Ecological Modelling 306 (2015) 46–56

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Ecological Modelling
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecolmodel

Carbon dioxide sequestration model of a vertical greenery system

Michela Marchi ∗ , Riccardo Maria Pulselli, Nadia Marchettini, Federico Maria Pulselli,
Simone Bastianoni
Department of Earth, Environmental and Physical Sciences, Ecodynamics Group, University of Siena, Pian dei Mantellini 44, 53100 Siena, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A dynamic model simulating carbon dioxide (CO2 ) sequestration by plants embedded in a vertical green-
Available online 30 August 2014 ery system (VGS) was developed. The aim of the model was to demonstrate the advantages, in terms of
CO2 sequestration, obtained by installation of large vegetated wall surfaces in urban areas. The ability of
Keywords: various plants, tested separately or in a mixed-species set, to accumulate carbon in different compart-
Carbon stocked in plants ments and moments of their life (plants, compost, soil and microbial biomass in soil) was quantified.
Carbon in compost
The model simulates a series of processes, from planting and growth of herbaceous plants in the VGS to
Carbon in soil
the end of their lives, when compost is produced from green residues and is added to agricultural soil.
Vertical garden
Perennial herbaceous plants
The amount of CO2 removed from the atmosphere is the portion finally stocked in the soil in the form of
Perennial grass microbial biomass.
The plants considered are commonly used in VGS because they are perennial and suitable for hydro-
ponic culture. Typical Mediterranean climate was assumed for the VGS model. The herbaceous species
selected were the perennial grass Zoysia matrella, the succulent Sedum spurium, Mediterranean shrubs
Salvia nemorosa and Rosmarinus officinalis and flowering ornamental plants Geranium sanguineum, Carex
brunnea and Fatsia japonica.
As estimated by the model, the mean yearly CO2 flow absorbed by plant biomass of these species
(expressed in carbon dioxide equivalents, CO2eq ) was 0.44–3.18 kg CO2eq m−2 of vertical garden. Green
residues from plant replacement and trimming/pruning were treated to produce compost and added
to agricultural soil. We estimated that a 98 m2 VGS can capture an average carbon dioxide flow of
13.41–97.03 kg CO2eq per year. The model predicts increasing long-lasting carbon dioxide accumula-
tion in the VGS over time, indicating a feasible solution for climate change mitigation in urban areas.
The model can be adapted to different plant species and different geographical, climatic and biological
conditions.
© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction from the atmosphere by carbon (C) uptake is an expected benefit

Vertical greenery systems (VGS) are vegetated structures fixed
to building façades. Plants or grass are embedded in a vertical layer,
fed by an automatic watering and fertilizing system (Pulselli et al.,
2014). VGS offer multiple benefits as innovative components of
urban design and increase greenery in built environments lacking
green areas (Köhler, 2008). Besides esthetic functions, this technol-
ogy can help improve environmental and human health (e.g., by
heat island mitigation, improved air quality and acoustic damping)
and also protect buildings from environmental stressors such as
sun and acid rain (Beckett et al., 2000; Nicholls, 1977; Oberndorfer
et al., 2007; Wong et al., 2010). The removal of carbon dioxide (CO2 )
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 0577 232003; fax: +39 0577 232004.
E-mail address: marchi27@unisi.it (M. Marchi).
(Shiah and Kim, 2011).
Carbon accumulation in grass and herbaceous plants in urban
areas (public and private gardens and green roofs) has been eval-
uated in many studies through simulation models and direct
measurements (e.g., Goudriaan and Ketner, 1984; Moriwaki and
Kanda, 2004; Li et al., 2010; Nowak and Greenfield, 2010; Dvorak
and Volder, 2012). Goudriaan and Ketner (1984) developed a global
carbon cycle model considering long-term projections and accu-
mulation of carbon from dead plants (without composting) in soil.
Moriwaki and Kanda (2004) measured mean hourly CO2 fluxes
in different seasons by the Eddy covariance method, identifying
absorption and release of CO2 from urban areas. Li et al. (2010)
studied the effect of green roofs on ambient CO2 concentrations,
measuring carbon absorption velocity and emission rate by plants
using a sealed glass chamber. Nowak and Greenfield (2010) quan-
tified carbon storage and sequestration rates per unit canopy cover

