Year 9 Geography Notes Operations

Topic 1 – Changing Places - In business, operations involve the production of a good or

- Urbanisation: movement of people from rural areas to large provision of a service. Involves planning, organising and
cities which occurs due to a number of push and pull factors controlling all the activities that are necessary for production to
- Urban Sprawl: outward spread of a city and its suburbs as they occur
grow - Occurs through a process of taking raw materials (inputs) and
- Standard of living: measure of economic wellbeing of people transforming them into a new product (outputs).
- Quality of life: happiness, well-being and satisfaction a person - For e.g., process of chocolate bar includes:
receives. Usually includes health, family, income and access to - Inputs: raw materials or resources used in the
services transformation (production) process. Includes
- Migration: movement of people from place to place ingredients such as cocoa beans, sugar and milk
- Immigration: movement of people into a country - Transformation: conversion of inputs into outputs
- Formal economy: economic activities that are regulated and (goods or services)
taxed by the government - Output: end result of a business’s efforts – the service
- Informal economy: economic activities that are not taxed or or good. Chocolate bar is ready to be sold after being
regulated by the government wrapped
- Squatter settlement: informal, often illegal, settlement, built by The Murray Darling Basin
the poor using materials from the streets - Most of Australian’s food comes
- Mega city: a city with more than 10 million people from the Murray Darling Basin,
- World city: city considered to be an important centre of global which is massive for the food
economic activity. For e.g., New York industry. Crops that grow there
- Hukou System: a Chinese household registration system that include wheat, rice, corn, cotton,
entitles the holder to a range of services such as healthcare and beans, livestock and more
education; used to regulate movement of people in China - Many farmers within the Murray
- GDP (Gross Domestic Product): total monetary value of goods Darling Basin are aiming to adapt to
and services produced in a country for one year sustainable farming in order to for
- Refugee: people who have crossed international border to flee these crops to last through
from war, violence, conflict or persecution in order to find safety generations without harming the
in another country environment. Irrigation and land
- Asylum seeker: similar to refugees but their claim for refugee clearing are common factors that
status has not yet been determined impact the rivers within the ‘Food
- Urban consolidation: restriction of development and Bowl’
population growth outside an existing area Climate, Location and Input Sources
- Urban Decay: deterioration of the built environment Factors that influence climate include:
- Urban Renewal: process of using unused land being - Altitude: the higher you go, the colder it will get
renewed/restored - Latitude: the closer to the equator, the hotter it will get
Topic 2 – Sustainable Biomes - Topography: mountains tend to cause rainfall towards
- Biome: a large, naturally occurring community of flora and bodies of water-leaving dry land on the other side of
fauna occupying a major habitat the mountain range
- Difference between biome and ecosystem: biomes are habitats - Oceans/Large Bodies of Water: have a moderating
of ecosystems with similar climates. Ecosystems are interactions impact on precipitation and temperature
between the living and non-living factors in an environment - Winds: affects temperature depending on where they
- Biome location changes: biomes change due to changes in come from
climate. This change kills the previous biome and a new different Marketing of Food
one will appear - Products are goods or services that are exchangeable for
satisfying a need or want
- Total product concept: tangible and intangible benefits
(attributes) a product has
- Products are more than goods or services, it comes with total
product concept
- Air products come with tangible and intangible aspects
Fair Trade
- An international, non-government, non-profit organisation that
advocates for better working conditions in developing countries.
