Music Notation in the ‘Twentieth Century A Practical Guidebook by KURT STONEMusic Notation in the Twentieth Century A Practical Guidebook by KURT STONE W. W. NORTON & COMPANY New York LondonContents ———_ Preface sili Introduction w Acknowledgments a Part One: Basic Procedures 1 1. General Conventions 2 Apneevicrons AND srMpots 3 worn unes 20 areca 3 Nore-eabs 30 annicuiaTion 4 [MACEMENT OF DYNAMICS AND OTHER nanuines 6 VemmaL INDICATIONS 37 teas 9 events 3 vamics 16 aunninc-neaos 38 cuissanoos 19 stuns AND TEs ace Nove 20 rmunasincisownnclaaeatnino 35 wonizonraL times 22 SPACINGS, FOSIFIONS, AND SIZES nsrsvctONs 26 (uiscrL taneous) 4 IRREGULAR NOTE DIVISIONS sews 47 2 CGRAPING CHARACTERISTICS 26 UL Pitch 32 scewertais 53 mucrorones 67 curs 56 "aanstostrios cues 57 ‘rmtlragmovolvinesto 74 OUstaxpos 63 ‘TLLS AND TAILL TREMOLOS 75 ocanmonics 63. vntsons | 78 iMcnestiowest wore(s) 65 tunercneD NoveS: PLACEMENT 79 INDRTERMINATE.OR APPROXIMATE winexrolvon viaeato 80 nircnes 66viii MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY IIL. Duration and Rhythm: Preliminary Survey 81 ranvaromy nove 81 seamine 10 suvrunic teens 1 PRACTICAL ExaMerES IIS NOTATIONAL CONSEQUENCES 2 TV. Duration and Rhythm: Individual Items Ra BeAMED ACCELERANOO AND vests 13 ITARDANDO 124 SPATIAL 08 PROPORTIONAL porten wares. 125 Novanios 116 DURATIONAL EQUIVALENTS 127 rome moicanions 145 FEAMATAS, COMMAS, AND DOUILE mes 46 srHOKES 28 TIME SIGNATURES QMETER) 146 ewota 29 neworos 47 IRREGULAR NOTE DIVisONS 129, YV. Indeterminate Events 192 ALTERNATIVE EVENTS 152 Inperemanate events: 154 coices 151 VL. Scores and Parts 158 conuctor’s sins 158 EIVEARSAL LETTERSREMEARSAL curs 160 NUMBERMEASURE NUMBERS 168 rovr stems. 162 Scone sevurs 170 PARTS MISCELLANEOUS DETAILS 162 sSoLO/TUTTH INDICATIONS 175 PARTS DHVI (TWO OR MORE PARTS ON A TIME SIONATURES PLACEMENT 177 sont stare) 164 Part Two: Specific Notation 185 VIL. Wind Instruments: General Topics 186 AURSOUND OR BREATH SOUND 186 juan Witte PLAYING 188 enoine tHe rrrcn 187 Toncune 188 FLUTTER TONGUE 188 LUvrarcneD sounps 190 TABLE OF CONTENTS ix (is) worn a “him pressure 191 OCTAVE SKN 195. oo! 1K Brass 17 receune 8 wee creas 98 Sacto soi oes" 209 om 19 wana my/908,) MALE VALVE 199 ‘TONGUE PostTio#6 Tron CHANGES IN a von) 200 X. Percussion 205 icrocans. 205 AND MINED ENSEMBLES 2/5 STICK, MALLET, AND BEATER eveaL reacrices. 219 rictocraMs” 210 ‘rrects AND Tecnntoves 221 WH pesnsre wren 217 eee (ayttarp 226 ~Feeunvany neMAanns 228 murine 240 Aarecilvow aaron 228 eon noise 242 senowe rie ren 229 prow sume 207 wsmctinneo (anism) 29 reoat nt 2407 ceosrens 237 rons 244 onwrniworruno (rourses) 237 puacenenr or avin rca ee 238 Inoncarons 26 Fvcenvut nveame 233 acta 246 sussaos 296 rence 46 rats roa 239 SconDATURA (atmos TONING) 2465 suapnzzicato 247 (CN): LET vinRATE 240 SOUNDING BOARD. 2484X) MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY wos 248 sumnine rie srencs 249 stauwine 250 10° (UPVER ENDS OF seaINCS) 250 sewoi0s 250 smuts 251 {RILLING (vaRATING) AETWEEN WO srancs 257 XII. Piano ~unices AND aanunes. 257 cuustens 259 nosSING OF HANDS 260 k manmonacs 267 se Tie Pano 262 TTUNING-AEY SLIDES. 251 staincs. 252 wunesro. 25 sceares 253 [WHISTLING SUNOS: HAND shines. 255 257 reas 269 SILENT DEPRESSION OF KEYS. 272 STACCATO REVERAERATIONS 272 ‘omen 277, XII. Organ 24 BRACES AND MaRLines 274 reoats 278 cuustens 274 ecisteation 278 EYS (HELD AND RELEASED) 274 stors 279 Manuats 277 XIV. Keyboard Reductions 281 ‘CHORAL Scones 281 locusts scones 289 XV. Voice 292 Asrination 292 ‘AMS VERSUS FLAGS. 292 ratserro 297 Fuurrex Tonove 202 iciest NorElowsst nore 294 wnuausfexnate 295 IDCTERPRETIVE MARKINGS (ARTICULATION, DYNAMICS, EXPRESSION MARKS) 295, MouTH Fostrions 295 NASAL voice 296 Pwowenics 206 roRTaMeNTO. 296 suums 296 oxen 297 ‘TENT PLACEMENT UNDER THE MUSIC 209 TABLE OF CONTENTS xi ext parserarion 300 vineaTolNon vinnato. 