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M5 Io T - IoT and WSN module 5

IoT and WSN (Visvesvaraya Technological University)

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Important classes of MAC protocols

They can be roughly classified into the following classes :
1. fixed assignment protocols
2. demand assignment protocols
3. random access protocols.

Fixed assignment protocols

 In this class of protocols, the available resources are divided between the nodes
such that the resource assignment is long term and each node can use its
resources exclusively without the risk of collisions.
 Long term means that the assignment is for durations of minutes, hours, or even
longer.
 Typical protocols of this class are TDMA, FDMA, CDMA, and SDMA.
 The Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) scheme subdivides the time axis into
fixed-length superframes and each superframe is again subdivided into a fixed
number of time slots. These time slots are assigned to nodes exclusively and
hence the node can transmit in this time slot periodically in every superframe.
 In Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA), the available frequency band is
subdivided into a number of subchannels and these are assigned to nodes, which
can transmit exclusively on their channel.
 In Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) schemes, the nodes spread their signals
over a much larger bandwidth than needed, using different codes to separate
their transmissions.

Demand assignment protocols

 In demand assignment protocols, the exclusive allocation of resources to nodes is
made on a short-term basis, typically the duration of a data burst.
 This class of protocols can be broadly subdivided into centralized and distributed
protocols.
 In central control protocols or the MASCARA protocol, the nodes send out
requests for bandwidth allocation to a central node that either accepts or rejects
the requests.
 In case of successful allocation, a confirmation is transmitted back to the
requesting node along with a description of the allocated resource.
 Summarizing, the central node performs a lot of activities, it must be constantly
awake, and thus needs lots of energy. This class of protocols is a good choice if a
sufficient number of energy-unconstrained nodes are present.

Random access protocols

 The nodes are uncoordinated, and the protocols operate in a fully distributed
manner. Random access protocols often incorporate a random elements.
 One of the first and still very important random access protocols is the ALOHA or
slotted ALOHA protocol.
 In the pure ALOHA protocol, a node wanting to transmit a new packet transmits
it immediately. There is no coordination with other nodes and the protocol thus
accepts the risk of collisions at the receiver.
 To detect this, the receiver is required to send an immediate acknowledgment
for a properly received packet.
 In the class of CSMA protocols, a transmitting node tries to be respectful to
ongoing transmissions.

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 First, the node is required to listen to the medium; this is called carrier sensing. If
the medium is found to be idle, the node starts transmission. If the medium is
found busy, the node defers its transmission for an amount of time determined
by one of several possible algorithms.

Low duty cycle protocols and wakeup concepts:

S-MAC:
 The S-MAC (Sensor-MAC) protocol [914, 915] provides mechanisms to
circumvent idle listening, collisions, and overhearing.
 S-MAC adopts a periodic wakeup scheme, that is, each node alternates between
a fixed-length listen period and a fixed-length sleep period according to its
schedule.
 S-MAC attempts to coordinate the schedules of neighboring nodes such that
their listen periods start at the same time. A node x’s listen period is subdivided
into three different phases:
 In the first phase (SYNCH phase), node x accepts SYNCH packets from its
neighbors. In these packets, the neighbors describe their own schedule and x
stores their schedule in a table (the schedule table).
 Node x’s SYNCH phase is subdivided into time slots and x’s neighbors contend
according to a CSMA scheme with additional backoff, that is, each neighbor y
wishing to transmit a SYNCH packet picks one of the time slots randomly and
starts to transmit if no signal was received in any of the previous slots. In the
other case, y goes back into sleep mode and waits for x’s next wakeup. In the
other direction, since x knows a neighbor y’s schedule, x can wake at appropriate
times and send its own SYNCH packet to y (in broadcast mode).
 In the second phase (RTS phase), x listens for RTS packets from neighboring
nodes. In S-MAC, the RTS/CTS handshake is used to reduce collisions of data
packets due to hidden-terminal situations. Again, interested neighbors contend
in this phase according to a CSMA scheme with additional backoff.
 In the third phase (CTS phase), node x transmits a CTS packet if an RTS packet
was received in the previous phase. After this, the packet exchange continues,
extending into x’s nominal sleep time.