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2014.08.013
0304-3800/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 M. Marchi et al. / Ecological Modelling 306 (2015) 46–56
(including grass) in several U.S. cities, using the Urban Forest
Effect (UFORE) model. Dvorak and Volder (2012) proposed various
biomass growth indexes for green roofs, comparing species at max-
imum and minimum air temperatures and precipitation/irrigation.
The aim of the present study was to evaluate CO2 sequestra-
tion and permanent removal of C by a set of herbaceous species
commonly used in VGS, assuming systematic implementation of
a series of processes for managing residual biomass. A dynamic
model was developed to represent these processes, from plant-
ing and growth of perennial herbaceous plants to the end of their
lives, also considering return of carbon to soil elsewhere after
composting the green residues. A VGS hypothetically installed on
a building façade in a Mediterranean context (central Italy) was
assumed as case study. Herbaceous species, such as spontaneous
aromatic herbaceous shrubs and drought-resistant and succulent
plants, were selected because they adapt to the Mediterranean cli-
mate context and soilless hydroponic culture.
Other studies analyze parts of the carbon sequestration cycle
(e.g., considering vegetation and soil separately). The present model
takes a holistic view of the system’s compartments (plants, green
residues, compost, soil and microbial biomass), assessing the final
destination of carbon input into the VGS. The model can be used to
assess carbon uptake by the species selected or modified to evaluate
different species under different management and environmental
conditions.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Model presentation
The dynamic model of CO2 accumulation regards herbaceous
species planted in a hypothetical 98 m2 VGS located on a south-
oriented building façade in Siena (central Italy). The model was
developed using STELLA (version 8.1.4) software and represents
the sequence of major processes: CO2 sequestration by growth of
plant biomass; harvesting of green residues (i.e., plant replacement
and pruning/trimming) and composting; compost distribution and
assimilation into agricultural soil located elsewhere; carbon uptake
by microbial biomass in that soil.
The vegetation selected to simulate CO2 sequestration included
six species of perennial herbaceous plants (1. Sedum spurium, 2.
Salvia nemorosa, 3. Rosmarinus officinalis, 4. Geranium sanguineum,
5. Carex brunnea and 6. Fatsia japonica) and one perennial grass
(Zoysia matrella). S. nemorosa and R. officinalis are spontaneous
aromatic herbaceous shrubs of the Mediterranean basin; G. san-
guineum and F. japonica are ornamental flowering plants that
survive in drought habitats (from the Caucasus and southern Japan,
respectively); C. brunnea, found in most of the world, is popular
in horticulture and wild habitat restoration; S. spurium is a suc-
culent plant native to cold and temperate regions of the northern
hemisphere; Z. matrella is a mat-forming perennial grass native to
temperate coastal southeast Asia and northern Australia. All the
perennial herbaceous species are suitable for typical Mediterranean
climates.
Each plant species was tested individually in the dynamic model
to assess its real effectiveness for carbon accumulation. The contri-
bution to carbon uptake by the mixed set of perennial herbaceous
species was also estimated to obtain an average value (each of the
six species covered 16.33 m2 of the total 98 m2 ).
State variables, processes, forcing functions and variables used
in the model are shown in Fig. 1, while symbols and related units
are illustrated in Table 1.
The state variables were:
(1) Carbon stocked in plants (C pl) which varies according one
inflow forcing function (carbon absorption by plants) and two
47
outflow processes (residual biomass from plant replacement
and trimming);
(2) Carbon in green residues to the composting plant (C I Comp) –
compost production from the residual biomass releases green-
house gases due to bio-oxidation reactions;
(3) Carbon in compost (C Comp) is the carbon taken up in the com-
post which is returned to agricultural soil (assuming 1 ha of
agricultural soil);
(4) Carbon in 1 ha of agricultural soil (C Soil) which varies with the
outflow forcing function representing soil respiration;
(5) Carbon in 1 ha of agricultural soil microbial biomass (C mb)
which varies with nourishment and mortality of the microor-
ganisms;
(6) Long-lasting carbon dioxide accumulation in the system
(Acc CO2 ) which varies with carbon dioxide inflow absorbed
by plants and outflows released by the system, during compost
production and soil respiration.
The state variables 1–5 are expressed in kg carbon and state
variable 6 in kg carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2eq , Table 1).
We assumed 1307 kg of herbaceous plants or 1960 kg of peren-
nial grass Z. matrella (wet weight) embedded in the 98 m2 VGS,
that generate about 100 kg per year of residual biomass. The car-
bon uptake in each compartment (plants, compost, agricultural soil
and microbial biomass) was estimated over 25 years, the assumed
lifetime of the VGS. Young plants embedded in VGS grow by up to
29% in biomass, i.e., up to the carrying capacity of the garden (see
suggestions based on direct measurements in Durhman and Rowe,
2007).
The model is calibrated considering that the carbon stocked in
the vegetation is completely transferred to the composting plant
over 25 years. The carbon concentrated in compost is around 20%
of plant biomass dry matter, assumed as recommended maximum
value (Ministerial Decree 29-4-2010 n.75). The compost is added
to agricultural soil.
For calibration, we used plant growth and mortality rate data
published in other studies. Biogenic carbon emissions from com-
posting and the carbon rate in the compost produced were chosen
from reasonable values in the literature. The expected equilibrium
occurs when, at the end of the simulation, all the plant biomass
embedded in the VGS is transferred to the composting plant and the
compost produced contains almost 20% of the dry weight of the veg-
etation used. Growth and mortality rates of soil microbial biomass
and soil respiration rate were chosen from the literature to avoid
excessive accumulation of carbon in the agricultural soil. Applying
this approach, all state variables can be expected to reach maxi-
mum levels at a certain time in the simulation, following logistic
dynamics.
2.2. Basic values and equations
The plants analyzed in the model have specific biological
properties, such as percentage water content, dry matter and
carbon dry weight, as well as survival rate in urban residential
greenspaces (Table S.1 in the Supplemental material on-line, see for
example Kusano, 1901; Stoddard, 1935; Singh and Yadava, 1974;
Teeri et al., 1986; Körner, 1989; Kjellsson, 1991; Michel et al.,
1993; Rejmánková and Rejmánek, 1995; de Kroon et al., 1996;
Peñuelas and Estiarte, 1997; Filonow and Dole, 1999; Cuenca and
Amo-Marco, 2000; Gupta et al., 2002; Sims and Gamon, 2002;
Vendramini et al., 2002; Clary et al., 2004; Malenĉić et al., 2003;
Colom et al., 2004; Lindsay and French, 2004; Terashima et al.,
2004; Wellwood and Cole, 2004; Monterusso et al., 2005; Kim et al.,
2005; Durhman and Rowe, 2007; Lasseigne et al., 2007; Latocha and
Batorska, 2007; Li et al., 2008; Wolf and Lundholm, 2008; Getter
et al., 2009; Sánchez-Blanco et al., 2009; Patty et al., 2010; Chen
48 M. Marchi et al. / Ecological Modelling 306 (2015) 46–56
Fig. 1. Conceptual diagram of the model.
et al., 2011; Santana et al., 2012; Forde et al., 1976). Table 2 shows
data for the initial value of carbon stocked in plants, trimming and
mortality rate of vegetation and maximum plant biomass produc-
tion of the vertical garden. The trimming rate is expressed by a
graphic function in STELLA that indicates increasing values over
time. In fact, annual trimming may slowly promote the rate of
plant biomass increase (information provided by vertical garden
manufacturers).
No carbon was assumed in the composting plant, compost and
agricultural soil at the beginning of our analysis. We also assumed
that the long-lasting carbon dioxide accumulated in the system was
zero kg at the beginning of the simulation.
Radiation, precipitation and air temperature are uncontrolled
exogenous variables and are expressed as average annual values
obtained from the weather stations in Siena and Sesto Fiorentino
(Florence, central Italy) in the year 2012 (14.7 MJ m−2 per year,
742.7 mm per year and 15.1 ◦ C, respectively). We also assumed that
atmospheric concentrations of CO2 (400 ppm in May 2013, Olivier
et al., 2013) are increasing at about 5 ppm per year (IPCC, 2013).
The basic equations applied in the dynamic model are shown in
Table 3.
The model is organized in a series of process phases, namely
variation in plant biomass, compost production from green
residues, compost distribution to 1 ha of agricultural soil and long-
lasting carbon dioxide accumulation in the whole system.
The first phase represents the variation in plant biomass due
to annual CO2 uptake and carbon loss by trimming and natu-
ral mortality of vegetation. The influence of solar radiation and
carbon dioxide concentration on photosynthetic activity are repre-
sented by a Michaelis–Menten expression. We assumed that plant
uptake increased with increasing concentration of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere, up to a half saturation constant of 300 ppm
(Jørgensen and Fath, 2011) and that vegetation converts about
6% of the solar radiation intercepted into plant biomass (Aikman,
1989). The growth rate of plants, expressed by an increasing
graphic function in STELLA, depends on atmospheric CO2 concen-
tration, precipitation, irrigation and the quantity of nutrients in
the irrigation water (Table S.2 in Supplemental material on-line;
Singh and Yadava, 1974; Hirose et al., 1989; Vidal et al., 1990;
Newton, 1991; Speiser and Rowell-Rahier, 1991; Jo and McPherson,
1995; Peñuelas and Llusià, 1996; van Iersel, 1997; de Kroon et al.,
1998; Lloret et al., 1999; Osborne et al., 2000; Getter et al., 2009;
Onipchenko et al., 2009; Olivier et al., 2011; Bretzel et al., 2012;
Yong-Ángel et al., 2012). Logistic growth function introduced a car-
rying capacity, corresponding to the maximum amount of carbon
contained in the plant biomass of the vertical garden. Irrigation
water is 105–181 l per year for the whole vertical garden area.
Nutrients are 1.06–2.06 kg per year for the whole vertical garden
area, depending on plant species (information provided by vertical
garden manufacturers).
The second phase is breakdown of green residue in a composting
plant to produce compost. Compost production is represented by
a first-order equation. The carbon rate in compost produced each
year is represented by a graphic function in STELLA (column 2 of
Table S.3 in the Supplemental material on-line; Siena Ambiente,
2010). We introduced a logistic growth function in the compost
production equation, in which the maximum percentage of carbon
in compost was almost 20% of green residue dry matter. The equa-
tion contained the percentage of C in potential green residue (dry
weight basis; C dw) going to the compost plant.
The carbon emitted to the atmosphere by biogenic reactions
occurring during composting was derived from a range of values
 M. Marchi et al. / Ecological Modelling 306 (2015) 46–56 49