304 wsso.08 301 unseen 304 Levotee VOCAL errEcts 30 a XVI. Bowed String Instruments 306 rndinonany worn 306 roan warioursowa tt tenet 307 erm ee 3 corarecttiaaun 307 penn seas Ate a2 cro 08 mune 32 ewe ieroren) 310 Starve anes. 3 Povmr srr 38 unece8 XVI Taped (Prerecorded) Sound 16 nuacriome eranon 316 | Seiad ay aie) Appendix 1: Neumatic Notation (Plainchant or Gregorian Chant) ‘and Later Developments 321 Appendix Il: The History and Operation of the Index of New ‘Musical Notation and the International Conference on New ‘Musical Notation 332 Appendix II: Facsimile Reproductions aI Bibliography 33 Index HSPreface ‘When composers of serious music, inthe early 1950s, began to explore areas far beyond all traditional concepts, conventional notation soon proved insufficient for dealing adequately with the new musical echniques and philosophies. The invention of new notational signs and procedures thus became imperative ‘As the musical experiments and innovations continued and spread, new note ‘ional devices proliferated. Moreover, experiments conducted simultaneously in diferent pars of the world often brought forth identical signs for diferent ef- fects, and vice versa ‘After two decades ofthis disconcerting and ever-increasing deluge of new no- tation, invariably accompanied by endless explanations and more or ess idiosyn- cratic instructions, communications from composer to performer had become seriously impaired. It seemed the right time to take stock, examine the new in ventions for clarity and efficiency in practical use, select the devices that sp- peared most universally satisfactory, eliminate duplications, and codify the results ina practical guidebook. In 1970, I proposed this plan toa number of individuals and organizations. AS result, the Indes of New Musical Notation was established, under my direction, in the Music Division of the Library of the Performing Arts at Lincoln Center, New York. (For details, see the Introduction and Appendix 2.) ‘The Index project was funded by the Rockefeller Foundation (with the New ‘York Public Library as sponsoring organization) and later also by the Ford Foun- ation (withthe Music Library Association as sponsor) ‘The resulting efforts culminated in an Intemational Conference on New Musi cal Notation, organized jointly by the Index project and the University of Ghent, Belgium. At the conference, which was held in Ghent in 1974, eighty profes- sional musicians, composers, music editors, and musicologist from seventeen Countries scrutinized and discussed close to 400 selected notational signs and procedures presented by the Index project, and then voted on them, The present ‘book contains, as its nucleus, all those devices endorsed or recommended at that conference, along with a comprehensive, integrated presentation of traditional ‘notation, based on more than thity years of editorial experience in the field. ‘Thos, virtually the entie arsenal of notation, old and new, of serious music in the twentieth century is covered by this guidebook. aiiIntroduction SS New Music and New Notation "New notation has never been generated exclusively by new musical ideas. New ideas are an integral part of composed music, at last in Wester civilization, and notational procedures have generally been sufficiently adaptable to cope with them, ‘Only a fundamental break with established musical aesthetics and philosophies can bring about a commensurate notational change, and such profound upheavals. Ihave occurred extremely rarely. In fact, there have been only three inal of West erm music history ‘The first of these basic reoriemtations was the momentous shift from monody ‘o polyphony around a.D, 900. The notational consequences were epochal: the vagueness of neumatic pitch notation was rendered obsolete and was replaced with te intervallic precision of staff notation. And perhaps even more important, the specificity of durations was introduced: mensural notation. Both of these in. ‘ovations have remained indispensable elements of music notation ever since Centuries went by during which the linear predominance of early polyphony eradually saw itself challenged by emerging vertical phenomena: chords and ‘chord progressions. