CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.0 Introduction

This chapter is organised under the following headings: The concept of social studies,

the scope of social studies, merits of using community resources in teaching and learning of

social studies, demerits of using community resources in teaching and learning of social

studies, method, procedures, and activities that can be applied in using community resources,

utilization of community resources in social studies, related studies on community resources

and summary.

2.1 The concept of social studies

The universe in our minds is one whole with parts which are linked, directly or

indirectly. The universe is, therefore, the source of all knowledge and the focus of all studies.

For the purpose of teaching and learning, subjects are separate, each one covering certain

aspects of knowledge into different compartments because this limits our understanding of

the subject. It also makes us prepare learners whose knowledge is restricted to the few

subjects they have studied (Benga, 2004).Social studies, as we all know is one of the subjects

that helps us to achieve the national goals and aims of education, which we learn in

professional Education Studies Module (EP1/). The term ‘social’ means the organization of

and relations between people and communities. Social studies, therefore is a subject of study

as well as an approach to the development, acquisition and use of knowledge that deals with

how people interrelate and interfere with one another and with their environments. Their

interactions and interrelationships are as result of human beings searching to satisfy their

basic needs and the comforts and facilities of the modern scientific and technological age.

The ways of interaction vary in time (hence history) and in space (hence geography).

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 Because knowledge about organization and relations between people in the world is one

whole, social studies consider knowledge as something that has no boundaries. It involves

integration, in which knowledge has links and relationships with other subjects. That means

the knowledge acquired in social studies can be used in a very wide range of situations.

(NCSS, 2004). In order to acquire knowledge and develop skills and a positive attitude

towards day to day life experiences, social studies makes use of many approaches to teaching

about social, economic, and political issues and problems.

In learning social studies, therefore, your recollection, use and transfer of facts and

skills to new situations improves because you are expected to use what you have learn in real

life situations. That is why the teaching and learning of social studies focuses on the

acquisition and use of knowledge, development and chance of attitude, use of skills all of

which influence our actions and Behavior. Once all these are achieved, then our values (ideas

and practices) will have been influenced and this will lead to quality living.According to

NERC (2000) social studies is “those common learning, of man’s interaction with his social

and physical environment. It is not only a study but a way of life of how man influence, and

is influenced by his physical, social, political, economic and external environment”. Kissock

(1990), conceptualized

social studies as “A programme of study which a society uses to instill in students to the

knowledge, skills, attitude and action, it considers important concerning the relationships

human beings have with each other’s, their world and themselves”. In 1992, the Board of

Directors of membership organization for social studies educator adopted the following

definition: Social studies is the integrated study of the social science and humanities to

promote civic competence. With the school program, social studies provides coordinated,

systematic study drawing upon such disciplines as anthropology, archaeology, economic,

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geography, history, law, philosophy, political science, psychology, religion, and sociology, as

well as appropriate content from the humanities, mathematics, and natural sciences.

Social studies is taught in kindergarten across the nation. As a field of study, social

studies may be more difficult to define than is a single discipline such as history or

geography, precisely because it is sometimes taught in one class (perhaps call “social

studies”) and sometimes in separate discipline-based classes within a department of social

studies.In a wholistic approach Aina, Adedoyin (2002), view social studies, to be the study of

man in his totality. This draws from a variety of sources to relate the individual to this social

environment developing the right attitudes, values and abilities to help him grow to become a

responsible citizen capable of performing his civic and national obligations., in Ololobou”s

(1999) perspective, social studies is “an organized integrated study of man and his

environment both physical andsocial emphasizing on cognition, functional skills and

desirable attitudes and action for the purpose of producing an effective citizenry”.

These definitions collectively put together reveal the following essential features of

social studies education – it is the study of man and the environment, it emphasizes on the

integration and indivisibility of knowledge, it emphasizes the growth and development of the

three domains of learning (cognitive affective and psychomotor), it is citizenship education, it

requires the practice of inquiry and problem solving in rational decision making (Kadiri et al,

2007).

2.1.1 The Scope of Social Studies

According to Kissock (2000) social studies programmes are the creations of the society

in which they are implemented. They are developed when a society determine that formal

instruction is required to develop a common set of understating, skills, attitudes and actions

among all members of the society. The scope of social studies therefore entails the extent of

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content coverage of social studies. Since man and how he interacts with the environment is

the concern of social studies, the scope emphasize: Historical issues where learners are

exposed to the accumulated knowledge of the past, arranged in chronological order to gain

understanding of the present to “cut out” a general course for the future.