Wakeup radio concepts

 The ideal situation would be if a node were always in the receiving state when a
packet is transmitted to it, in the transmitting state when it transmits a packet,
and in the sleep state at all other times; the idle state should be avoided.
 The wakeup radio concept strives to achieve this goal by a simple, “powerless”
receiver that can trigger a main receiver if necessary.
 One proposed wakeup MAC protocol assumes the presence of several parallel
data channels, separated either in frequency (FDMA) or by choosing different
codes in a CDMA schemes.
 A node wishing to transmit a data packet randomly picks one of the channels
and performs a carrier sensing operation.
 If the channel is busy, the node makes another random channel choice and
repeats the carrier-sensing operation.
 After a certain number of unsuccessful trials, the node backs off for a random
time and starts again.
 If the channel is idle, the node sends a wakeup signal to the intended receiver,
indicating both the receiver identification and the channel to use.

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 The receiver wakes up its data transceiver, tunes to the indicated channel, and
the data packet transmission can proceed.
 Afterward, the receiver can switch its data transceiver back into sleep mode.
 This wakeup radio concept has the significant advantage that only the low-power
wakeup transceiver has to be switched on all the time.

Contention-based protocols:
PAMAS:
 The PAMAS protocol is originally designed for ad hoc networks.
 Let us consider an idle node x to which a new packet destined to a neighboring
node y arrives.
 First, x sends an RTS packet on the control channel without doing any carrier
sensing. This packet carries both x’s and y’s MAC addresses.
 If y receives this packet, it answers with a CTS packet if y does not know of any
ongoing transmission in its vicinity.
 Upon receiving the CTS, x starts to transmit the packet to y on the data channel.
 When y starts to receive the data, it sends out a busy-tone packet on the control
channel. If x fails to receive a CTS packet within some time window, it enters the
backoff mode, where a binary exponential backoff scheme is used.

 Suppose that x wakes up and finds the data channel busy. There are two cases to
distinguish:
 either x has no own packet to send or x wants to transmit. In the first case, x
desires to go back into sleep mode and to wake up exactly when the ongoing
transmission ends to be able to receive an immediately following packet.
 Waking up at the earliest possible time has the advantage of avoiding unwanted
delays.
 It runs a probing protocol on the control channel to inquire the length of the
ongoing packet.
 In the other case, x wakes up during an ongoing transmission and wants to
transmit a packet. Therefore, x has not only to take care of ongoing transmissions
but also of ongoing receptions in its vicinity.
 If t < r, waking up at t might give another node y a chance to transmit a packet to
x without any additional delay.
 On the other hand, if r < t, there is some chance that x can start its own
transmission.

Schedule-based protocols:
LEACH
 The LEACH protocol (Low-energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy).
 LEACH partitions the nodes into clusters and in each cluster a dedicated node,
the clusterhead, is responsible for creating and maintaining a TDMA schedule; all
the other nodes of a cluster are member nodes.
 To all member nodes, TDMA slots are assigned, which can be used to exchange
data between the member and the clusterhead; there is no peer-to-peer
communication.
 The protocol is organized in rounds and each round is subdivided into a setup
phase and a steady-state phase .The setup phase starts with the self-election of
nodes to clusterheads.
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 In the following advertisement phase, the clusterheads inform their

neighborhood with an advertisement packet. The clusterheads contend for the
medium using a CSMA protocol.
 The nonclusterhead nodes pick the advertisement packet with the strongest
received signal strength.
 In the following cluster-setup phase, the members inform their clusterhead
(“join”), again using a CSMA protocol. After the cluster setup-phase, the
clusterhead knows the number of members and their identifiers.
 It constructs a TDMA schedule, picks a CDMA code randomly, and broadcasts
this information in the broadcast schedule subphase. After this, the TDMA
steady-state phase begins.
 The clusterhead is switched on during the whole round and the member nodes
have to be switched on during the setup phase and occasionally in the steady-
state phase.