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, a perfect bal- ance of the horizontal and vertical forces was achieved; but around the year 1600, chordal harmony took on a life ofits own by becoming an independent functional force capable of dominating the linear elements that had previously reigned supreme. Now the traditional parthooks, being purely linear, were no longer appropri= ate, since they failed to capture the essence ofthe new music, the harmonic func- tions. Thus the second major notational change came about: partbooks were ‘superseded by score notation because a score, showing all pars underneath each other, enables the reader to follow not only the horizontal (melodic, linear) aspects of a given composition, but also the vertical (harmonic) ones. Inthe 1950s the third stylistic upheaval began to erupt, an upheaval which de- veloped in two sharply contrasting diections. One of these was characterized by tan unprecedented increase in precision of every conceivable component of a ‘usical texture, with particular emphasis on formerly subsidiary elements such as dynamics, timbre, pitch inflections (microtones), location of sound sources,Avi MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH. CENTURY and so forth, This trend also went far beyond the traditional note values, often superseding the conventional geometric progression of 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 With the arithmetical 1, 2, 3, 4, 5... Needless to say, traditional notation Could not cope with these new demands, and a host of new symbols and proce dures had to be devise 10 accomodate the new musical concepts The other stylistic rend rejected precision. Instead, it inealuced deliberate ambiguity, varying degrees of indeterminacy, choices between alternatives, provisation, and the uilization of extraneous, unpredictable sounds and circurn- stances, All these required radically new notation, even to the abandonment of conventional symbols and procedures altogether, in favor of “implicit raphies,"" because such graphics assur the greatest possibie interpretive free- {dom by draving heavily on the performers’ conttibutive imagination and ingens ity. Naturally, this trend not only called for new notational sign, but for an en- tirely new attitude toward notation as such, Considering that composers throughout Europe and America, as well as in several countries of Asia, embraced the new musical tends and aesthetics, it is ‘ot surprising that new notation, 100, was invented everywhere with great aban: don. Asa result, musicians were soon engulfed ina chaotic deluge of notational duplications, contradictions, and general confusion, ‘After about a decade of this anarchic proliferation, atlempts were made to un ‘avel the notational maze by collecting, describing, and categorizing the new signs.* The most comprehensive of these effons was Ethard Karkoschka's Das Schrifbild der newen Musik (Celle, 1966; English translation—WNoraion in New ‘Music—London and New York, 1972). Here we find the frst major attempt to classify not only the new signs, but also the underlying aesthetic approaches. In addition there are evaluations of the various signs as to appropriateness, clarity (or deliberate vagueness), and efficiency, and each sign is meticulously docu mented as tits source of origin ‘ther collections followed. The most extensive American one is Howard Risatti's New Music Vocabulary (1975, University of Ilinois Press) and the ‘monumental, as yet unpublished, 201k Century Notation by Gardner Read {All of these collections differ from one another in many ways, but they all have one thing in common: whatever recommendations they contain represent the personal opinions of their respective authors ‘The present book—Music Notation in the Twentieth Century—is unique in three crucial ways: 1 itis not a collection, but a compendium of selections; 2. these selections do not represent one person's preferences, but are the results of research done by the Index of New Musical Notation (a four-year + Oe sch tee wa th suho's owe “Probleme and Met of Noun, writen in 1952 (see Biogen. INTRODUCTION xvii [moject) followed by the deliberations and decisions of the International Conference on New Musical Notation (Ghent, Belgium, 1974) 3. it does not treat new notation as @ phenomenon apart from traltional Procedures, but