Social-cultural issues where man’s life in society in relation to cherished norms, beliefs,

values and practices are focused so that they can be transmitted from one generation to the

other. Economic issues as it pertains the ability to man to adjust his unlimited wants to this

limited resources; the mobilization of resources for production and distribution of goods and

services are focused to prepare and equip learners with adult economic roles. Geographical

issues as it touches the influence of the physical environment on the action of man,

characteristics of places on the earth, roles of transportation and communication system in

moving goods, services, people and messages are brought to the attention of learners.

Political issues which concern the fundamental institutions of public administrationand

government, international relations, political institutions and processes, the exercise of power

and authority are addressed for learners to be abreast with ides of governance, law,

democracy, justice and equality. Scientific and technological issues are explored to help

learners understand cause and effect relationships and the systematic application of scientific

knowledge to solve practical problems of living.

Citizenship education intended to prepare learners to assume the shared right and

obligations as their world of knowledge and experience expands is emphasized.

Contemporary public issues that affect the wellbeing of man are also of concern, so as to help

learners develop survival skills and participate and contribute to the upliftment of

society.Kissock (1981) states that judging from analysis above social studies draws from all

forms of relevant human activities and experiences to help learners understand themselves,

the people they relate with and the world in which they live.

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2.2. The Concept of Community Resources

Whittich (2015) defines community resources as various learning situations through

which pupils come into first hand contact with people, places and all things around them. It

includes visiting organisations, institutions and neighbourhoods or regions of the community,

interviewing public officials and community leaders. The issue of use of community

resources is dynamic and diverse given any country's economic context. RuiruKiambu

County has broad resources. They can be categorised into three:Business units of the

economy, resource personnel, social –economic activities.The business units of the economy

are made up of a number of players that include financial service providers (commercial

banks andNBFI), insurance companies, entrepreneurial enterprises, manufacturing sector and

the NSE. The resource personnel in the community context comprises of leaders and

management teams of sectors of the economy in the region, for example business experts

andconsultants and analysts.Guest speakers can be anyone from environmental professionals

to student's family members to other community members. Social-economic activities

engaged in the context of community resources are business trips, seminars and exhibitions ,

students visits to business oriented firms and agencies as well as engagement of public

speeches, talks, forums in teaching and learningof business studies. These activities are

essential in equipping the students with skills and knowledge in learning , observing and

practising business procedures (banking, insurance, bookkeeping, international trade,

entrepreneurship and business etiquette) and programmes in the economy as well as

enhancing research abilities and it's consequent undertaking in business studies oriented

programmes.

The community is the best of learning resource to the social studies teacher. Learning

experiences that take place in the community museums, institutions, and organizations,

historical and cultural sites as well as in the natural environment addresses different learning

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styles of students as well as enhance motivation and connect classroom learning to real world

Educational trips beyond the regular classroom are intended to add meaning, vitality and

interest to classroom experiences. They encourage students to become active learners, and

provide a way of related theoretical study to practical problems in the real world. This

enhances the learning experience. The teaching and learning of social studies should not

therefore be confined to the four walls of the classroom because every community, however,

small, has resources that can be used to strengthen social studies education (Talabi, 2003).As

Parker (2001) points out “it is in the local community that the teacher sow the seeds of a life-

time study of human society”. It is in the local community that the children gain the

opportunity to observe at first-hand the social processes that function around him. He/she is

introduced to the problems of group living, government in operation, the production and

distribution of services and to the rich cultural heritage of the people who live in the

community. The social studies teacher may use community resources in two basic ways. One

is to bring some portion of the community into the classroom. For instance, the social studies

teacher makes use of community resources when he/she asks children to bring materials from

home like dyes, paints, clay, empty tins, newspapers, magazines, pieces of clothes, wood,

kitchen utensils, bottles, oil among other items for bulletin boards, collage construction,

mobile construction, slide construction, chalkboard construction or for the construction of

their projects. The personal experiences children have in the community and share with the

class are likewise a common use of community resources in teaching and learning. Resource

Persons/Guest Speakers could also be invited by the social studies teacher to the classroom.

A vital community resource for effective teaching and learning of social studies is the

resource Persons or Guest Speakers. These are usually people in the community with rich

experiences and expertise in specialized fields of human endeavour .Such people include;

Persons with special skills such as weavers, posters, blacksmiths and drummers, Persons with

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interesting hobbies--youth organizations, care for flowers, and singing, Members of service

organizations--the police, military, national fire service, commission on culture, and

commission on children’s rights, Early inhabitants of the community, Professional persons--

Doctors, Teachers, Engineers, Imams, Pastors, Bankers, and Lawyers, Government officials--

District Chief Executive, Director of Education, Head of Aids Commission, Legislatures--

Members of Parliament and District Assemblies, Chiefs. The other is to take the class out of

the school to some place or a person of importance in the community as in field trips.

