Go Paperless - Save The Earth igiNotes Elements Of Mechanical Engineering I8MEIS/25 MODULE 1 Sources of Energy : Introduction and application of energy sources like fossil fuels, hydel, solar, wind, nuclear fuels and bio-fuels; environmental issues like global warming and ozone depletion. Basie concepts of Thermodynamies: Introduction, states, concept of work, heat, temperature; Zeroth, 1st, 2nd and 3rd laws of thermodynamics. Concept of mternal energy, enthalpy and entropy (simple numerical). ‘Steam: Formation of steam and thermodynamic properties of steam (simple mumericals) ENERGY: © Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. * Itis primary requirement for day to day activities of human beings Energy sources: «The Capital energy sourees'are mainly, fossil fuels, taclear fuels and heat traps. * Celestial energy sources are» Electromagnetic, gravitational and particle energy from stars, planets, moon ete. ‘The energy existing in the eatth7@ Lana hs) Onpital eneroy Energy that comes from outer-space-is-tatled-Gelestiah or Income energy. Elecuwomagneti¢ Bieigy of tie earth’ sun is called Direct Solar ENERGY. This resulis ia WIND, HYDEL) GEOTHERMAL, BIOFUEL, cte. GRAVITATIONAL ENERGY of earth's moon piodices TIDAL/ENERGY. RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY: Energy sources which) are gontinuously | produeed in ature and are essentially inexhaustible are called renewable energy sources, Eg: Direct solar energy, Wind energy, Tidal energy, Hydel energy, Ocean thermal energy, Bio energy, Geo thermal energy, Peat, Fuel wond, Fuigl cells, Solid wastes, Hydrogen. Aavantages of renewable energy sources: + Non eshaustible + Can be matched in-Seale 0 the need and can deliver quality energy * Can be built near tiel6adpotit + Flexibility imthe design of conversion systems. * Local self-sufticiency by/haffiessing locally "availablevenewablé chietgy. + Except biomass, all-other sourees ate pollution free. Disadvantages of renewable energy sources: © Incermittent nature of availability of energy such as solar, wind, tidal etc. is a major setback in the continuous supply of energy. © Solar energy received at the earth is dependent on local atmosphere conditions, time of the day, part of the year etc. # Sources such as wind, tidal ete, are concentrated only in certain regions. * Technology is not fully developed to meet the present energy requirements Systems such as solar cells require advanced technologies and hence costlier. ‘+ Application to transport sector has been found to be not viable as on today SS Dept of Mechanical Engg, CITECH 4Elements Of Mechanical Engineering I8MEIS/25 NONRENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES: Energy sources which have been collected over the ages and not quickly replaceable when they are exhausted. Ex: Fossil fuels, Nuclear fuels, Heat traps. Advantages of non-renewable energy sources: ‘+ Initial cost is lower. [ence widely used, ‘© Unit power costs are much lower and so are economical + Sources are highly reliable. + Power generation technologies are well established. Disadvantages of non-renewable energy sources: + The sources are getting depleted. anid Sod Wil be exhausted. ‘* They pollute the atmospheré) + They are not frecly available: Difference between Renewable and Non-renewable energy resources Renewable energy resources ‘Non —renewable energy resources Thése are inexhaustible. These are exhaustible, Example coal, Example solar energy, wind energy etc. | petroleum, natural gay etc Freely available in nature and environment | Not freely available, and also not trendly (except biomass) environment friendly. Go Paperless - Save The Earth They are continuously restored by nature | These sources once used cannot be after utilization, recovered any more. Tnitial cost for utilization of energy sources | Both initial and maintenance costs are is high, but maintenance cost is low high. ‘Availabilty of energy is intermittent, and | Continuous supply of energy is hence continuous supply of energy is not | possible with non-renewable energy possible. sources. PETROLEUM BASED FUELS * Formed mainly from ancient microscopic plants and bacteria that lived in the ocean and salt water seas, © These micro-organisms died and settled to the sea floor, they mixed with sand silt to form organic rich mud which was gradually heated and compressed chemically transforming into petroleum, + The liquid petroleum gases which are less dense than water move upwards through earth's erust SS CITECH 5 DigiNotes Dept. of Mechanical Eng,Go Paperless - Save The Earth igiNotes Di Elements Of Mechanical Engineering I8MEIS/25 It passer through an impormeable layer of rock which traps the petroleum creating a reservoir of petroleum and natural gas. Types of Fuels: - Based on physical state of existence ~ Solid fuel: + Wood-Domestic fuel for cooking © Coal ~ Lignite generation of electricity Bituminous-firing