integrates i into the total notational vocabulary ofall ser- ‘ous musie writen in the twentieth century The Index of New Musical Notation and the International Conference on New Musical Notation Inthe early 1950, when the frst published examples of new musical notation ar Fived from Europe, the author was chief editor of Associated Music Publishers, Inc... New York, then the foremost American importer of European music. The names of the new composers were still quite unfamiliar, but soon they were to {dominate the field: for example, Luciano Berio, Pierre Boulez, Sylvano Bussot Roman Haubenstock-Ramati, Kartheina Stockhausen, Shorty thereaft ‘American efforts appeared, mainly in the works of Earle Brown* and Joh» Cage ‘The author became interested in these unprecedented manifestations, studied and compared them, attended countless rehearsals and performances to find out how they worked in actual practice, and eventually began to lecture and write about new notational developments Writing and lecturing, however, were only one side of the coin, A much less entertaining aspect was that the new notational deluge proved tobe serious hin drance to good performances. Many musicians who had been greatly interested in new music began to resent the ever increasing profusion of notational ambigh tis, identical notation for different effects in diferent compositions, and totally Unexplained signs and procedures. Rehearsal time, being expensive, was lim- ited, and performances were (and sill are) all too often under-rehearsed and fat from what they should have been. Something had to be done. In the author's view, the most appropriate position in the musical spectrum from which to effect practical improvements is that of the music editor. An editor Serves as the mediator between the composer who invents new notation and the performer who must interpret it properly. A conscientious editor, one who in- volves himself in the musical aspects ofthe scores under his care, can bring the Performers” need for greater notational clarity to the attention of the composer and collaborate with him toward this goal. Conversely, he can elucidate to the performer some of the composers intentions and visions which may not be fully realized in the notation. Musical notation, after all is not an ideal method of communication, utilizing, as it does, visual devices to express aural concepts, But itis all we have. + Aculy, Fate Brown's effons a his ection receded Stckhasens eventhough he ater eer ree wih being the oat af mew moat peed,vill MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY An editor's scope, however, is limited, since he deals primarily with the works af composers who happen to be in the catalogue of his panicular publishing rouse, To overcome this proscription, the author initiated the Index of New Musical Notation and located it in the Music Division of the Library of the Per. iorming Arts at New York's Lincoln Center, a context independent of any pubs ishing interests, This enabied the staff of dhe Index project to exarnine any score onsidered pertinent ‘Affer conducting detailed notational analyses ofa large variety of music con ining graphic innovations, and after categorizing and otherwise ordering the indings, about 400 signs and procedures, chosen by statistical and evaluative nethoul, were submitted for discussion to the active participants of an Interna {onal Conference on New Musical Notation, organized jointly by the Index proj vot and the Belgian Stale University at Ghent, and held there in October of 974+ ‘All new notational devices and procedures endorsed or recommended by the hent Conference are included in the present volume, along with many others hich could not be discussed in Ghent, but were dealt with subsequently in com ulation with professional musicians in the U.S. On the Inclusion of Traditional Nota In spite ofthe new notational signs generated since the early 1950s, a major part four era’s music, whether “serious” or not, has been, sil is, and probably will continue to be written either entirely by means of tational notation or with a ‘mixture of old and new signs and