2.3. Merits of using Community Resources in Teaching and Learning of Social Studies

Community experiences can enrich social studies in instructions in ways more than

one. To achieve the purposes of social studies, the child must, become a real part of the

community in which he lives, interact with it and contribute to it. To become an effective

citizen, the child must become a responsible member of community with civic attitudes and

ideals compatible with the spirit of democracy. There is no more effective way of becoming

this kind of person than through practicing what such a person will do (Adegboye, 2010). A

variety of community experiences offer the child the laboratory in which he may experiment

with life in the community and begin to find his place in it. Again, venturing into the

community, gives children an opportunity to observe and sometime to participate in the basic

human activities that characterize living in the social group. Children can go almost

everywhere under the careful guidance of the school and of cooperating community groups –

asking questions, gathering data and pooling information. They can investigate many phases

of human activity in the community. Visits to radio and television stations, telephone,

newspaper and telegraph offices clarify ideas about communication, study trips to airports

and other transportation centre as well as rides in a variety of vehicles, show how people and

goods are moved about. Production and consumption can be understood better when pupils

see the stores, the markets and factories of the community.

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 Education, government, religious activities, protection and conservation are all there

for children as they venture forth, hearing, seeing and sometimes taking part in the life of the

community. (Kochhar, 2012) Is of the opinion that there are so many community problems

which constitute the subject – matter of social studies. Traffic problems, protection of public

property, community beautification, conservation and law of observation are but a few to

which children can actually make a contribution appropriate to their level of development. A

problem shared builds interest, concern and a feeling of kinship, the principle works well

when pupils and community are thrown together in the consideration of vital problems.

Pupils develop a sense of belonging and the community is benefited because of the sense of

responsibility develop in the pupils. Thus, the social studies classroom is as big as the

community if teachers and pupils take advantages of all that the world outside the school has

to offer. The wise use of community resources is a boon for vitalizing the teaching of social

studies. If the teacher is resourceful, pragmatic and the class is enthusiastic and clever, there

will be no difficulty in preparing a catalogue for the available resources for proper and detail

study. Cataloguing of the available resources may be done under the following heads:

1.Resources of geographical interest such as hills and valleys, lakes and waterfalls, rivers,

springs, sea-port, dams and river – valley projects, mines, rocks and fossils, tea gardens, etc.

2.Resources of historical interest such as forts, pillars and monuments, gurd war as, temples,

mosques and churches, old relics and inscriptions, excavations and caves, etc.

3.Resources of cultural interest such as art theatres and galleries, museum, zooms, cinema

halls, radio stations, universities, firm studios, schools and colleges, Bal Bhawans, Doll

museums, Kala kendras, organization like boy scouts, girl guides, emporium, newspaper

offices, etc. 4.Resources of economic interest such as market places, commercial centres,

brick kilns, dairies, banks, mills and factories railway junctions, post and telegraph offices,

telephone exchanges, agricultural farms, water work, printing presses etc.

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5. Resources of scientific interest such as scientific laboratories thermal and hydro-power

generating stations, radio transmission stations, workshop, factories, power transmissions,

distributing stations, engineering colleges broadcasting and television stations.

6.Government buildings such as municipalities, district board, hospital, law courts, police

stations, fire stations, and parliament house Rashtrapati Bhawan, Assembly Halls,

secretariats, military installations etc.

7. Forms of social control such as traditions, customs usages rituals, mores, belief and

attitudes of the local community Kochhar (2012).

I tell you we don't educate our children in school; we stultify them and send them out

into the world half-baked. And why? Because we keep them utterly ignorant of real life. The

common experience is something they never see or hear. All they know is pirates trooping up

the beaches in chains, tyrants scribbling edicts, oracles condemning three virgins to be

slaughtered to stop some plague. Action or language, it's all the same; great sticky honey –

balls of phrases, every sentence looking as though it has been plopped and rolled in poppy

seed and sesame, (Ishumi 1974, p.25). Students need to experience what they learn in class in

the community. Wittich (1973, p.233) summarised the works of Commenius, Pesstalozzi,

Herbert and Froebel as follows: "The most effective way to help students to become informed

about their social and natural environment is to provide for them learning experiences which

are real or lifelike and which are available to them for first hand scrutiny, questioning and

cognition". Ciffone (1988)also observed that community resources can provide the

motivation some students need to see the connection between classroom and the real world.