in furnace — Anthracite-boiler, metallurgical furmaces — Liquid fuel + Hydrocarbons-Crude oil or petroleum —Petrol-SI engine ~ Diesel-Cl engine Petrolenm coke-Pawer generatiin production of cathan élfctrodes = Gaseous fuel + Natural gas-found near oil soufe®>-fvethane-and.other light hydrocarbons, ethane, propane, pentane ote * Manufactured gas ~ Coal gas ~ Coke oven gas — Producer gas Solid fuels ‘+ Coal is the major fuel used for thermal pdwer plants to geheraie steam * Coal occurs i naturewhieh Was fornied by the decay of vegetable matters buried under the earth millions of years ago urider pressire and heat © This phenomenon of transformation of vegetable matter into coal under earth’s crust is known as Metamorphism. * The type of coal-available understhe-earth’sysurfuce-depends upon the period of metamorphism and the typé of yegetable matter buried, also the pressure and temperature conditions 4 The major canstinldate tet PAal mndihire (S200; GAIRtAA matter (combustible & ar incombusiible substances about 50%) and ash (20-50%), © The chertical-substanieS fi)the Coal, ane Carbon Hydrogen, nitrGyen, oxygen and sulphur, ‘+ In the metamorphism phenomenon, the vegetable matters undergo the transformation from peat to anthracite coal, with intermediate forms of lignite and bituminous coal Liquid Fuels ‘# Alltypes of liquid fuels used are derived from crude petroleum and its by-products. © The petroleum or crude oil consists of 80-85% C, 10-15% hydrogen, and varying percentages of sulphur, nivogen, oxygen and compounds of vanadiutn, © The crude oil is refined by fractional distillation process to obtain fuel oils, for industrial as well as for domestic purposes. + The fractions from light oil to heavy oil are naphtha, gasoline, kerosene, diesel and finally heavy fuel oil SS Dept of Mechanical Engg, CITECHElements Of Mechanical Engineering I8MEIS/25 The heavy fuel oil is used for generation of steam. The use of liquid fuels in thermal power plants has many advantages over the use of solid fuels Gaseous Fuels Go Paperless - Save The Earth Calorific values of fuels DigiNotes For the generation of steam in gas fired thermal plants, either natural gas or manufactured gaseous fuels are used. However, manufactured gases are costlier than the natural za Generally, natural gas is used for power plants as it is available in abundance. The natural gas is generally obtained from gas wells and petroleum wells. ‘The major constituent in natural gas is methane, about 60-65%, and also contains small amounts of other hydrocarbons such as ethane, naphthenic and aromatics, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. The natural gas is transported from ¢hél&bnree,to the place of use through pipes, for distances to several hundred kiometers The natural gas is colourl@ss,ddourless and non-toxic: Its calorific value ranges from25,000 to-S0,000.K3/m3, in accordance with the percentage of methane in the gas. ‘The autificial yases are pttxlucg Las, wyater Labepketvven yas, and the Blast furnace gas. Generally, power plants fired with artificial gases are not found, ‘The gaseous firelschave advantages similar to those of liquid fuels, except for the storage problems ‘The major isadvantage of power plant using natural-gas is thal) it should be setup near the source; otherwise the transportation losses ate too high. The calorific value or‘heat of tombustion’of heating value of a/sample of fuel is dofined as the-amount-of heat evalved when a unit weight-Cor-volume in the case of A sample of gaseous-{uely ) of the fuel is eoumpletelysburnt It is usually expressed in ‘Gross Calorific Value) (GCY) oF Higher Heating Value (HHY) and Net Calorific Value (NCV) or Lower Heating Value (LHV). Higher Calorific: Valle ldrldedsk Alon tié-Vahie- GV Yor Higher Heating Value HAV), thewater of combustiomigentizely condensed and that the heat contained in the water vapors recoyéred Lower Calerific Value (ar Net Calorific Value -NCV, breLewer Heating Value - LHY): the products of coffibustion contain the water vapor and that the heat in the water vapor is not recovered. SOLAR POWER PLANT Solar radiation is radiant cnergy emitted by the sun from a nuclear fusion reaction that creates electromagnetic energy The spectrum of solar radiation is close to that of a black body with a temperature of about 5800K. About half of the iadiation is in the visible shortwave patt of the electromagnetic spectrum, SS Dept of Mechanical Engg, CITECHGo Paperless - Save The Earth DigiNotes Elements Of Mechanical Engineering I8MEIS/25 Solar Constant: © This is the amount of energy received in unit time on a unit perpendicular to the suns direction at the mean distance of the earth from the sun. + The surface of the earth receives about 1014kW of solar energy from the sun. ‘* One square meter of the land exposed to direct sun-light receives an energy equivalent of about 1.353 kW of power. This