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Analytical and Numerical Modeling of the Effect of the Tilt Angle on Natural
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 № 10 (2014)

№ 10 (2014)
Физико-математические,
технические и биологические науки
 РЕЦЕНЗИРУЕМЫЙ НАУЧНЫЙ ЖУРНАЛ
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Подписной индекс 64544
СЕГОДНЯ В НОМЕРЕ
A. K. Belyaev, V. A. Polyanskiy, Y. A. Yakovlev, p. 13–14
Nowadays, the problem of the influence of low concentrations of hydrogen in metals attracts a lot of
attention. Though hydrogen concentration can be very low (a few ppm, i.e. some dozen atoms of
hydrogen in a million of atoms of the metal matrix), its influuence on the mechanical properties of the
metals can be of crucial importance.
A. A. Grib, p. 61
The successes of quantum physics in explaining all the phenomena of the microworld — from
elementary particles to molecules and theories of superconductivity — and superfluidity are so evident
that no member of the physical community has any doubts about the correctness of it’s mathematical
formalism making it possible to make all these predictions.
V. D. Berdonosov, A. A. Zhivotova, p. 93
Scientific and technological progress, data transfer enhancements, storage and processing technologies
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matter of seconds. However, as a rule, the information that we receive is unstructured, inconsistent,
fragmented, and non-linear. Thus, as the volume of produced and consumed information increases, its
quality unacceptably decreases.
V. G. Shubnikov, I. V. Shturts, A. A. Zherzdev, p. 116
The result of ultrasound scanning is the 2D images of cross sections of the body obtained in two modes.
In the binary or so called B-mode, the density gradations of tissue along the beam are displayed. In
Doppler mode (or D-mode) only a moving stream of the blood in the vessels is displayed. Only an
experienced ultrasound specialist is able to understand and interpret these images. To make the picture
clear to an orderly or a surgeon, you need to reconstruct a 3D model of the vessels and display it on the
screen so that they could detect the bleeding point.
B. Zupancic, p. 127
… we are talking about computer support modelling, when models are not described at least at the
model top level with differential equations, transfer functions or state space, but with more practical and
less mathematical building blocks or library components. So, models become more similar to
technological schemes and, therefore, are a good media for understanding and discussing in
interdisciplinary working groups.
 Humanities & Science University Journal

CONTENTS

A. K. Belyaev, V. A. Polyanskiy, Hydrogen Diffusion in Weakly-Coupled Vibrating

Yu. A. Yakovlev Structures ..................................................................... 13
M. A. Churilova, M. E. Frolov Functional a Posteriori Error Estimates for Linear
Elasticity: Computational Properties and Adaptive
Algorithms ................................................................... 23
A. A. Ivankov Software Platform for Real Time Investigation
of Cerebral Hemodynamics ......................................... 37
V. V. Kurtc, I. E. Anufriev A Multirate Numerical Scheme for Large-Scale
Vehicle Traffic Simulation ........................................... 50
A. A. Grib Fock’s Principle of Relativity to Measuring Devices
in Quantum Physics. The Copenhagen Interpretation . 60
Yu. E. Danilovsky, A. I. Priven Elementary TRIZ Education for Engineers:
Disadvantage as a Key Concept ................................... 70
F. Palcak Application of TRIZ Approach in the Research
Into Seismic Resistance ............................................... 82
V. D. Berdonosov, Application of the TRIZ-Evolutionary Approach
A. A. Zhivotova to Studying Knowledge Fields Using the Example
of Python/Django Web-Development Tools Analysis ... 93
I. A. Kudryavtseva Commutative Diagrams Construction Technology
for Functions in Point-Free Style ................................103
V. G. Shubnikov, I. V. Shturts, 3D-Reconstruction and Visualization of Blood
A. A. Zherzdev Vessels Based on the Ultrasound Scan Data ...............115
B. Zupancic Realisation Preserving Modelling in Modelica.......... 126
E. A. Novikov, A. E. Novikov An Algorithm of Variable Order and Step, Based
on the Stages of the Dormand-Prince Method ........... 140
D. Klimenta, M. Jevtic, D. Tasic, Analytical and Numerical Modeling of the Effect
J. Klimenta, B. Perovic, M. Jevtic of the Tilt Angle on Natural Convection from ETCs
and PV Panels ............................................................ 148
D. Klimenta, B. Perovic, Thermal FEM-Based Procedure for Design
M. Jevtic, J. Radosavljevic, of Energy-Efficient Underground Cable Lines .......... 162
N. Arsic
Yu. V. Shornikov, A. V. Bessonov, Numerical Solution of Hybrid Systems with PDE
M. S. Nasyrova, D. N. Dostovalov in the ISMA Simulation Environment ....................... 189
COMOD 2015 Call for Papers & Tutorials .......................................................................203