Involving students in the community gives them exposure to a stimulating learning

environment and to differentpeople and perspectives; provides students a greater sense of

purpose.Relatively new, too, is awareness throughout the society that we are all in some

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measure responsible for the care and preservation of our environment, in towns and cities just

as much as in countryside. There is also an attitude of mind which needs to be fostered as

increasing numbers of children and young people are encouraged to move out of the school

environment into the world beyond. In particular, students need to be aware that some areas

of town and country are sensitive to over-use, that some habitats are rare and precious, and

that much of the world needs to be conserved and be damaged as much by overuse by those

who care for it as by the more obviously destructive attitudes of developers, the thoughtlessly

careless, or those whose behaviour is clearly anti-social, (Maureen 2011).

Olsen (2010), explained that community experiences, first-hand learning through

immediate sensory contacts with the environment is a basic psychological learning approach.

Through these contacts the pupil uses the community as a learning laboratory. He explores it,

studies and improves it.A Roman satirist observed; Akrofi (2017) explains that making the

community to be a classroom becomes more and more important when we consider the role

of the school as an agent of social change. From this point of view education is intervention.

The sole aim is to encourage learners to develop into a good citizen of his community. The

traditional function of the school is to help the parents to transmit their culture, beliefs,

andvalues to the children. Conditions have so changed educational needs that they not only

have to train children to be like their parents but also to fit into current patterns of

life.Learning will become more powerful and deeper if students can see continuity from

classroom to outdoor experiences, from academic to non-academic domains. It is through this

continuity and alignment that helps students to connect and apply their learning across

disciplines in and out of the classroom. This conscious effort to help students transfer their

knowledge and thinking skills to non-academic contexts is a good way to facilitate transfer

learning, (Heng 2007).Dewey (1965) defines education as a reconstruction or reorganisation

of experience which adds to the meaning of experience. The increment of meaning

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corresponds to the increased perception of the connections and continuities of the activities in

which we are engaged. Teachers always face the task of pulling together the diverse

understanding their students bring into the classroom. The use of community resources

provides a shared memory for the class. The event becomes part of the common knowledge

of the class and can be referred in subsequent lessons. What is learned is, thus, reinforced and

extended in later discussions as the teacher refers to field observations. Education process

should be everywhere a reflection of life experiences of society and service to the same

system.

Freire (1970) observed that a teacher talks about reality as if it is motionless, static,

compartmentalized, and predictable. Or else he expounds on a topic completely alien to the

existential experience of the students. His task is to "fill" the students with the contents of his

narration-contents which are detached from reality, disconnected from the totality that

engendered them and could give them significance. Words are emptied of their concreteness

and become a hollow alienated and alienating verbosity. Rousseau in Olsen (1954) observed

that if you wish to teach a child geography and you provide him with globes, spheres and

maps. What elaborate preparations! What is the use of all these symbols; why not begin by

showing him the real thing so that he may at least know what you are talking about. Attitude

development results from the students contact with his social environment. This cannot be

achieved if school and community are separate environments. Holtschlag (2001) stated that in

order for students to make the transfer of classroom lessons to real world applications, we

need to be open to all the possibilities our community offers. We do not need a big city in

which to teach because the resources are all around us; parents businesses, zoos, museums,

nature centres, parks etc. We are as rich in our community resources as in our imaginations

and we have the opportunity to partner with the community to create meaningful relevant

lessons. Secondary school business teachers and students should make personal contacts and

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become a part of the community through active participation in its activities. A business

teacher's major goal is to help individuals and families live more effectively. He is thus

obliged to be aware of all community forces and their influence. He must be familiar with the

information about the community background, attitudes, practices and resources. A keen

understanding of these aspects of community living that impose upon individuals and their

families will increase her ability to put over the subject matter in such a manner that t it

should take.

2.3.1Demerits of using community resources in Teaching and Learning of Social Studies

Most schools face problems in using community resources because:-

 Most of the secondary schools are overcrowded. It is therefore difficult for the teacher

to organize trips, he, therefore, tends to drill and encourage memorization.

 There is very little exchange of ideas and activities between secondary schools and

their surrounding communities.

 The use of community resources requires time. Due to examination pressure and urge

to cover the syllabus, the use of community resources is

2.4Methods, procedures, and activities that can be applied in using community

resources

Wittich et el (1973) identifies major methods used to utilize community resources for

educational purposes as walking trips, field study, visits by resource persons, special learning

trips and community surveys. Community survey activities include fact-finding interviews

with business, governmental, or community leaders in their normal work settings. They

enable accurate determination and understanding of factors inherent in community

structureand processes. Business Studies students will benefit from the opportunity to ask

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professional questions about taxation, law, transportation, communication, job opportunities,

etc. To gain the most from a community survey, the students must discuss what they have

read. Formulate well-thought out key questions and with the teacher, list the names of

authorities who feel could best answer the questions. Olsen defines community surveys as

accurate determination through organised study, of social or physical data, particularly with

reference to its spatial patterning and casual relationships.