Traffic-adaptive medium access protocol (TRAMA)

 The Traffic-Adaptive Medium Access (TRAMA) creates schedules allowing nodes

to access a single channel in a collision-free manner.
 The schedules are constructed in a distributed manner and on an on-demand
basis.
 The protocol assumes that all nodes are time synchronized and divides time into
random access periods and scheduled-access periods. A random access period
followed by a scheduled-access period is called a cycle.
 The protocol itself consists of three different components: the neighborhood
protocol, the schedule exchange protocol and the adaptive election algorithm.
 The neighborhood protocol is executed solely in the random access phase,
which is subdivided into small time slots.
 A node picks randomly a number of time slots and transmits small control
packets in these without doing any carrier sensing. These packets indicate the
node’s identification and contain incremental neighborhood information.
 When a node does not transmit, it listens to pick up its neighbors’ control
packets. The length of the random access phase should be chosen such that a
node receives its neighbors packets with sufficiently high probability to ensure
consistent topology information.
 By the schedule exchange protocol, a node transmits its current transmission
schedule and also picks up its neighbors’ schedules. This information is used to
actually allocate slots to transmitters and receivers.
 All nodes possess a global hash function h, and a node with identification x
computes for time slot occurring at t the following priority value p:
p = h(x ⊕ t)
where x ⊕ t is the concatenation of x’s node identification with the current time
t.
 To compute its schedule, a node looks ahead for a certain number of time slots,
called its schedule interval.
 The adaptive election algorithm of TRAMA provides approaches for resolving
this situation and also for allowing nodes to reuse their neighbors’ unused
winning slots.
 The TRAMA protocol needs significant computation and memory in dense sensor
networks since the two-hop neighborhood of a node tends to be large in this
case.
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Energy-efficient unicasting:
 At a first glance, energy-efficient unicast routing appears to be a simple problem:
take the network graph, assign to each link a cost value that reflects the energy
consumption across this link, and pick any algorithm that computes least-cost
paths in a graph.
 Figure shows an example scenario for a communication between nodes A and H
including link energy costs and available battery capacity per node.

 Minimize energy per packet (or per bit) The most straightforward formulation is
to look at the total energy required to transport a packet over a multihop path
from source to destination. The goal is then to minimize, for each packet, this
total amount of energy by selecting a good route.
 Maximize network lifetime A WSN’s task is not to transport data, but to observe.
Hence, energy-efficient transmission should be the optimization goal: the
network should be able to fulfill its duty for as long as possible.
Which event describes the end of a network’s lifetime is not clear. Possible ways
are:
• Time until the first node fails.
• Time until loss of coverage.
• Time until network partition
 Routing considering available battery energy
As the finite energy supply in nodes’ batteries is the limiting factor to network
lifetime, it stands to reason to use information about battery status in routing
decisions. Some of the possibilities are:
1) Maximum Total Available Battery Capacity
 Choose that route where the sum of the available battery capacity is maximized,
without taking needless detours.
 Looking only at the intermediate nodes in Figure 11.3, route A-B-E-G-H has a
total available capacity of 6 units, but that is only because of the extra node G
that is not really needed – such detours can of course arbitrarily increase this
metric. Hence, AB-E-G-H should be discarded as it contains A-B-E-H as a proper
subset. Eventually, route A-C-F-H is selected.
2) Minimum Battery Cost Routing (MBCR):
 MBCR looks at the “reluctance” of a node to route traffic. This reluctance
increases as its battery is drained.
 Reluctance can be measured as the reciprocal of the battery capacity. Then, the
cost of a path is the sum of this reciprocals and the rule is to pick that path with
the smallest cost.
 In the example of Figure 11.3, route A-C-F-H is assigned a cost of 1/1 + 1/4 =
1.25, but route A-D-H only has cost 1/3. Consequently, this route is chosen,
protecting node C from needless effort.