11
 Университетский научный журнал
СОДЕРЖАНИЕ
А. К. Беляев, В. А. Полянский,
Ю. А. Яковлев
М. А. Чурилова, М. Е. Фролов
А. А. Иванков
В. В. Курц, И. Е. Ануфриев
А. А. Гриб
Ю. Э. Даниловский,
А. И. Привень
Ф. Пальцак
В. Д. Бердоносов,
А. А. Животова
И. А. Кудрявцева
В. Г. Шубников, И. В. Штурц,
А. А. Жерздев
Б. Зупанчич
Е. А. Новиков, А. Е. Новиков
Д. Климента, М. Евтич,
Д. Тасич, Е. Климента,
Б. Перович, М. Евтич
Д. Климента, Б. Перович,
М. Евтич, И. Радосавлевич,
Н. Арсич
Ю. В. Шорников,
А. В. Бессонов, М. С. Насырова, в среде моделирования ИСМА ................................189
Д. Н. Достовалов
КОМОД 2015 Приглашение к участию в конференции ...............................................203
Диффузия водорода в вибрирующих
слабосвязанных структурах .......................................13
Функциональные апостериорные оценки для задач
линейной упругости: вычислительные свойства
и адаптивные алгоритмы .............................................23
Математическое обеспечение для исследования
церебральной гемодинамики .....................................37
Быстрая схема численного интегрирования
с кратными шагами для задачи моделирования
автомобильного трафика в масштабах мегаполисов...50
Фоковский принцип относительности к средствам
измерения в квантовой физике. Копенгагенская
интерпретация .............................................................60
Начальное ТРИЗ-образование для инженеров:
недостаток как ключевое понятие .............................70
Применение подхода ТРИЗ в исследованиях
сейсмостойкости .........................................................82
Применение ТРИЗ-эволюционного подхода
к исследованию областей знаний на примере
анализа инструментов Web-разработки
Python/Django ..............................................................93
Технология построения коммутативных диаграмм
для функций в бесточечной форме записи ..............103
3D-реконструкция и визуализация кровеносных
сосудов по данным ультразвукового сканирования .115
Структурно-ориентированное моделирование
на языке Modelica ......................................................126
Алгоритм переменного порядка и шага
на основе стадий метода Дорманда-Принса...........140
Аналитическое и численное моделирование
влияния угла наклона на естественную конвекцию
с поверхности ЭTСK и ФЭ панелей ........................148
Тепловая процедура на основе МКЭ
для проектирования энергоэффективных
подземных кабельных линий ...................................162
Численный анализ гибридных систем с ДУЧП
12
 УНИВЕРСИТЕТСКИЙ
КОНСОРЦИУМ

Университетский научный журнал Научные статьи

D. KLIMENTA, M. JEVTIC, D. TASIC, J. KLIMENTA, B. PEROVIC, M. JEVTIC. Analytical and Numerical Modeling of the Effect...

№ 10 (2014)

Analytical and Numerical Modeling of the Effect

of the Tilt Angle on Natural Convection from ETCs
and PV Panels
D. Klimenta, M. Jevtic, B. Perovic
University of Pristina in Kosovska Mitrovica, Serbia
D. Tasic, University of Nis; M. Jevtic, University of Belgrade, Serbia
J. Klimenta
Independent consultant in the field of urban and spatial planning

Аналитическое и численное моделирование

влияния угла наклона на естественную конвекцию
с поверхности ЭTСK и ФЭ панелей
Д. Климента, М. Евтич, Б. Перович
Приштинский университет в Косовской Митровице, Сербия
Д. Тасич, Университет Ниш; М. Евтич, Белградский университет, Сербия
Е. Климента
Независимый консультант в области городского и территориального планирования

Keywords: This paper proposes procedures for analytical modeling of the heat
analytical model, transfer processes for both laminar and turbulent flows from an evacu-
ETC, heat ated tube collector (ETC) and a ground-mounted photovoltaic (PV)
transfer, natural panel at tilt angles of 0–90°. Using the data available in the literature
convection, for tilted cylinders and plates, appropriate heat transfer correlations
numerical model, are developed using the fundamental dimensionless number for natural
PV panel, tilt convection. The correlations cover the whole range of Prandtl num-
angle. bers and they are applied to estimate the heat transfer coefficients for
natural convection from an ETC and a PV panel, both surrounded by
air. The effects of the solar radiation and radiation heat losses from the
outer surfaces of the ETC and PV panel are taken into consideration.
The finite element method (FEM) and available experiments are used
for validation of the analytical procedures. All FEM-based computa-
tions are performed using the COMSOL.

Ключевые слова: Описаны процедуры аналитического моделирования процессов

аналитическая теплопередачи как для ламинарного, так и для турбулентного
модель, ЭTСK, потока с поверхности вакуумированных трубчатых солнечных
теплопередача, коллекторов и фотоэлектрических панелей, установленных на
естественная земле под углом наклона от 0 до 90°. Предложенные корреляции
конвекция, чис- для теплопередачи охватывают весь диапазон изменения числа
ленная модель, Прандтля и применяются для определения коэффициентов
ФЭ панель, угол теплопередачи при естественной конвекции в воздушной среде.
наклона.

148
 Humanities & Science University Journal

1. Introduction
It is well known that the tilt angle affects the operation of an evacuated tube
collector (ETC). The efficiency of an ETC grows when the angle of the tilt from
the vertical increases up to a certain value and then decreases. When an ETC