Grasha (1996) describes resource persons as people in the community with diversified

interest, talents, occupations and accomplishments. Visits by resource persons are valuable

means of bringing demonstrations and specialised information into the classroom. Guest

speakers can provide novelty needed to capture student's attention. Their elaborations on

issues often provide a different context for the content of the class. Resource persons help

students to acquire and retain information. Taiwo, (2007), states that resource persons

fascinate students as they get excited to see professionals like bankers, experts in

international trade etc. they motivate students and some aspire to be like them. They also

provide current and authentic information which will not be available in textbooks. No

community either small or isolated is without resource people who can contribute to making

classroom experiences more realistic and vital. Olsen (1954) observed that resource persons

contribute to solution of the problems, they help to enrich and broaden meanings, to awaken

and build worthwhile interests, to acquaint students with varied aspects of their social and

physical environment and develop deep sensitivity to people, their ways of living,

accomplishments and problems. Resource persons can be of any age and come from all the

sectors of the community. Careful planning and approaches are needed to secure resource

people. First of all, the important step is determining how a particular person's area of

competence fits into the program of the class. It is essential to know what contributions the

visit of the resource person can make to the enrichment of the students understanding,

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development and modification of attitudes. Guest speakers from the community can provide

new information and experiences to students and link the school to outside world. Field trips

provide an opportunity for real experiencing through which to gain valid understanding. They

provide an experience not available in the classroom. Theoretical concepts can be matched

with real life examples. They connect the students with the real life experience. Students find

themselves face to face with real life situations that have previously only talked about in the

classroom. They enable students to get concrete evidence necessary to build concepts, (Dale

1959).

Wittich (1973), states that field trips arouse and create interest. Few learners fail to be

motivated as they contemplate and examine things, processes and ideas. They create a

background of experience which will give meaning to reading and simple research done later

in the formal study situations of the school classroom and library.Leader, (2003), states that

field trips add value to the educational experience provided by schools. They provide an

experience not available in the classroom. They give the teacher an opportunity to confront

students with different learning challenges, which include enhancing investigative skills,

problem solving and participating in extended periods of concentrative study. Many teachers

see trips as an important motivating factor, perhaps a way of overcoming barriers with pupils

who show signs of disaffection. Field trips allow students to meet and work with experts who

are not normally available in the school time. If students are exposed to outside visits,

learners are expected to exercise responsibility and self-control, the qualities of perseverance,

initiative and self-discipline (school publications, 1975). Field trips allow students to meet

and work with experts who are not normally available in the school time. If students are

exposed to outside visits, learners are expected to exercise responsibility and self-control, the

qualities of perseverance, initiative and self-discipline(school publications, 1975). Bagulia

(2005), observed that field trips tend to be more meaningful and permit easier transfer of

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learning. They review and drill ideas learnt in visiting factories. The idea of learning a plant

and products manufactured can be better fixed in student's minds. The learners can have a

positive impact on long term memory due to memorable nature of the field work setting.

Field trips not only enhance students understanding of the subject but also facilitate good

communication and relation between the students and teachers. Leader (2003) states that

relationships between teachers and students can flourish and subsequently there are huge

dividends back in school. Walking trips involve visiting nearby community workers, food

stores plant and so on. Walking trips provide invaluable study experiences within the

immediate vicinity of the school. Walking trips make it possible for pupils themselves to

watch important things happen. Students are given opportunities to leave the school grounds

alone or in groups to investigate and report what they have found. Special learning trips

include those organised around facilities maintained for the purpose of the school district

itself. They include museums, government agencies etc. Community resources involve

working experiences. Olsen (1954) describes work experience as a sustained intellect activity

of body and mind carried on for the purposes which are primarily pre vocational in nature. It

is a practical activity in the production or distribution of goods or services exercised in a

normal way in business, industrial, professional, and industrial fields. The aim of work

experience is to help young people to acquire vocational orientation, the specific skills and

interests and sustained self-discipline essential to their individual success in some vocational

career. In this process the community becomes a partner with the school. Community service

projects can enhance learning. These are co-operative group activities organised and carried

out by students as specific contributions to civic welfare.

Rickinison (2004) states that community projects have the capacity to link with most

curriculum areas. Two specific examples of benefits stemming from this are positive gains

and skills and improved understanding of design and technology related issues. (Olsen 1954)

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also observed that a youngster who serves his fellows as a safety patrol man or as an assistant

in the library, office or laboratory gain a feeling of personal significance, a sense of

belonging, a new maturity and finer loyalty to his school community. Community resources

also include documentary materials. They are available in every community. They not only

make learning more interesting and functional but also bridge the gap between the school and

community. Documentary materials can be secured from standard publishers, government

officials' civic organisations and business organisations, (Olsen 1954).

