter p o
lishing. Wh ite l acquer i s
u
sed o n nickel
, i fapp l
ied. N icke l plated p arts f or electr
ical
sw
itch c ontacts s hou ld n ever b e lacquered , as t h
is f orms a n
i
nsulating c oa
ting .

l
e0
 LESSON No
. 1
7
.

STATIC ELECTRICITY AND STATIC GENERATO RS

.

A
LL b od ies i n t he un iverse a re s upposed t o co nt ai n an
e
lec tr ic c harge , e ither n ega tive o r posit
ive. The e arth
i
tself i s c harged n ega t
ive a nd p os
itively a t d iferent
t
imes , a nd t he s treng th o f t he charge v aries w ide ly
a
lso . The c harge r esid ing u pon
various b od ies i ss upposed t o b e i n
a n eu tra l s ta te, u nless d is turbed .
I
f t wo d iss im ilar s ubs tances a re
r
ubbed , f or e xamp le, t he n eu tra l
cond ition e xis ting o n t hem i s u p-
s
et o r d isturbed , a nd when t hey
a
re s epara ted , a n e xcess o f e lec-
t
rici ty r ema ins o n o ne , wh ile a
d
ef icit o f e lec tr ici ty e xis ts u pon t he
ot h er . The t wo i ndependegt
bod ies a re t hen s aid t o b e e l ec tri-
c
ally c harged . Th is f orm o f e l ec-
t
r
ic i ty i si n as t ate o f r es t, a s c om-
p
ared t o t he f low o f c urren t f rom a
battery , o r d ynamo , a nd h ence i t
h
as b een n amed " s ta tic e lectr ici ty ."
I
t i s e lec tr ici ty i n p o tent ia l f orm ,
i
.e .
, n ear ly a l
l v oltage , a nd b ut
sl
igh t amperage . The b ody r e-
ferred t o a bove , a s h av ing t he e x-
cess o f e lec tric ity , i s k nown a s
po ssess ing t he " pos i tive" c harge ,
and t he o ne h av ing t he d efici t o f
e
l ec tric ity , t he " nega tive" c harge .
Hence , t here a re t wo f orms o f
s
ta tic e l ec tric ity , v iz., p osit ive a nd
nega tive . A s a n e xamp le, i fad ry
g
la ss r od i sr ubbed b risk ly w ith a
p
iece o f s i
lk t he g lass b ecomes
posi tive ly c harged w ith s t atic e lec -
t
rici ty, a nd w ill e fec t a n e lec tro -
s
cope , wh ich i s d escr ibed l ater o n, o r it wil
l a t
trac t b its o f
paper , e t c. I f as tick o f s ea ling w ax i s rubbed w ith c a t
's
s
kin o r f l
anne l, t he s ea ling w ax b ecomes n egatively c harged
and t he c at's s kin o r f l
anne l p ositively c harged . When
t
he r espec tive p os itive a nd n ega tive c harges are i mpar ted e ach
t
o a me ta l b ody , a nd t hese a re b rought i nto c ontact, t he
c
harges c omb ine , a nd t he e lec tric i ty i sr estored to t he n eu tral
state , o r e qu ilibr ium .
B odies c harged : wi th p os itive
e
l ec tric ity a re i nd ica ted b y t he
p
lus - I mark . Nega tive ly c harged
bod ies a re r epresen ted b y t he
minus s ign — . Bod ies c harged
with p o sitive e lec tr ic ity, r epe l o ne
ano ther , but a ttrac t bod ies
charged w ith n ega tive e lec tr ici ty .
Also b odies p ossess ing a n ega tive
charge r epe l o ne a no ther , b u t
r
ead ily a t tract p os itive ly c harged
bod ies . Hence , l ike c harges r epe l
e
ach o ther , wh ile u nlike c harges
a
ttrac t o ne a no ther .
The c ommones t f orm o f s ta tic
e
lec tr ici ty i s f ound i n n ature .
when l ightn ing o ccurs d ur ing
t
hunder s torms . The v oltage o r
poten tia l o f t hese d i scharges t hrn
t
he a tmosphere i s e normous ,
p
róbab ly r each ing many m illion The Ele
ctroscop e
.
o
r b illion . Thunder i st he s ound
1
3
1
c
rea ted b y t he p assage o f al igh tn ing f l
ash , a nd i st he s ame
a
s t he n oise o f as pa rk d ischarge f rom a s t
a tic mach ine o r
i
nduc t
ion c oil. S ound t rave ls -a t t he r ate o f 1 090 f ee t p er
s
econd , i n o rd inary a i r
, a nd t his e xp lains why i ti st ha t t he
l
igh tn ing f lash i s s een f i
rst, a nd, a f
ter a f ew s econds , t he
noise o f t he d ischarge o r t hunder r eaches o ur e ar s. The
v
eloc ity o f l igh tn ing , i fi ta pproaches t he s peed o f e lec trici ty
t
rave lling o ver c onduc tor s, wh ich i tp robab ly d oes, i s1 86,000
miles p er s econd . F rom t his i ti s q uite s imp le t o c ompu te
t
he d istance b etween y our se l f a nd a l ightn ing d ischarge
r
ough ly. T he t ime e xp iring b etween t he f i
rst g limp se o f t he
l
igh tn ing f lash a nd t he t hunder , e xpressed i n' s econds , a nd
mu ltip lied b y 1 090 f e et, g ives t he d istance o ver wh ich t he
t
hunder h as c ome .
The g enera tion o f s t atic e lec tr ici ty i n s mall q uan tit ies f o r
l
a bora tory s t udy o r e xper imen t, e l
ec tro- therapeu tica l p ur -
po ses , X -Rays , e tc., i sa ccomp lished b y t he u se o f f ric tiona l
e
l ec trica l mach ines , a nd i nfluence mach ines , t he Wimshur s t
s
t atic g enera tor , b elong ing t o t he i nfluence c lass .
Frictiona l s ta tic mach ines a re n o t much u sed a ny mo re ,
e
xcep t i n s ma ll s izes , t heir p rinc ipa l d e
fec t b e ing t he e xac t
a
nd p ecu liar c ond itions s ur round ing t he g enera t
ion o f s ta tic
c
harges w i th t hem . T hey mu s t h ave a v ery c lear , d ry a ir t o
wo rk p roper ly . T he s imp les t f ric tiona l mach ine c ons is ts o f
ag l ass p la te, r ota ting o n a n a xle p assing t hrough i ts c en tre ,
a
nd s i
lk c overed r ubbers p ress ing a gains t i ts s ides a s i t
r
o ta tes. S uitab le c ombs o r f orks a re p rov ided a round t he
p
la te t o g ather t he e lec trica l c harge . Appara tus e mp loyed
i
n e xper imen ting w i th s tatic e lec tric ity a re L eyden j a rs
,
pr c ondenser s, e lec trophorous , e lec tro scope , e t c.
, a nd e xper i-
men ts w ith t he se w ill b e d escr ibed p resen tly . A s ta tic
e
l ec tric c harge r e sides u pon t he s ur face o n
ly o f b od ies , a nd
so a wooden s phere c overed w ith t in foil, o r ah ollow b a ll,
ise very b it a s g ood a s as o
lid o ne f or t he p urpose - Ho l low
t
ubes a re a s g ood a s s olid r ods , l ikew ise .
A s imp le a nd i n expens ive d ev ice f o r p roduc -
i
ng a n e lec tros ta tic c harge , i s k nown a s t he
e
l ec trophorous . Ac ut s how ing i ts a rrangemen t
i
ss hown a t F ig . I . I t c ons ists o f at h
ick d isc ,
called t he c ake b y s ome , c omposed o f a n i n-
sula ting ma ter ia l, ( non -conduc ting ), s uch a s
e
bon ite , o r a c ompound o f r es in. The r e sin
c
ake A , i s p laced i n ai nga l t ray B . A t hin
me ta l d isc C , t ermed t he c over , a nd a bou t t he
s
ame s ize a s A , a nd f i
tted w ith a n i nsu la ting
h
and le D , f in
ishes t he e qu ipmen t.
T he f ollow ing manner i se mployed t o g enera te
a
n e lec tric c harge o n t he e lectrophorous : The
r
e sin o r e bon ite d isc A . i sr ubbed b risk ly w i th a
p
i ece o f s ilk o r c a t
's s kin, c aus ing t he d i
sc t o
a
ssums a n ega tive e lec tric c harge . Now t he
m eta l d isc C , i sp laced u pon t he p la te A , wh ich
a
t e
c tro s ta tic i nduc tion , t oc ause i tt oa s sume ap osi tive
e
le, large . T he p osi t
ive c harge r es
ides o n C , a s l ong a s
i
tr es i
p on A o n ly, a nd a s s oon a s Ci sr emoved f rom t he
n
ega te,e ly c harged p late , i tb ecomes o f z ero p oten tia l, p osses -
s
ing n o c ha rge a t a ll. I f wh ile t he d isc C i sr esting u pon A ,
i
ti st ouched b y t he f inger o f t he o pera tor , ( wh ich i st he s ame
a
s c onnec t ing i tt o e ar th ), t he c harge r e s
id ing u pon A w il
l
r
epe l n ega t ive e lec tric ity f r om C t o e arth, a nd a t trac t a
f
u rther amoun t o f p os itive e lec tric ity t o t he d i
sc C . Now i f
t
he f inger i sr emoved , t he p ositive c harge i sr e tained o n C .
and may b e r emoved i fCi s l ifted o f b y means o f t he / i n-
s
ula ted h and le D .
1
82
 A L
eyden j
ar o
r condenser may r
ece
ive a c
harge b
y t
ouch
-
i
ng t
he knob o
f ja
r with C.

The e
lec
trophorous
, above a
l
l e
lse mus
t be kept very d
ry,
a
nd produces best r
esu
lts i
n acool d
ry atmosphere
.

F
ig. 5
. B
atcer .
1 L
eyden J
ars
.

I
ft he d isc A i so f g lass i nstead o f e bon ite, and r ubbed w ith
s
i
lk , the g lass b ecomes p ositively c harged .
To a scer ta in t he p resence a nd p olari ty of s t
a t
ic e lectric
c
harges , u se i s made o f as imple little i n s
trumen t t ermed a n
e
lec troscope . The e lectroscope i sc ompr ised o f ag lass v essel
S
, F ig. 2 ,f i
tted w ith a n in sulated t op p iece E . Through t h
is
t
op i sp laced a me tal r od R , surmoun ted w ith a b rass b all K.
At the l ower e nd o f t he me tal rod i ss ecured t wo p ieces o f
gold l eaf, h ence t h
is t ype i s of
ten r eferred t o a s t h; g old-
l
eaf e lec troscope . The g lass v esse l s i
ts i n base B ,f ' ~
;ch i s
s
ome times o f me ta l
.
The a ction o f t he e lectroscope i s as f ol
-
l
ow s: I f ab ody c onta ining a s t
atic c harge
i
s p resen ted t o t he b rass b a
ll K , t he g old
l
eaves w ith in t he g lass b a
ll w il
l i nstan tly
d
iverge o r f ly a par t. I f
. n o c harge e x
is ts
upon t he b ody , t he g old l eaves w ill r ema in
mo t
ion less , a nd c lose t oge ther. The p o
lar -
i
ty o f ac ertain c harge may b e found b y
means o f t he e lectroscope a lso. First
, a
n
ega t
ive c harge may b e g iven t he g old Fig. 6.
l
eaves LL . Th is may b e a ccomp l
ished L e
yden Ja
r D i
schar
ger
.
by
. r ubb ing a g lass r od w ith s i
lk, a nd t hen
p
resen t
ing t he g lass r od t o t he ball o n t he electroscope . A
1
33
n
ega tive c harge i sl eft i n t he e lectroscope , a nd t he g la ss r od
t
aken away f rom t he b all.
The g old l eaves d iverge when f irst c harged i n t he manner
d
escr ibed , d ue t o t he c harge r ema in ing f or q uite s ome t ime
i
n t he e l
ec troscope . I f n ow a n ega tive ly c harged b ody i s
approached t o t he b all o f t he i n-
s
trumen t, t he l eaves w ill b e
pushed f a rther a par t, b u t i ft he
body p resen ted ,t o i ti sp ositive -
l
y c harged , t he l eaves w i ll c ol -
l
apse . I
t makes n o d iference
wh ich k ind o f ac harge i sg iven
t
he e l ec troscope , b ut i f d esired
an ega tive c harge c an b e i mpar t -
ed t o t he l eaves b y p resen t -
i
ng a s tick o f s ealing w ax t o t he
ball, h av ing p rev ious ly r ubbed
t
he wax w ith c at's s kin o r f l
an -
nel. The e l ec troscope i s av ery
use ful, a nd i mpor tant p i ece o f
appara tus i n t he r ea lm o f h igh
potent ia l o r s ta t
ic e lec tric i ty. A
sens itive g old l ea f e l ectro scope
will r espond t o t he c harged f i
e ld
exis t
ing a bout h igh v oltage
wires o f t ransm iss ion l ines , e t c.,
and s uch a n i nstrumen t, f or e n -
abling e
l ec tricians work ing
around s uch w ires , t o t
ell
whe ther t hey a re " a
live" o r
"dead ," h as b een p aten ted .
Lty d en j ars a re b ottle f orms o f c ondensers , o ther f orms
b
eing t he g lass p late , t iafo i
l a nd p aper , e tc. The L eyden
j
ar, ow ing t o i ts p ecu liar d es ign , h as t he p roper ty o f r e-
t
ain ing a c harge l ongest , a nd h ence i t i s mos t a lways u sed
f
or h olding s ta
tic e lect r
ic c harges . I
n w ire less t eleg raph
s
ets, t he c ondenser i s o ften
c
omposed o f g lass p la tes , a s
t
hey a re more c ompac t t han
Leyden j ars , a nd i n t his c ase ,
t
hey a re a lmost i mmed ia te ly
d
ischarged , s o a ny r eten t
ive
qualities o ffered b y t he j ar
f
orm o f c ondenser i s n ot o f
s
uch g rea t i mpor tance .
I
n F ig. 3 i s i lus tra ted a
s
em i -sec tiona l v
iew o
f a
n
o
rd inary L eyden j ar c onden -
s
er, h aving a g lass s he ll w ith
bottom . The i n s
ide a nd o ut-
s
ide, a s w el l a s t he b ottom ,
a
re w ell c oated w ith t info il
abou t h alf way u p. Banana
o
il i s ag ood a dhes ive f o r mak -
i
ng t he t info ils t
ick t ot he g la ss,
F
ig
. § . a
ltho s he llac may b e u tilized .
An i nsu la ted t op o f f i
bre , h ard
rubl, o
r wood h olds t he me ta l r od, b a
ll a nd c ha in, a s
shown , f or mak ing c on tac t w ith t he i nner t info i l c oa ting .
C on tact w i th t he o u ter me tal c oa ting i s e asily a fec ted , o f
cour se . Typ ical manufactured L eyden j ars a re s hown a t
Fig s. 4a nd 5 . A d ischarger f or t hese j ars i ss een a t F ig . 6 .
The L eyden j ar i s c harged f rom a s tatic mach ine , o f t he
f
ric tiona l o r Wimshurs t i nfluence t ype , b y h old ing t he j ar i n
the h and , a nd a pproach ing t he b all o n t op o f i t, t o w ith in
spark ing d is tance o f t he d ischarg ing k nob o f t he mach ine .
The j ar h as i ts o uter c oating t hus g rounded t o e ar th t hru t he
1
34
 o
perator
's h
and and body
. The c harge o
f s
ta
tic e
lec
tric
ity
p
ass
ing from t
he mach
ine to t
he i
nner c
oat
ing o
f t
he Leyden