D. KLIMENTA, M. JEVTIC, D. TASIC, J. KLIMENTA, B. PEROVIC, M. JEVTIC. Analytical and Numerical Modeling of the Effect...
is horizontal its efficiency approaches zero. The tilt angle ψ affects particularly
the heat transfer by natural convection around an ETC, i.e. corresponding heat
loss. Furthermore, installation manuals explain in detail the effect of the tilt
angle on the performance of these collectors. In order to ensure reliable opera-
tion, according to installation manuals, the maximum tilt angle must be between
about 60−70° from the vertical [7; 8; 22].
Cooling is beneficial, whereas the efficiency of a photovoltaic (PV) cell or a PV
panel decreases with an increase in the operating temperature [23]. Hence, natural
or forced convection heat transfer from a tilted flat plate is of considerable interest
to engineers because of its application to solar PV electricity systems. On days with
little or no wind, natural convection heat transfer from upward-facing (UF) and
downward-facing (DF) surfaces becomes more significant [2]. This is especially
true in cold climates where the temperature differences between the surfaces of a
PV panel and the ambient air may be relatively large [2; 4]. Therefore, the tilt of a
PV panel is very important for its effective operation [1; 12]. In order to produce the
maximum amount of electricity, a PV panel must receive the highest possible radia-
tion from the sun. This occurs when the PV panel is perpendicular to sunrays [1].
Among other researchers, Tang et al. [21] have analyzed optimal tilt angles of
ETCs, while Wu et al. [28] have investigated the effect of the aperture position
on natural convection heat loss of a solar heat-pipe receiver. Zambolin and Del
Col [29] as well as Pluta [19] have studied the thermal performances of ETCs.
All these studies were carried out to determine the efficiency, optimal tilt angles
and other ETC performances eliminating the natural convection heat transfer
on the outer surface of ETCs, as well as the conduction heat transfer through
inner and outer tube walls. According to [13], the natural convection on the outer
surface of an ETC affects its efficiency and cannot be neglected, while the effect
of the conduction through the tube walls is negligible. Following the guidelines
for computation of the heat transfer on the outer surface of an ETC proposed
by Incropera et al. [13], it can be revealed that the natural convection heat loss
amounts to up to 35% of the total heat loss for the horizontal position (ψ=90°).
Moreover, ETCs are sensitive to the effect of the tilt angle [13].
Many studies have been devoted to natural convection heat transfer from
vertical, tilted and horizontal isothermal flat plates, as well as from UF and DF
isothermal surfaces [6; 10; 16–18; 26; 27]. Some of these studies are experimen-
tal [10; 17; 18; 26] while others are numerical [6; 16; 27]. Raithby and Hollands
[20] correlated a number of experiments on natural convection heat transfer
from a flat plate in both vertical and horizontal positions. They proposed a set
of natural convection correlations for laminar and turbulent flows from vertical,
horizontal UF and horizontal DF isothermal plates, and suggested correlations
for different tilt angles. According to [3], natural convection from a vertical plate
may be correlated with the fundamental dimensionless number while the only
correlations available for natural convection from horizontal plates are in the
form of Nu=C⋅(Ra)n. Furthermore, to the best knowledge of the authors, there
seem to be no correlations in the literature, based on the fundamental dimen-
sionless number, for modeling natural convection from a flat plate or PV panel

149
 Университетский научный журнал

at tilt angles between the vertical and horizontal limits. Application of such
correlations is the objective of this paper.
Typical parameters of a tilted ETC are its length L, outer diameter D and tilt
angle ψ from the vertical. Natural convection heat transfer outside the ETC rises
as it stands from the vertical (ψ =0°) to the horizontal (ψ=90°). In accordance
D. KLIMENTA, M. JEVTIC, D. TASIC, J. KLIMENTA, B. PEROVIC, M. JEVTIC. Analytical and Numerical Modeling of the Effect...

with [4], horizontal cylinders have to be treated as infinitely long in the axial
direction, so that the remaining characteristic length is the outer diameter of
the collector D. Vertical cylinders with a large diameter are treated as vertical
plates and the characteristic length is the collector length L [5]. Arpaci et al. [3]
used the same characteristic lengths and proposed the correlations NuD=C⋅(ΠND)n
and NuL=C⋅(ΠNL)n for horizontal and vertical cylinders, respectively; where ΠND
and ΠNL are the appropriate fundamental dimensionless numbers for natural
convection. However, the characteristic lengths for tilted ETCs and cylinders
are both the diameter and length due to the fact that natural convection is three-
dimensional phenomena around them [11].
Neglecting the orientation, typical parameters of a tilted PV panel are its
height L and tilt angle ψ from the vertical [2; 12]. If the flow is laminar, the natural
convection heat transfer from the UF or DF surface of a PV panel falls as it stands
from the vertical (ψ=0°) to the horizontal (ψ=90°). For a turbulent flow, however,
the natural convection heat transfer from the UF surface of a PV panel rises as it
stands from the vertical (ψ=0°) to the horizontal (ψ=90°). According to [3], for a
vertical PV panel, the characteristic length is the height L of the panel in the direc-
tion of gravity; while, for a horizontal PV panel, the characteristic length may be
one side of a square panel and the arithmetic mean of the two sides of a rectangular
panel. Therefore, Arpaci et al. [3] used different characteristic lengths for vertical
and horizontal plates, and proposed the correlation in the form of Nu=C⋅(ΠN)n only
for vertical plates; where ΠN is the appropriate fundamental dimensionless number
for natural convection. However, other researchers used the same characteristic
length L for different tilt angles between 0 and 90°.
In this paper, the authors aim to propose some analytical procedures for mod-
eling the effect of the tilt angle on natural convection heat transfer from an ETC
and a ground-mounted PV panel. Moreover, the authors use the tube/panel length/
height L and the tilt angle ψ and introduce the empirical correlations in the form
of Nu(ψ)=C(ψ)⋅(ΠN)n for which the characteristic length is the length/height L
and where the parameter C varies depending on the tilt angle ψ. Natural convec-
tion correlations are derived based on the experimental data presented in [11; 16].
2. Formulation of Heat Transfer Problems
A cross-section of one type of an ETC consisting of an inner copper tube
and outer borosilicate glass tube is presented in Fig. 1. The parameters shown in
Fig. 1 have the following meanings and values: D1,o=0.02 m, Δ1 and T1=100 °C
are the outer diameter, the wall thickness, and the temperature of the copper
tube, respectively; D=D2,o=0.075 m, Δ2 and T2 are the outer diameter, the wall
thickness, and the temperature of the glass tube, respectively. Ta=25 °C and Tw
are the ambient air and water temperatures. Qtr,s,S is the component of the inci-
dent solar irradiance, which is perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the glass
tube in W⋅m–2 and Qtr,s,St=750 W⋅m–2 is a portion of the component Qtr,s,S which
is transmitted through the glass tube. Qth,s,1→w is the rate of convection heat
transfer from the inner surface of the copper tube to the working fluid; Qtr,s,1→2
is the net rate of radiation heat exchange between the outer surface of the copper