Table 1
Summary of the symbols used in the model with descriptions and units.

Symbol Description Unit

State variablesa
Acc CO2 Long-lasting carbon dioxide accumulation in the system kg CO2eq
C Comp Carbon in compost kg C
C I Comp Carbon in green residues to the composting plant kg C
C mb Carbon in 1 ha of soil microbial biomass kg C in 1 ha of agricultural soil
C pl Carbon stocked in plants (above ground and roots) kg C for the whole vertical garden area
C Soil Carbon in 1 ha of agricultural soil (receiving the compost kg C in 1 ha of agricultural soil
produced)

Processes
Comp production Compost production in composting plant kg C per year
Distrib soil Carbon distributed to 1 ha of agricultural soil (using the kg C per year in 1 ha of agricultural soil
compost produced)
Mort mb Mortality of soil microbial biomass kg C per year in 1 ha of agricultural soil
Mort pl Mortality of vegetation in vertical garden kg C per year for the whole vertical garden area
Nutr mb Nutrition of soil microbial biomass kg C per year in 1 ha of agricultural soil
Trim pl Carbon lost by trimmed vegetation kg C per year for the whole vertical garden area

Forcing functions
CH4 emiss CH4 -Cb emissions from compost production kg C per year
CO2 emiss Biogenic carbon emissions from compost production kg C per year
CO2 Release Carbon dioxide flow released by the system kg CO2eq per year
CO2 Uptake pl Carbon dioxide flow absorbed by plants kg CO2 per year for the whole vertical garden area
Resp Soil respiration kg C per year in 1 ha of agricultural soil
Uptake pl Carbon absorption by plants kg C per year for the whole vertical garden area

Variables
◦
Air temp Mean annual air temperature C
C dw Carbon in plants (dry weight) %C dry weight basis
C in Comp Carbon rate in compost kg C per year
C ww Carbon in plants (wet weight) %C wet weight basis
CO2 C pl Carbon dioxide stocked in plants kg CO2 per year for the whole vertical garden area
CO2 Input Output Balance Carbon dioxide flow retained in the system kg CO2eq per year
Concen CO2 A Atmospheric concentration of CO2 ppm CO2 per year
Distrib rate Carbon distribution rate to 1 ha of agricultural soil, using the kg C per year in 1 ha of agricultural soil
produced compost
EF CH4 CH4 emission factor from the composting plant g CH4 per kg biomass(wet weight)
EF CO2 Carbon emission factor (biogenic origin) from the composting g C per kg biomass (wet weight)
plant
factor G Factor regulating photosynthesis, depending on factor1, kg nutrients in water per year for the whole vertical garden area
factor I and factor2
factor I Irrigation factor regulating photosynthesis l per year for the whole vertical garden area
factor1 Precipitation factor regulating photosynthesis mm per year for the whole vertical garden area
factor2 Nutrient factor regulating photosynthesis kg nutrients per year for the whole vertical garden area
Grate mb Growth rate of soil microbial biomass kg C per year in 1 ha of agricultural soil
Grate pl Growth rate of plants kg C per year for the whole vertical garden area
Irrigation Irrigation l per year
Max C Comp Maximum compost production kg C per year
MaxG pl Maximum plant biomass production of the vertical garden kg C per year for the whole vertical garden area
Mrate mb Mortality rate of soil microbial biomass kg C per year in 1 ha of agricultural soil
Mrate pl Mortality rate of plants in vertical garden kg C per year for the whole vertical garden area
Nutrients in water Nutrients in irrigation water kg nutrients per year for the whole vertical garden area
Precipitation Precipitation mm per year for the whole vertical garden area
Rad Mean solar radiation MJ m−2 per year
Trim rate Plant trimming rate kg C per year for the whole vertical garden area
a
The subdivision of state variables, processes, forcing functions and variables is according to the symbols applied to create a conceptual diagram using STELLA (Fig. 1). State
variables are boxes for which differential equations are formulated as accumulation. Processes are thick arrows with a valve symbol between two state variables. Forcing
functions are thick arrows starting or ending as a cloud. Circles are variables in general (Jørgensen, 2009).
b
Carbon in methane (CH4 -C).