I
f
ig. 9
.
•
j
a r
, t hus a ttrac ts a n e lec tric c harge o f o ppos ite s ign f rom t he
ear th t o t he o uter t info il
coa ting , a nd r eta ins i t
t
here , t he t wo o ppos ite
charges mu tua l
ly a ttrac t-
i
ng e ach o ther a nd t rying
t
o c omb ine . The j ar i s
now s aid t o b e c harged ,
and i n h eavy work t he
s
tress s e t u p i n this man-
n
er u pon t he d ielec tric o r
g
la ss, o ften s ha tters i t
. A
condenser b reak ing d own
in t h
is manner i ss aid t o
be " punc tured ." The j ar
i
sd ischarged b yc onnec t-
i
ng t he i nner a nd o uter
me ta l c oa tings t oge ther ,
t
hru a sma ll a ir g ap. I f
j
i scharged t hru t he b ody ,
as hock w ill b e felt. F or
batter ies o f L eyden j ars
or l arge o nes , t he d i
s -
charger , s een a t F ig . 6 , F
ig. 10.
shou ld b e u sed .
An i nteres t
ing p oint a bou t t he c harge i n L eyden j ars or
o
ther c ondensers , i st ha t t he c harge d oes n ot r eside u pon the
me ta l s ur faces , b u t u pon t he g lass o r o ther d ielectric s epa-
r
a ting t hem . The me tal p ortions s erve s imp ly t o i nduce t he
charge o r r elinqu ish i tu pon d ischarge . Th is i se asi
ly p roved
by means o f as eparab le L eyden j ar a s s een i n F ig. 7 . T he
j
a r i sf i
rs t c harged , a nd t hen i t
s o uter a nd i nner me tal c oat
ings
r
emoved b y in sula ted h ooks . I fa n electroscope i sa pproached
t
o t he g lass i tw ill b e a c tua ted , show ing t hat t he c harge i so n
t
he g lass p ortion o f t he c ondenser . P resented t o t he me tal
par ts, i ts hows n o c harge . R eassemb led t he c ondenser may
be d ischarged i n t he r egu lar manner .
A s a foremen tioned , t here a re t wo p r
inc ipa l classes o f st
atic
genera tors : t he f ric t
iona l mach ine a nd t he i nf
luence mach ine.
The Wimshurs t i nfluence mach ine i sw ide ly u sed , b o
th f or ex-
p
er imen ta l a nd p ro fess iona l p urposes ; a nd s o i tw ill b e de-
s
cr ibed h ere. The
Wimshurst i
nf
lu
e
nce mach ine p ro -
duces s tatic e lec-
t
r
ic i ty b y e lec tro -
s
tatic i nduc t
ion
b
e tween c
harged
me ta l p
la tes i
n-
s
tead o f ar ubb ing
action o n t he
p
la tes , a s i n t he1 . F
ig.
f
r
ic t iona l type . J ames Wimshurs t was i ts i nventor,
a
nd h ence i t
s n ame . A c u
t o f the " Electro" Wimshurs t
1
86
 I
nf luence Mach ine i sp or trayed a t F ig. 8 . I t d elivers a 3 -inch
s
park u nder p rac tica l ly a ll c ond i t
ions , wh ich i s q uite r ema rk -
a
b le, a s o rdinar ily s tatic mach ines a re u nre liab le a nd r efu se
t
o g enera te a c urrent u nless e very th ing i sj us t abou t p er fec t
.
Dry , c ool w ea ther i s bes t f or t heir o pera tion .
To r esume , t he Wimshurst i nf
luence mach ine p roduces i t
s
c
harge b y the r o ta t
ion o f t wo s im ilar g lass d iscs i n o ppo si te
d
irec tions , the t wo d iscs b eing moun ted c lose t oge ther . E ach
d
isc o n its o uter s urface c arr ies a n umber o f t i
nfo il s egmen ts
s
paced e qua l
ly a par t. The s a me n umber must b e o n e ach
d
isc , a nd e ach d isc s o s et.tha t a t a ny g iven i nstan t t he f oil
s
ec tors o n o ne w ill b e just o ppos ite t hose o n t he o ther .
Two me tal r ods c alled n eu tra lizing r ods a re moun ted p ara l -
l
el t o t he o u
ter s ur faces o f t he t wo g lass d i scs, t he e nds o f
t
he a rms c arry ing t i nsel b rushes , mak ing c on tact w i th t he f oil
s
egments o n t he d iscs . The n eu tra liz ing r od a nd i ts b ru shes
on e ach s ide o f t he g enera tor make c onnec tion b etween d ia-
me tr ica lly o ppos ite f oi
l s ec tors o n t he g lass o r e bon ite p lates .
.The t wo r ods o n o ppos ite s ides o f t he mach ine a re s et a t r igh t
ang les t o each o ther , o r l ess, u p t o 6 0 d egrees .
Rota t
ing t he p la tes c auses c hang ing v alues o f e lec tro- sta tic
i
nduc tion t o r eact b etween t hem , a nd t he s ec tors o n o ne p la te
a
c t i nduc tively t o c harge t hose u pon t he o ther . The s t
a tic
cur rent i st aken f rom t he p la tes b y c ollec ting c ombs o r p oin ts
as hor t d istance away f rom t he mov ing p la te. The a ction o f
t
he i nfluence mach ine , wh ich a llows i tt o c harge when s tar t
ing
without b eing s epara tely e xc ited f rom a n e xterna l s ource o f
e
lec tric ity , i s n ot f u lly
&
ternar y!tT ube. u
nders tood a s y et, b u
t i s
p
robab ly d ue t o t he u n-
• e
ven e lec tro- sta tic c ond i -
t
ion p ermanent ly e xis ting
o
n t he p lates , c au sing
s
ome o f t he s ec to rs t o
b
e i n ad iferent s t ate o f
c
harge f rom o ther s.
In o pera tion , p ositive
e
lec tr ici ty i sc ollec ted a t
one c omb , a nd n ega tive
a
t t he o ther , t he se s igns
r
ema in ing c ons tan t. I f a
s
t ationary g lass p la te i s
p
laced b e
tween t he t wo
r
o ta ting g lass p lates , t he
polar i ty r everses r egu lar -
l
y a nd t he mach ine i s
t
hen t ermed a n a lterna t-
i
ng Wimshur t mach ine .
When L eyden j a rs a re
connec ted t o t he ma -
F
ig. 1 2
. chine , a s in t he " Elec tro"
t
ype , t he i nner c oa tings
t
o t he c ollec ting c ombs , a nd t he o uter c oa tings t o t he e ar th,
t
he j a rs b ecome c harged , r esu l ting i n at hicker s park d ischarge
a
t s l ower i nterva ls b etween t he d ischarge b a
lls. The max i-
mum s park l eng th o f the mach ine i sa t tained w ithou t t he j ar s
.
Influence s tatic mach ines i n clude s uch t ypes a s t he Vo ss , a nd
Ho l tz , also t he Top ler -Ho l
tz .
The p olari ty o f. the s tatic mach ine c an b e a scer ta ined b y
observ ing t he e lec trode t erm ina ls. The n ega tive e lec trode ,
.when i n ah orizon ta l p osition , g ives a s harp h iss ing s ound ,
distingu ish ing i t from t he p os itive e lec trode wh ich d oes n ot
g
ive a ny s ound . The p o lari ty i se as ily f ound b y means o f t he
elec troscope , p rev ious ly d escr ibed .
Many . amus ing a nd i nstruc tive e xper iments c an b e p er-
f
ormed w ith t he a id o f s uch amach ine a s t he " Elec tro" Wims -
hurs t g enera tor . A n umber o f p ieces o f a ppara tus t ha t c an
b
e worked b y i to r o ther s t atic c harges a re i lus tra ted b y F ig.
9
,c u ts 1t o 5 .
1
86
 At c ut 1i s s een a u niversa l s tand a dap tab le t o h o
ld ing
g
eissler t ubes , o r o ther a ppara tus . C ut 2s hows t he e lec tr
ic
chime s
, wh ich a re v ery u se ful f or demons tra ting . A s p
inn ing
whee l isd epic ted a t 3 , wh i
le a s tatic mo tor a ppears a t 4. T he
hair-riser wh ich p rojec ts u pward when c onnec ted t o o ne p o
le
of the mach ine i ss een a t 5.
Magne tiza tion c an b e d one b y static e lec tricity i n the f o
l-
l
ow ing manner :. Form a h el
ix o f copper w ire s epara ting t he
t
urns a nd then i n sula t
ing t he who le. Wi thin t he h e lix a h ard
s
teel b ar o r n eed le i sp laced , a nd i faf ew d ischarges f rom a
Leyden j ar a re p assed t hru t he h elix, t he b ar w i
ll b e f ound
t
o b e magnç tized .
I
ts hould b e n oted t hat i f ac ondenser , s uch a s aL eyden j ar
b
e p laced u pon a n i nsulated g lass s tand a s i n F ig . 1 0
, n o
c
harge w ill b e a ccumu la ted b y t he j ar, b ut i fi ts o uter c oat-
ing i s t ouched w ith t he f i
nger , i t i mmed iate ly a ssumes a
charge , as i ti st hen e arthed .
I
n the cut, F ig. 1 , iss hown t he me thod o fc harg ing L eyden
j
ar s in" cascade ," a s i ti st ermed , o r ins eries. They r e
st u pon
i
n sulated s tands , s uch a s g lass t u mblers, a nd t he o u ter c oa t-
i
ng o f the last o ne i sc onnec ted t o earth.
A pecu l
iar manner o f p roduc ing a s tatic c harge i sd epic ted
a
t F ig. 1 2
, where a g lass t ube, c ontaining mercury , i ss haken
b
risk ly, a nd t hen p resented t o t h
'e b all o f a n e l
ec troscope ,
whose l eaves w ill d iverge . A t est t ube, c on ta ining mercury
a
nd c orked a t t he o pen e nd, w il l serve w ell f or t his e xper i
-
men t.

LESSON No
. 1
8
.
ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRU MENTS .
To measure t he d egree of streng th a nd q uantity, a
lso sev-
e
ral other diversif
ied f a
ctors, use is made o f e l
ectrical measur-
i
ng instrumen ts. The t wo types mos t genera lly emp loyed are
t
he voltmeter, for a scer
taining t he p o
tent ial st
reng th of acer-
t
a
in c urrent, and t he amm et r ,w
e h
ich i ndicates wha t quantity
o
f el
ec tr
ici
ty i sp assing at acerta in p o
int i n acircuit
.

F
ig. 1
. F
ig. 2 F
ig. 3
.