2.5 Utilization of Community Resources in Social Studies

The above assertions on instructional resource selection, therefore, call for the proper

utilization of instructional resources in order to meet the individual needs of learners in the

teaching-learning process. The use of instructional resources in social studies is paramount in

order to; Solve value and decision problems in social studies, information must be collected

analyzed, and data evaluated from a wide variety of resources. Information data from any one

source are insufficient to help students solve problems that they encounter in social studies.

Furthermore, students learn in different ways. Textbooks for example are efficient ways to

teach facts, but may be deficient in affecting values or developing skills. It must be stressed

that all the senses are involved in learning. Students must see, hear, touch taste, smell, if need

be. Learning can occur by studying pictures, listening to radio, constructing a project, visiting

a museum or helping solve a community problem. Each activity offers students a unique way

of learning. Thus, while variety is not in itself a virtue, using a range of instructional media

can arouse interest, instruct and reinforce learning previously acquired and provide

opportunities to students to apply knowledge and skills they have acquired (Talabi, 2003).

The resource chosen for instruction should be appropriate to the stated objectives,

content of the course and learners developmental level. Whether or not the resources are

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appropriate depends largely on how they are used. Excellent resource design for one purpose

or objective proves wholly ineffective when used to achieve another. For example,

dramatization and role-play are effective ways to build empathy; but less effective in

conveying generalizations. The resource material chosen should also be linked to the subject

matter of the lesson. They must also fit the maturity level of learners’ .by way of illustrations,

whereas pictures about animals appeal to younger children, they hold less appeal to older

youth. Again, whereas older children are more capable of relying on verbal symbols, younger

children need various kinds of pictures, models, drawings and other concrete objects to guide

their understanding of the subject matter. The same instructional resources can be used to

support different teaching techniques. Instructional resources by themselves do not dictate

how they can be used. It is the teacher who decides on the method to be employed. For

example guest speaker can be invited to the social studies classroom to provide current first-

hand information about the topic being studied. Alternatively, the guest speaker can be used

as an expert witness who responds to students questions based on their previous study of the

topic. Thus, instructional resources provide the devices for instruction, but ultimately the

teacher must select the technique of using them. Instructional resources should be evaluated

according to a set of criteria in order to determine their impact and future use.

The following questions might be asked when making judgments about instructional

resources: is the material consistent with agreed-upon educational goals and instructional

objects? Did the materials contribute to students’ cognitive growth and effective

development? Did the material arouse student interest in the topic? Did it promote the critical

thinking and problem-solving abilities of students? Did the material present varying points of

view on issues, especially on controversial questions? Is the material appropriate for the age

of the students? Is the material accurate, up to date and related to the course content? Is the

material easy to obtain?(Ayaaba 2005).

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2.6 Related studies on Community Resources

Research was conducted by the national foundation for educational research in

England on a review of outdoor learning in primary school pupils, secondary school students

and undergraduate learners. In their findings, opportunities for outdoor learning by school

students had decreased substantially in the recent years. There is evidence that fieldwork is

restricted to science. Provision of outdoor learning is affected by a wide range of barriers and

opportunities. These barriers include, fear and concern about the health and safety of the

students. Teachers did not want to take responsibilities of accidents happening to the students

while they are out of the classroom. He further found out that teachers lack confidence when

teaching out of the classrooms. They may not be able to control the behaviours of students,

some students may be distracted. He further observed that shortage of time, resources and

support were contributing factors. His final observation was wider changes within and

beyond the education sector was a contributing factor, (Rickinson 2004).Taiwo (2007)

conducted a study on the influence of teachers' variables on the use of community resources

for social instructions in Ilorin metropolitan environment. From the findings of her study, she

made the following observations.

Majority of social studies teachers made little or no use of community resources in

enhancing their teaching. The teachers identified factors such as lack of experience with

community oriented pedagogy, inadequate time to integrate community resources,

administrators non-support, lack of funds, inadequacy of pre-service training, low teacher

morale, the school timetable and distance of needed resources to the schools as inhibiting

factors against the effective use of community resources. Bola (2006) made an investigation

into the use of resource persons for quality control of science instruction in Kware state

secondary schools in Nigeria. Her findings revealed that female teachers are less inclined to

attend workshops and conferences where resource persons are known to present papers. This

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is because sometimes workshops and conferences in which resource persons feature may be

outside their station. Thus travelling outside the station may not attract female science

teachers.