constant may increase by only 0.2 percent at the of each 11 year solar eycle. ‘© The radiant solar energy falling on the earth surface is directly converted into thermal energy. The surfaces on which the solar rays fall are called collectors. solati * Insolation is the amount of solar radiation reaching the earth, © Also called Incident Solar Radiation. © Maximum value is 1000 kW/tn2, Components of Solar Radiation: © Direct radiation © Diffuse radiation © Reflect radiation Solar Thermal Energy harvesting: © Radiant solan energy. is/directly converte into thermal energy (heat energy) by using a collector + This process\ié célled-a3 Helio thermal process) The surfacé on Which the solar rays fall is called) a gallector [The colléctar| may he either flat plate collector or focusing collector. There are two types of collectors: # Flat plate collectors, © Focusing collectors LIQUID FLAT PLATE. COLLECTORS: | Dept of Mechanical Engg, CITECH 8Go Paperless - Save The Earth iNotes a Elements Of Mechanical Engineering I8MEIS/25 Components: Absorbing plate © Made of Copper, Aluminium or stecl. tis coated with material to enhance the absorption of solar radiation. © From the absorbing plates heat is transferred to tubes which carry either water ar air. ‘Water tubes © These are metallic tubes through which water circulates and they are attached to the absorber plate Transparent covers » Sheets of solar radiation transmitting materials placed above the absorbing plate. * They allow solar energy to reach the absorbing plate while reducing convection, conduction and re-radiation heat losses. ‘© Made of a toughened glass, «usually. 4mmy thick. Avhich helps in reflecting the incident solar energy back to the absorber plate? * Glass cover permits the entry. oF solar radiation ast is-transparent for incoming short wave lengths, Insulation + It minimizes and! protects tig absorbing plate from heat losses. ie © Sun’s rays falling on'the'transparent covers are transmitted to the absorbing plate. The absorbing plafe dsually of Cu, Al or galvanized jron-is) painted dead black for maximum absorption © The collector (plate) will ubsorb the sutv energy, and Gansfer it Yo the fluid in the pipe beneath the sollector plate. © Use of flarmirrors on the sides ‘improves the dufput. ‘© Water frontthe-overhead tank is thade to flow through the water tubes. © Solar rays passes Through the transparent Cover and falls on the absorber plate. + Tieat energy fiyfir the absuibe plait is Panigfeived vo the wild water Mowing through the tubes, © Warm water rises jaboye ste jonkdl ayaterthecansecrfiinwydensity and flows into the heater tank SOLAR POND TECHNOLOGY: yu wot \ WN eae yA Tnvermediate or gradient cane Uneransing salt water) = Storage zone (Saturated salt water) Cold —= =— Hot water out vate i TF Past lining Solar Pond Dept of Mechanical Engg, CITECHElements Of Mechanical Engineering I8MEIS/25 + A calinity gradient colar pond is an integral collection and storage device of colar energy. © By virtue of having built-in thermal energy storage, it can be used irrespective of time and season, * Inn ordinary pond or take, when the sun's rays heat up the water this heated water, being lighter, rises to the surface and loses its heat to the atmosphere. ‘© The net result is that the pond water remains at nearly atmospheric temperature, * The solar pond technology inhibits these phenomena by dissolving salt into the bottom layer of this pond, making it too heavy to rise to the surface, even when hot ‘The salt concentration increases with depth, thereby forming,a salinity gradient. ‘The sunlight which reaches the bottom of the pond remains entrapped there. © The useful thermal eneruy is then withdrawn from the solar pond in the form of hot brine. # The pre-requisites for establisiing:solarjponds fe: large tract of land (it could be barren). a lot of sun shigé:’and cheaply/ available Salt (such as Sodium Chloride) or bittern Generally, there are threé thaitt layers.-The top layer is cold and has relatively little salt content ‘The bottom layer is hot ~-up to 100°C-(212°F)+- and: very salty A salinity gradietisolar/ pond is an integral cbllgction and storage device of solar energy. «By virtue 6Fhaving boilt-in thermal eheryy storage, i Sab-be usdd'iitespective of time and season, © In au uidinaty polid OF Take, when dhe Sun's rays lival up-1he water dhis heated water being lighter, riggs to)the gurface and lopes its heat to the ¢tmazphere. ‘The net resfilt is that the pond water remains at nearly atmasphetic temperature ‘The solar pond technology inhibits these phenomena by dissolving salt into the bottom layer uf this pond, making it tou heavy do rise te the su fave, even whe Lot * The salt coticentrationintereases witht depth thereby forming-a-salinity gradient. The sunlight which reaches the bottom of the pond remains entrapped there. © ‘The useful therinal energy’ is/then ~withdtawn