procedures, It is for this eason that traditional ‘otation has been included inthis guidebook, Elementary rules and practices, however, will not be found here. Its assumed that those who wish to use this book ae Familia withthe rudiments of traditional notation. What has been admitted ar the less obvious features: matters of proper teaming, stemming, and spacing, imegular drational divisions, the proper posi- tion of marks of articulation, dynamics, and phrasing, the correct note values for ttemolos, and even a few purely graphic fine points. In the past, such details ‘were rarely ifever taught, but in the music of ur era they have become increas ingly important fortwo quite separate reasons. First, since music during the last few decades has grown to unprecedented complexity, in addition to operating according to many new and radically uncon- ‘ventional gesthetic concepts, notation-—old and new—has been strained to its wt ‘most capability to meet these challenges. Consequently, each and every nota tional symbol must be drawn with greater precision and consistency than used to be necessary, because in present-day music any graphic deviation from conven- tion may constitute not simply an accidental Naw, but a deliberate and meaning. ion Foc eis of be option fhe Index project ade Intemational Conference, see Append 2 INTRODUCTION air ful variant! In other words, awkward or amateurish imperfections—imegularities ‘whieh were hardly noticed in former times—have become serious impediments toa clear and proper interpretation of new compositions. One should never forget hotation is the composer's only means of conveying his ideas to the per: formers it must be as explicit as possible. (Even if ambiguity or total freedom is intended, the signal for it must be explicit.) ‘Second, music publishers, for economic reasons, are increasingly given to is- ‘suing facsimile reproductions of the composer's manuscript, rather than en- ‘raved (or equivalent) editions. Its not at all infrequent, therefore, that a pub- lishe, in determining whether to publish a work or not, willbe influenced by the sraphic quality and notational professionalism of a manuscript rather than exclu- sively by its musical content." Performers, too, 100k more closely now at composers” ways with notation, ‘since any unconventionality is Hikely to divert a performer's attention from in- stant perception and interpretation ofthe notation he sees before him. Even ifhe isnot actully aware of what is wrong with the notation he sees—what the ‘regularities end flaws really consist of—he will react subconsciously to any vis: tal difference from the standards which have conditioned his reflexes through- ‘out his musical life. He is forced to make adjustments and corrections in his mind uring the minute interval between perceiving the symbol and producing the desired effect. It can make him hesitate, even alittle, and can slow down the pro- cess of learning piece, thus quite possibly leading (oa poorer performance than needs be. “To sum up, then, the meticulous observance ofthe rules and conventions of traditional notation (rules often ignored by, oF not even known to many com- ‘posers and performers) will increase the effectiveness of a composer's entire n0- tational repertory, old and new. And thus it will improve his ability to com- ‘municate his intentions to the performer, which will most certainly result in better, more accurate, and more enjoyable performances. “The traditional rules and conventions included here have not been treated sepa rately from the new notational signs and procedures. Most of them, however, ap- pear within the first section ofthe book, which covers general categories of nota- tion, and only occasionally in the second section, which deals with notation for specific instrument families, the voice, and electronic sounds. + Se Facile Repetucions, Appendix 3.Acknowledgments ood Most of what i contained in the present book cannot be credited to any particular Individual, being the result ofthe efforts of everyone who worked atthe Index project, all the active participants in the Ghent Conference, and the countless