between 5.5 and 53.6 g C per kg of green waste (column 3 of Table
S.3 in the Supplemental material on-line; see also Michel et al.,
1993; Hellebrand, 1998; Komilis and Ham, 2000, 2006; Sommer
and Møller, 2000; ROU, 2001; Weppen, 2001; Komilis, 2006). On the
other hand, anthropogenic methane (CH4 ) emissions were 0.05 g
CH4 per kg of green waste, as proposed by the National Handbook
of Emission Factors (ANPA CTN-ACE, 2002).
The third phase represents the carbon stocked in 1 ha of agricul-
tural soil and the microbial biomass produced by distributing the
compost. Carbon addition to 1 ha of agricultural soil is expressed
by a first-order equation, in which the compost distribution rate is
0.23–0.36 kg C per year (column 4 of Table S.3 in the Supplemental
material on-line; Siena Ambiente, 2010). We introduced a logistic
growth dynamic, adding to the soil the maximum quantity of com-
post produced in a range of 20.56–150.37 kg C per year, depending
on plant species (column 5 of Table S.3 in the Supplemental material
on-line).
Nutrition of soil microbial biomass is written as a time-
dependent Michaelis–Menten expression, whose constant
(100,000) corresponds to the saturation quantity of carbon in
soil (this value was used in Marchi et al., 2012). The mortality
rate of soil microbial biomass is very low (expressed by a graphic
function in STELLA; column 6 of Table S.3 in the Supplemental
material on-line) and the growth rate is higher than the mortality
rate (0.42 kg C per year in 1 ha of agricultural soil). Soil respiration
is characterized by a respiration rate of 0.07 kg C per year and
50 M. Marchi et al. / Ecological Modelling 306 (2015) 46–56

Table 2
Initial value (quantity) of carbon stocked in plants and parameters directly related to vegetation.

Plant species Carbon stocked Plant trimming Mortality of Maximum

in plants ratea vegetation in plant biomass
(initial value)a vertical production of
gardena the vertical
gardena

kg C for the kg C per year kg C per year kg C per year

whole vertical for the whole for the whole for the whole
garden area vertical garden vertical garden vertical garden
area area area

S. spurium 36.6 GRAPH(TIME) 0.1385 47.06

(0.00, 4.759), (1.04, 4.760), (2.08, 4.761), (3.13, 4.762), (4.17, 4.763), (5.21,
4.764), (6.25, 4.765), (7.29, 4.766), (8.33, 4.767), (9.38, 4.768), (10.4, 4.769),
(11.5, 4.77), (12.5, 4.771), (13.5, 4.772), (14.6, 4.773), (15.6, 4.774), (16.7,
4.775), (17.7, 4.776), (18.8, 4.777), (19.8, 4.778), (20.8, 4.779), (21.9, 4.78),
(22.9, 4.781), (24.0, 4.782), (25.0, 4.783)

S. nemorosa 269.89 GRAPH(TIME) 0.2590 347.00

(0.00, 20.649), (1.04, 20.650), (2.08, 20.651), (3.13, 20.652), (4.17, 20.653),
(5.21, 20.654), (6.25, 20.655), (7.29, 20.656), (8.33, 20.657), (9.38, 20.658),
(10.4, 20.659), (11.5, 20.660), (12.5, 20.661), (13.5, 20.662), (14.6, 20.663),
(15.6, 20.664), (16.7, 20.665), (17.7, 20.666), (18.8, 20.667), (19.8, 20.668),
(20.8, 20.669), (21.9, 20.670), (22.9, 20.671), (24.0, 20.672), (25.0, 20.673)

R. officinalis 227.22 GRAPH(TIME) 0.06045 292.13

(0.00, 13.633), (1.04, 13.634), (2.08, 13.635), (3.13, 13.636), (4.17, 13.637),
(5.21, 13.638), (6.25, 13.639), (7.29, 13.640), (8.33, 13.641), (9.38, 13.642),
(10.4, 13.643), (11.5, 13.644), (12.5, 13.645), (13.5, 13.646), (14.6, 13.647),
(15.6, 13.648), (16.7, 13.649), (17.7, 13.650), (18.8, 13.651), (19.8, 13.652),
(20.8, 13.653), (21.9, 13.654), (22.9, 13.655), (24.0, 13.656), (25.0, 13.657)

G. sanguineum 93.19 GRAPH(TIME) 0.1685 119.81

(0.00, 7.130), (1.04, 7.131), (2.08, 7.132), (3.13, 7.133), (4.17, 7.134), (5.21,
7.135), (6.25, 7.136), (7.29, 7.137), (8.33, 7.138), (9.38, 7.139), (10.4, 7.140),
(11.5, 7.141), (12.5, 7.142), (13.5, 7.143), (14.6, 7.144), (15.6, 7.145), (16.7,
7.146), (17.7, 7.147), (18.8, 7.148), (19.8, 7.149), (20.8, 7.150), (21.9, 7.151),
(22.9, 7.152), (24.0, 7.153), (25.0, 7.154)

C. brunnea 231.83 GRAPH(TIME) 0.31645 298.07

(0.00, 17.738), (1.04, 17.739), (2.08, 17.740), (3.13, 17.741), (4.17, 17.742),
(5.21, 17.743), (6.25, 17.744), (7.29, 17.745), (8.33, 17.746), (9.38, 17.747),
(10.4, 17.748), (11.5, 17.749), (12.5, 17.750), (13.5, 17.751), (14.6, 17.752),
(15.6, 17.753), (16.7, 17.754), (17.7, 17.755), (18.8, 17.756), (19.8, 17.757),
(20.8, 17.758), (21.9, 17.759), (22.9, 17.760), (24.0, 17.761), (25.0, 17.762)