tton})the solar-pond in the form of hot brine. + The pre-requisites bi SEADhshitigy Sula POH FEL ISLE tract of land (it could be barren), a Jotof sun shine, and cheaply available salt (such as Sodium Chloride) or bittern, © Generally theie aretlvee main layers: The top layers cold and has relatively litle: salt content. ‘The bottom layer is hot -- up to 100°C (212°F) -- and is very salty, Go Paperless - Save The Earth igiNotes © Separating these two layers is the important gradient cone, Di SS Dept. of Mechanical Engg, CITECH 0Elements Of Mechanical Engineering I8MEIS/25 Solar pond electric power plant: * ‘Ihe energy obtained tron? asolar pond.asaised to drive.a Rankine cycle heat engine. Hot water from the bottom Jeyel of the pond is pumped to the evaporator where the working fluid is vaporized. This vapour then flows underfhigh pressure to thé turbine where it expands and ‘work thus obtaines:runs arrelectric generator producing electricity The vapour is then condensed through aeooling system afd the liquid is pimped # back to the evaporatbyrand the eycle is iepeated Application of solar. ponds: © Heating and cooling of buildings # Production,éf power + Industrial progeas heat «Heating seimal housing. © Drying crops-on-farms. Go Paperless - Save The Earth PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL: © Solar energy can.be directly converted to-electtical enemy by means of photovoltaic effect. » Photovollaic effect is defined ay the geneiaiion of an elecuomotive force (EMF) as a result of the absorption’ of iorlizing rAdiation) Devices. which convert sunlight to electricity are'known as solar cells or photovoltaic Cells. ® Solar cells aré semiconductors, commonly used are barrier type iron-selenium cells. * Iron-selenium cells consist of a metal electrode on which a layer of selenium is deposited. On the top of this a barrier layer is formed which is coated with a very thin layer of gold. © The layer of gold serves as a translucent electrode through which light can impinge on the layer below. ‘Under the influence of sunlight, a negative charge will build up on the gold electrode an da positive charge on the bottom electrode. || Ihis difference in charge will produce voltage in proportion to the suns radiant energy incident on it iNotes a SS Dept of Mechanical Engg, CITECH 1Go Paperless - Save The Earth DigiNotes Elements Of Mechanical Engineering I8MEIS/25 Power \Y Le Current} Sunlight \ n-type silicon junction p-type silicon Fig’ PhotovoltaiéCell Basic photovoltaic system for power‘generation: This system consists gf the following: Dept of Mechanical Eng, Solar array (solar cells) 0 Blocking diode 6 Battety storage'0 Inverter 0 Switches and load ceutie Th dle Sotat cell aay due (o-photuyoliaic effect eleetiical power (D.C.) will be produced in-proportion to the suns radiant-eneray, incident on it. This generated power will be stored in the battery storage. A blocking diode ensures that the battery would not diScharie power back to solar array during the period-when there is no sunlight. An inverter converter converts the D.C power fo A.C. and sendsit fo the load centre. From the load centre A\C- power is distrusted accordingly with the help of switches WIND ENERGY: Wind energy is the energy contained ia, the force of-the winds blowing across the earth surface. Wind /eneri\/is defined as) the Kiheticreneray associated with the movement of largé masses of air over the earth’s surface. ‘The circulation of the ‘air lin thé laumdsphere is Caused by the non-uniform heating of the carth’s-surface by the sun, (2 The air immediately above warm area expands and becomes (less dense. It i then forced upwards by/@)cool densef)air which flows in from the Surrounding areas causing wind. CITECH LBGo Paperless - Save The Earth DigiNotes Elements Of Mechanical Engineering I8MEIS/25 Schematic Diagram of Wiad Hill Power in the wind: Wind-posgedées kinetic| energy by}|virtue of itd-tHotion, Any device capable af slowing down the mags of moving aif like a gaill or propeller, can extract part of this energy and coyert into usefll work. "The kinetiy energy of one vubic meter of ai blowing at a velocity V is giveh by, E> 1/2pV2-J/m2 Jn one second, a volume clement of air maves a distancaaf- Vom The total vahima crassing 4 plane. ane -eqiare Meter in area and oriented normal to'the velocity vector in nie secoridis therefore v:m3. The rate at which the wind energy ig transfared,)i eyrwind/poweris given by, P = EV = 1/2pV2 Wim2 No deviee, however Well designed can extract all the wind energy because the wind would have to be brought to,halt.and this. through the rotor, It has been found that for maximum power output the exit velocity-is equal to one-thitd OP the entrance velocity. Thus a maximum of 6096/6f the available energy in the wind is converted into mechanical energy. ‘A windmill is the oldeot device built to convert the wind enerZy into mechanical