Mo st measur ing i nstrumen ts work u pon t he o r

iginal g al
-
v
anome ter pr
inc iple
, wh ich invo lves the use o f a magne tized
n
eed le p ivo
tally moun ted w i
th in a coi
l o f o ne or more t urns
o
f i nsulated w ire.
The t angent g alvanome ter w as one o f the f i
rst electrical
measur ing i n
struments d eveloped , and a c u
t of s uch a t ype
i
ss een a t Fig
. 1 . It ise asily rade , compr ising a l oop of o ne
t
urn o f No . 6o r 8B . & S . g auge copper w ire
, made i nto a
l
oop h aving a d iame ter o f 62
.8 cm . (24.7 i n
.), and a c i
rcum-
f
erence o f 197
.2 cm . ( 77
.7 i n
.). I f t
he i nstrument i s made
c
arefu l
ly a fter t he a bove d imens ions, a nd a g a
lvanome ter
n
eed le placed u pon t he p edestal (an ordinary c ompass n eed le
w
ill s erve),'a c urrent o f 1 0 amperes p assing t hru the l oop
1
37
w
ill c ause t he n eedle to d ef
lect o ver 4 5 d egrees o f t he
c
ircular d ial 0 /8 o
f the circum ference ). The c ompass need le
s
hou ld b e p laced at the e xact cen ter of t he c o
il or loop o f
w
ire. A more a djustable t ype o f this galvanome ter is i
lu s-
t
rated a t Fig. 2, which h as l eve
ling s crews p rovided in t he
b
ase f e
e t
, so i tcan b e read ily set level. O rdinarily
, the coil
i
ss et p aral
le l with the need le
, when t he n eedle has set i
tself
n
or th a nd s outh, or with t he magne tic mer idian of the earth.
G a
lvanome ters as ar ule a re v ery d el
ica te and u sed o nly
f
or d eterm ining v ery fi
ne d iferences o f curren t or vo
ltage
, a s

F
ig. 5
i
n Whea tstone B r
idge measuremen ts , e
tc. A t ype much i n
f
avor t o
-day f or l aboratory re
search , but u nsu
i ted t o fi
eld
work, i
st he m irror o r ref
lect
ing ga
lvanome ter, s
ho li
rn a t F
ig.
3
. A t G i s av ery s ensi
tive ga
lvanome ter providEd w ith a ,
d
elicate
ly h ung m irror o f smal
l si ze. 'The m irror i s s u
s-
p
ended o n q uartz o r cocoon si
lk fibre. B ehind a g raduated
s
tationary sca le H, i splaced a s
ource o f li
ght
, L . T his igh t

i
s al
lowed t
o fi
lter t
hru a smal
l sl
it i
n t he scale f r
ame , b
ut
b
elow the s
cale
, and fa
lls upon the mirror o f the g a
lvano-
meter
. When a v ery minu
te current is passed t hrough the

g
alvanome ter co
il, the mirror, with minu te permanen t st
eel
magnets at
tached to i t
, i
s def
lected a t
rif
le, and consequently
t
he beam o f li
ght r ef
lec
ted f rom t he m irror is caused to
make ,a r
e
lative
ly large movemen t over the scale H. I n th
is
way
, v ery small currents are made t o give e as
ily readable
1
38
 i
ndica
tions
. A t F
ig. 4i
s s
io wn t
he p
lan v
ie w o
f t
he mirror
t
ype and it
s a
ct
ion.

A p ositive t ype o f d irect r ead ing g alvanome ter i s d ep icted

a
t F ig . 5 .
The p rinc ip le o f t he a c
tion o fa l
l t ypes o f e lectrica l Measur -
i
ng i nstrumen ts i s t ha t all c onduc tors c arry ing e lectric c ur-
r
en t, s et u p a magne tic f i
eld o f force a bou t t hemse lves . Th is
i
ss imp ly p roved w i th t he a id o f a n o r -
d
inary 2 5 c ent p ocke t c ompass . I n F ig .
6
,Aa nd B , i si lus tra ted t he manner o f
u
s ing i t
. The c ompass n eed le i s s et
para lle l w i
th t he w ire , b y mov ing t he
wire, o r b y t he a id o f a s mall s tee l
d
i rec ting magne t
. Now i f a s a t A ,
where t he w ire p asses o ver t he t op
o
f t he c ompass n eed le, a nd a c urren t o f
s
evera l amperes p asses i n t he d irec tion
o
f t he a rrow , i .e., f rom r i ght t o l ef t
,
t
hen r igh t-handed wh irls o f magne tic
fl
ux a re p roduced a bou t the wire , w hen
looked a t from t he A e nd. Th e se c
ause Fig. 9.
the c ompass n eed le t o d ef
lect a s s hown , ift he n or th -seek ing
pole o f t he n eed le p oints t oward t he l ef
t. I
f t he c urrent
passes f rom l eft t o r ight t hru t he w ire , W, t hen t he n eed le
wou ld b e d eflec ted j ust o ppos itely t o t he d irec tion i ndica ted
a
t 6 A. I f t he w ire W, F ig. 6A , w ith c ur rent p assing i n s a me
d
irec tion , i sp laced u nder t he c ompass n eedle, t hen t he n eed le
wil l b e d eflec ted a s s hown a t B , p rov id ing t he n or th -seek ing
po le o f s a me i s p oin ting t oward t he l eft. The n or th s eek ing
pole o f a magne tic c ompass n eedle i sa ctua l
ly t he s ou th p o
le
o
f t he magne t. The n orth magne t
ic p ole o f t he e ar th ,' which
i
s n o t t he g eog raph ica l n orth p ole, a ttrac ts t he s ou th mag -
netic n eed le p o
le a s l ike p oles r epe l
, a nd u nlike p o les a ttrac t.
I
f ag alvanome ter i st o be emp loyed t o measure t he q uan t
ity
o
f e lec tric c urrent i n amperes , its c oil i s wound w i th h eavy
copper w ire , t he s ize d epend ing u pon t he n umber o f amperes .
Such a measur ing i n-
s
t rumen t i st ermed a n
amme ter p rov id ing t he
s
ca le, o ver wh ich t he
need le s wings i ss uit-
ably g radua ted a nd
c
a libra ted i n amperes ,
e
nab ling t he d eflec tion
to b e n oted i n am-
peres d irec t
.
This i s s ome times
r
e fer red t o a s t he d i-
r
ec t r ead ing i nstru-
men t
. The manner o f
c
onnec ting a n am-
me ter i n to a c ircu it
i
s s een f rom F ig . 7 ,
a
nd t his i s t he u sua l
me thod . I t i s p laced F
ig. 1 0
.
i
n s eries w ith t he c i r-
c
ui t whose c urren t i s t o be measured . F or l arge c urren ts,
1
39
i
ti s s tandard p rac t
ice t o c onnec t t he amme ter a cro ss a s hun t
SH, a s s een . The s hunt i s h igh ly c onduc ting , a nd h as a
c
erta in r es is tance r atio t o t he r es is tance o f t he amme ter ,
so t ha t al arge p ropo rtion
of t he c urren t p a sses t hru
t
he s hun t, wh ile o n ly a
f
r action o f i t p asses t hru
the amme ter c oil a nd
movemen t i tself. F or i n-
s
t ance , t he s hunt m igh t
have 1 /10 a nd t he am -
me ter w ind ing 9 /10 o f t he
total r es istance , a nd h ence
t
he g rea ter p ortion o f t he
current wou ld p ass t hru
the s hunt , wh i le b ut a
sma ll p or tion wou ld p ass
thru t he amme ter , a nd
when i t i s c alibra ted , t he
shunt s hou ld b e c onnec ted
in c ircu it, o therw i se t he
F
ig. 1 . amme ter n eed le wou ld i n-
dica te o nly a f r ac tion o f
t
he a ctua l c urrent t ravers ing t he c ircu i t
.
I
n measur ing t he i n
tens ity o f t he c urren t o r i ts v oltage ,
t
he i ns trument i s c onnec ted a s in d iag ram , F ig . 8 , a nd h ere
t
he c oi l o f t he v oltme ter o r i ntens ity me ter , i s v ery sma ll,
and s o t he c oil's r esistance i s many t imes h igher t han t ha t
of t he amme ter . F ine w ire i s t here fore u sed t o w ind t he
coil w ith . F or o rd inary v oltages n ot e xceed ing 5 00 t o 1 ,
000 ,
t
he v oltme ter c oi
l i su sua lly d esigned t o c are f or t he p o ten tial
a
long w i
th i t
s r esistance c o
il e nc losed w i thin i ts c a se. An
ord inary v oltme ter c al
ibra ted t o r ead u p t o
, s ay, 1 50 v olts,
can r ead ily b e emp loyed t o r egis ter v ol tages much h igher
t
han t his, b y i nser t
ing a p roper mu ltip ly ing c oil i n s eries
with i t
, a s a t X , F ig. 8 . I n t hese c ircu i ts, B r epresen ts a
battery o r d ynamo s upp ly ing c urrent t o a ppara tus , s uch a s
mo tors , l amps , e tc.
The mu ltip ly ing c oil f or c onnec ting a s er ies w ith t he v olt -
me ter i s made t o h ave a c ertain d efini te r atio o f r es is tance ,
thus : S uppose a Wes -
ton 1 50 -vo lt s ca le i n -
s
t rument i st o b e u sed
on v oltages u p t o 5 00
o o r 6 00. I f t he mu lti -
p
lier h as a r e sis tance
of t hree t imes t he
voltme ter ( wh ich i s
2 here a bou t 1
5,000
SO o
hms) , t hen t he mu l -
i
o tiply ing v alue o f i ti s
20 3 0 4
. Hence i f i t h ad
F
ig. 12. 45,000 o hms r
es ist -
a
nce , a nd t he v olt -
me ter b u t 1 5,000 o hms , t hen when t he me ter r eg is tered 5 0
volts, i t wou ld b e r eally r ead ing 4 x50 v olts , o r 2 00 v ol ts.
I
f t he mu l tip ly ing c oil h ad n ine t imes t he r esis tance o f t he
voltme ter, t hen t he mu ltip lying f ac tor wou ld b e 1 0, o r t he
voltme ter r ead ing t imes 1 0, wou ld b e t he r ea l v alue o f t he
e
lectro- mo tive f orce p resen t
.
A sma ll t ype o f p ocke t measur ing i nstrument c alibra ted t o
r
ead amperes d i
rec t, is s hown a t F ig . 9 . I t i sa lso made t o
r
ead v olts, h aving i n this c ase a w ind ing o f h igher r esis tance
t
han i n t he amme ter. S uch a n i ns trumen t i se xtreme ly s uit-
a
b le f or e lec tr icians , mo tor ists, a nd a l
l o thers h aving o ccas ion
t
o t es t b at ter ies a nd t he l ike. When t esting d ry c ells , t he v olt-
age o f n ew o nes s hould b e a bou t 1 .
5 v ol ts, a nd t he c ur ren t
on s hor t-c ircu it t hru t he amme ter f rom 2 0 t o 3 0 amperes .
A c u t o f a n " Elec tro" amme ter s uitab le f or u se o n s ma ll
swi tchboards , b a t
tery c i rcu i
ts , etc., i s i lus tra ted a t F ig . 1 0.
1
40
 I
ti sc alibra ted t o r ead f rom 0t o 2 5 amperes . A s imilar t ype
o
f i ns trumen t made t o read v o
l ts a nd hav ing a r ange o f 1t o
6 v ol ts, i s d ep icted a t F ig. 1 . These t ypes o pera te o n
magne tic v ane p rinc ip le, w hich i s that f o
rm h aving a s o f
t
i
ron v ane moun ted o n ap ivo ted s taf
f, a nd s u
itably a rranged
w
i thin ac oil o fw ire
I
ts a ction i s i lus-
t
rated b y F ig . 1 2,
where E i st he i r
on
vane , W t he c oil o f
wire , a nd Z t he
n
eed le deflec t
ing
over a s cale.
Magne tic p lunger
or s oleno id t ypes o f
voltme ters a nd am -
me ters a re e xten -
s
i vely u sed , b u t a re
not e xtreme ly a c -
cura te . I
n F ig . 1 3
i
s s een a G erman
s
ty le, c ompr ising a
coil o f w ire , a rrang - F
ig. 13
. F
ig. 14.
cd t o s uck i nto i t
s
c
en ter a p iece o f s oft i ron , wh ich i sf astened by l evers t o a
need le Z . As pira l s pring F o rd ina r
ily h olds t he iron p lunger
up o u t o f t he c oi
l.
I
ns tead o f c au sing a n eedle t o b e ac tua ted b y t he i r on
p
lunger , a s j u s t d escr ibed , some makers s imp ly a rrange t he
soft i ron c ore t o i ndica te d irec t, as i n t he i nstrumen t a t
Fig. 1 4
. A c u t o f i t
s make -up i s given h ere, F ig. 1 5. A
hollow t i
n c y linder , made a ir-t
igh t
, i s p laced i n a g lass
v
i al o r t e st t ube , h alf-filled w i
th w a
ter o r alcoho l
. Two w ind -
i
ng s a re wound a bou t t he
l
ower p ar t o f t he t ube , o ne
ac oarse w ire f or t he am-
p
eres a nd t he o ther a f ine
w
ire f or t he v olts. These
a
re u sed s epara tely .
An i ns trumen t f or u se o n
A
. C . o r D . C . c ircu its i s
s
een a t F ig . 1 6, where a s ide
a
nd t op v iew o f i t a re PLAN V IE W
s
hown . I t i sk nown a s t he
Thomp son i n clined c oil
me ter . T he o dd f e a
ture o f S
ToPPER .8
i
ti st he s oft i ron a rma ture
E
, s ecured t o t he mov ing S
CALE -E
s
pind le F . Two c oils f or
v
o lts o r amperes a re s hown
o
n t his i nstrumen t a lso , b ut TUBE-D
f
or c ommerc ia l work , a s
b
u ilt b y t he G enera l E lec - "nST TUnE
t
r
ic C o.
, i ti si nvar iab ly p ro - OR V I AL-A
COIL-G
v
ided w ith o ne c o
i, f or ,
e
ither v ol ts o r amperes , a sE 3
INDING POST POST
t
he c ase may b e.
An i ns trumen t o rig ina lly
emp loyed a nd b uilt b y C ar-
d
ew , o f E ngland , i st he h ot
w
ire me ter . I t s p rinc iple o f
a
c tion w illb e u nders tood b y
l
ook ing a t t he d i ag ram , F ig.
1
7. A l e ng th o f f ine p lati-
n
um o ro ther w ire , E , i ss us- WATeR -C COIL-ti
p
ended b etween t he s uppo rt ME.
F
, a nd a djus ting s c
rew A . F
ig. is
.
At t he c en ter o f t he p lati-
num w ire i s f a stened a s tr
ing o r f i
ne w ire, G , actua ting t he
 po
in ter B , s winging o ver a g radua ted s ca le C . The n eed le i s
p
ivo ted a t I ,a nd t o h
e lp int he adjustmen t
, af ine s pira l spr ing
Ji sa djus tab le f rom t he screw D . When n o c urren t p asses
t
hru t he i n strumen t, t he
need le i sa djus ted t o r ead
S
CALLOP IN
. z
ero . When a c ur ren t i s
.
3
,11.
13 Mte
passed , t he p la tinum w ire
E t ends t o h ea t u p a nd
e
longa tes or l eng thens ,
th e d egree d
epend ing
upon t he q uan tity o f c ur -
r
ent . A lterna ting a nd d i
-
r
ect c urren t b oth g ive t he
s
a me h ea ting e fec t s o
t
ha t t he h ot w ire me ter
i
sa pp l
icab le t o mea sur ing
both k inds o fc urren t. T he
hot w ire me ter i n t his
c
ountry i s emp loyed p rin -
cipa l
ly f or t he measure -
ment o f r ad ia tion c urren ts
i
n w ire less s ta tions . I t i s
well a dap ted t o t his p ur -
pose , ow ing t o t he e x-
treme ly h igh v ol tage u sed ,
wh ich i s n ot v ery e as ily
Fig. 1
6 passed t hru a ny f o rm o f
sma ll c oil o f w ire c on ta in -
i
ng a n umber o f t urns .
Ano ther f orm o f measur ing i ns
trument a dap ted t o r ead ing
h
igh p oten tials, s ay, a bove 5 ,000 v olts, i s t he E lec tro- sta tic
Voltme ter. I ts arrangement i ss hown a t F ig . 1 8. The a ctive
p
art i ss imp ly t wo o r more s egments o f me ta l, o ne s e t o f t hem
b
eing moun ted o n ap ivo ted s taf
f
, t o wh ich i ss ecured t he i n-
d
ex n eed le, a nd t he other s et stat
ionary . When a h igh p oten-
t
ia
l c urrent i sc onnec ted t o t he respec t
ive s e ts o f s egmen ts ,
t
hey a re c harged , and t he streng th of t he c harge i sd ependen t
upon t he v alue o f the c urren t connec ted t o i t
. The e lec tro -
s
t atic r eac tion b etween
t
he f ixed a nd mov ing
p
la tes c auses t he mov -
i
ng ones t
o swing
a
round a c ertain
amoun t, a nd t he n eed le
i
nd ica tes t he p oten tia l,
on t he s cale , p rev ious ly
c
alibra ted b y means o f
a s tandard o r b y t he
a
ir g ap me thod .
The s tandard mea s -
u
ring i nstrument f or
e
lec tr ica l work , i n t h is
c
oun try , i s t he Wes ton
t
ype , b uilt u pon t he
D'Arsonva l galvano -
me ter p rinc ip le . I
ts
p
rinc ipa l p ar ts and
their f unc tions a re
r
epresen ted a t F ig. 1 9.
A p owerfu l a nd s teady
magne tic f i
eld i s p ro -
v
ided b y t he p erman -
e
nt h ardened s teel
magne t P . Th is i s carefully a ged b y h itting a nd b oiling i n
hot w ater t o make i t
s magne tic streng th a s n ear ly c ons tan t
a
s p ossib le. Two s of
t i ron p ole pieces , B B , a re s crewed t o
t
he i nner s ides o f the magne t p o
les, t o f orm a s ymme trica l
a
rma ture s pace . The mov ing e lemen t, C , i s c omposed o f a
smal l c opper b obb in, h aving a n umber o f t urns o f f i
ne w ire
1
42
wound a bou t i t
, a nd their t e rm ina ls c onnec ted t o t wo h air
s
p r
ing s a t t op a nd b ottom o f t he c oi
l. The c urrent t o b e
mea sured i sp assed f rom t he b ind ing p osts T T , thru t he t wo
h
air s prings, a nd thence a round t he c oil of w ire. A magne t
ic
f
i
eld i ss et u p with in the w ire c oil
, a nd i tt ends t o move o ne
way o r the o ther, accord ing t o t he d irection o f t he c urren t.
I
ts a ction i s similar t o t hat o f a mo tor , with a p ermanen t
f
i
eld magne t
, a nd i fac ommu tator was s ubs t
itu ted f or t he
h
air s pring s, the c oi
l wod td r evo lve t he s a me a s a ny mo tor
a
rma ture.
Within t he mov ing c oil iss ecured a s oft iron c ore, to make
t
he p ath o f the magne t
ic lines o f f orce f rom p o
le p iece t o p o
le
p
iece more c onduc ting o r p ermeab le
. Wes ton i nstrumen ts •
have marked d ead-bea t qua l
ities, i .e .
, t
hey c ome t o rest q uick -
l
y, a nd d o n o
t s wing t o a nd f ro t o any a ppreciab le e xten t.
This i sa ccomp l
ished b y t he c oil o f w ire b eing wound o n a
c
opper b obb in. Whenever t he c o
il a nd b obbin move , E ddy
c
ur rents, tend ing t o arrest i t
s mo tion, a re s e
t u p i n the c op -
p
er. T he c h
ie f fea
tures o f t he Wes ton i ns
trumen ts are t heir
r
eliability
, p ermanence , d ead -bea t a nd p ortab i
lity.