F. japonica 116.32 GRAPH(TIME) 0.22 149.56

(0.00, 8.900), (1.04, 8.901), (2.08, 8.902), (3.13, 8.903), (4.17, 8.904), (5.21,
8.905), (6.25, 8.906), (7.29, 8.907), (8.33, 8.908), (9.38, 8.909), (10.4, 8.910),
(11.5, 8.911), (12.5, 8.912), (13.5, 8.913), (14.6, 8.914), (15.6, 8.915), (16.7,
8.916), (17.7, 8.917), (18.8, 8.918), (19.8, 8.919), (20.8, 8.920), (21.9, 8.921),
(22.9, 8.922), (24.0, 8.923), (25.0, 8.924)

Z. matrella 285.38 GRAPH(TIME) 0.17625b 366.91

(0.00, 14.560), (1.04, 14.561), (2.08, 14.562), (3.13, 14.563), (4.17, 14.564),
(5.21, 14.565), (6.25, 14.566), (7.29, 14.567), (8.33, 14.568), (9.38, 14.569),
(10.4, 14.570), (11.5, 14.571), (12.5, 14.572), (13.5, 14.573), (14.6, 14.574),
(15.6, 14.575), (16.7, 14.576), (17.7, 14.577), (18.8, 14.578), (19.8, 14.579),
(20.8, 14.580), (21.9, 14.581), (22.9, 14.582), (24.0, 14.583), (25.0, 14.584)

Mixed-perennial 160.6 GRAPH(TIME) 0.1856 206.49

herbaceous (0.00, 12.288), (1.04, 12.289), (2.08, 12.290), (3.13, 12.291), (4.17, 12.292),
species setc (5.21, 12.293), (6.25, 12.294), (7.29, 12.295), (8.33, 12.296), (9.38, 12.297),
(10.4, 12.298), (11.5, 12.299), (12.5, 12.300), (13.5, 12.301), (14.6, 12.302),
(15.6, 12.303), (16.7, 12.304), (17.7, 12.305), (18.8, 12.306), (19.8, 12.307),
(20.8, 12.308), (21.9, 12.309), (22.9, 12.310), (24.0, 12.311), (25.0, 12.312)
a
The present carbon quantity were calculated from the percentages shown in Table S.1 in the Supplemental material on-line.
b
The mortality rate of Z. matrella was 10.13% of the total of all plants in the vertical garden. We added another 5.1% to this value due to removal of live grass in the same
felt pad in which grass died (15.2%). The grassy felt pad must be totally replaced.
c
Values obtained averaging literature data for S. spurium, S. nemorosa, R. officinalis, G. sanguineum, C. brunnea, F. japonica (Table S.1 in the Supplemental material on-line).

a constant (30,000) that represents soil degradation (a similar
parameter was used in Jørgensen and Nielsen, 2015). We used
the parameter values and equations representing nutrition and
mortality of microbial biomass, as well as soil respiration, reported
in Marchi et al. (2012) and Schlesinger (1984).
Temperature functions are calculated by an Arrhenius equation.
Carbon is converted into carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2eq ) on
the basis of the molecular weights of C, CO2 and CH4 , multiplying
the values obtained by the Global Warming Potentials1 (GWP; IPCC,
2007).
1
Global Warming Potential (GWP) is an index that represents the relative long-
term contribution of a gas to global warming, compared to another (the reference
gas is CO2 ). This index is weighted for the atmospheric residence time of the gas and
its capacity to absorb infrared radiation emitted by the Earth.
 M. Marchi et al. / Ecological Modelling 306 (2015) 46–56 51

Table 3
Basic equations used in the model.

First phase: variation in plant biomass

C pl(t) = C pl(t-dt) + (Uptake pl-Mort pl-Harvesting pl) * dt
Concen CO2 A = 400 + (5 * TIME)
factor G = factor1 * factor I * factor2
factor I = IF(Irrigation) < 100a THEN(Irrigation/100a )ELSE (1)
factor1 = IF(Precipitation) < 500 THEN(Precipitation/500)ELSE (1)
factor2 = IF(Nutrients in water) < 1.05b THEN(Nutrients in water/1.05b )ELSE (1)
Grate pl = GRAPH(TIME * factor G)
Mort pl = (Mrate pl * (1.05ˆ(Air temp-20))) * C pl
Trim pl = Trim rate
Uptake pl = (Concen CO2 A/(Concen CO2 A + 300)) * (Rad/(Rad + 6)) * (1.05ˆ(Air temp-20)) * Grate pl * C pl * (1 − (C pl/MaxG pl))

Second phase: compost production from green residues

C I Comp(t) = C I Comp(t-dt) + (Mort pl + Harvesting pl-CO2 emiss-CH4 emiss-Comp production) * dt
CH4 emiss = (((C I Comp * 100/C wwc ) * EF CH4 )/1000) * 12.0107/16.04246
CO2 emiss = ((C I Comp * 100/C wwc ) * EF CO2 )/1000
Comp production = C I Comp * C in Comp * (1 − (C Comp/((C pl * 100/C dw) * 20/100)))

Third phase: carbon accumulation in 1 ha of agricultural soil

C Comp(t) = C Comp(t-dt) + (Comp production-Distrib soil) * dt
C mb(t) = C mb(t-dt) + (Nutr mb-Mort mb) * dt
C Soil(t) = C Soil(t-dt) + (Distrib soil + Mort mb-Nutr mb-Resp) * dt
Distrib soil = C comp * Distrib rate * (1 − (C Soil/Max C Comp))
Grate mb = 0.42 * (factor 1 * (1.05ˆ(Air temp-20)))
Mort mb = (Mrate mb * (1.05ˆ(Air temp-20)) * C mb)
Nutr mb = Grate mb * C mb * (1.05ˆ(Air temp-20)) * (C Soil/(C Soil + 100,000))
Resp = (C Soil * C mb * (1.05ˆ(Air temp-20)) * 0.07)/30,000

Fourth phase: Long-lasting carbon dioxide accumulation in the system

Acc CO2 (t) = Acc CO2(t-dt) + (CO2 Uptake pl-CO2 Release) * dt
CO2 C pl = C pl * 44.0095/12.0107
CO2 In Output Balance = (Uptake pl * 44.0095/12.0107) − (((Resp + CO2 emiss) * 44.0095/12.0107) + ((CH4 emiss * 16.04246/12.0107) * 25))
CO2 Release = (((Resp + CO2 emiss) * 44.0095/12.0107) + ((CH4 emiss * 16.04246/12.0107) * 25))
CO2 Uptake pl = Uptake pl * 44.0095/12.0107
a
100 l water per year is substituted by 176 l water per year, depending on species (other herbaceous plants or grass, respectively).
b
1.05 kg Nutrients per year is substituted by 2.05 kg nutrients per year, depending on species (other herbaceous plants or grass, respectively).
c
We used percentage of carbon in plant biomass, wet weight basis (C ww), since the emission factors are expressed per kg of green plants (wet weight).