energy used for grinding, milling and pumping-applications. It consists of a rotor fitted with large sized blades. Merits: © The wind is free and with modern technology it can be captured efficiently. © Once dhe wind (urbine is built the energy it produces dues not cause gieenliouse yases or other pollutants. Many people find wind farms an interesting feature of the landscape emote areas that are not connected to the electncity power gnd can use wind turbines to produce their own supply. * Wind turbines have a role to play in both the developed and third world. Dept of Mechanical Engg, CITECH BGo Paperless - Save The Earth iNotes a Elements Of Mechanical Engineering I8MEIS/25 ‘+ Wind turbines are available in a range of sizes which means a vast range of people and businesses can use. De-merit © Wind turbines are noisy. ©The strength of the wind is not constant and it varies from zero to storm force # Only selected places it can be harnessed. Hydro Power Plants: © In hydroelectric power plants the potential energy of water due to its high location is converted into electrical energy. The total power generation capacity of the hydroelectric power plants depends on the head of water and volume of water flowing towards the water turbine : © The hydroelectric power planf-2lso,calted as danivor hydro power plant, is used for generation of electricity from water on large scale basis. The dam is built across the Targe river that has sufficient quantity-of Water throtughout the river. © In certain cases where the(tiver is very large, mae than one dam can built across the river at different locations. The rain wWatet flowing\as river can be stored behind dams and released in a regulated way to generate hydro power. Surge tank Available head ‘of water ae. Power house Generator Prat cube Tail water Turbine ~ Fig}Hytatpoiter Working Principle of Hydroelectric power plant + The water flowing inthe fiver passeases tive type OF entre 1. Thekinetic energy due to flow of water and 2. Potential energy dueto the height of water © In hydroelectric power and potential eneray of Water is-uiilized t0 generate electricity the formula for total powersthat can be generated from water in hydrocleetrie power plants due to its height is given. ‘© The potential energy of water stored at a height is converted into mechanical enerey in water turbine, + The mechanical energy produced by the water turbine is converted into electrical energy. After doing useful work water is discharged from the turbine ta the river through water to the tail race through a draft tube. Meri © Environmental friendly sonree, large scale power generation. energy at free of cost Demerits: SS Dept. of Mechanical Engg, CITECH IbGo Paperless - Save The Earth igiNotes Di Elements Of Mechanical Engineering I8MEIS/25 ‘= Exponsive to build the dam, cummer water may not sufficient to produce electricity. NUCLEAR POWER: + Nuclear energy is the energy that holds the nucleus of an atom. © The energy released during nuclear fission or fusion, especially when used to generate electricity. ‘+ Nuclear Fission: Nuclear fission is the process of splitting a nucleus into two nuclei with smaller masses, Fission means “to divide”. “The most common nuclear fuels are 239U. Not all nuclear fuels are used in fission chain reactions’ Chain Reaction: - ¢ A chain reaction is an ongoing (setiesyof fission reactions. Rillions of reactions occur each second in a chdin' reaction; * On earth, nuclear fission, reactions) take’ placé?in nuclear reactors, which use controlled chain reactions tb generate-electricity. Uncontrolled chain reficigns take place durifg.the explosion of an atomic bomb © Nuclear Fusion: Nuclear fusionsis the combining of two-nuélei) withtow, masses to form one nucleus of large mass Nuclear fusion reactions are also valled thermonuclear reactions, Working principle of a nuclear power sfatinn: The schematic diagram of nuclear power station i shownin fi * A generating station in which nuclear energy #5 converted into electrical energy is known aé nuclear power bation, 4 The tain eomponents of this station afe/muclear FaRctOr, control rads, steam generators, steam turbine, cootant pump, feed pump, condenser, cooling tower. NUCLEAR REACTOR= A nuclear reactor is a devige in. which nuclear.chain, reactions-are initiated, controlled, and sustained at a steady rate, af Oppdsed to 4 nuelear Bomb, in Which the chain reaction occurs in a fraction of a segond'and is uncontrolled causing an explosion. CONTROL RODS: © Control rods made of a material that absorbs neutrons are inserted into the bundle using a mechanism that can rise or lower the control rods. = The contol rds esscutially vontain neutun absorbers like, boron, eadinium ot indium. SS Dept of Mechanical Engg, CITECH 1Go Paperless - Save The Earth DigiNotes Elements Of Mechanical Engineering I8MEIS/25 STEW Une a inl oun rower leume lune (COU wareR conoensen