150
 Humanities & Science University Journal

D. KLIMENTA, M. JEVTIC, D. TASIC, J. KLIMENTA, B. PEROVIC, M. JEVTIC. Analytical and Numerical Modeling of the Effect...
Fig. 1. Cross-section of an ETC and the relevant heat transfer processes

tube and the inner surface of the glass tube; Qtr,s,2→a is the net rate of radiation
heat exchange between the outer surface of the glass tube and the ambient air;
and Qth,s,2→a=Qth,s,2→a(ψ) is the rate of natural convection heat transfer from the
outer surface of the glass tube to the ambient air at different tilt angles ψ. The
heat transfer coefficients corresponding to the heat transfer processes Qtr,s,1→2,
Qtr,s,2→a and Qth,s,2→a are hr1,o, hr2,o and h2,o=h2,o(ψ), respectively.
The length of this ETC is L = 1 m. The glass tube is transparent to solar radia-
tion. The absorption coefficient of the copper tube with respect to solar radiation
is αr1,o=1. The surface of the copper tube has a thermal emission coefficient of
εr1,o=0.13 with respect to its radiative interaction with the inner surface of the
glass tube. The borosilicate glass can be assumed to be opaque to thermal radia-
tion from the copper tube with the thermal emission coefficient of 1 on both its
inner and outer surfaces, i.e. εr2,o=εr2,i=1.
The heat transfer processes along the surfaces of a PV panel are shown in
Fig. 2. The parameters displayed in Fig. 2 have the following meanings and
values: n is a normal to the UF surface of the PV panel; γ is the angle between
the vertical and the normal n; ψ=90° − γ is the tilt angle from the vertical; δ is
the angle between the sunrays and the normal n; g is the gravitational constant;
WPV=0.52 m is the width of the PV panel; LPV=0.45 m is the length of the
PV panel; ΔPV=0.05 m is the thickness of the PV panel. Moreover, TUF, TDF,
Ta=22 °C, Tsky and Tg are the UF surface, DF surface, ambient air, sky and
ground temperatures, respectively. TPV is the mean temperature of the PV panel;
αUF=0.91 is the absorption coefficient of the UF surface of the PV panel; Q’E,s,S
is the incident solar irradiance in W⋅m–2; QE,s,S=Q’E,s,S⋅cosδ=920 W⋅m–2 is the
component of the incident solar irradiance which is perpendicular to the UF
surface of the PV panel [9]. Qth,s,UF→a=Qth,s,UF→a(ψ) and Qth,s,DF→a=Qth,s,DF→a(ψ)
are the rates of the natural convection heat transfer from the UF and DF surfaces
of the PV panel to the ambient air at the tilt angle ψ, respectively. Qtr,s,UF→a and
Qtr,s,DF→a are the net rates of radiation heat exchange between the UF and DF
surfaces of the PV panel and the surroundings, respectively. Finally, Qel is the
electric power generated by the PV panel. Fig. 2 shows the sky and the ground
are modeled as two infinite parallel flat plates.