The fourth phase represents long-lasting carbon dioxide accu-
mulation in the whole system. Carbon dioxide flow retained in
the system (CO2 Input Output Balance) is calculated subtracting
soil respiration and CO2eq emissions due to compost production
from carbon dioxide uptake by plants. An elevated value indicates
that CO2eq uptake by plant tissue is higher than the losses of the
whole system, suggesting low carbon inputs to compost, soil and
microbial biomass. Long-lasting carbon dioxide accumulation in
the system (Acc CO2 ) is expressed by a differential equation, for-
mulated as accumulation resulting from plant uptake inflow and
CO2eq release outflows due to agricultural soil respiration and bio-
oxidation of green residues in the composting facility.
3. Results
The carbon stocked in the state variables (stocks) as well as the
CO2eq flow balance of the whole system are shown in Table 4 for
each plant species.
The carbon stocks represented by the state variables differed in
the various plant species. Z. matrella stocked the greatest amount
of carbon in its tissues, whereas S. nemorosa made a high con-
tribution to carbon stocked in compost. Differences in stocked
carbon between compartments showed a decreasing trend from
one compartment to the next. We estimated that a 98 m2 VGS
can retain a carbon dioxide flow of 13.41–97.03 kg CO2eq per year
in the system. In particular, it ranges from 0.14 (S. spurium) to
0.99 kg CO2eq m−2 (R. officinalis) of vertical garden per year. On the
other hand, S. nemorosa was responsible for 1640.27 kg CO2eq of
long-lasting carbon dioxide accumulation in the system. This was
the highest carbon dioxide sequestration, followed by those of Z.
matrella (1504.63 kg CO2eq ) and R. officinalis (1226.14 kg CO2eq ).
Fig. 2 shows the stock of carbon in plants, green residues, com-
post, 1 ha of agricultural soil and microbial biomass (state variables)
over 25 years of simulation. In this case, the mixed-perennial herba-
ceous species set was considered.
The average annual carbon concentration was 189.73 kg in veg-
etation, 131.51 kg in the composting plant, 55.03 kg in compost,
51.05 kg in 1 ha of agricultural soil and 1550.97 kg in microbial
biomass. Maximum values of all state variables were reached after
about 20 years in the simulation.
Long-lasting carbon dioxide accumulation in all compartments,
carbon dioxide flow absorbed by plant tissues, and that released or
retained in the system by the mixed-perennial herbaceous species
set are reported in Fig. 3.
Average annual flows were: 154.25 kg CO2eq for uptake by
plants, 93.38 kg CO2eq for emissions and 60.87 kg CO2eq for carbon
dioxide retained in the system. Average annual long-lasting carbon
dioxide accumulation in all compartments was 975.34 kg CO2eq and
showed an increasing trend over time.
Considering all the simulations (separate species or mixed-plant
set), the best species at actively accumulating carbon dioxide in its
tissues was C. brunnea, whereas R. officinalis retained the greatest
carbon dioxide flow in the system. On the other hand, S. nemorosa
was the best at accumulating carbon dioxide in all compartments
in the long period.
4. Discussion
Carbon accumulating in vegetation represents plant biomass
increase over time. It plays a very important role in this model;
indeed, the other carbon stocks are estimated from it. The carbon
stocked in plants of each species (as biomass variation per square
meter in the first two years of simulation) according to the model
52 M. Marchi et al. / Ecological Modelling 306 (2015) 46–56

Table 4
Carbon stocked in the state variables, and CO2eq absorption, release and sequestration for each plant species.

State variables Unit S. spurium S. nemorosa R. officinalis G. sanguineum C. brunnea F. japonica Z. matrella
(STOCKS)

Carbon stocked in Average kg C per year for the 43.52 297.47 284.74 105.22 260.12 130.14 312.03
plants (above ground whole vertical garden area
and roots)a kg C for the whole vertical 44.71 312.33 288.46 109.81 271.58 136.09 320.19
garden after 25 years

Carbon in green Average kg C per year 30.40 218.06 154.98 72.24 201.47 94.21 206.15
residues to the kg C after 25 years 44.71 312.33 288.46 109.81 271.58 136.09 320.19
composting plantb
Carbon in compostb Average kg C per year 13.29 104.69 64.66 30.18 82.65 39.33 94.04
kg C after 25 years 20.56 132.62 114.88 46.93 122.50 60.11 150.37

Carbon in 1 ha of Average kg C per year in 1 ha 12.36 97.42 58.14 27.91 76.48 36.30 86.10
agricultural soil agricultural soil
(adding the compost kg C in 1 ha agricultural soil 20.04 130.98 108.58 45.79 199.84 28.71 145.58
produced)b after 25 years

Carbon in 1 ha of Average kg C per year in 1 ha 1550.30 1553.13 1551.00 1550.30 1551.81 1550.49 1552.03
agricultural soil agricultural soil
microbial biomassc kg C in 1 ha agricultural soil 1550.74 1556.80 1552.63 1550.68 1554.01 1551.04 1554.89
after 25 years

Long-lasting carbon Average kg CO2eq per year in 219.27 1640.27 1226.14 511.26 1417.95 662.50 1504.63
dioxide accumulation the system
in the systemb kg CO2eq in the system after 25 314.42 2260.96 2084.94 776.98 2011.39 980.48 2363.40
years

Forcing functions (FLOWS)

Carbon dioxide flow Average kg CO2eq per year for 36.75d 304.65d 122.56d 80.10d 309.59d 118.54d 218.22d
absorbed by plants the whole vertical garden area
kg CO2eq for the whole vertical 35.57 311.84 100.63 80.38 315.06 120.13 217.92
garden area after 25 years