Bola's study also revealed that science teachers in government schools are more aware

of the existence of resource persons than those in community and schools under the

management board. The trend is a result of the location of most government schools in

townships and more importantly the ministry often supports its science teachers to attend

workshops and conferences where resource persons present papers concerning improving the

quality of science instruction and the education policy, held in universities whenever the need

arises. Thus it is not surprising that science teachers from government schools know that

resource persons are available. Bola's study also revealed that science teachers with higher

academic qualification are more inclined to invite resource persons to secondary schools.

They perceive resource persons as partners in progress and seek their expertise for

improvement of science instruction in secondary schools. Also science teachers with a degree

and teaching qualification in addition realise the shortage of qualified teachers in Nigerian

secondary schools and may be overloaded in terms of periods per week and class size.

Therefore they would require some assistance from resource persons from the faculties of

education of the universities.

Thompson (1981) argues that teachers continue to be doubtful about the instruction

provided by members of the community who may well be themselves "uneducated" as well

as unskilled in the art of teaching. Learners remain unwilling to give the due respect to such

instructors and the local instructors who have often found their work uncongenial have

tended to be unreliable and fall away.He further observed that teachers of social studies area

who wish to take their classes out of school to visit a museum or post office, for instance,

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may not find it easy to persuade their colleagues to allocate sufficient block of time on the

timetable for the purpose or to give up their own claims on the school bus or lorry.

Olsen (1954) stated that teachers face administrative problems among them are

scheduling, transportation, expenses and liability. Azeb (1975) felt that teachers encounter

many problems in using community resources. Many educational systems practice strict

schedules that are not flexible enough to allow planning for an extended visit. This rigidity

has left teachers with no time to use community resources. He further observed that financial

problems are very dominant because no funds are allocated for this purpose. Azeb found out

that many teachers had negative attitudes towards the use of community resources because

this gives them extra responsibilities. He noted that parents feel that the use of these resources

in a particular area tend to base education on the needs of the particular community and this

means students will be trained for life within the community only. The findings pointed out

that head teachers fear that students will perform poorly in examinations if they are offered

experiences outside materials assigned by the ministry of education. Awino (1987) conducted

a study on resources used for teaching Social Studies in Nairobi primary schools and her

observations were that planning educational trips for students has been hindered by a number

of factors such as lack of time for good preparation or opportunity for a trip itself. Also the

biggest task seems to be getting students and teachers to establish good attitudes towards such

endeavour. She further observed that use of resource person is not without problems.

Resource people are not taken seriously by students and this makes them unwilling to turn up

when invited again. Others are suspicious that they were not invited in good faith. Very

superior resource people are too busy with their occupations that they are not reliable. There

are also some resource persons who need payment which is normally not forthcoming.

Finally duration of lessons is also too short to allow adequate use of such people.

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 Digolo (1986) conducted a study on use of community resources in primary schools.

He made the following findings, that use of resources is affected by lack of articulation of

need for utilisation of resources in the educational objectives and policies at the national

curricular and instructional levels. Teachers and administrators felt that the classes were too

large in terms of enrolment. Large classes in terms of enrolment negatively affected the

incorporation of community resources and community oriented activities since teachers were

influenced to design lesson delivery systems and strategies that suited overcrowding

conditions of their classes. Another constraint observed was lack of guidelines for acquisition

and utilisation of community resources. It was found out that some schools used the official

school syllabi as guideline for selection and utilisation of resources even though such

documents were not sufficiently oriented to the communities surrounding the school.

Achoki (2004) conducted an inquiry into the use of resources in teaching of secondary

schools biology in North Kisii District, Kenya. In his findings textbooks, charts and

specimens were instructional resources used by most teachers. Even though resources found

in the local environment were used in the teaching of biology, it was limited mainly to plant

and animal materials. Resource persons, field trips, factories/industries, forests just to

mention a few played a limited role in teaching and learning of the subject. He observed that

lack of finance and support from administration accounted for the inadequacy of most

instructional materials. Wanza (2008) conducted a study on implementation of the Business

Studies curriculum in public secondary schools in Machakos central division. In her findings,

75% of the respondents indicated that the resources were available even though they were

inadequate. Community resources are inexpensive materials which can be found within the

schools. The study will come out with measures that will encourage teachers to make use of

community resources while teaching.

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2.7 Summary of Literature Review

It is good to note that it is impossible to divorce the school from the community. They

are glued together the aspirations of the community are the manifestations of the school

system. The idea of making the community the best of the school and the school the best of

the community represents a fruitful and essential extension of accepted educational thinking

and practice. In order to nourish and invigorate democracy, community study and service

through school education must be made essential. This movement is the most significant

single development of its kind in our generation, and it seem destined to grow greatly with

continuing sound experimentation at all school levels, in all teaching field, with all types of

students, and in all community areas – local, regional, national and international.