151
 Университетский научный журнал

D. KLIMENTA, M. JEVTIC, D. TASIC, J. KLIMENTA, B. PEROVIC, M. JEVTIC. Analytical and Numerical Modeling of the Effect...

Fig. 2. Heat transfer along the surfaces of the PV panel

Moreover, the four sides of the PV panel are assumed to be adiabatic and the
two surfaces of the PV panel are assumed to be isothermal with different tem-
peratures. The ground temperature Tg is assumed to equal the sky temperature
Tsky. The heat transfer coefficients corresponding to the heat transfer processes
Qth,s,UF→a(ψ), Qth,s,DF→a(ψ), Qtr,s,UF→a and Qtr,s,DF→a, are hUF=hUF(ψ), hDF=hDF(ψ),
hr,UF and hr,DF, respectively.
Assuming a number of the parameters given in figures 1 and 2 are known,
heat losses due to natural convection and radiation need to be estimated for
different tilt angles ψ.
3. Analytical Heat Transfer Modeling of the ETC
The iterative procedure for computing h2,o requires knowledge of T2, hr1,o
and hr2,o, which are initially unknown. To obtain an initial estimate of T2, the
same numerical value that corresponds to the turbulent natural convection in
air (e.g. 12 W·m–2·K–1) can be taken for all unknown heat transfer coefficients.
Therefore, the initial estimate of T2 can be made from
S1,o ⋅ Qtr ,s ,1→2 = S 2,o ⋅ Qth ,s ,2→a + S 2,o ⋅ Qtr ,s ,2→a (1)
as follows
hr1,o ⋅ S1,o ⋅ T1 + (h2,o + hr 2,o ) ⋅ S 2,o ⋅ Ta
T2 = , (2)
hr1,o ⋅ S1,o + (h2,o + hr 2,o ) ⋅ S 2,o
where
Qtr ,s ,1→2 = hr1,o ⋅ (T1 − T2 ) ; (3)
hr1,o = εr1,o· σSB· F1− 2 ⋅ (T1 + T2 ) ⋅ (T12 + T22 ) ; (4)
Qth ,s ,2→a = h2,o ⋅ (T2 − Ta ) ; (5)
Qtr ,s ,2→a = hr 2,o ⋅ (T2 − Ta ) ; (6)
hr 2,o = εr2,o· σSB ⋅ F2− a ⋅ (T2 + Ta ) ⋅ (T + T ) ; 2
2
a
2
(7)

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 Humanities & Science University Journal

S1,o is the outer surface area of the copper tube; S2,o is the outer surface area of
the glass tube; F1-2=1 and F2-a=1 are the appropriate radiation shape factors; and
σSB is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.
Four temperature dependent parameters for air at film temperature
Tf=(T2+Ta)/2 are used: kinematic viscosity ν, thermal diffusivity αt, thermal

D. KLIMENTA, M. JEVTIC, D. TASIC, J. KLIMENTA, B. PEROVIC, M. JEVTIC. Analytical and Numerical Modeling of the Effect...
conductivity kt and Prandtl number Pr. These parameters have been read from
corresponding input data files and interpolated using a cubic spline. The thermal
expansion coefficient of air is taken as β=1/Tf. Thus, the Rayleigh number based
on the outer diameter of the ETC RaD and the Rayleigh number based on the
length of the ETC RaL can be expressed as
RaD = g ⋅ β ⋅ (T2 − Ta ) ⋅ D 3 / (ν · αt) (8)
and
RaL = g ⋅ β· (T2 − Ta ) ⋅ L3 / (ν · αt), (9)
where D and L are appropriate characteristic lengths, and g is the gravitational
constant.
The fundamental dimensionless numbers for natural convection ΠND and
ΠNL, as well as the average Nusselt numbers NuD(ψ) and NuL(ψ), should be
computed using numerical values and equations for C0, n and C(ψ) from Table I.
Therefore, if the modified Nusselt number is defined as
NuD* = [ NuD (ψ)⋅ L + Nu L (ψ) ⋅ D ]/(2 ⋅ L) , (10)
the diameter D represents the characteristic length, and the coefficient h2,o becomes
h2,o = NuD* ⋅ kt / D . (11)
The heat transfer coefficients hr1,o and hr2,o should be computed using equa-
tions (4) and (7); the value of T2 should be recomputed by averaging the
assumed and found values of hr1,o, hr2,o and h2,o in each iteration; and, the
problem must be iterated until the difference between the previously assumed
and the newly found T2 becomes negligible. Ultimately, this iterative proce-
dure uses the final value of T2 to evaluate the final values of the heat transfer
coefficients hr1,o, hr2,o and h2,o.
Table I
Natural Convection Correlations for Isothermal Tilted Cylinders
NuD(ψ)=C(ψ)⋅(ΠND)n or Cylinder temperature is constant and
NuL(ψ)=C(ψ)⋅(ΠNL)n 0<Pr<∞
ΠND=RaD/(1+C0/Pr) or
Empirical correlation
ΠNL=RaL/(1+C0/Pr)
Tilted Flow regime and range
C0 C(ψ) n
cylinders of ΠND or ΠNL
for Laminar and
0.559 0.305⋅[1+0.7⋅sinψ] a 1/4
0<ψ≤90° 104≤ΠND≤109
for Turbulent and
0.559 0.057⋅[1+0.6⋅sinψ] b 1/3
0<ψ≤90° 109<ΠND≤1012
for Laminar and 0.67⋅[1+1.44⋅
0.492 1/4
0≤ψ<90° 104≤ΠNL≤109 ⋅(RaD)-0.04⋅sinψ] a
for Turbulent and 0.057⋅[1+1.89⋅
0.492 1/3
0≤ψ<90° 109<ΠNL≤1012 ⋅(RaD)-0.044⋅sinψ] a
a) Corrected according to [11].
b) Corrected according to [11; 20].

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 Университетский научный журнал

4. Analytical Heat Transfer Modeling of the PV Panel

Similarly, the iterative procedure for computing TPV requires the knowledge
of hUF, hDF, hr,UF and hr,DF, which are initially unknown. The same value (e.g.
12 W·m-2·K-1) can be taken for all unknown heat transfer coefficients and the
D. KLIMENTA, M. JEVTIC, D. TASIC, J. KLIMENTA, B. PEROVIC, M. JEVTIC. Analytical and Numerical Modeling of the Effect...