I
n d irec t c urren t c i
rcuits, t
he p roduct o f t he vo
lts by the
amperes g ives t he e nergy i n watts. An i n
s trument read
ing
d
irec t i n wa tts must n ecessar
ily c ombine t he action of the
voltme ter a nd t he amme ter
. S uch a c omb ined instrument is
i
lus tra ted d iagramma t
ically by Fig. 20
. The f i
ne w
ire moving
c
oi l is F . The ampere -me ter oart of the i nstrument iscom -
posed o f ah eavy w ire
wind ing , a s H H .
The t
wo w
ind ings
p
roduce i ndependent
magne tic f ie
lds , a nd
t
he r eact ion b etween
t
hem i s p ropor tiona l
t
o t he v oltage a nd
amperage o f t he c ir
-
cuit
, o r s ince t hese
two q uan t
ities r epre-
s
en t t he c omponen ts
of t he wa tts i n t he 3
CALt OF 4
%1.

c
i rcuit, t
he i
nstru-
m ent 's d eflec tion,
when c orrec tly c ali
- 1 11 1
brated , r eads d irec t in
wa tts.
The co m monest F
ig. 1
8.
form o f t he wa t
t-
me ter i s the i ntegra t
ing o r r
ecord ing w a
tt-hour me ter used
t
o measure t he amount o f el
ectrical e nergy c onsumed b y a
customer o f E lec tric L igh t and P ower Ç ompanies
. I
t is
1
4
3
 r
eally a minia
ture mo tor
, having n o iron in it
, a nd who se'
s
peed i s p
ropor t
ional t o t
he voltage a nd amperage o f the
c
ircuit
. It isc onnected the s
ame a s Fig
. 2 0
, but the moving
c
oil has a s
i
lver b ar c
ommu tator
, a nd si
lver brushes fo
r c on-
d
uc t
ing the c urrent to the ar mature coi
ls. The a r mature

s
pindle engages a gear whee l o
f at r
ain of i
ntegrating gears,
a
nd t he consump tion of current in watt
-hours o r kilowatt-
hours i
sindica
ted o n arow o f d
ia
ls on the f
ront of the i
nstru-
ment
. The s um o f the dia
ls is read monthly, and the s ub-
t
ract
ion o f successive readings gives the net e nergy c on-
s
umed .

LESSON No
. 1
9
.
PRACTICAL MATHE MATICS
.