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 CHAPTER THREE

METHODS AND PROCEDURE

This chapter describes the methods and procedure that was adopted under the

following sub-heading: research design, population and sample, sampling technique,

instrument for data collection, validity and reliability of the instrument, procedure for data

collection, method of data analysis and decision rule.

3.1 Design of the study

The design adopted for this research work is the survey research design. According to

Mwanse, Dalong, Kasai and Zuhumben (2016) survey research involves the selection of

samples to discover reflective incidence distribution and interrelation of a variable. A survey

research design refers to the process of finding out the opinion, attitudes and interest of a

large population using a selective representative. Such a population is to ensure that data are

collected from respondents whose views are reflection of the entire population.

3.2 Population and Sample of the Study

3.2.1 Population of the Study

Khan (1986:11) defined population as “any group of individuals that have one or
more characteristics common that is of interest to the researcher. It may be all individuals of a
particular type or more restricted part of that group”. The population of this study comprises
of only academic staff including senior and junior drawn from six (9) secondary schools
under study.

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 The break down is shown below:

S/N NAME OF SCHOOL NUMBER OF STAFF

1 GSS PANKSHIN 29
2 GSS BET 27
3 GSS LANGUNG 17
4 GSS KOR 21
5 GSS CHIGWOM 22
6 GSS TABAL 19
7 GOVERNMENT COLLEGE PANKSHIN 18
8 GSS NYALLANG 28
9 COMMUNITY SEC. SCH. BWARAK 20
10 COMMUNITY SEC. SCH. TAMBES 17
11 TRINITY MISSIONARY SCH. PANKSHIN 18
12 GOOD SHEPHARD SEC. SCH. PANKSHIN 22
13 ST. BENEDICT MISSIONARY COLLEGE 21
14 RELEVANT TECHNOLOGY PANKSHIN 20
15 SOLID FOUNDATION SEC. SCH. PANKSHIN 21
TOTAL 320

3.2.2 Sample
Sample is the process of selecting elements from the population in such a way that the
sampled elements selected represent the population (Benga, 2004). Target population
consisted of 15 secondary schools within Pankshin a total population of 320 teachers as the
teaching staff strength. But for the purpose of this study 10 staffs were selected in each
school through the use of simple random sampling as making the total of 150 staffs as sample
size.

3.3 Sampling Technique

According to Benga (2004) Sampling technique is a method that allows researchers to

infer information about a population based on results from a subset of the population, without

having to investigate every individual. ... In probability (random) sampling, you start with a

complete sampling frame of all eligible individuals from which you select your sample

Stratified random sampling technique was adopted in selecting the students for the study.

This technique ensures that the students from the district were fully involved in the work.

3.4 Instrument for Data Collection

A questionnaire is a research instrument that consists of a set of questions or other

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types of prompts that aims to collect information from a respondent. A research questionnaire

is typically a mix of close-ended questions and open-ended questions (Ezegbe, 2015). The

instrument used for the study is a structured questionnaire on the perception of social studies

teachers on the use of community resources in the teaching and learning of social studies. The

questionnaire is divided into two sections: A and B. Section A includes the bio-data of

respondents, such as: age, sex, educational qualification/level and marital status. While the

section B is made up of 15 questionnaire items. The opinion of the respondents is subject to

Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD).

3.5 Validity and reliability of the Instrument

3.5.1 Validity

Validity refers to how accurately a method measures what it is intended to measure

(Creswell , 2014). If research has high validity that means it produces results that correspond

to real properties, characteristics, and variations in the physical or social world. If a method is

not reliable, it probably isn’t valid. Validity is the degree to which a research instrument is

capable to measure what it is meant to measure. In order to ascertain the validity of the

research instrument, the instrument was given to two experts in Educational Administration

and planning to check on content validity. Therefore, the validity of the research instrument

was confirmed by authority vetting.

3.5.2 Reliability

Reliability refers to how consistently a method measures something. If the same result

can be consistently achieved by using the same methods under the same circumstances, the

measurement is considered reliable (Creswell, 2014). To establish the reliability of the

instrument,

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3.6 Procedure for Data Collection

The questionnaire was administered to the respondents by the researcher at an

arranged time. The students took about 15 minute in responding to the questionnaire.

3.7 Method of Data Analysis

Data generated from primary sources were analyzed using descriptive statistics such

as tables and mean scores. The questionnaire instrument was structured using four Likert

point response scale and was ranked as follows;

SA – Strongly Agreed = 4

A – Agreed= 3

D – Disagreed =2

SD - Strongly Disagreed = 1

Decision Rule: A mean score of less than 2.5 is considered disagreed, while a mean score of

2.5 and above is considered agreed.

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