Nuclear Energy Conversion STRAM GENERATORS: © Steam generators are héat-exchangers ‘ised tovconvert water into steam from heat produced in a nuclear redetor core. mr + Either ordinary water or heavy water is used as the coolant STEAM TURBINE: + A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extiacts thermal, enerdy from pressurized steam, and convertsit into useful mechanical. | © Various high-performance allays and Super alloys haye beem sed for steam generator tubing. COOLANT PUMP: * The coolant pump pressurizes the coolant 1 pressures-of the order of 15Sber. © The pressure of the coolant Iyopyis, maiptained-alanost-eonstant with the help of the pump and a pressurizet unit | FEED PUMP: © Steam comingout of the turbine, flows through the condense for condensation and recirculated for the net eyele of operation: © The feed pimp cifculates thegondensed water in the working flnid loop CONDENSE! = Condenser a device or unit which is used to condense vapor into ©The objective af the condenser is to reriuce the turbine exhanst pressure to increase the efficiency and to recover high quality feed water in the form of condensate & feedback it to the steam generator without any further treatment, COOLING TOWER: + Couling towers are heat removal devives used lv Wausfer process waste heat tw the atmosphere © Water circulating through the condenser is taken to the cooling tower for cooling and reuse SS Dept of Mechanical Engg, CITECH fElements Of Mechanical Engineering I8MEIS/25 ADVANTAGES: © Nuclear power generation does emit relatively low amounts af carhon dioxide (C02) © The emissions of greenhouse gases and therefore the contribution of nuclear power plants to global warming is therefore relatively little # This technology is readily available; it does not have to be developed first. # It is possible to generate a high amount of electrical energy in one single plant DISADVANTAGES: The problem of radioactive waste is still an unsolved one. # High risks: Itis technically impossible to build a plant with 100% security. ‘© The energy source for nuclear energy is Uranium. Uranium is a scarce resource; its supply is estimated to last only for the next 30 to 60 years depending on the actual demand. BIOFUELS Introduction; + Biomass is biological matcrial derived froth Jiving, ot recently living organisms. It most often refers to plaritS-or’plant-derived materials which are specifically called lignocelluloses. © Asan eneigy source, biomass can-eitltebe-used divectly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectlwafter converting it to Varfous forms of biofuel: ‘* This biomass|may bé transformed by physical, chemical-and biological processes to biofuels. In-chemical forms biomass is stored solar eneray and canbe converted into solid, liquid and gascous energy carries, ‘© Biomass is bioldgieal/organic material derived from-livingyor recently living organisms. (he term is, equally applicable ta, both anfmal\and vegetable derived material, but i the context Of energy, iC refers tg plait bases! material) + The term ‘Diofuel’ Feférs to liquid or gascous fuels for the transport sector that are predominantly produced from biomass. # A vatiety of fuels-can-be produted-trontbiomass resources inelliding liquid fuels, such as eilaiol, metialiol, biodiesel, Fischei-Trupsclr diesel, aiid gaseous fuels, sucl as hydrogen andsiethdine. © The biomass resource base for bioflel ‘production is eolnposed of a wide variety of forestry and agriculturahresourees, industrial processing residues, and municipal solid and urban wood residues. © Renewable energy sourge and ‘Stored|in_fommi_of complex drganic compounds of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen ¢te, © Itis a source of “SF*: food, fodder, fuel, fibre and fertilizer. © It can be converted into useful forms of energy through different conversion routes. * Gets converted into fossil fuels after several million years under certain conditions of pressure, temperature, air etc. fossil fuels are not renewable, hence, are nat biomass, Go Paperless - Save The Earth igiNotes Di Source of biomass: - sources of biomass/biofuels ai in engineering applications: - «The various bio-tuels are bio-methanol, bio-ethanol, bio-diesel, bio-gas and producer gas, First-generation biofuels are made from sugar, starch, vegetable oil, or animal fats using conventional technology. ‘The basic feedstock for the production of first-generation biofuels comes from agriculture and food processing Examples of various biofuels used SS Dept. of Mechanical Engg, CITECH VGo Paperless - Save The Earth igiNotes Di Elements Of Mechat 1 Engineering 18MEIS/25 The most common first-generation biofuels are: Biodiesel: Extraction with or without esterification of vegetable oils from seeds of plants like soybean, oil palm, oilseed rape and sunflower or residues including animal fats derived from rendering applied as fuel in