T
HE s c
ience o f a r
ithme t ic or ma thema t
ics e nters mo re
o
r less i nto a ll b ranches o f h uman e ndeavor t o
'
-day ,
a
nd t he y oung e xperimenter a nd s tudent w ill do w ell
t
o get af i
rm g rasp o n least t he e lemen tary p r
inciples
o
f t his subjec t
.
The f ol
low ing p aragraphs h ave b een d evo ted t o t he e x-
p
lana t
ion o f t he more p rac t
ica l app lica t
ions o f ma thema tics,
w
i th a f ew e xamp les s how ing t heir v alue i n e veryday p rob -
l
ems .
The p rocess o f e vo lution a nd i nvo lution o f r oots a nd
power s of numbers w il
l f i
rst b e gone o ver
.
I
nvo lution i s t he p rocess o f r aising a ny g iven n umber
t
o ac ertain p ower o f that n umber , t hus : -2 4 means , 2t o t he
, 4
th p ower o r 2 mu ltiplied b y it
se lf 4 t imes, o r 2X2X2X2
e
qua ls 1 6
.
Evolution i s the s c
ience o f e volving o r e xtrac t
ing o ne o f
t
he e qt
tal factors c onstituting t he g iven n umber . The s quare
r
oo t o f an umber i so ne of t he t wo e qual f actors c ompo sing
t
he n umber, i .
e.
, s uppose , 42 e qua ls 4X4 o r 1 6
, t hen t he
s
qua re r oot o f 1 6 i s4. A lso 43 e qua ls 6 4 and t he c ube r oot
o
f 6 4 is 4, s ince 4X4X4 i s 6 4
. The c ube r oot r epresen ts
one o f the t hree e qua l f a
ctors wh ich when mu ltiplied t o-
g
e ther p roduce t he n umber .
1
44
 There a
re severa
l ways of e
xpressing powers and roots
,
t
he usual modes be
ing as f
o
llows: —The power of anumber
s
uch as 6, f
or example
, may b
e w r
itten 62 o
r 6-2. If 62,it
1 1
means 6X6 o
r 3
6
, b
ut 6 -2 means 1o
ver 6 -2 o
r =
_
-
.
62 3
6
Power s o f t en a re much u sed f or v arious f ormu lae , a nd a
simp le me thod o f r ead ing t heir v alue a t s igh t is a s f o
llows :
T hu s
, 1 0 6 means o ne w i
th 6 c iphers a f
ter i t
, 1 0 6,o ne w ith
9c iphers a fter i t
, o r 1 ,000,000 ,000.
Roo ts t o b e e x
trac ted a re g enera lly r epresen ted o r i ndica ted
by t he r adica l s ign " 1
/ w i th t he n umber o f the r oo t p laced
over t he V o f t he r adica l, t hus ; T Y- - ,e
2 tc
. I f n o n umber
appear s o ver t he r ad ica l, t hen 2 i su nders tood , o r t he s quar e
r
oo t i st o b e t aken .
S
ome times th e
power a nd r oo t o f
a n umber a re i nd i-
cated i n t he f ollow -
i
ng manner :-
3
12% means t he
s
econd o r s quare
r
oo t o f 3 12 r aised t o
t
he f i
rst p ower , o r
3
12 . Again i t
migh t o ccur , t hus :-
4
6 2/2 mean ing t he
cube r oo t o f 4 6 t o
t
he s econd p ower .
The f our th r oo t o f a n umber i s f ound b y e xtrac ting
t
he s quare r oo t t wice , o r t he s quare r oo t of t he s quare
r
oo t. The 6 th r oo t may b e a scer tained b y f inding t he
s
quare r oo t o f t he c ube r oo t o f t he g iven n umber . S uch
powers a s 4 2 1.8a nd h igh p owers a re b est f ound b y t he u se
o
f l ogar ithms . These r equ ire t he u se o f as et of l ogar ithm
t
ables , a nd n o e xp lana tions w ill b e given h ere , as n oth ing w i
ll
b
e a ccomp lished w ithou t t hem . S uf f
ice i tt o s ay t hat many
o
therw ise i mposs ible p rob lems a re e asily s o
lved b y t heir a p-
p
lica tion. Any r oot, s uch a s 7 th, 1 th, 1 7th , etc.
, i s r eadi ly
f
ound b y l ogar ithms . As et o fl ogari thm t ab les c an b e b ough t
f
o r 5 0 c en ts t o o ne d o
llar , i nclud ing i nstruc tions . They
c
an a l
so b e r ead f rom o rd inary s lide r ules , a nother g rea t
boon t o t hose h av ing o ccas ion t o u se f igures much . The
o
rd inary s l
ide r ule r eads t o f rom 3 t o 4p laces, a nd h ence
i
sn ot a ccura te f or l arge f igure s, b ut f or f igures n o
t e xtend ing
over 5 t o 6p laces , i t i s v ery h andy a nd g ives t he r esu lt a t
once. D iv is ion a nd mu ltip lica t
ion a re q uick ly p er formed o n
t
hem , a s w ell a s t he e xtrac tion o f s quare a nd c ube r oo t
,
l
ogar ithms , t r
igonome tric f unc tions, s uch a s s ines, t angen t s
,
e
tc.
The p rocess o f e xtrac t
ing t he s quare r oo t o f ag iven n um -
b
er i sa s f ol lows : —Suppose t he s quare r oo t o f 217,668 .9025 i s
t
o b e f ound ; b egin b y p oint ing o f t he n umber i n to g roup s
o
f t wo f i
gures e ach , st arting a t the d ec ima lp oint,a nd p o
in ting
o
ff l eft a nd r igh t
, a s s hown b&ow :—
)21,76 ,68 .90,25 I4 66.55
1
6 s
q. r oo t.
(
a) 8 6 ) 5 76
516
(
b) 9 26) 6 068
556
(
c) 9 325 ) 5 1290
4
6625
(d
) 9 3305) 4 66525
466525
000000
The p rocedure emp loyed t o s olve t he a bove i st his : —S tar t
,
by f i
nding t he l arges t e ven s quare i n t he ç ouple t. t o t he
1
45
e
xtreme l ef
t, viz., 2 1. Upon r eflection, iti s e viden t t ha t t he
l
arges t e ven s quare i n 21 i s 16
, s i
nce 5 t imes 5 i s2 5
, h ence
i
t must b e 4X4 o r 1 6
. The 1 6 is p u
t d own u nder t he 2 1
,
a
nd s ubtrac ted a s s hown , a t the s a me time b ring ing d own 7 6
,
o
r t he n ex t c oup let, o f t wo f igures. The s quare r oot o f 1 6
o
r 4i s placed i n t he q uo tien t, to f orm t he f i
rs t f igure o f t he
r
oo t wan ted , —a lso 4 mu ltip lied b y two o r 8i sp laced a t ( a)
t
o f orm t he • f
irst t rial d ivisor . Then s ay 8 i nto 5 7 g oes 6
t
imes , p lace t he 6 i n t he q uotien t after t he 4 , a nd 6 a lso
a
fter t he 8 i n t he d ivisor ( a). Now mu ltip ly 8 6 b y 6 ,g iving
5
16. S ubtrac ting l eaves ab alance o f6 0
, plus 6 8 b rough t d own
f
rom t he d ividend .
-Now t o g et t he
n
ex t t
rial divisor
(
b) , mu ltip ly t he 4 6
o
f t he q uo t
ien t b y
two, g iving 9 2
; t hen
s
ay 9 2 i nto 6 06 w ill
go 6t imes , p lace 6
i
n t he q uo tien t, a nd
a
lso a fter t he 9 2 i n
(
b) d
iv isor , and
6X926 i s 556 . Th is
s
ub trac ted f
ro m
6
068 , l eaves 5 12 , a nd
9
0 b rough t d own .
The t r
ia l d iv ision
(
c) i s f ound b y mu ltiply ing 4 66 o f the q uo tien t
, b y 2o r i t
equa ls 9 32, a nd 9 32 i nto 5 129 g oes 5 times . P lace 5 i n t he
quotien t a nd a lso i n t he d ivisor , and mu ltip ly ing 9 325 b y 5
gives 4 6625 . S ubtrac ting we h ave 4 66525 . The t rial d ivisor
(
d) i sa rr ived a t b y mu lt
ip ly ing 4 665 o f the q uo tien t b y t wo,
o
r i ti s 9 330. Th is i nto 4 6652 d oes 5 t imes . P lace 5 i n t he
q
uo tient, a lso i n the d ivisor , a nd mu ltiply ; t he s ubtrac tion
b
eing z ero , finishes t his c ase. The p o
in ting o f o f p laces i n
the q
uo t
ien t or N
square r oo t, is d one
by o bserv ing th e
n
umber o f c oup lets
poin ted o f i n t he
d
ividend t o t he l eft
o
f t he d ecima l p o
in t.
Here 3 c oup le ts a p-
p
ear i n t he d iv idend
t
o t he l ef t o f t he
d
ec ima l p oint, h ence
3 p laces c oun t
ing
f
rom t he l eft a re
po
inted o f i n t he
q
uo tien t, o
r the
s
quare root of
2
17,668 .9025 i s4 66
.55 . Th is i sr eadily proved b y s qua ring t he
root
, i .
e., mu l t
ip lying 4 66.55 b y i t
self
, wh ich w ill g ive t he
d
ividend .
The extract
ion of t
he c
ube roo
t i
s somewha t s
imi
lar o
nly
d
ivisors having l
a
rger numbers a
re employed
.
S
ome o f the appl
ica t
ions o f s
quare roo t a
re shown b elow:
Considering the ri
ght a ngled tr
iangle in Fig. 1,ifa ny two of
t
he t hree si
des, a, ba nd c ,are given, then t
he v alue of the
t
hird s i
de may b e calculated. The s l
anting side c,c a
lled the
h
ypo thenuse, is equa l to the s
quare r oot of the s um of the
b
a se squared plus the alt
itude squared, or c a2 b2.

A
lso • a = Vc 2 — b2;
a
nd a
gain b= c2 — a2,
1
4
6
 I
f ap erfect s quare i st o h ave a c er-
t
ain a rea , t hen t he l eng th o f t he s ide
o
f h e s quare i s found b y e xtrac ting
t
he s quare r oot o f t he a rea. F or i n
-
s
tance , i f as quare b lock o f wood w as
t
o h ave 1 44 square i nches a rea , t he
l
ength o f t he side o f a n e qua l s quare
h
aving t his area, wou ld b e:
V144 o r 12 i nches
,
Y
e.
..agon The f ol
low ing n otation i s
u
sed f or t he f ormu lae g iven
h
ere f or find ing t he v arious
f
unctions o f p lane f igures :
D= L arge d iame ter.
d= Sma ll d iame ter .
R= R adius c orrespond ing
p
P
.5 t
o D .
1,
11.egon
r= R ad ius c or-
r
e spond ing t o d .
p = P erime ter,
or c ircumference .
S= A rea o f e n-
t
ire s urface o f
4
.
, so
lid f igure.
F
ig 6 A = Area o f
p
lane f igure.
= p
i = 3
.
141592 e
tc
.

1
V = Vo
lume o
f so
lid
.

The v
arious f
unc
tions o
f t
he c
i
rcle a
re f
ound a
s f
o
llows
:
p=wd 314 16 X d
.
p=2wr =6
.2832 X r
.
C
ircumference p=2 j i= 3
.
5449 V a
.
o
r p.
2
a 4 /a
p
d

d= =
D
iameter w 3
.
1416
o
r d
.
d= 2 .
\ri
-
- =1
.1284 1
/ a= -
.
7854

r =.1592 X P
•
R
adius 2
w 6
.
2832
o
r i
. ia
r= .
5
642 V a
.

r d2
i
a= =.7854 X d2.
4
A
rea
o
ra. a r2= 3
.
1416 t2.
p
r pd
a= =
2 4

. T he a
rea of acircle v ar
ies as t
he square o
f the di
ame ter, i
n
o
ther words, a4" circle has 4 t
imes t
he area o
f a2" circle
, etc
.
The c
irc
le h as t
he g reatest a
rea for a g
iven c
ircum ference or
p
erimeter of any figure.
The a
rea o f a
ny t r
iang le
, such as shown a
t F ig
. 2,isg iven
b
y the expression:
/
.
4
7
 bh
A = = 5
/2 bh
.
2

a
l
so a
2 b2 e
2 2
A = a
2
2 2
b
3
, i
sascer
tained b
y t
he f
ormu
la:
The a
pprox
ima
te a
rea o
f a
n e
l
lipse
, s
uch a
s s
hown i
n F
ig.
i
r
A = — D d= .
7
854 D d
;
4
D2 — d 2 (
D —d 2)
The a
pprox
ima
te p
erime
ter o
r p=
2 8
.8
The a rea o f af l
at r ing, a s s een a t F ig. 4 , i s g
iven b y t he
f
o
l low ing r u
le :
i
r
A = — X ( D2 - I-d2) .
4
The v olume o f as phere i s g iven b y t he e xpress ion :
V = 1 /6 i r d3 = . 5236 d3.
The s ur face o f as phere , o r S , i s f ound t hus :
S= i r d2 = 4 i r 72,o r 1 2.5664 72 .
C
irc les , t r
iang les, e tc., a re d ivided u p b y a ngles, a nd t he se
a
ng le s a gain s ub -d ivided b y degrees , m inu tes a nd s econds .
S
ix ty s econds make o ne m inu te, s ixty m inu tes o ne d eg ree ,
9
0 d egrees o ne r ight -ang le o r q uadrang le, a nd 3 60 d eg rees a
c
omp le te c ircumference o f a c ircle. Pro trac tors o r s em i -
c
irc les o f b rass a nd c el
lulo id a re u sua lly emp loyed f or d raw -
i
ng , t heir e dge b e
ing f i
nely g radua ted i n d egrees , e tc.
I
ft he d ividers a re s et e qua l t o t he r ad ius o f ac ircle, F ig . 5,
, t
i
r hen t he d ividers c an b e stepped e xac tly s ix t imes a round
t
he p er ime ter , o r f orm ing a s i
x -sided f igure c alled a h exagon .
A f ive -sided f i
gure , o r p entagon , i s s hown a t F ig. 6 . Any
s
ided p olygon o r f i
gure c an r ead ily b e l a
id o ut b y t he a id
o
f t he f ollow ing d ata:
T able o f P olygona l Ang les .
Number Ang le Number Ang le Number Ang le
of a
t of at o
f at
s
ides . c
en ter. s
ides . c
enter , s
ides. center .
No. Degrees . No. Degrees . No. Deg ree s.
3 1
20 9 4
0 1
5 2
4
4 90 1
0 3
6 1
6 22 / 2
5 7
2 1 3
2 8 -11 1 7 2
1 3 -17
6
. 60 1
2 3
0 1
8 2
9
7 2
1 3 -7 1
3 2
7 9 -13 1 9 19
8 45 1
4 2
5 5 -7 2
0 1
8
The a ng le a t t he c enter r efers t o t he a ng le a t a,F ig. 6 . B y
means o f ap ro trac tor g radua ted i n d egrees , i tise asy t o l ay
out ap olygon h aving a ny n umber o f s ides, b y r e
ferr ing t o t he
above t ab le.
F or e l ectrica l c i
rcu its t here a re a n umber o f d iferen t
formu las a pp ly ing f or v arious f unc tions , t he b asic o ne f or
direc t c urrent c i
rcu its b eing Ohm 's L aw . I n e xpress ing i t
the f ollow ing n ota t
ion i s g enera lly u tilized : E = v olts o r
e
lec tro- motive f orce , Io r C - = c urrent i n amperes , R =
r
es is tance i n o hms .
Then : Em -
_- Rx I ;
E
I= — ;

E
a
nd R
7/
9 7

T
hus h
avinu a
ny t
wo q
uan
tit
ics
, t
he t
h
ird o
ne c
an b
e e
as
ily
 f
ound. The watts in aci
rcui
t a
re g
iven b
y mu
ltip
lying t
he
v
olts b
y the amperes; a
l
so,
E2
Wa
tts = E I = C2 R =

The h orsepower i sfound b y div

iding t he tota
l wa tts b y 746,
and the k i
lowa tts is a
scer tained b y d ividing t he t otal w atts
by 1,000. The c oulombs o f e l
ectricity i n ac ircuit i s found
by mu l
tiplying the current i n amperes b y the time o f it
s d ura-
t
ion i n seconds, the c oulomb b e
ing a c urrent of 1 ampere
p
assing f or one second. T he work p erformed i n a n electrical
c
ircuit i n Joules e quals t he p roduct o f the v o
l ts b y t he
amperes b y the time i n seconds . The j oule is equiva lent t o
1w a
tt o r 1v olt
-ampere f or 1s econd .
The h eat produced i n elec trical c i
rcuits may b e c alculated
a
s fol
lows : The h eat in calor ies e quals:
Hea
t i
n c
a
lor
ies = 12 X R X T X.24
.
T be
ing t
he time i
n s
econds. The h
eat p
roduced i
n B
rit
ish
t
hermal u
nits (
B. T
. U
.) i
s:
Hea
t i
n B
. T
. U
. = 12 X.24 X R X T X.0033
.
The vol
ts lo
st in acircu
it e qua
ls the p
roduct of t
he current
by t
he resis
tance. The r esis
tance o f acopper wire i
ncreases
2
1-100ths
. of one per cent, for each degree r
ise in t
empera -
t
ure F ah
., or the degree F ah . cons
tant for copper wire is
.
0021
.
The j
oint r
esis
tance o
f adivided o
r spl
it c
ircu
it, s
uch as tha
t
a
ppearing at F
ig. 7
,isfound a
s descr
ibed below. I fthe c
ircui
t
h
as two branches, s
uch as R
, and R,
, then the j
oint r
esis
tance
o
f the two branches
, f
rom A t o B, as
:
R
, X R
,
J
oint R =
R
. + R
, •
F
or a n
umber of l
i
ke r
es
istances c
onnec
ted on mu
ltip
le t
he
j
o
int r
es
istance is
:
R
,
Jo
int R =
n
umber on mult
iple
The jo
int resis
tance o f severa
l diferent r es
istances c
on-
n
ected on mu l
tiple is f
ound b y tak
ing t he rec
iprocal of t
he
s
um o f the r
eciprocals of the separate res
istances, or c
on-
d
uctances
. The c onductance of ac i
rcuit in ohms, being t
he
r
eciproca
l of t
he res
istance.
1
o
r —.