initial estimate of TPV can be made from

⎛ Qth ,s ,UF →a + Qtr ,s ,UF →a + Qth ,s , DF →a + ⎞
α UF ⋅ QE ,s ,S = ⎜ +Q ⎟⎠ (12)
⎝ tr ,s , DF →a + Qel / S PV
as follows
αUF ⋅ QE ,s ,S − Qel / S PV
TPV = + Ta , (13)
hUF + hr ,UF + hDF + hr , DF
where [2; 9; 14; 15]
Qth ,s ,UF →a = hUF ⋅ (TPV − Ta ) ; (14)
Qtr ,s ,UF →a = hr ,UF ⋅ (TPV − Ta ) ; (15)
hr ,UF = εUF ⋅ σ SB ⋅ (TPV
4
− Tsky
4
) /(TPV − Ta ) ; (16)

Qth ,s , DF →a = hDF ⋅ (TPV − Ta ) ; (17)

Qtr ,s , DF →a = hr , DF ⋅ (TPV − Ta ) ; (18)

hr , DF = ε DF ⋅ σ SB ⋅ (TPV
4
− Tg4 ) /(TPV − Ta ) ; (19)

Qel = ηel ⋅ αUF ⋅ QE ,s ,S ⋅ S PV ; (20)

Tsky = Tg = 0.0552 ⋅ Ta1.5 ; (21)

TPV = (TUF + TDF ) / 2 ; (22)
TUF ≈ Tcell = TDF + QE ,s ,S ⋅ ΔT / QER ,s ,S ; (23)

SPV=0.234 m2 is the area of the UF or DF surface of the PV panel; εUF=0.91 is

the thermal emission coefficient of the UF surface [2]; εDF=0.85 is the thermal
emission coefficient of the DF surface [2]; ηel=0.14 is the solar-to-electric power
conversion efficiency [9]; Tcell is the cell temperature inside the PV panel [14];
QER,s,S=1000 W⋅m-2 is the reference solar irradiance on the PV panel [14]; and
ΔT is the temperature difference between the cell and the DF surface of the PV
panel at a solar irradiance level of 1000 W⋅m-2 [14]. The temperature difference
ΔT is typically 3°C for an open rack PV panel with a glass/PV cell/polymer sheet
composition [2; 14].
The Rayleigh number based on the length of the PV panel can be expressed as
g ⋅ β ⋅ (TPV − Ta ) ⋅ L3
Ra = , (24)
ν ⋅ αt
where L=LPV is the characteristic length, and ν, αt, kt, Pr are the temperature
dependent parameters of the air at film temperature Tf=(TPV+Ta)/2.
The Nusselt number for natural convection along a flat plate tilted at an angle
0≤ψ≤90° can be correlated with

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 Humanities & Science University Journal

n n
Nu = C (ψ ) ⋅ (Π N ) = C (ψ ) ⋅ [ Ra /(1 + 0.492 / Pr )] , (25)
where C(ψ) and n are the dimensionless coefficients which should be selected
according to the conditions from Table II. In Table II, Gr is the Grashof number;
Grcr1 and Grcr2 are the critical Grashof numbers at which the flow along the UF

D. KLIMENTA, M. JEVTIC, D. TASIC, J. KLIMENTA, B. PEROVIC, M. JEVTIC. Analytical and Numerical Modeling of the Effect...
and DF surfaces starts deviating from laminar behavior, respectively. In accord-
ance with Corcione et al. [6] and Warneford [25], the following equations have
been constructed for the calculation of the critical Grashof numbers Grcr1 and
Grcr2 as functions of the tilt angle ψ and the Prandtl number Pr:
(5⋅cos ψ + 3.65)
Grcr1 = (1/ Pr ) ⋅10 (26)
10 0.0173⋅ψ
Grcr 2 = (6.31⋅10 / Pr ) ⋅ e (27)
for 0°<ψ≤90° and 0<Pr<∞. In case of a laminar flow (Gr≤109, Gr≤Grcr1 and
Gr≤Grcr2), the coefficients C(ψ) and n are determined based on empirical cor-
relations, numerical data and experimental results from [3; 10; 16; 18; 27]. In
case of a turbulent flow (Gr>109, Gr>Grcr1 and Gr>Grcr2), the coefficients C(ψ)
and n are determined based on empirical correlations and experimental results
from [10; 11; 16]. This implies the heat transfer coefficients hUF and hDF equal
hUF / DF = Nu (ψ ) ⋅ kt / L . (28)

Moreover, from iteration to iteration the coefficients hr,UF and hr,DF should be
calculated using (16) and (19). Each new estimation for TPV should be calculated
by averaging the previously estimated and newly found values of hr,UF, hUF, hr,DF
and hDF. The iteration process continues until the difference between the previ-
ously estimated and the newly found TPV becomes negligibly small. Finally, in
this iterative procedure the final value of TPV is used to calculate the final values
of hUF, hDF, hr,UF and hr,DF, as well as TUF and TDF using (22) and (23).

5. Numerical Heat Transfer Modeling of ETCs and PV Panels

The 2-D FEM-based (finite element method) model of the thermo-statics in
the ETC or in the PV panel is described by the following equation:
⎛ ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ⎞
kt ,eff ⋅ ⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟ + Qt ,v = 0 , (29)
⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
where Qt,v is the volume power of heat sources located in the ETC or in the PV
panel in W·m–3, and
Qtr ,s ,1→2 ⋅ D1,o ⋅ ln( D2,o / D1,o )
kt ,eff ≈ (30)
2 ⋅ (T1 − T2 )
is the effective thermal conductivity of the evacuated space between the two
tubes of the ETC in W·K–1·m–1 or
(Qth ,s , DF →a + Qtr ,s , DF →a ) ⋅ Δ PV
kt ,eff = (31)
TUF − TDF
is the effective thermal conductivity of the materials placed between the UF
and DF surfaces of the PV panel in W·K–1·m–1, respectively. Heat losses due to

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 Университетский научный журнал

natural convection and radiation Qth,s,DF→a, Qtr,s,1→2 and Qtr,s,DF→a are computed
by the use of previously obtained coefficients hDF, hr1,o and hr,DF, respectively.
Moreover, x and y are Cartesian spatial coordinates in m, and T is the tempera-
ture in K.
D. KLIMENTA, M. JEVTIC, D. TASIC, J. KLIMENTA, B. PEROVIC, M. JEVTIC. Analytical and Numerical Modeling of the Effect...