diesel engines. Bioethanol: Fermentation of simple sugars from sugar crops like sugarcane or from starch crops like maize and wheat applied as fuel in petrol engines Bio-oil: Thermo-chemical conversion of biomass. A process still in the development phase. Biogas: Auaciobic fermentation o urgaiic Waste, whinall Araultiteseaup residues an energy Cups applied as fuel in engines suitable for compressed natural gas” Second-generation biofuels are derived from non-food feedstock-includingylignocellulose biomass like crop residues or woud. Two transformative wechriologies are Unde levelopinicne Sunlight 6CO, +6H,0 —————> _(CH,0}, + 60, + 636 kCal Chlorophyll t (biomass) Biochemical: Moaification of the hio-cthaflol férmentation| process jinclnding’ a pretreatment procednre Thermo chemicalModifieation of the. biv-oil process to produce-symyas and methanol, Fisher-Tropsch diesel or dimethyl ether (OME). Emission of bio-fuels: Biodiesel plays a vital role én\reduéing emission of Many air polfitants, The emission of carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx) ete.., is lesser than those of petroleum fuels ad tis these are eo-friendly. ci c lorific value of bio-fuels: lorific values of biofuels.will be considerably lesser than thatof petroleum fuels. Advantages of biomass energy: Renewable and inevhaustible (theoretically) source of energy. © Biomass is very abundant. * Itis easy to convert to & high energy portable fuel such as alcohol or gas which is fficient, viable and relatively elean-burning ‘= Itis cheap in contrast to the other energy sources. Biomass production can often mean the restoration of waste land (e.g. deforested areas). Commercial use of biomass may reduce the problem of waste disposal + It may also use areas of unused agricultural land and provide jobs in rural communities SS Dept. of Mechanical Engg, CITECHGo Paperless - Save The Earth DigiNotes Elements Of Mechanical Engineering I8ME15/25 When direct combustion of plant mass is not used to generate energy (Le fermentation, pyrolysis, ete. are used instead), there is minimal environmental impact \dvantages of biomass energy: A dispersed and land-intensive source Low energy density. Could contribute a great deal too global warming and particulate pollution if directly burned Still an expensive source, both in terms of producing the biomass and converting it to alcohols. On a small scale there is most likely a net loss of energy- energy must be put 1 (0 grow the plant mas. Difference hetween Biofuels and petrolenm based.fuels | Biofuels | Petroleum based Fuels is ate produced from biological materials or biomass that include plants and animal based source | | materials like com, vegetable oul, |_| sugarcane, animal ft et, TR Reduces green house (toxic gases) gas emissions wewable fuel These are fossil tuels that were Formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants and animals by exposure to heat and pressure in the earth’ crust. Non-renewable. Gas emission is comparatively higher Pollutes environment badly. Calorific value of biofuels ranges from 30 t0 37 AUlkg and is dependent on the feedstock sources, Calorific value ranges from 42 to 48 Produces better lubneity and more complete combustion thereby increasing the energy oulpul of the engine, Diesel aids in lubrication, while petrol destroys lubrication in engines, 6, | Biodegradable and ster. Not safe, chanical Engg, CITECH SS Dept of MGo Paperless - Save The Earth iNotes a Elements Of Mechanical Engineering I8MEIS/25 Steam Formation and Properties: Introduction: All the substance under suitable conditions of temperature and pressure can exist in one of the three states via solid, liquid or gas. But water is one of the pure substances that exist in all the three phases namely in solid phase as ive, liquid phase us water and gaseous phases us ‘vapour (steam). Most of the practical problems in thermal engincering are concerned with liquid and gaseous phase rather than the solid phase Water, which is liquid at normal temperature begins to boil to form steam when heat sufficiently. In practice, steam is _gonerated in stcam generators or popularly known as BOILERS. Definition of Steam: © Steam can be defined as itis a mishyreo0 water and ait or it can also be defined as vapour of water Formation of steam at constany pressure: Consider 1 kg of water at O0C takenIfajeylinder, on which a constant pressure P is exerted. rt = + Point A on the temperattite-enthalpy-graph-When (his waters heated its temperature rises till the boiling point js zeached. This temperature is cllled saturation temperature (Ts) Point # off the Graph Further addition of heat, initiates thé evaporation of water while the temperature remains at saturation temperature untitall of water is converted into steam, © Point © on the/graph On heating the sfeam filrther, it increvisesthe temperature of steam above the saturated temperature to