Carbon dioxide flow Average kg CO2eq per year 23.34 211.99 25.53 48.40 225.70 78.34 122.05
released by the system kg CO2eq after 25 years 34.23 302.53 47.25 73.33 303.42 112.82 188.91

Variable (FLOW)
Carbon dioxide flow Average kg CO2eq per year 13.41 92.66 97.03 31.70 83.89 40.20 96.17
retained in the system kg CO2eq after 25 years 1.34 9.31 53.37 7.05 11.64 7.31 29.01
a
The initial values of carbon stocked in plants are reported in Table 2.
b
The initial values of carbon in green residues to the composting plant, in compost and in 1 ha of agricultural soil, as well as the long-lasting carbon dioxide accumulation
in the system, were 0 kg (see Section 2).
c
We considered an initial value of 1550 kg C in soil microbial biomass, on the basis of data on microorganisms in 1 ha of agricultural soil (e.g., Sainju et al., 2003 and Marchi
et al., 2012). The carbon stock in this state variable is high due to the elevated initial value.
d
Average annual active CO2 uptake by plants per square meter of vertical garden was 0.44 kg CO2eq m−2 for S. spurium, 3.04 kg CO2eq m−2 for S. nemorosa, 2.91 kg CO2eq m−2
for R. officinalis, 1.07 kg CO2eq m−2 for G. sanguineum, 2.65 kg CO2eq m−2 for C. brunnea, 1.33 kg CO2eq m−2 for F. japonica and 3.18 kg CO2eq m−2 for Z. matrella.

Fig. 2. Carbon stocked in the state variables for the mixed-perennial herbaceous species set. C pl (Carbon stocked in plants), C I Comp (Carbon in green residues to the
composting plant), C Comp (Carbon in compost), S Soil (Carbon in 1 ha of agricultural soil), C mb (Carbon in 1 ha of agricultural soil microbial biomass).
 M. Marchi et al. / Ecological Modelling 306 (2015) 46–56 53

Fig. 3. CO2eq flow absorbed by plants, released and retained in the system for the mixed-perennial herbaceous species set. CO2 Uptake pl (Carbon dioxide flow absorbed by
plants), CO2 Release (Carbon dioxide flow released by the system), CO2 Input Output Balance (Carbon dioxide flow retained in the system), Acc CO2 (Long-lasting carbon
dioxide accumulation in the system).

Table 5
Comparison of the carbon sequestration per square meter obtained with the model after one year of simulation and annual uptake data from the literature.

Plant species Model References

Carbon stocked in plants Carbon stocked in plants (variation in two years)

(variation in the first two years
of simulationa )

kg C m−2 kg C m−2 Source of data

S. spurium 0.0513 0.0528 (±0.0188) Getter et al. (2009)

S. nemorosa 0.0639 0.0781 (±0.0147) van Iersel (1997), Bretzel et al. (2012)
R. officinalis 0.5748 0.4970 (±0.1740) Osborne et al. (2000)
G. sanguineum 0.0440 0.0392 (±0.0070) Onipchenko et al. (2009)
C. brunnea 0.1161 0.0963 (±0.0199) Hirose et al. (1989)
F. japonica 0.0465 0.0439 (±0.0104) Araus et al. (1986)
Z. matrella 0.1230 0.1106 (±0.0201) Jo and McPherson (1995)
a
Variations in carbon stocked in plants (first and second year of simulation). We considered the variation in carbon stock in the first two years of simulation because we
assumed that young plants would grow fast.