composers, arrangers, performers, engravers, autographers,copyists, and fellow editors whom the author has encountered in the course of his long career as a musi editor. ‘A few people, however, who were not connected with the Index, but who helped greaily with the shaping of the present book and with many of its details, ‘must not be overlooked. From among these I would like to single out the follow. ing listed inthe order in which their particular specialties appear in the book: ‘Woodwinds: Nora Post, New York aboist, for her meticulous srutny of many technic etl Percussion: Frank L. MeCany, percussionist, elecronicit, and composer, who helped Peepate the Index's percussion an electronics proposals forthe Ghent Conference, snd ‘who, beyond this, gave the author eminently hepful advice whenever called upon ‘arp: Thanks go to vee harpist: Shisley Blankenship, ofthe University of tine at Ur. tana, for a thorowgh preliminary discussion of modern harp techniques and harp tra. ace (a fed, bythe way, which had no been included inthe Gen discussions), Alyssa IN: Hess, New York harpist and composer, fr her invaluable assistance with every de- tal of the eae harp chapter (it is largely due w he recommendation ha this caper became as comprehensive as it ha turned cat to be); Parca John, bapist fom Hous- ton, Texas, for reading though the completed harp chapler and making many valuable Mitional suggestions. (Organ: Maha Fol specialist in recitals of contemporary organ masic, fr generously Sharing her experiences withthe notational puzles of many Scores of few on Swings: Clifford G. Richer, volisUvolnist, and his violinist wife, Lyme (both Tong time editorial colleagues ofthe autor) for consbuting tothe sting chapter the badly needed practical realism 50 often ignored in mate soloisteviened weatments ‘Teped (Prerecorded) Sound: Barbara English Maris, who specializes in recitals of piano ‘music with elecuonic sounds and sound genertors-many of them lecture recitals for Aiscussing with the author the cuing practices in such music, and for later reading the finished chapter and suggesting many aiitioal practical deals based on her uncom ‘on failiaty with this eisive branch of tew musexxii MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY General Assistance: Sincere thanks and appreciation to Alyssa N. Hess, the hart “mentioned above, for going through the eaize book atthe final stage, unfailingly Spoting remaining flows, as wel as linguistc nwkwardnesses; 1 Professor Leo Kraft AQicens College, New York) for his knowledgeable musical advice, an to Clate Fok and Hida Keller Farber af W_ W. Nexon for thee asusualy perceptive and Understanding editorial work and ast hot fat fom least to my wife, Ese for checking {he manuscript from the important vantage poit of a napprofesional music lover who insists that things ust the sense) mater who the ears ght Be Musical Examples: Melvin Wildberger mist be commended not only for his revureeul work, combining music typewriter, wanfer type, regular ype, and many aditional Treks ofthe trae, bu also foe hs mamecovspetical suggestions many of which have ben incotporated in his book ‘Thanks, finally, are due tothe John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation for its generous fellowship grant, without which tis book might never have been Part One: Basic Procedures the items are dealt with in more than one chapter.1. General Conventions thbreviations and Symbols 3 Glissandos 19 1 Note-t Note and NotestoRest trpergio 3” Ghiwandor ty s-Aepessio Sign 3b Open Fadel Glisandor 20 Direction 4 Curved'or Unialating Glisxandon 20 © Rhythm 4b. Quich, Shorr Sider Wortamento) 20 2. Speed 4 Compound Durations of Now Arpeggio. 