Products are labelled as fair trade to show that the product is
ethical, however the product may not, and the Fair Trade label
may be a façade
Agriculture Glossary
- Crop Yield: measure of amount of crops harvested per unit of
area of land. Expressed in tonnes per hectare and reflects
amount of seed or grain generated by the plant. Crop yields have
been improved due to genetic manipulation
- Climate: long term weather of a specific area
- Topography: terrain and environment of a certain area
- Irrigation: artificial process of applying controlled amounts of
water to land
- Pests and Disease: organisms which eat/destroy rice crops
- Technology: introduction of mechanisation to agriculture
- Environmental issues: pollution in rivers and in air, nitrogen
run-offs into rivers, which are harmful to wildlife. Contribution to
global warming
- Agroforestry: integration of trees and shrubs into landscapes
- Food security: state of having reliable access to a sufficient
quantity of affordable, nutritious food. Factors that contribute to
food security include income, disease and climate
Topic 3 – Environmental Change and Coastal Management
Importance of Biodiversity
- Important as it allows an ecosystem to complete a function
- Biodiversity loss affects the efficiency of an ecosystem as
features such as ecosystem diversity, species diversity and
genetic diversity
- Important in an economical sense. Natural resources are
produced into goods and services which are consumed and
generate economic growth, increasing the productions of goods
and services. Economic growth requires natural resources and
biodiversity to promote natural resource. However, producing
goods and services generates biodiversity lost
Glossary
- Biodiversity (Biological Diversity): variety of fauna and flora
found in an environment
- Biodiversity loss: decline in unique living organisms in an
environment
- Ecosystems (Ecological system): community of living organisms
interacted with each other and their environment
- Sink function: environments ability to absorb, break down and
recycle wastes including pollution
- Source function: natural resources which have originated
directly from the biophysical environment
- Services function: environment’s provision of balance through
the atmosphere, biodiversity, ecological integrity and climate.
For e.g., carbon cycle, water cycle, pollination
- Spiritual function: cultural, recreational or psychological value
of the environment for people
- Global warming: gradual rise in average temperatures due to
increase in heat absorbing greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
- Natural capital: world’s stock of natural assets (e.g., plants,
animals and minerals)
- Built infrastructure: aspects of our environment built by
humans (e.g., buildings and transport)
- Sustainability: practise of using natural resources responsibly
so we can support present and future generations
- Continuous resources: resources that will virtually always exist
(e.g., solar energy and rainfall)
- Ecological integrity: ability of an ecological system to support
and maintain an ecosystem (a service function as it is a natural
process which doesn’t require human intervention)
- Invasive species: when an animal is introduced to a new area
- Sustainable development: social and economic progress and
climate and environment
Biodiversity Loss
- Extinction of species
- Major causes include invasive species, habitat destruction and
hunting, mainly influenced by monetary gain and consumerism
- Affects crop production which affects economy while traditional
medicines are lost
Environmental Worldviews
Human centred:
- We are a part of nature and can use nature to meet our needs
and wants
- Due to ingenuity and technology, we won’t run out of resources
- Potential for economic growth is unlimited
- Our success depends on how well we manage earth’s life-
support system mostly for our benefit
- Approach to management of the environment: Exploitation and
Utilisation
Stewardship:
- we have an ethical responsibility to be caring
managers/stewards of earth
- Probably won’t run out of resources but they shouldn’t be
wasted
- Should encourage environmentally beneficial forms of
economic growth and discourage environmentally harmful forms
- Success depends on management of Earth for our benefit and
nature
- Approach to management of the environment: Utilisation and
Conservation
Earth-centred:
- Part of a dependent nature and nature exists for all species
- Resources are limited and should not be wasted
- Should encourage earth-sustaining forms of economic growth
and discourage earth-degrading forms
- Success depends on learning how nature sustains itself
- Approach to management of the environment: Conservation
and Preservation
Preservation: complete environmental protection, people are
denied access and resources are not used
Utilisation: natural resources are used; natural environments are
replaced by built environments and flora and fauna are disrupted
Conservation: use of resources is limited; resources are used
without significant impact on the environment and flora and
fauna are not threatened
Exploitation: resources are overused and exploited, and flora
and fauna are devasted
Coastal Management
- Coastal Environments: areas that are characterised by natural Longshore Drift
coastal features such as beaches, rock platform, coastal lakes - sediment is carried by the waves along the coastline. The
and lagoons and undeveloped headlands. Marine and estuarine movement of the material is known as longshore drift