3) Min–Max Battery Cost Routing (MMBCR):

 This scheme follows a similar intention, to protect nodes with low energy battery
resources. Instead of using the sum of reciprocal battery levels, simply the largest
reciprocal level of all nodes along a path is used as the cost for this path. Then,
again the path with the smallest cost is used.
 In the example of Figure 11.3, route A-D-H will be selected.
4) Conditional Max–Min Battery Capacity Routing (CMMBCR):
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 If there are routes along which all nodes have a battery level exceeding a given
threshold, then select the route that requires the lowest energy per bit. If there
is no such route, then pick that route which maximizes the minimum battery
level.
5) Minimize variance in power levels:
 To ensure a long network lifetime, one strategy is to use up all the batteries
uniformly to avoid some nodes prematurely running out of energy and disrupting
the network. Hence, routes should be chosen such that the variance in battery
levels between different routes is reduced.
6) Minimum Total Transmission Power Routing (MTPR)
 A given transmission is successful if its SNR exceeds a given threshold. The goal is
to find an assignment of transmission power values for each transmitter such
that all transmissions are successful and that the sum of all power values is
minimized. MTPR is of course also applicable to Multihop networks.

Geographic routing:
 The idea behind the relatively large class of geographic routing protocols is
twofold:
1. For many applications, it is necessary to address physical locations, for
example, as “any node in a given region” or “the node at/closest to a given
point”. When such requirements exist, they have to be supported by a
proper routing scheme.
2. When the position of source and destination is known as are the positions
of intermediate nodes, this information can be used to assist in the
routing process. To do so, the destination node has to be specified either
geographically or as some form of mapping – a location service between
an otherwise specified destination and its current position is necessary.
 The possible advantage is a much simplified routing protocol with significantly
smaller or even nonexisting routing tables as physical location carries implicit
information to which neighbor to forward a packet to.
 The first aspect – sending data to arbitrary nodes in a given region – is usually
referred to as geocasting.
 The second aspect is called position-based routing
 In wireless sensor networks, usually the geocasting aspect of geographic routing
is considerably more important. Since nodes are considered as interchangeable
and are only distinguished by external aspects, in particular their position, a
location service is usually not necessary

Definition of clusters
The idea for a hierarchy is to locally mark some nodes as having a special role, for
example, controlling neighboring nodes. In this sense, local groups or clusters of nodes
can be formed; the “controllers” of such groups are often referred to as clusterheads.

A basic idea to construct independent sets: (Principle of Clustering)

 The idea is that every node must communicate with its neighbors and locally
select nodes to join the set of independent nodes (to become clusterheads in
the end).
 To do so, all nodes need a property that can be locally determined, easily
exchanged with all neighbors, and unambiguously ranked by each node.
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 A simple example for such a property is a unique identifier of each node in

ascending order.
 A basic distributed algorithm to compute independent sets starts out by marking
all nodes as being ready to become clusterheads, but as yet undecided.
 During the course of the algorithm, this status is switched to either
“clusterhead” or “cluster member.
 In the first step, each node determines its local ranking property and exchanges
it with all of its neighbors. Once this information is available, a node can decide
to become a clusterhead if it has the largest rank among all its as-yet-undecided
neighbors.
 It changes its state accordingly and announces its new state to its neighbors.
Nodes that learn about a clusterhead in their neighborhood switch to cluster
member state and in turn announce that to their neighbors.
 Note that this is the crucial step: Once a node with a large rank becomes a
cluster member to some other node, it can “unblock” nodes with lower rank in
its vicinity to become clusterheads on their own.
 The algorithm terminates once all nodes have decided to become either a
clusterhead or a cluster member.
 This algorithm is illustrated with a simple linear network in Figure. Note, in step
1, nodes 2 and 5 cannot become clusterheads because their neighboring nodes
3 and 6 have not yet decided. Once nodes 3 and 6 have learned about node 7
being a clusterhead in their vicinity, they decide to become cluster members and
propagate this information to nodes 2 and 5. Then, these nodes can become
clusterheads in step 3.

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