The j
oint r
esistance o
f three b
ranched c
ircui
ts connec
ted
o
n mult
iple, a
s in Fig
. 7
,isc ompleted f
rom t
he above r
ule a
s
f
o
llows:
1 1 1 1
Jo
int R — — — =
R
, R
,

And t
he r
ec
iproca
l o
f t
h
is i
s—, o
r t
he j
o
int r
es
istance
. F
or
1
e
xamp
le, l
e
t t
he t
hree r
es
istances h
ave a
ss
igned v
alues o
f4,5
a
nd 2 o
hms
, r
espect
ive
ly, t
hen:
1 1 1 1
9
J
oint R = — —
4 5 2 2
0
:
and t
he r
ec
iproca
l i
s
:
2
0 1
— o
r 1— o
hms
.
1
9 1
9
1
49
 The c
apaci
ty of e
lectr
ical c
ondensers i
sapprox
ima
tely c
om-
p
uted by the e
quat
ion :
( 2,
248 X K X a)
C
tX 10
10
Where : Ci st he c apaci ty in farads. K i st he inductivity o f
t
he d ielectric, taken f rom t ab
le i n a ny t ext b ook. ai s t he
a
ctive a rea o f di elec tric o r insulation , coated o n b o
th s i
des
w
ith c harg ing f oil
, e xpressed i n square ' inches. ti s t he
t
hickness o f the d ielec tr
ic i n inches . To a scer tain the c ap-
a
city i n m icro-
farads ( a m icrofarad i so ne o ne-m ill
ion th o f a
f
arad ), s o
lve o nly t ha t p ortion o f t he e quation e nclo sed i n
p
aren thesis.
The joint capac ity o f several c ondensers c onnec ted o n mu l-
t
iple.is given b y t he f ol
low ing e qua tion:
Tota l C = C , C
, C„ etc .
The total or j
o int c apacity of condensers c onnec ted i n series
i
s a scertained t hus :
1
To tal C=
1 1 1
— — —,et c.

The a
rea i
n s
quare cen
timeters f
or a c
ondenser d
ie
lec
tric t
o
h
ave a certa
in capac
ity in micro
-farads i
s deduced by th
is
f
ormula:
36 rD C105
Area i
n sq. cm
. =

Where r -- 3.
1416 or pi.
D = the th
ickness d i
electric i
n cm
.
C = capacity in micro-farads
.
K = the inductiv
ity f a
ctor.
1
05 = 100,000
.

LESSON No
. 2
0
.
"HO W TO M AKE THINGS ."
The y oung e xper imen ter g enera l
ly f inds h imse lf s ooner o r
l
ater c a
lled u pon t o make t he p ar ts o f v arious a ppara tus,
models, a t tachmen ts
, e tc
., a nd i n t his c hap ter i ti s i ntended
t
o d eal w i th s ome o f t he more p otent f ea tures t ha t o f
ten
prove s tumb ling b locks t o
the j un ior mechan ic; s uch a s
laying o ut work , fi
nish ing i t
,
&
Le.. drilling a nd t app ing o f s crew
h o
les , e tc
., e tc.
I
t may b e s aid t hat, p rim -
F
ig. I . T he D ivider. arily, t he b eg inner , shou ld
make i t ap oint t o ma s ter t he
a
rt o f hy ing o f s pecific d istances f rom a r ule ; using a s teel
s
cale i fp oss ible.
A g ood mechan ic c an l ay o f work o n me tal w ith a n a c-
c
uracy o f a t le ast 1 /64 i nch, a nd o f ten 1 /100 i n
ch . The c los-
e
st work ing b y e ye d oes n o
t u sua l
ly e xceed 1 /200 i nch . F or
f
iner measuremen ts t han t his, i .e .
, i n t he o rder o f t hou -
s
and ths, o r t en t housand ths o f a n i nch, r ecourse i s h ad t o
a
n i nstrument k nown a s am icrome ter, wh ich i s u sed f or
a
ll good mach ine work .
I
n Fig. 1i ss een a p air of d ividers , o r compasses , f or s trik-
i
ng c ircles , s pac ing c enter marks , e tc
. The m icrome te r is
s
hown b y t he c ut, F ig. 2 ,at A . I ts s cope i s aw ide o ne , a nd
i
ti sr egu lar ly u sed f or f inding d iame ter of w ire , t w
is t d ril
ls,
s
hea t me tals , r ods, a nd f or i nnumerab le o ther p urpo ses. I t
o
rdinar i
ly r eads i n t housand ths o f a n inch , b ut b y as imp le
s
et of g radua t
ions a round t he s tem , t ermed "Vern ier g radua -
t
ions," a fter t he ir i nventor , i ti s e asily p ossib le t o measure
t
he size o f a n o bjec t
, s uch a s aw ire, i n t
en t housand ths o f an
i
nch.
1
60
 A word a bou t r ead ing t he m icrome ter may n ot b e o ut o f
place h ere. The a djus table p art o f t he m icrome ter i s a
care fully c ut s teel s crew , hidden i ns
ide t he b arre l, t he p itch
of t he s crew b eing 4 0 threads t o t he i nch. Hence e very t ime
t
he b arre l i st urned t hrough o ne r evolu t
ion i ta dvance s o r r e-
cedes f rom t he a nvil o r measur ing o n the s o
l id s tem b y s ing le
gradua tions . E very f our g radua t
ions , o r 100/1000 o f a n i nch
isi nd
ica ted b y al onger
l
ine, a s s een b y g lanc - d
et
e•
i
ce
i
ng a t c ut
. The r ead - l
oa0
i
ng i n t he f igure i s
3
00 /1000 , o r 1 2 s ing le
d
iv isions , wh ich i s 1 2
t
i mes 25/10 00, o
r
3
00 /1000. No te t hat
when r ead ing t his v alue
t
he z ero mark o n t he
r
evo lving b rare l i s c o-
i
nc ident with the
g
radua ted l ine a long
t
he s olid s tem . Odd A7
/Jra meler
f
ractions i n t hou-
f
ig 2 4
s
and ths a re r ead b y
no t
ing t he n umber o n
t
he b arre l i ndex B c o
inc iding w ith t he s t
em l ine. F or i n-
s
t ance , s uppose t he b arre l i
su nscrewed s uff
ic ien t
ly t o e xpose
t
hree s ingle d ivisions a nd t he No . 7o n the b arre l i ndex B
w as o ppos ite t he s tem i ndex l ine. Then t he v alue o f t he
c
al iper r eading wou ld b e 3 X 2 5 t housand ths ( m
ils ), p lus
7
,a s r ead o n t he b arrel i ndex, o r 75 a nd 7 , wh ich i s8 2 m ils,
one m il b e
ing e quiva lent t o 1t housand th o f a n i nch. I f the
barre l index h ad b een s et so that the s tem i ndex l ine w as m id -
way b e tween 7 a nd 8 , then i tcou ld h ave b een a pprox ima ted
a
s 7 5 m ils, plus 7 54, o r t he reading wou ld b e .0825 i nch , the
t
en t housand ths f igu re b eing g uessed a t
.
The e asiest way t o l ay o f work f or mach ining , d r
illing ,
e
t c.
, o n i ron o r s teel i s to c over i tw ith a c oating o f c halk,
wh ich p erm i ts t he l ines s cribed o n t he s urface w ith a s teel
poin ted i nstrument , s o a s to b e read ily s een. A s cr
iber i s
easily made o ut o f ap iece o f S tubb's st eel, or drill rod, a bou t
6t o 8i nches l ong a nd A" t hick. A fter g r
ind ing a f airly
t
aper ing p oint o n t he e nds i tc an b e h ardened b y hea ting i n
aB unsen f l
ame o r other f i
re, t o ar ed h eat a nd t hen p lung ing
into wa ter.
All lines s how ing t he size l oca t
ion o fh oles, etc
., are s cr ibed
out o n t he me ta l, p rev iously c halked o ver , as aforemen tioned ,
or i f o n wood , s imp ly b y ah ard p enc il, and a ll c en ter s o f
holes t o b e d rilled s hou ld t hen b e c enter p unched b y a
hard s tee l p unch . ( See F ig. 3 .
) F or measur ing t he i nside
of ah ole , o r t he e xterior d iame ter o f ad ril
l o r r od, u se i s
made o f o utside o r i nside s teel c al
ipers , s hown a t F ig . 4 ;
"
a" b eing t he o utside
c
a l
iper . These mus t b e
compared w ith a s cale em li f
l ai ll . 1111 .1 11111
o
r r u le a fter c aliper ing
ar od o r h ole. A l i
ttle Fig. 3
. C entre Punch .
exper ience w ith t hese
c
alipers , wh ich a re emp loyed i na l
l mach ine s hops f or mea sur -
i
ng t he d iame ter o f sha fts, journa l b oxes , etc
., w i
ll e nab le t he
ama teur t o ca l
iper q uite close ly. S ome mach inists c aa d iscern
ad iference o f af ew t housand ths b y means o f these c a l
iper s,
but f or v ery a ccura te work m icrome ters a re i nvariab ly u sed .
For cutt
ing off s mall port
ions o f s of
t ir
on a nd other odd
work the hack saw, F ig. 5,using h ardened saw b lades f
rom
8
" to 12" long, i
s the u sual tool emp loyed
. I n using ittoo
much p ressure shou ld n ot b e exerted d ownward , as the
t
eeth
, b eing high
ly t empered, w i
ll b reak o f
, a l
so t he saw
s
hould b e kept s
teady , not wobb l
ing i t
, a
s itis s wung back
a
nd f or
th.
 A s mal
l d ri
ll press a rrangemen t with a h and d ri
ll attached
f
or b or ing sma l
l h oles t hrough me tals, f i
ber, wood , etc
., i
s
s
een a t F ig
. 6 . The s ubs tance t o b e d r
illed i se as
ily c l
amped
o
n t he b ed p late a ttached . F urther d rill
ing a ccessories are
i
lustra ted at F ig. 7," a" t o "c
." An a utoma tic reciprocating
r
atche t dril
l f or dri
lling t hin sheet me tal
, l eather f i
ber, wood,
e
tc.
, i s seen a t "a," t he d iferent s ize d rills b e
ing c arr
ied in
t
he h andle. A sma ll h and d r
ill w ith g eared h andle a nd
c
apab le o f d r
ill
ing 3 /16" h o
les t hrough i r on o r soft steel i
s
d
epicted a t B, wh i
le C s hows a magaz ine t ool hand le with
c
huck c lamp ing a ny o f t he tools d i
sp layed .
Tables giving size of t
ap dri
lls for var
ious machine s crews
a
re given in any tool catalog
. The c ommon s izes of machine
s
crews a nd taps used are: No . 4
,5 6; 4
,36; 8,3
2 ; 6
,3 2
; 10, 3
2;
1
0, 24
; 8,2 4; 12
, 24; 14
,2 0; e
s" -20; etc
.; the f
i
rst numera l i
n-
d
ica
ting t he tap number a nd t
he second n umeral the number
o
f threads to t he inch pi
tch.
T
ap n umbers e
ach c
orrespond t
o cer
tain dec
imal p
arts o
f
a
n inch
, and c
an b
e f
ound inany t
ap o
r dr
ill c
ata
log
. Af ew o
f

F
ig. 4B
F
ig. 6
F
ig. S
I
nside a
nd Ou
tside C
alipers Sma
ll D
ril
l P
ress Hack Saw

t
he c
ommon t ap numbers a
nd t
heir i
nch equ
iva len ts a
re c
ited
b
elow (Kent):
Diame ter o fbody
T
ap o rscrew o
fs crew
.
n
umber . (Max. d iameter
.)
No
. 2 .
0842"
" 4 .
1105"
" 8 6 .
1368"
t
l

I
I 1 0
.
1631"
.
1894"
" 12 .
2158"
" 14 • .
242 1"
" 16 .
2684"
4
11
8
.
2947"
" 20 .
32 10"
A
s seen from t he above, No. 14 s
ize t
ap i
ssl
igh t
ly s maller
t
han T
A inch
, h ence itisnearly t
he s
ame whether 54" -20 pi
tch
o
r No.' 1
4 -20 p itch is d es
ignated
; b ut a %" -20 mach ine
s
crew fi
ts into a h o
le t apped with a No. 1
4 -20 tap p re
t ty
s
nugly
, and t he exact designat
ion should a
lways be wa tched
a
nd adhered t o
.