waters are also included - Occurs when waves approach the coast at an angle due to
- Coastal Management: management of human activities and direction of prevailing wind. The swash will carry the material
sustainable use of Australia’s coastal resources in order to towards the
minimise adverse impacts on coastal environments now and in beach at an
the future angle. The
- Biophysical Process: interconnected sequences that form and backwash then
transform natural environments in a cause-and-effect flows back to
relationship. For e.g., erosion, deposition, soil formation, the sea, down
nutrient cycling the slope of
Waves the beach. The
- Created from when wind blows over the sea. As wind blows process
over the sea, friction is created, producing a swell in the water. repeats itself
The energy of the wind causes water molecules to rotate inside along the coast
this swell and this wave moves forward. The size and energy of in a zigzag
wave depends on certain factors: movement
- The fetch: how far the wave has travelled Coastal Process – Deposition
- The strength of the wind - When the sea loses energy, it drops the material it has been
- How long the wind has been blowing for carrying. This is known as deposition. Deposition can occur on
- Swash: water that rushes up a beach after a wave breaks. The coastlines that have constructive waves
swash which picks up sand and other material, travels up the - Factors leading to deposition include:
beach in the same direction as the breaking wave - Waves starting to slow down and lose energy
- Backwash: when the water returns down the beach to the sea - Shallow water
- Constructive waves: waves that help build material on the - Sheltered areas (for e.g., bays)
beach. They tend to have a low frequency and strong wash. - Little or no wind
Some features of these waves include: Coastal Landforms
- Strong swash and weak - Features present along the coast, which are the result of a
backwash combination processes, sediments, and the geology of the coast
- Strong swash brings - The three processes are:
sediments to build up on the - Erosion: wearing away of soil and rock by wind and
beach water
- Backwash is not strong - Deposition: laying down of material carried by rovers,
enough to remove sediment wind, ice, ocean currents and waves
- Waves are low and further apart - Transportation: movement of material in the sea and
- Destructive Waves: waves that along the coast by waves
remove material from the beach. Some Deposition Landforms
features of these include: - When water loses its energy, any sediment it carries is
- Weak swash and strong deposited. The build-up of deposited sediment can form
backwash different features along the coast. These include:
- Strong backwash removes - Sand dunes
sediment from the beach - Beaches
- Waves are steep and close - Spits
together - Bars and Barriers
Coastal Process – Transportation - Lagoon
- Transportation is the movement of material. Material can be - Tombolos
moved in four different ways. These include: Erosion Landforms
- Solution: when minerals such as chalk and limestone - Process of erosion can create different landforms along the
are dissolved in sea water and then carried in a coastline. These include:
solution. The load is not visible - Headlands
- Suspension: small particles such as silts and clays are - Bays
suspended in the flow of water - Cliffs
- Saltation: small pieces of shingle or large sand grains - Wave-cut platforms
are bounced along the seabed - Carves
- Traction: where pebbles and larger material are rolled - Arches
along the seabed - Stacks
- Stumps

Erosion
- The wearing away of rock along the coastline. Destructive
waves are responsible for erosion on the coastline
- There are four types of erosion:
- Hydraulic Action: when the sheer power of waves as
they smash against the cliff. Air becomes trapped in the
cracks in the rock and causes the rock to break apart
- Abrasion: when pebbles grind along a rock platform,
like sandpaper. Overtime the rock becomes smooth
- Attrition: when rocks that the sea is carrying knock
against each other. They break apart to become smaller
and more rounded
- Solution: when sea water dissolves certain types of
rocks. In the UK, chalk and limestone cliffs are prone to
this type of erosion
Depositional Landforms – Sand Dunes
- Formed by wind when dry sand is blown to the back of the
beach and is trapped
- Initial dune is called foredune
- Back dunes may develop behind the foredune. Grasses such as
spinifex traps the sand. Over time, vegetation such as shrubs
and trees will grow to help stabilise the back dunes
- Stable sand dunes are vital in protecting the coastline. They act
as a buffer against wave damage during storms, protecting the
land behind from saltwater intrusion. This sand barrier allows
the development of more complex plant communities in areas
protected from saltwater inundation, sea spray and strong
waves. The dunes also act as a reservoir of sand to replenish and
maintain the beach at times of erosion
- Are rich with animals and plants and a vital part of our ecology
Erosional Landforms – Headlands and Bays
- Cliffs along the coastline do not erode at the same pace. When
a stretch of coastline is formed from different types of rocks,
headlands and bays can form. Bands of soft rock such as clay and
sand are weaker, hence, they can be eroded quickly, forming
bays
- Bay: inlet of the sea where the land curves inwards usually
with a beach.