superhieared steam. Water at boil temp. °C. Dry steam Superheated 4 im at °C. Dept. of Mechanical Engg, CITECH 20Go Paperless - Save The Earth iNotes a Elements Of Mechanical Engineering I8MEIS/25 Fig: Formation of steam at constant pressure E § z Jy ~ sensible heat = Be h_= latont heat i Vapouriting : 4, = superheat i 1, saturation temp. Liquid + vapour; SYrementet oo pane i G. = specific heat orc Enthalpy (H) Fig: Tempéranife-enthalipy|(TH) diagram Saturation temperature (Ts): It is defined a the temperature at which the water begins to,boil at constant pressure. Sensible heat (hf); It is the amount of heat reqitired to raise the temperatiire.of | kg.of water from 0°C to. the saturation temperature oiling, point) al constant pressure. TLis also Knows as enthalpy of the liquid. Latent heat of evaporation (fg): It is the amount of heat required to-evapordte’l kg of svater at satufation temperature to 1 kg of dry steam-at-the-same saturation température at constant-pressure. Also known as enthalpy of evaporation, Enthalpy of superheat: The amount of néat! Féquired! to Gheréase- the teinpefatiire of dry steam from its saturation temperature, to~any «lesired> higher, temperature at constant pressure is called enthalpy of supetheat, STATES OF STEAM: The steam as it is being generated can exist in 3 states as wet steam, dry saturated steam and superheated steam ‘Wet Steam: It is defined ag a two-phase mixture of entrained water molecules and steam at saturation temperature, Dry Steam (dry saturated steam): ‘As wet steam is heated further. the water molecules in the steam get converted into vapour. Dry steam is the steam at saturation temperature having no water molecules in it Point C SS Dept of Mechanical Engg, CITECHGo Paperless - Save The Earth igiNotes Di Elements Of Mechat 1 Engineering 18MEIS/25 Superheated Steam: It is defined as the steam which is heated beyond its dry state to temperatures higher than its saturated temperature at the given pressure. Dryness fraction of steam: ‘A wet steam has different proportions of water molecules and dry steam. Hence, the quality of wet steam is specified by the dryness fraction which indicates the amount of dry steam in the given quantity of wet steam and is denoted by x. It is defined as the ratio of mass of dry steam in a given quantity of wet steam to the total mass of wet steam, Let mg = mass of dry steam mf = mass of water molecules Dryness fraction, x= mg/ (mg*mf) + The dryness fraction of wet steam is less than 1 The dryness fraction of dry steam is 1 ENTHALPY (h), ki/kg: Itis the amount of heat required t9,saise-the temperature of 1 kg of water from 0°C to the desired form of steam at constant pr¥sstte Itis the sum of the intemal energy’and work done af consti pressure. Enthalpy of Dry Saturated Steam (hg)! It is the amount of heat required to;raisejthe.tempeérature of 1 kg of water from 0°C to 1 kg of dry sarurared steam at constanepresstire. w= Af Mf KI/KE Enthalpy of Wet Steam (hi); Itis the amount of heat fequired to raise the temperatiite of 1 kg of water from 0"C to 1 kg of wet steamy to the spevified diyness fraction, at constant pressure, AAC! xhfy KI/Kg, Enthalpy of Superheated-Steam (hsup): This the amuuny OC heat required to raise the teuiperatue Uf Pky of water fiom 0°C w 1 kg of superheated steam to the stated saturated steam temperature, at Constant pressure {tis the sum of enthalpy of dry steam and the amount of’superheat © hsup=hg*Cps(Tsup-Ts) KKg * hsup=hfthfgiCps(Tsup -T8) KUK Where Cps is the specific heat of superkeated steam. Steam Properties: * Ice melts, © Water is heated beyond boiling point. © Steam is (lefined a$ vapour of water © Vaporization. * Gaseous phase. * Steam is two phase mixture of water and steam. The important properties of steam are 1. Pressure 4. Enthalpy 2. Temperature 5. Internal energy 3. Specific volume 6. Entropy Specific volume (m3 /kg): Itis the volume occupied by the unit mass of a substance. Specific Volume of Dry Saturated Steam (Vg): It is the volume occupied by | kg of dry saturated steam at a given pressure. Specific Volume of Wet Steam (v): SS Dept. of Mechanical Engg, CITECH 2Go Paperless - Save The Earth DigiNotes Elements Of Mechanical Engineering ISMEIS/25 It is the volume occupied by 1 kg of wet steam ta the specified dryness fraction at a given pressure. v=xvg Internal Energy of Steam: The total heat energy of a dry saturated steam at a constant pressure is the sum of the sensible heat and latent heat. But in latent heat a portion is used for external work. Therefore, the actual energy stored in the steam is the sensible heat and the intemal latent heat. This actual eneray stored in the steam is called internal energy of steam. It is defined as the difference between the enthalpy of the stcam and the extemal work of evaporation CAhARRIDCE CAMBRIDGE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Dept of Mechanical Engg, CITECH B