Table II
Natural Convection Correlations for Isothermal Tilted Plates

Nu(ψ)=C(ψ)⋅(ΠN)n Plate temperature is constant

ΠN=Ra/(1+0.492/Pr)
0<Pr<∞ Correlation
Range of
Geometry Flow Gr C(ψ) n
Plate Surface regime
Vertical Sideward- Laminar Gr≤109 0.67 1/4
(ψ =0°) facing Turbulent Gr>109 0.057 1/3
Upward- Laminar Gr≤Grcr1 0.67⋅(cos ψ)1/4 1/4
Tilted facing Turbulent Gr>Grcr1 0.057+0.098⋅(sin ψ)1/3 1/3
(0°<ψ<90°) Downward- Laminar Gr≤Grcr2 0.67⋅(cosψ)1/4 1/4
facing Turbulent Gr>Grcr2 0.046+0.011⋅(cosψ)1/3 1/3
Upward- Laminar Gr≤Grcr1 0.376 1/4
Horizontal facing Turbulent Gr>Grcr1 0.155 1/3
(ψ=90°) Downward- Laminar Gr≤Grcr2 0.308 1/4
facing Turbulent Gr>Grcr2 0.046 1/3
To solve the equation (29), boundary conditions (BCs) have to be applied
on the surfaces of the two solution domains, as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The
cross-sections of the ETC and PV panel represent these two domains. BCs on
the surfaces of the ETC are given by
T = T1 — known temperature BC, (32)
Fn = k t,eff ⋅ (∂T / ∂n) = h2,o ⋅ (T − Ta ) — convection BC, (33)
Fn = k t,eff ⋅ (∂T / ∂n) = hr2,o ⋅ (T − Ta ) — radiation BC, (34)

where T1 is the known value of temperature in K and Fn is the normal component

of heat flux density in W⋅m–2.
BCs on the surfaces of the PV panel are given by
Fn = k t,eff ⋅ (∂T / ∂n) = 0 — thermal insulation BC, (35)
Fn = k t,eff ⋅ (∂T / ∂n) = h ⋅ (T − Ta ) — convection BC, (36)
Fn = k t,eff ⋅ (∂T / ∂n) = hr ⋅ (T − Ta ) — radiation BC, (37)
where h is hUF or hDF and hr is hr,UF or hr,DF.

6. Simulation Results and Discussion

Table III summarizes the results obtained for the ETC at various tilts. For each
tilt a set of 14 iterations was needed. The heat transfer coefficients are calculated
using a program developed specifically for the purposes of the present paper.
It can be noticed from Table III that the heat transfer coefficient h2,o has the
same type of trend as the one that was obtained by Wu et al. [28] for a solar
heat-pipe receiver. According to [19], the heat loss due to natural convection is

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negligible. However, Table III shows that the coefficient h2,o is in the range of
or slightly larger than the overall heat loss coefficients for ETCs amounting to
1.5−2.5 W⋅m–2⋅K–1 [19]. Moreover, the natural convection heat loss on the outer
surface of the ETC changes between 23 and 34.3 % of the total heat loss when
the tilt angle increases from 0 to 90°.

D. KLIMENTA, M. JEVTIC, D. TASIC, J. KLIMENTA, B. PEROVIC, M. JEVTIC. Analytical and Numerical Modeling of the Effect...
Table III
Heat Transfer Coefficients and Temperature T2 for the ETC at Different Tilt Angels
Numerical
Analytical model
ψ in model
degrees hr1,o hr2,o h2,o
T2 in °C T2 in °C
in W⋅m–2⋅K–1 in W⋅m–2⋅K-1 in W⋅m–2⋅K–1
0 1.143 6.097 1.823 27.778 27.774
10 1.142 6.094 2.065 27.699 27.696
20 1.142 6.092 2.297 27.627 27.624
30 1.142 6.090 2.512 27.563 27.562
40 1.141 6.088 2.705 27.509 27.508
50 1.141 6.087 2.870 27.464 27.464
60 1.141 6.086 3.004 27.429 27.429
70 1.141 6.085 3.102 27.404 27.404
80 1.141 6.085 3.161 27.389 27.389
90 1.141 6.085 3.181 27.384 27.384