- Hard rock such as chalk is more resistant to processes of
erosion. When softer rock is eroded inwards, the hard rock sticks
out into the sea, forming headlands
- Erosional features such as wave-cut platforms and cliffs can be
found on headlands, since they are more open to the waves.
- Bays are more sheltered with constructive waves which deposit
sediment to form a beach
Erosional Landforms – Cliffs and Wave-cut platforms
- Cliffs are shaped through erosion and weathering
- Soft rocks erodes quickly and forms gentle sloping cliffs
whereas hard rock is more resistant and forms steep cliffs. A
wave-cut platform is a wide gently-sloping surface found at the
foot of the cliff
- A wave-cut platform is formed when:
1. The sea attacks the base of the cliff between the high
and low water mark
2. A wave-cut notch is formed by erosional processes
such as abrasion and hydraulic action – a dent in the
cliff usually level pf high tide
3. As the notch increases in size, the cliff becomes
unstable and collapses, leading to retreat of the cliff
face
4. Backwash carries away eroded material, leaving a
wave-cut platform
5. The process repeats and cliff continues to retreat
Erosional Landforms – Caves, Arches, Stacks and Stumps
- Caves, arches, stacks and stumps are erosional features that
are commonly found on a headland
1. Cracks are widened in the headland through the
erosional processes of hydraulic action and abrasion
2. As waves continue to grind away at the crack, it begins
to open up to form a cave
3. The cave becomes larger and eventually breaks through
the headland to form an arch
4. Base of the arch continually becomes wider through
further erosion, until its roof becomes too heavy and
collapses into the sea, leaving a stack (isolated column
of rock)
5. The stack is undercut at the base until it collapses to
form a stump
Erosion Landforms – Wave Refraction
- Occurs when open ocean wave energy is distributed evenly.
However, as waves approach the coast they no longer go straight
ahead. Instead, they ‘bend’ or ‘refract’ due to headlands or the
contour (shape) of the ocean floor underneath
- This means waves effectively change direction. This ‘wave
refraction’ means wave energy converges (becomes stronger or
more concentrated in one area) in some areas in others
Topic 4 – Human Wellbeing
Measuring Wellbeing and Development
- Human wellbeing refers to the quality of life experienced by
people, individually and collectively. Wellbeing is subjective and
are many different aspects to it
- Examples of aspects that may be important to a
person’s wellbeing include material living standards
(e.g., income, consumption), health, education, political
freedoms, healthy environment, social
connections/relationships
- Human development refers to the process of economic, social
and political changes that improve the wellbeing of people.
Places are classified as either:
- Developed: place has strong economy; people’s
physical needs are met and there is political stability
and freedom
- Developing: place is trying to become more developed
by improving economic, social and political factors
- We use indicators, values which inform us of a condition or
progress to measure human well-being and development.