was compared with the biomass variation proposed by previous
studies in Table 5.
The literature data in Table 5 was obtained by direct measure-
ments of biomass variation. The values obtained by the dynamic
model are in line with those drawn from the literature, falling
within the standard deviations proposed in the references. This pro-
vides a first level validation of the model results. We could not apply
site-specific measured data because the VGS is only a virtual pro-
totype. We therefore used literature data to estimate and validate
the carbon stocked in plants. The direct measurements obtained
from other published experiments (3rd column of Table 5) were
used to partially validate the carbon stocked in plants estimated by
the model, converting the literature values into kg C m−2 as a unit of
comparison; e.g., 220.83 g dry matter of C. brunnea per square meter
(directly measured by Hirose et al., 1989) was divided by 1000
and multiplied by 43.6/100 (representing the percentage of carbon,
dry weight basis) to obtain the corresponding value in kg C m−2 .
The other literature figures, including standard deviations, were
obtained using the same criteria.
Carbon sequestration in plant tissues mainly depends on the
biological properties of the species: for example, water content,
dry matter percentage and natural mortality of plants. In fact,
in the case of high carbon percentage (dry weight basis), the
model indicates a high capacity to accumulate carbon in plant
tissues. Perennial grass Z. matrella has the same water content
and dry matter percentage as R. officinalis, but the latter has a
higher carbon percentage (dry weight basis) (see Table 2 and
Table S.1 in on-line Supplemental material). Z. matrella there-
fore accumulates more carbon in its tissues than R. officinalis,
and showed the highest values of CO2 storage in plant biomass
and the highest plant production in the VGS (Table 4). The aro-
matic shrub R. officinalis is a component of Mediterranean maquis
and has quite a high water content in leaves and stems. Thus,
S. nemorosa stocks more carbon in its tissues than R. officinalis,
in line with various studies (e.g., Gratani and Varone, 2004). The
species with the lowest ability to accumulate carbon in tissues
was S. spurium, because, as a succulent, its dry matter percent-
age is very low (Table 2 and Table S.1 in Supplemental material
on-line).
A major role in the variation of carbon stocked in different
plants is also played by their specific growth and mortality rate (see
Tables S.1 and S.2 in the Supplemental material on-line). The carbon
54 M. Marchi et al. / Ecological Modelling 306 (2015) 46–56
stocked in plants increases over the years, approaching maximum
biomass production, which also depends on these characteristics.
S. nemorosa takes a large amount of carbon in green residues to
the composting plant due to its natural mortality, trimming rate and
the high dry matter percentage (Table 2 and Table S.1 in the Sup-
plemental material on-line). This directly influences the amount
of carbon contained in the compost produced and transferred
to agricultural soil. R. officinalis is characterized by an elevated
annual carbon dioxide flow retained in the system because its
growth exceeds its natural mortality, leading to low carbon transfer
from plant tissue to other compartments. By contrast, S. nemorosa
contributes a large amount of carbon as green residues to the com-
posting plant, compost and agricultural soil, therefore recording
the highest long-lasting carbon dioxide accumulation in the whole
system (all compartments).
Only a partial validation of the carbon stocked in soil is possible
because the growth and mortality rates of microorganisms (appro-
priately used to avoid excessive accumulation of organic matter in
soil) were in line with the values obtained by other studies (e.g.,
Marchi et al., 2012 and Marzaioli, 2006).
The result of the simulation for the mixed-species set
(Figs. 2 and 3), developed also for esthetic purposes, was almost
equal to the average result of the different species (Table 1), since
the simulation model was calibrated using the average values
obtained for the other models. All the state variables approached
maximum values due to the logistic growth dynamics included
in the equations and the growth/mortality rates of plants and
microbial biomass, represented appropriately by time-dependent
graphic functions. The carbon dioxide flow absorbed by the plants
and retained in the system showed a decreasing trend (Fig. 2)
because the ability of the VGS to actively absorb CO2 from the
atmosphere decreases over the years, as carbon uptake approaches
the carrying capacity of the system. On the other hand, the
long-lasting carbon dioxide accumulating in the compartments
(Acc CO2 ) showed an increasing trend because the state variable is
represented by a differential equation, still with a logistic dynamic,
but formulated as accumulation over the years (Fig. 3).
Summarizing, Table 4 and Fig. 2 suggest that the perennial
herbaceous species increase in biomass over the 25 years of sim-
ulation within the limits of maximum plant biomass production
(carrying capacity) of the VGS. As no long-lasting woody stock
is obviously produced in VGS, trimmed and dead plant residues
should be collected and composted in order to facilitate carbon
sequestration in other compartments, such as compost, soil and
microorganisms. The dynamic model presented in this study sug-
gests which of the selection of herbaceous plant species are most
efficient in creating long-lasting carbon stocks in the various com-
partments. It also identifies the carbon content in compost, soil
and microbial biomass, prompting sustainable management of
green waste and encouraging composting of plant residues instead
of landfill disposal (IPCC, 2006). In fact, composting processes
determine a reduction of about 99% of anthropogenic emissions
compared to organic waste disposal in landfills.
The VGS sequesters CO2 for the various compartments analyzed
in the model (vegetation, compost, agricultural soil and micro-
bial biomass in soil) and is therefore suitable for urban residential
spaces, especially if herbaceous plant services removing carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere are maximized (e.g., Nowak and
Crane, 2002).
We considered amounts of irrigation and nutrients suitable for
VGS maintenance in a Mediterranean climate and drought habitats,
but these parameters can be modified to the specific environmental
and climatic conditions of other study areas. Moreover, the model is
a tool for developing management scenarios, which include inter-
actions of different nutrient and irrigation regimes. The model
can also predict carbon absorption by vegetation in megacities
with elevated atmospheric carbon and air pollutant levels (e.g.,
Chinese cities), factors that influence plant growth and the trim-
ming rate needed to maintain maximum green biomass production
by VGS.
The equations were partly drawn from the literature (e.g.,
Marchi et al., 2012; Jørgensen and Nielsen, 2015) and partly
formulated for the purposes of the model. Nevertheless, the
novelty of the model is its holistic approach, in which carbon
stock transfer from one environmental compartment to another is
considered.
The model demonstrates the advantages of vertical gardens.
These structures can be installed on large surfaces (compared
to flower-beds and pots) in urban areas where little space is
available.
In our model, we only considered the effect of anthropogenic
emissions due to bio-oxidation of green residues on the state vari-
ables. To evaluate a complete life cycle, it is also necessary to
consider emissions due to the fossil fuels and electricity required
for transport of green residues to composting plants, management
of the composting facility, transfer and distribution of the compost
produced to the agricultural soil.
It can also be used to evaluate carbon uptake by green roofs
and other residential greenspaces in different geographical areas,
changing the plant species and flow diagram of the model, as well
as climatic and biological parameters. Thus the model is a useful
reference for estimating the services provided by perennial herba-
ceous plants in removing CO2 from the atmosphere, including in
urban areas.
5. Conclusion
Carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere by perennial
herbaceous plants installed in a vertical greenery system was esti-
mated using a dynamic model. The model quantifies the ability
of various plants (tested separately and in a mixed-species set)
to accumulate carbon in different compartments of a sequence of
processes, from the planting and growth of plants in the VGS to
the harvesting of residual biomass (dead plants and trimmings), its
composting, addition to agricultural soil and assimilation by soil
microbial biomass.
The model showed a CO2 uptake by plant biomass of
0.44–3.18 kg CO2eq m−2 of vertical garden per year. We estimated
that a 98 m2 VGS installed in central Italy captures an average car-
bon dioxide flow of 13.41–97.03 kg CO2eq per year. Since for esthetic
reasons a VGS is presumably planted with different plant species, a
mixed-perennial herbaceous species set (composed of S. spurium,
S. nemorosa, R. officinalis, G. sanguineum, C. brunnea and F. japonica,
equally distributed in the structure) was considered and estimated
to capture an average carbon dioxide flow of 60.87 kg CO2eq per
year.
The average long-lasting carbon dioxide accumulated in the sys-
tem was 219.27–1640.27 kg CO2eq per year (the highest value was
achieved by S. nemorosa), with an increasing trend over time, offer-
ing a feasible solution for climate change mitigation in cities. The
present model and the results obtained postulating different con-
figurations of the VGS provided evidence of carbon sequestration
by plants as a potential environmental benefit of vegetated struc-
tures installed in urban areas. The outcomes also show that this is
possible only if the residual biomass is correctly and systematically
managed.
The model can also be used to test carbon sequestration by
green roofs and urban residential greenspaces (e.g., flower-beds
and lawns), adjusting the conceptual diagram, flows, parameters
and equations proposed in this study, provided the green residues
are composted.
 M. Marchi et al. / Ecological Modelling 306 (2015) 46–56
Acknowledgments
This paper presents results from the research project
“GREENED” funded by the Tuscan Region (program PAR FAS
Regione Toscana 2007–2013 – line 1.1.a.3). A special thanks goes to
two anonymous referees for their suggestions on how to improve
this paper.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found,
in the online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.
2014.08.013.
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