F
ig. 7A

F
or t
app
ing t
hreads i
n h
oles a t
ap
, F
ig. 8A
, i
sut
ilized i
na
1
52
 •

t
ap w rench o r h o
lder B . The h o
lder has an adjus
table c
huck
t
aking s evera l s i
zes o f t
aps
. F or cu
tting threads on r
ods
, et
c.,
astee l di e and h older,
F
ig. 9 , i s emp loyed . ,
= m
fe
In d rill
ing a nd t ap-
p
ing c ast i r
on n o o i
l
i
s r equ ired . F or
work ing w rought i r on
o
r s teel o i
l i s always
u
sed . Brass, a lum i-
num , o r a ny o ther
metals r equire o i
l f or
d
rilling a nd t app ing
o
f a ny c onsiderab le
musi mai f l
e
xten t.
A v i
se i s e ssen tial
i
n all s hop work , a n
ed
an eat o ne c apab le o f
b
eing c lamped t o a
t
able t op i s s een a t
F
ig. 1 0
.
A mo st u sefu l ma - F
ig. 7B
c
hine i st he l a
the , u pon wh ich a ny s hape o f wood , fiber a nd
b
rass may b e t urned u p, a nd a g ood o ne f or t he ama teur c osts
b
u t li
ttle. A p a
ir o f h eavy s cissor s, k nown a s t inner's s nip s
,
a
re v ery h andy f or c utting o ut s ections o f t hin f i
ber , t in
,
s
hee t iron , e tc
., n ot e xceed ing 1 /16" t hick .
For l abora tory o r s hop u se, inh eating j oints t ob e s oldered ,
b
razing a nd i nnumerab le o ther o perations , t he B unsen g as
f
l
ame s hown a t F ig. 1 i s av a
luab le a sse t
. I t uses t he r egu-
l
ar house g as, a nd b y as e
t o f air h oles a t the b ase trans forms
t
he f l
ame i nto a s trong b lue o ne o f i ntense h eat, instead o f
t
he y e
llow ish f lame o f l ow h eat em it
ted b y t he u sual t ip
.
For d riv ing s crews u se i s made o f ap la
in o r r atche t s crew
d
river. A p ressure e xer ted o n
t
he h and le d rives t he s crew o r
r
emoves i t
, a ccord ing t o h ow
t
he mechan ism i s s et b y t he
but
ton o n t he s ide o f i t
. Th is
i
s a g rea t t ime s aver where
many s
crews h ave t o b e
p
laced.
Wrenches o f v arious k inds
a
re u sed t o h and le r ods, n uts
a
nd t he l i
ke , aS tilson w rench
f
or h and ling p ipe , et c.
, b eing
v
ery u sefu l — a lso f or f i
tting in
i
ssm
a81
18
11S. ,,
r
ound r ods o f a ny k ind .
Muria tic a cid c utb yd ropp ing F
ig . 8A ,
b
its of z i nc i n i t may b e em -
p
loyed a s af l
ux t o s older i r
on w ith, b ut f or s oldering e lec-
t
r
ica l joints o n c opper w ires i ts hou ld n ever b e u sed, o nly t he
n
on -acid f l
uxes s uch a s r osin, b e
ing p erm issib le.

•
F
ig. 9
Thread Cutting F
ig. 1
Die and Holder The Bunsen Burner
1
53
 •

F
ig. 1
2 d
epic
ts a s
peed c
oun
ter f
or t
ak
ing t
he s
peed i
n

4
14
11
11 F
ig. 1
2
. S
peed C
ounter

r
evo
lut
ions o
f s
haf
ts, p
ulleys
, e
tc
. The s peed o f ab elt d r
iven
shaft isd ependen t u pon t he
propor tion e xisting b etween
t
he d iame ters o f t he d r
iving
and d riven p ulleys. B riefly
expressed , i ti s as f ollows :
The s peed o f o ne p ul
ley , A,
i
s e qua l t o t he p roduc t o f
t
hç d iame ter o f t he o ther
pul
ley i n i nches ( say w e
c
all i t B ), b y the r evo lu-
t
ions p er m inu te i t makes ,
d
ivided b y t he d iame ter o f
t
he p ulley A , i n inches , t he
r
esult b e
ing i n r evo lutions
p
er m inu te ( R. P. M .).
The s peed r atio o f gear s
i
s f ound b y d ividing t he
n
umber o f t eeth o n t he
l
arge g ear b y t he n umber
F
ig. l
u o
f teeth o n t he s ma ller o ne.
Bench Vise For e xamp le, s uppo se o ne
g
ear h ad 1
00 t eeth on itand t
he s maller o ne 1 2 teeth , then
t
he ra
tio of s
peed wou ld be 8t
o 1
,o r t he sma ller g ear whee l
wou
ld make e ight revolut o e
ions t very o ne o f the l arger g ear.

T
H
EME
T
R
IC S
Y
S
T
EM O
FME
A
SU
REM
EN
T.
Measures o
f L
eng
th
1Mill
i meter ( mm .) — 0
0.
3937079 inch, or about 1 /25 i
nch
1
0 Mill
i meters =1 C en t
i met er (cm .)= 039370 79 "
1
0 Centi meters =1 Dec imeter ( dm.).= 39370 79 "
1
0 Decimeters =1 me ter ( m
.) =-39 .37079 i
nches,3.2808992 fe
et,o r 1
.0936 1 y
ards
1
0 Meters =1 Decameter ( Dm .) — 3
2
.808992 f eet
1
0 Decameters =1 Hectometer ( Hm.) — 1
9
.92 7817 rods
1
0 Hectome ters =1 Kilometer ( Km) — 1
093
.61 y ards, or 0
.6213824 m ile
1
0 Ki
lome ters =1 Myr iameter ( Mm . )— 62
13824 m i
les
1i
nch =2 .54 cm. 1f oot =0.3048 m .
, 1y ard =0.9
144 m . , 1r o d= 0 5
.029 Dm.,
1' m
ile =1
.6093 Km .

Measures o
f We
ight
1Gram me ( g
.) =15
.4324874 g
r. T roy, or0.03215 oz
. T roy, oz0.
03527398 oz.avoin
1
0 Grammes =1 Decagram me ( Dg.) = 03
527398
1
0 Decagram mes =1 Hectogra mme ( Hg.) = 35
27398
1
0 Hectogram mes =1 K i
logram me ( Kg.) — ' 220462125 lbs
.
1
000 Ki
logram mes =1 T onne ( T
.) =2 204
.62125 lbs.
, o r 1.
1023 tons of 2 0
00 lbs.
,
o
r 0.
9842 ton of 240 l bs
., o r 19
.68 c wts.
1gra
in =0.0648 g, 1oz. a vo
ir. =28.35 g , 1l b
.:=0.4536 Kg .
, 1t on 2 000 lbs
.=
0
.
9072 T., 1ton 240 l bs. =1.016 T.
, o r 1016 Kg .

Measures o
f C
apac
ity
1Liter (1.) =1 cubic d ec
imeter =6 1.0270315 cubic in
., or 0
.03531 C u
. ft
., o
r
1
.
0567 liquid qts.,or 0 .908 dry q t., or 0
.26
417 Amer. ga l.
1
0 Li
ters =1 Deca liter ( D
I.) =2.6417 g al
., or 1.
135 pk.
1
0 Decal
iters =1 Hecto l
iter ( H I
.) =2.8375 b u
.
1
0 Hectoliters =1 Kilol
iter ( KI.) =61027.0515 cu
. in
., or 2
8
.375 b u
.
1cu
. foot =28.317 1.
, 1g allon, Amer . =3.78
3 1.
, 1g a
llon
, B r
it. =4.543 L

(
Fin
is.) •

1
64
 USEFUL I
NFOR MATION
.

SYMBOLS FOR ELECTRICAL APPARATUS

— 0 0 .-
•-•
W
ire — 0 o -""0--
--
P
rimaryCe
ll D
ouble
-Po
le D ouble
T
hrow Sw
itch (Open
)
f1
.-
-

S
torage C
el
l
W
ires n
ot
C
onnected
P
ole C
hanger

W
ires
Ammeter
D
o
irect-Current
C
onnected
C =Z4
G
. enerator
V
V
o
ltmeter
Ground
C
onnection I
G D
irec
t -Current .
Motor
G
alvanome
ter
f
use

— --
N
on -
Induct
ive
R
esis
tance A
lternat
ing-
C
urren
t Genera
tor
Wa
tt •
n
eter
I
nductive
o ld5 q
id f
R
esistance
S
imp
le S
witch T
ransformer

V
ariable S
ing
le-Pole S
ingle C
ondenser
R
esistance o
r T
hrow S
witch (
Open
)
R
heostat
—.
.-0
S
ingle
-Po
le Double
I
ncandescen
t T
hrow Sw
itch(Open) D
eta C
onnec
tion
L
amps inSer
ies

— X —x —X —X—
A
rc Lamps D
ouble-Po
le Single-
i
n Ser
ies T
hrow S w
itch (
Open) S
t
ar C
onnect
ion

1
r5
 D
IAMETER OF WIRE WHICH WILL F
USE W
ITH G
IVEN C
URRENT

D
iam
ete
r i
nMi
ls

Am
C
opp
er A
lum
. P
lat
- G
erman P
la
t- I
r
on TM T
in l
e
ad L
ead
i
n
ium i
n
ium s
ave
r i
n
oid a
loy

1 2
.1 2
.8 3
.3 3
.3 3.5 4.7 7
.2 8.3 8.1
2 3
.4 4
.1 5
.3 5
.3 5.6 7.4 1
.3 1
3
.2 1
2
.8
3 4
.4 5
.4 7
.0 6
.9 7.4 9
.7 1
4
.9 1
7
.3 1
6
.8
4 5
.3 6
.5 8
.4 8
.4 8.9 1
.7 1
8.1 2
1
.0 2
0
.3
6
.2 7
.6 9
.8 9
.7 1
0
.4 1
3
.8 2
1.0 2
4.3 2
3.8

1
0 9.8 1
2
.0 1
5
.5 1
5
.4 1
6
.4 2
1
.6 3
.4 3
8.6 3
7.5
1
5 1
2
.9 1
5
.8 2
0
.3 2
0
.2 2
1
.5 2
8
.3 4
3.7 5
0.8 4
9.1
2
0 1
5.8 1
9
.1 2
4
.6 2
4.5 2
6
.1 3
4
.3 5
2.9 6
1.3 5
9.5
2
.
5 1
8.1 2
.2 2
8
.8 2
8.4 3
0
.3 3
9.8 6
1.4 7
1.1 6
9.0
3
0 2
0.5 2
5
.0 3
2
.3 3
2.0 3
4.2 4
5.0 6
9.4 8
0.3 7.9

3
5 2
.7 2
7
.7 -
5
5.8 3
5.6 3
7
.9 4
9
.8 7
6
.9 8
9
.0 8
6
.4
4
0 2
4
.8 3
0.3 3
9.1 3
8.8 4
1.4 5
4
.5 8
4
.0 9
7
.3 9
4
.4
4
5 2
6.8 3
2
.8 4
2.3 4
2.0 4
4.8 5
8
.9 9
0
.9 1
05
.2 1
02
.1
5
0 2
8.8 3
5.2 4
5.4 4
5.0 4
8.0 6
3
.2 9
7.5 12.9 1
09
.5
3
2.5 3
9.7 5
1.3 5
0.9 5
4.2 7
1.4 10
.1 1
27.5 1
23
.7

7 3
6
.0 4
4
.0 5
6
.8 5
6.4 6
0.1 7
9
.1 1
22
.0 1
41.3 1
37
.1
3
9
.4 4
8
.1 6
2
.1 .6
1.8 6
5.7 8
6
.4 1
33
.4 1
54
.4 1
49
.9
4
2
.6 5
2
.0 6
7
.2 6
8.7 7
1.1 9
3
.5 1
44
.3 1
67.1 1
62
.1
1
00 4
5
.7 5.8 7
2
.0 7
1.5 7
6.2 1
00
.3 1
54
.8 1
79.2 1
73
.9
1
20 5
1.6 6
3.0 8
1.4 8
0.8 8
6.1 13.3 1
74.8 2
02.4 1
96
.4

1- 5
7
.2 6
9
.8 9
0
.2 8
9
.5 9
5.4 1
25
.5 1
93.7 24.3 2
17.6
.
1 6
2
.5 7
6
.3 9
8.6 9
7.8 1
04.3 1
37
.2 2
11.8 2
45.2 2
37.9
1 6
7.6 8
2
.8 1
05
.6 1
05.8 12.8 1
48
.4 20.1 2
65 2 2
57.3
7
2.5 8
8
.6 14
.4 13.5 1
21.0 1
59
.2 2
45.7 2
84
.5 2
76.0
2 7
8.4 9
5.8 1
23.7 1
22.8 1
30.9 1
72
.2 2
65.8 3
07.7 2
98.6

1 8
4
.1 1
02
.8 1
32
.7 1
31
.7 1
40
.4 1
84 8 2
85.1 3
30.1 3
20.3
7 I
2 8
9
.7 1
09
.5 1
41
.4 1
40
.4 1
49
.7 1
96.9 3
03.8 3
51.8 3
41.3
I 9
5.0 16
.1 1
49
.8 1
48
.7 1
58
.6 2
08
.6 3
22
.0 3
72.8 3
81.7

CHARACTERIST
ICS OF T
I MBER

Th
is t
able must b
e u
sed w
ith c
aut
ion a
s t
here i
s f
requen
tly w
ide v
ari
-
a
t
ions i
n a
ny t
imber
.