Indicators can be grouped as qualitative/quantitative or in
categories
- Quantitative (objective): easy to measure or count
(e.g., income, education levels, no. of doctors per
capita)
- Qualitative (subjective): difficult to measure as they
are based on feelings and perceptions(e.g., happiness,
job satisfaction, sense of security)
- Categories: economic, social/demographic, political,
environmental
- There are two simple indicators that allows us to judge a
country’s wellbeing and development by its economic status:
GDP (Gross Domestic Product) and GNI (Gross National Income)
- GDP is the total value of all goods and services
produced by a country. It tells us the extent to which
the total production of a country can be shared by its
population, which is why it is a good indicator of
economic development
- GNI is the total income earned by a country’s
people/businesses. It is used as a measure of a
country’s material living standards
- Usually, people living in countries with a higher
GNI/capita tend to have longer life expectancies, higher
literacy rates, better access to safe water and lower
infant mortality rates
- Usually countries with a higher GNI/capita are located
in Oceania, Western Europe, North America and East
Asia
- Countries with a lower GNI/capita are usually located
in Africa, South-East Asia, South America and Eastern
Europe
- However, economic indicators alone cannot accurately
measure the wellbeing of a whole country, due to unequal
wealth distributions, meaning lower classes have poorer
wellbeing and the fact that human wellbeing includes many
other aspects than financial state alone
- To more accurately measure the wellbeing of a
population, composite measures are used. Composite
indices use a range of multiple measures of different
aspects of wellbeing and development. The most
widely used composite measure is the Human
Development Index (HDI) by the United Nations
- HDI is a value between 0 and 1 (the closer to 1, the
more developed), measuring human development
through three quantitative measures: gross national
income per capita, life expectancy at birth, average
years of schooling
- We can measure other specific aspects of wellbeing, including:
- Other economic indicators (e.g., unemployment rate)
- Social/Demographic indicators (e.g., life expectancy at
birth
- Political Indicators (e.g., frequency of democratic
elections)
- Environmental indicators (e.g., air quality, species
extinction rate)
- We can use two indicators to measure income inequality in
individual countries and compare to other countries
- Lorenz Curve: a graphical representation of income
distribution which plots the cumulative increase in
population against the cumulative increase in income
- If there was no income
inequality, then the Lorenz
Curve would be equal to the line
of equality. Hence, the further
away the Lorenz Curve is away
from the line of equality, the
more income inequality
Geography Skills
- Latitude: lines
around the earth
measured in degrees
from the equator
- Longitude: line up-
and-down the earth measured in degrees from the
Greenwich/Prime Meridian
- Area reference: 4-numbered figure
denoting to the square above and to
the right on a grid read across then up.
The square with the X would be AR2116
- Grid reference: 6-numbered figure
denoting a location within a square on
a grid. The first 3 numbers are read across, and last 3 numbers
are read up. It is like area reference with decimal (but no decimal
point). For e.g., the grid above would be located at GR216168
- Coordinates: latitude and longitude expressed with latitude
first and longitude second. For e.g., 25°N, 65°W
- Direction: expressed in compass points. I.e., N, S, E, W
- True north: located in North
Geographic Pole at 0° and is met
by the longitudinal lines. True
north does not change location
- Magnetic north: dependent on
earth’s magnetic force and tilt.
Magnetic north can change
location over time. For now,
magnetic north is
approximately 500km south of
true north
- Bearings: measures direction using degrees of a compass
- True bearings start at north at 0° and move in a
clockwise direction. For e.g., the
true bearing for the compass
shown on the right would be
245°
- Compass bearings: dependent
on where the bearing is located
on the compass. For e.g., the
compass bearing for the
compass above would be S65°W
- Aspect: in which direction does a slope face. For e.g., if you
were to drop a tennis ball on the spot, in which direction will it
roll
- Relief: physical shape of an area. Include references to hills,
valleys, cliffs, as well as elevation and gradient
- Local relief: difference between the highest and lowest point in
a given area and is expressed in metres
- Cross-section: a horizontal view of relief between two points
- Gradient: how steep is it between two points? Calculated as
height over distance and is expressed in a ratio. For e.g., 1:3
(where 1 is height and 3 is distance)
- Scale: what the distances on the map represent in reality. Can
be expressed as written form (e.g., 1cm represents 1km), linear
form (e.g., |──| 1km), or as a ratio (e.g., 1:100,000)
Gini Coefficient (Gini Index)
- Uses data from Lorenz curve to construct single statistic of
income inequality
- The higher the value of the coefficient, the more unequal
distribution of income in a
nation
- The lower the value of
the coefficient, the more
equal distribution of
income in a nation
- If there was perfect
equality, every household
would earn the same
income and Gini
Coefficient would be 0
Areaof A
Gini Coefficient =
Area of A + Area of B
Coastal Management Strategies
- Hard engineering: involves building structures to protect coast
- Soft engineering: involves working with nature by using natural
materials or allowing nature to take back areas