4" Guittandos 2 Iticularion 4 Grace Notes 2 Jarlines 6 Horizontal Lines 2 ‘In Masi for Individual 1. Stff-Lines 2 Instruments, 5 8 Gru 2 ‘tn Chamber and Choral Scores 7 € Solid Lines, Brackets, and Arvows 23 © tn Orchestra and Band Scores 70. Domed or Bolen Lines 2 Vertical Alignment of Burnes 8 &. Wavy Lines 25 © Dorted Barlines 5 F Double Barlines 8 Instructions 26 6. Final Barnes 9 Repeat Bars, see page 34 Irregular Note Divisions: Graphic Characteristics 26 Beams 9A Brackets versus SlurrinUnbeomed ‘lean Thickness 9 and Partially Beamed Groups 28 2. Space berween Beams 9 a eamed Groups » © Bear Positions i he Stall 9 C.Invepular Note Divisions within Beams in Two-Siaf Nowion 12 Regular Groups of Notes 2 € Eutended and Bridging Beams 15, lregur Note Divisions within Irregular Groups of Noes cy Durational Equivatences Hortzontal Locations of Numerals seepage 127 and Brackets » Dynamics 16 Leger Lines 30 Dynamic BalancelDynamic Levels 16 9. Fluctuating Dynamics 17 Note-Heads 30 Levels of Prominence of Musical ‘Shapes 30 Morerials 17 Uses of Different Shapes an >. Niente 8 ‘ate Size Dynamics Ia Placement of Dynamics and SabitoChangesofDynamic Levels 19 Other Verbal Indications 31 GENERAL CONVENTIONS 3 4. Dynamics 31a. The Different Meanings of Slare 35 2 Temp Fndctions 82M The Nowtion of Slrs and Tes 36 © Phasing Iniractons 2 Placement of Rests Spacings, Positions, and Sizes teenage 118 (Miscellaneous) “ ‘Opening Measures Gin Tradonal Repeats 33" Nownon) “ 2 Rept Araation (Smile) “HY 8 lef Changes % 8. Raped Chor 33 Fine Str Changes & ©: Repaned Mewes 3) bathe End of sine % fRepened Pun ofMeoures Me. Acie ‘ 1 Raped Scions fF Nats amt Res % Running Heads die & stems 7 Stars and Tes Ste Lents ” PhrasinglBowinglBreuthing 35 Siem Diesnons ° Abbreviations and Symbols All abbreviations included in this book appear in the pertinent sections. For other “abbreviations, current musi dictionaries should be consulted (see Bibliography). “Most abbreviations suggested inthis guide were chosen according tothe fot lowing criteria: If possible, the abbreviation should be applicable to several major languages, such a6 n= niente (Italian), nothing (English), or nichis (German), “The abbreviation must not be misleading from language to language. For ex. ample, the abbreviation of an English term must not be similar to the abbre tion of a word with a different meaning in another major language. Thus, the ab- ‘eviations Tromb. of Trb, for Trombone might confuse lalian musics ‘because they could mean Tromba. Less ambiguous choices, therefore, are Tb. and Trbn., which also serve (though perhaps not ideally) to convey the Haan and French terms, Similarly, Cor. for Cornet is too close to the French Cor and the Italian Corno. As a result, Ct. was chosen forthe English term Comet, and while it may not immediately convey Kornett to a German, it wil not indicate a vers For the eater Beam, vec Duan and Rpt, Beard Asean tnd Ried, page neM4 MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Heavy lines and arrows are used for pitch durations in spatial nati camer Brackets denote durational indications in spatial notation, including » heavy continuation line with arrowhead SA I rena Brackets show first and second endings: PT $B 2. SOLID LINES, ETC., FOR TIMBRAL INDICATIONS “Thin arrows are used for gradual transitions of mute postions in brass music: te sy eSSq 1nd for mouth positions in vocal music: tion convey variations in “Thin lines with several arrowheads inthe same di he rates of transitions: Trampet: decelerating (from muted to open) GENERAL CONVENTIONS 25, Volee: accelerating (fom nasal (© normal) On eee norm (ot mat = natu 3, MIXED SOLID AND BROKEN LINES Pedaling indications for piano, vibraphone, etc, include a broken line for sradual iting of the pedal: fm Lav Li D. Dotted or Broken Lines ‘These are generally used for transpositions and timbres and forthe instrament ‘manipulations which produce them: ‘Octave transpositions:*_ 8°" basse 2.86 non vibrato ne + ball valve Yura on bestttttessccen hhand temolo (voice): hand over mowth bocca chiusa (voice); b garsessseesseey nasal tome (voice): eves seeeoe See also the mixture of broken and solid lines in pedi piano, etc, above. ing indications for E, Wavy Lines ‘These are generally used for pulsating pitch inflections or quickly alterna pitches ‘an. All wavy lines must appear above the note(s) to which they pertain, except in double-stemmed music: 1. suapen tunes rl pe double tilt; @sseesaeeesaety fluter tongue: fLim———~ oF fw hater Lips: fpr een "The onal ™ aed 15% aria the ree of being replaced by a mere mera or 5,