Rela
tive S
hearing
Weight Tens
ile Crushing S
trength S
trength
per Strength Strength f
or Cross w
ith the
Descr
ip- c
ub ic p
er sq
. in. p
er sq. i
n. Breaking Grain
t
ion foot i
n l
bs. i
n l
bs. White Pine l
bs. per
i
n l bs
. e
qual 100 sq
. in

Ash 4
3 t
o55
.8 1
,000 t .000 4
o 1
7 ,400 t
o 9
,400 1
30 t
o 1
80 4
58 t
o 7
00
Beech 4
3 t
o53
.4 1
,500 t ,000 5
o 1
8 ,800 t
o ,400 1
1
4 00 t
o. 1
44
Cedar 5
0 t
o56
.8 1
0
.300 t
o 1
1,400 5
,600 t
o ,000 5
6 5 t
o 8
3
Cherry 1
30
Chestnut 3
3 1
0,500 5
,350 to 56 00 98 t
o 1
23
Elm 3
4 t
o3 6
.7 13,400 to 1
3,500 6
,831 to 1
0,480 96
Hem lock. 8,700 5
,700 8
8 t
o 9
5
Hickory. 1
2,800 to 1
8,000 9
,000 1
50 t
o 2
10
Locust 4
4 2
0,500 to 2
4,800 9
,200 to 1
1,700 1
32 t
o 2
27
Maple 4
9 1
0,500 to 1
0,600 8
,150 1
22 t
o 2
20 3
87 t
o 6
47
Oak, Wh ite 4
5 t
o5 4
.5 10,250 to 1
9,500 4
,700 to 9,500 1
30 t
o 1
77 7
52 t
o 9
68
Oak, Live 7
0 6
,850 1
55 t
o 1
89
P
ine, Wh ite 3
0 1
0,000 to 1
2,000 5
,000 to 6,650 1
00 2
25 t
o 4
23
P
ine , Ye
llow 2
8.8 t
o3 3 1
2,600 to 1
9,200 5
,400 to 9,500 98 t
o 1
70 2
86 t
o 4
16
Spruce. 1
0,000 to 1
9.500 5
.050 to 7
,850 8
6 t
o 10 2
53 t
o 3
74
Walnut. Elk. 4
2 9
,286 to 1
6.000 7
.500

1
56
 T
ABLE O
F C
OMPAR
ISON OF CENT
IGRADE AND F
AHRENHE
IT
THERMOMETER S
CALES
C
ent
. F
ahr
. C
ent
. F
ahr
. C
ent
. F
ahr
. C
ent
. F
ak
ir
.
0 3
2.0 2
6 7
8.8 5
1 1
2 3
.8 7
8
1 1
68.8
3.8 2
7 8
0.6 5
2 1
2 5
.6 7 1
70.8
2 3
5.6 2
8 8
2.4 5
3 1
27.4 7
8 1
72.4
3 3
7.4 2
9 8
4.2 5
4 1
2).2 7
0 1
7
1).2
4 3
9.2 3
0 8
6.) 5 1
31.0 8
0 1
78.0
5 4
1.0 3
1 8
7.3 5
8 1
32.8 8
1
6 1
77.8
4
2.8 3
1 8
9.3 5
7 1
34.8 8
2 1
79.6
7 4.8 3 9
1.4 5
8 1
36.4 8
3 1
81.2
8 4
6.4 3
4 9
3.2 5
9 1
38.2 8
4 1
83
.4
9 4
8.2 3
5 9
5.0 6
0 1
40.0 8
5 1
85
.0
1
0 5
0.0 3
6 9
8.8 8
1 1
41.8 8 1
88
.8
1 5
1.8 3
7 9
8.6 6
2 1
43.6 8
7 1
88
.6
1
2 5
3.6 3
8 1
00.4 6
3 1
45.4 8 1
90
.4
1
3 5
5.4 3
9 1
02.2 6
4 1
47.2 8
9 1
92
.2
1
4 5
7.2 4
0 1
04.0 6
5 1
40.0 9
0
1
5 19
4.0
5
9.0 4
1 1
05
.8 8
6. 1
50.8 9
1 19
5.8
1
6 6
0
.8 4
2 1
07
.6 6
7 1
52.6 9
2 1
97.6
1
7 6
2
.8 4
3 1
09
.4 6
8 1
54.4 9
3 19
9.4
1
8 6
4
.4 4 11
.1' 8
9 1
56.2 9
4 2
01.2
1
9 8
6
.2 4
5 13
.0 7
0 1
58.0 9
5 2
03.0
2
0 8
.0 4
6 14
.8 7
1 1
59.8 9
8 2
04.8
2
1 6
9
.8 4
7 18
.8 7
2 1
6
1 .8 97
2 2
08.8
7
1
.6 4
8 18
.4 7
3 1
63
.4 98 2
08.4
2
3 7
3
.4 4
9 1
20
.2 7
4 1
65
.2 9 2
10.2
2
1 7
5
.2 5
0 1
22
.0 7
5 1
87
.0 1
00 2
12.0
2
5 7
.0
O
ne deg. .
-
-=.55.
56 deg
. cent
igrade
.
¡,
:
i
T
O
o
neco
nd
ev
g.
er
t c
en
F
ta
i
tge
r
.adt
o
eo e
=n
1
.
ti
8 l u.e
,Fa
s
uk
i
br
t
.ra
ct
.c
t32,mu
lt
iply b
y 5a
nd d
iv
ide b
y9.
T
oc o
nv er
tc ent
ig rade to ah r
.,m u
ltip
ly by9.div
ide b
y 5a
nd a
dd 3
2.
I
ftemperaturei sbelow fr
eez
ing, th
ea bove f
o
rmula s
hou
ld r
e
ad "
subt
ractf
rom 3
2" i
npl
aceo
f
"
subtract 3
2" a nd "add 32."

E
QUIVALENT CROSS
-SECT
IONS O
FDIFFERENT S
IZE W
IRES
(
Brown a
nd S
harp
eGaug
e)

E
quiv. N
umb
erdw
i
re fv
so a
r
iou
ssi
zes
s
e
ction
2 4 8 1
6 3
2 6
4 1
23
000 0 3 6 9 1
2 1
5 1
8
00 I 4 7 1
0 1
3 1
6 O
ne e
ach
0
0 2 5 8 1 1
4 1
7
0 1a
nd 3
3 6 9 1
2 1
5 1
8 2and 4
1 4 7 1
0 1
3 1
6 3a
nd 5
2 5 8 1 1
4 1
7 4and 6
3 e 9 1
2 1
5 1
8 . Saudi
4 7 1
0 1
3 1
6 . . 6and 8
5 8 1 1
4 1
7 •• 7and 9
6 9 1
2 1
5 1
8 . 8and 1
0
7 1
0 1
3 1
8 . . 9and 1
8 1 1
4 1
7 . 1
0and 1
2
9 1
2 1
5 1
8 . . 1and 1
3
1
0 1
3 1
6 . . . 1
2and 1
4
1 1
4 1
7 . . 1
3and 1
5
1
2 1
5 1
9 . . •• 1
4and 1
6
1
3 1
6 . . . . .. 1
5and 1
7
1
4 1
7 . . 1
6and 1
8
1
8 1
8 . •
. ..

:
57
 T
able o
f Mu
ltip
les
D
iameter o
f acircle x 3
.1416 = C ircumference
.
Rad
ius o
f aci
rcle x 6.283185 = C ircumference
.
S
quare o
fthe r
ad ius o
f ac i
rcle x3.1416 = Area
.
S
quare o
f t
he diame ter of ac i
rcle x 0.
7854 =
A
rea.
S
qua re oft he circum fe rence of ac ircle x0 .
07958
Area .
Half the circum ference o f ac ircle x b y h alf its
d
iame ter = A rea .
C
ircum ference o f ac irc le x 0.159155 = R ad ius
.
S
quare r oot o f the a rea o f acircle x 0.56419 =
Radius .
C
ircum ference o f ac ircle x0 .31831 = D iame ter
.
S
quare r oot oft he area o f ac ircle x 1 .
12838 = -
D
iame ter
.
D
iame ter of ac ircle x 0 .86 = S ide o f inscribed
e
quila teral tr
iang le.
D
iame ter o f a c irc
le x 0 .7071 = S ide o f a n
i
nscribed s qua re.
C
ircum ference o f ac ircle x 0 .225 = S ide o f an
i
nscribed s quare .
C
ircum ference o f ac ircle x 0 .282 = S ide o fa n
e
qua l s quare.
Diame ter of ac i
rcle x 0 .8862 = S ide o fa n equal
s
qua re.
Base of at riang le x b y 1 /¡the alti
tude = A rea
.
Mu ltip
lying b oth d iame te rs and . 7854 toge ther
= A rea o fa n e c
lipse.
S
u rface of as phere x b y 1 -6 of it
s d iame te r =
S
olid i
ty .
C
ircumfe
rence o
f asphe
re x b
y it
s d
iameter =
S
urface
.
S
quare o
fthe d
iame
ter of as
phere x 3
.
1416 -=
S
urface
.
Squa re o f t he circumfe rence of asphe re x0 .3183
= S urface .
Cube o f t he d iame ter o f as phere x0 .5236 =
Sol
id ity.
Cube o f t he r adius o f a s phere x 4 .1888 =
S
olidity .
Cube o ft he c i
rcum fe rence of asphere x0 .016887
= S olid i
ty .
S
qua re r oo t of the s u r
face of as phere x0 .
56419
D
iame ter.
S
qua re r oo t of t he surface of asphere x1 .772454
= C ircum ference .
Cube r oo t o f t he s o
lid ity of as phere x 1 .2407
= D iame te r.
Cube r oo t o ft he solidity of as phere x3 .
8978 - =
C
ircum ference .
Radius o f as phe re x 1 .1547 -.
-Side o f in
scribed
c
ube .
S
quare r oot o f ( 1/3 o f the s qua re o f) t he
d
iame ter o f as phe re = S ide of i
nscribed c ube .
A
rea o f i ts b ase x b y 1/3 of its a l
titude =
S
olidi ty o f a c one o r p yramid, whe the r round ,
s
qua re o r t r
iangu la r.
A
rea o f o ne of i ts sides x6= t he s urface o f a
c
ube .
A
ltitude o ft rapezo id x I Athe sum o f it
sp aral
lel
s
ides Area .

1
58
 T
ab
le o
fCon
ten
ts

P
age
LESSON No. 1.
E
lec
tric B
ells
, Buzzers a
r
id Annunc
iators 3

LESSON No. 2
.
Pr
imary B
atter
ies a
nd D
ry C
ells 1

LESSON No. 3.
S
torage B
atter
ies 2
0

LESSON No . 4.
Rect
ifiers a
nd T
rans
former
s 3
0
LESSON No. 5.
Sma
ll E
lectr
ic L
igh
ting P
lan
ts 3
8

LESSON No . 6.
E
lectr
ical Wires a
nd t
heir C
alcu
lat
ions 4
7

ZO N No
. 7.
Te
legraph a
nd T
elephones 5
9

J
SSON No. 8.
Dynamos a
nd Mo
tors 6
6

LESSON No. 9.
Swi
tches
, Burg
lar A
larms
, a
nd m
isce
llaneous
c
onnect
ions 7
5
LESSON No . 1
0
.
Expez
imental E
lectro -
Phys
ics 8
3
LESSON No. 1 .
E
lectro -
Therapeut
ics 8
9

LESSON No. 1
2
.
I
nduct
ion Co
ils a
nd G
eiss
ler Tubes 9
6
LESSON No. 1
3
.
The X
-Ray 1
03

LESSON No . 14
.
High F renquency Curren
ts (
Tes
la T
rans
former
Exper
iments , et
c.) 10

LESSON No . 15
.
E
lectropla
ting
, P
art I 18
LESSON No . 1
6.
E
lectropla
ting
, P
art I 1
25
LESSON No. 1
7.
S
tat
ic E
lectr
ici
ty a
nd S
tat
ic G
enerators 1
31
LESSON No . 1
8
.
E
lectr
ical Measur
ing I
nstrumen
ts 1
37

LESSON No. 1
9
.
P
ract
ica
l Mathemat
ics 1
44

LESSON No
. 20
.
How t
o make t
h
ings
. (
The U
se o
f R
aw Ma
ter
ial
) 1
50
USEFUL INFOR MATION 1
55
1
59
 TWO REMARKABLE BOOKS
How to Make Wire
less How t o Make Wireles
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end
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.
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surely b e we lcomed wr itten a nd p ub l
ished
by every w ireless ent irely f or t he w ire-
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ess e nthus iast wh c
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apparatus . On ly s tr ictly mod -
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xpe
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ubl
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e
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lec
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X
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IMENT
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xpe
rimen
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xper
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t i
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ean
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ectr
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ON'T D
ELAY
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OUR S UBSCRIPT
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lton S
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