In both analytical analysis and FEM-based numerical analysis the effect of

the wall thickness of the glass tube on temperature distribution is neglected.
The differences between analytically and numerically obtained temperatures are
negligible as well. The temperature field distribution over the solution domain
(i. e. the cross-section of the ETC) for a tilt angle ψ=90° is presented in Fig. 3.
Table IV contains the analytical results obtained for various tilts. For each tilt
a set of 16 to 19 iterations was needed. The coefficients hUF, hDF, hr,UF and hr,DF
are calculated using the MATLAB program. It can be seen from Table IV that
the natural convection heat losses on the UF and DF surfaces of the PV panel
change between 13.94−19.25% and 7.44−15.17% of the total heat loss when the
tilt angle ψ changes between 0 and 90°, respectively. The coefficients hUF and
hDF have the same trend as the trend of the Nusselt number obtained by Lim et
al. [16] for a tilted flat plate.
The temperature field distribu-
tions over the cross-section of the PV
panel for ψ=0°, ψ=53° and ψ=90°
are presented in figures 4, 5 and 6,
respectively. The differences between
analytically and numerically obtained
temperatures are negligible. Also,
the results obtained for ψ=53° cor-
respond well to the experimental
data given in [9]. Date et al. [9]
measured the temperatures on a PV
panel placed at 37° facing north, i.e.
at ψ=53°. Fig. 7 shows comparison
between the measured and computed Fig. 3. The temperature distribution over the
temperatures. solution domain for ψ=90°

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 Университетский научный журнал

Table IV
Heat Transfer Coefficients for the PV Panel at Different Tilt Angels

Results of the analytical analysis

ψ hUF hDF hr,UF hr,DF kt,eff TUF TDF
D. KLIMENTA, M. JEVTIC, D. TASIC, J. KLIMENTA, B. PEROVIC, M. JEVTIC. Analytical and Numerical Modeling of the Effect...

deg W⋅m–2⋅K–1 W⋅m–2⋅K–1 W⋅m–2⋅K–1 W⋅m–2⋅K–1 W⋅m–1⋅K–1 °C °C

0 3.674 3.674 10.534 9.840 6.020 38.461 36.800
10 3.883 3.883 9.620 8.986 6.043 42.976 40.958
20 3.990 3.990 9.162 8.558 6.055 46.653 44.339
30 3.940 4.017 8.904 8.317 6.081 49.593 47.053
40 4.211 3.949 8.793 8.213 6.000 51.221 48.532
50 4.398 3.803 8.746 8.169 5.918 52.007 49.250
53 4.438 3.743 8.741 8.165 5.894 52.079 49.319
60 4.508 3.571 8.748 8.171 5.833 51.958 49.218
70 4.545 3.225 8.800 8.219 5.736 51.095 48.456
80 4.513 2.686 8.909 8.322 5.602 49.489 47.030
90 4.409 1.874 9.102 8.502 5.406 47.174 44.970

Fig. 4. The temperature distribution over Fig. 5. The temperature distribution over
the solution domain for ψ=0° the solution domain for ψ=53°

Fig. 7. Measured and computed

Fig. 6. The temperature distribution over temperatures on a ground-mounted PV
the solution domain for ψ=90° panel for ψ=53° and QE,s,S=920 W⋅m-2

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 Humanities & Science University Journal

7. Conclusions
The main conclusions arising from this paper are as follows:
• New correlations, based on the fundamental dimensionless number for
laminar and turbulent natural convection, are derived and successfully validated.

D. KLIMENTA, M. JEVTIC, D. TASIC, J. KLIMENTA, B. PEROVIC, M. JEVTIC. Analytical and Numerical Modeling of the Effect...
The correlation formulas apply for vertical, inclined and horizontal cylinders
and plates.
• Introducing the modified Nusselt number NuD* into the analytical model for
the ETC, a simple procedure to estimate the average heat transfer coefficients
due to natural convection is obtained. The heat transfer coefficients are available
for different tilt angles.
• Introduction of the effective thermal conductivities into the numerical
FEM-based models ensures that the heat conduction can be used to visualize
the radiation heat exchange occurring between the two tubes of the ETC, as
well as the complex nature of the heat transfer occurring between the UF and
DF surfaces of the PV panel.
• The heat transfer coefficients h2,o, hUF and hDF have trends which are in line
with the expectations for a tilted ETC and a tilted PV panel.
• The natural convection heat loss on the outer surface of the ETC changes
between 23 and 34.3 % of the total heat loss when the tilt angle increases from
0 to 90°.
• The total heat loss due to natural convection from the PV panel changes
between 26.47 and 32.7 % of the total heat loss in case the tilt angle changes
between 0 and 90°.
• The presented analytical results correspond well to the numerical results
obtained herein and to the existing experimental data.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper is based on the research conducted within the project TR33046.

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Dardan Klimenta
Ph.D. (Engineering Science)
University of Pristina in Kosovska Mitrovica, Faculty of Technical Sciences,
associate professor.
E-mail: dardan.klimenta@pr.ac.rs
Miroljub Jevtic
Ph.D. (Engineering Science)
University of Pristina in Kosovska Mitrovica, Faculty of Technical Sciences,
full professor.
E-mail: miroljub.jevtic@pr.ac.rs
Dragan Tasic
Ph.D. (Engineering Science)
University of Nis, full professor.
E-mail: dragan.tasic@elfak.ni.ac.rs
Jelena Klimenta
M.Sc.
Independent consultant in the field of urban and spatial planning.
E-mail: klimenta.jelena@gmail.com
Bojan Perovic
M.Sc.
University of Pristina in Kosovska Mitrovica, Faculty of Technical Sciences,
research assistant.
E-mail: bojan.perovic@pr.ac.rs
Milena Jevtic
M.Sc.
University of Belgrade, Technical Faculty in Bor,
research assistant.
E-mail: mjevtic@tf.bor.ac.rs

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