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    VH M - Major Trends Và Timeline

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    The Colonial Fuel Jonathan Edwards Tad 1607 First permanent British settlement in Jamestown, Virginia, 1616 1620 _Plgrim Fathers found Plymouth Colony. 1624 | 1630. Beginning of the great migration of Puritans to Massachusets Boston founded, 1635 First American pubic school in Boston, 1636 Roger Willams founds Providence. Harvard College founded. 1640 1656. First Qualers in Massachusees 1662 1664 New Amsterdam (New York) taken from the Dutch. 1673 Marquette and Joliet explore Mississppl River rogion, 67s 1676 | 1682 La Salle descends Mississippi to Gulf of Mexico. Wiliam Fenn founds Phikelphia for Quakers King Phil's War overcomes Indian resistance 1683 1690 1691 Plymouth Colony absorbed by Massachusetts 1692. Salem witch eis 1701 French seulement at Detroit. Yale College founded. 1702 1704 1718 New Orieans founded by the French. 1720 "French expansion west and south of Loulsbourg. 1730 oO 12 1736 Beginning ofthe Great Awakening (uni 1756). | 1749. Obio Company created. 1752 "Franklins experimens with electriciy, | 1754 "Beginning of the French and Indian War. End of the war: Treaty of Paris. 2» The Colonial Period a oun John Swart: Descripuon of New England John Suri: General History of Virgin Beginning of john Winsor’ Journal and of Wiliam Beaorono's History of Pymouth Plantation, ‘Bay Psa Book (first book published in the Colones) ‘Anne Bnsoeraten The Tenth Mace (published in London), Michael Wieaueswonri: Day of Dac Mary RowLanoson: Narrative of Copy. New England Primer. First newspaper In Boston. Cotton Mani: Magnolia Christ Americana College of Willam and Mary designed by ‘Sie Christopher Wren, Beginning of the Boston Newsetr. First art exhibition in Boston Benjamin Fras: Poor Richards Almanack (oma 1757). Jonathan Eowanos: Freedom of Wil First musical society in South Carolina —__ Literature and Society One consequence of Puritanism and its powerful rninistry i often thought to be hostility to the ats. Yet the paradox is that New England was perhaps the most significant centre of artistic creation in the colonial period. In the end, ths is not surpris- ing, given the bookishness of the Puritan colonies, the strength of an educated ministry, andthe preoc- cupation with typology and with writing the provi dential record, Puritanism, certainly, had been a protest against elaboration in English Protestantism, and it maintained a similar standard in the matter ‘of cultural expression: the important issue was use’, ‘he social and rligine vale of artitic expretsion Yet this could be resolved: indeed, the typologizing disposition, and the concern with conscience and self-knowiedge led to a serious exploration of wrt ten forms. Indeed, even the criterion of “use” some- times seems perfunctory t was a common Puritan practice to anagrammatize names, the intent be- ing didactic and moral, an eliciting of providential ‘meanings Butthe anagrams were clearly enjoyed with metaphysical and cryptogrammatic satisfaction. Sinnilaly, Nathaniel Ward (1578-1652), the author of The Simple Cobler of Aggawam (1647), condemned, in the Puritan fashion, frivolous elaboration in ‘women's dress, by which ladies “disfigure themselves with such exotick garbes, as not ony dismantes their native lovely uste, but tansclous them into gant bar geese ill-shapen shottenshell-fish, Egyptian Hi- croglyphicks, or atthe best into French furts of the pastry, which a proper Englishwoman should scorn With her heels...” This sounds strict, but Ward evi dently enjoys the elaboration of his own language. In anage of wits he is conscious of wit,and he continues, charmingly: “We have about five o six of them in our Colony: if I see any of them accidentally, Ican- not cleanse my phansic of them for a month aftr. have been a solitary widdower almost twelve yeas.” ‘The Puritan imagination could generate many of the riches it seemed to condemn. ‘Thus aesthetic satisfactions apparently denied in one atea could frely emerge elsewhere. Te theatre was, proscribed; but theatricality is rife throughout Puritan expression. Edward Johnson (1598-1672) produced his Wonder-Working Providence of Sion's Saviour in New England duing the 1650s; [..] it s (ou) an elaborately dramatize epic, in which the emigrants are directly addressed by Chris's voice, and the readers specifically alerted tothe symmetti- cal tableaux of the departure from England: Passe on and atend with tears if thou hast any, the following discourse. both of them had their farther speech strangled from the depth oftheir inward dolor, with breast-breaking sobs til leaning their heads on cach others shoulders, they lt fll he slt dropping ews of vehement affections st ing to exceede one another, ‘And another kind of theatricality surely accounts for part of the success of New England’s best-selling poem, Michael Wigglesworth’s The Day of Doom (1662): ‘So tthe ast whilst Men sep fastin thei security ‘Surpri' they ate in such a snare cometh suddenly. For at midnight brake forth a Light, which tua the [night o day, And speeiy an hideous ry di all the word (dismay. ‘The affective power that many Puritan writers display was not cultivated for its own sake, though it may have been apprectated as such. Its “use” lay in the affect on an audience ~ particularly, the audience of that key form of Puritan expression, the sermon, Edward Johnson describes Thomas Shepard, wi obvious approval as a"soule ravishing Minister” The best sermons combine this eloquence with a highly determinate structure of doctrine and propositions, uses and applications. The experience intended by these preachers can be defined by contrast with their English contemporary Sir Thomas Browne, writing in Religio Medic "I love to lose myself in a mystery, to pursue my reason to an O alttudof" The Puritan ‘would not indulge the sublime, would not seck to lose himself. On the contrary, within the articulated form of the sermon, and the process ofits argument, he was always placed, The animus against elabora: tion indeed shows in comments on eatly Puritan ‘writing, Cotton Mather (1663-1728) looked back to sermon by John Cotton, ‘wherein sinning more to preach Sof than Chris he used sich Hori Strains, es extremely recommended him unto the most, who relied the Wisdom of Words above the Words of Wisdom; Though the pompous Elo- quence ofthat Sermon afterwards gave such a distaste tuto his own Reverend Sou that with «Sacred indig- ation he thre hie Notes into the Fite Literature and Society + But by the time this was written (1695) such a re- action was out of date. Cotton Mather himself used a far more “florid” style than his father Increase or ‘grandfather Richard, Verse was subject to much the same criteria as prose. It attracted no special odium, but was widely practised as one among other forms of expression. Edward Johnson, celebrating the death of a Puritan worthy, can break into verse asa kind of mnemonic: “For future Remembrance of him mind this Meeter” ‘The major poets, Anne Bradstreet (c. 1612-1672) and Féward Taylor (c. 1642-1729), tamed the proce dures wehave described totheie own advantage. Both attempted extended forms that correspond with the rationally systematic structure ofthe sermons (and ultimately, by analogy, with the providental order) Bradstreet’ “Contemplations’ or Taylor’s“Gods De~ terminations touching his Elect, Bradstreet wrote charming personal poems on het husband or fam= ily which nevertheless manage the exemplary trans- formation of private feeling into public type. Taylor, 00, could typify an intimate or trivial situation, as here, through the rhetoric of vision: ‘Lord cleare my mistd sight that May hence view thy Divinity. Some sparkes whereof thou up dost hasp ‘Within this litle downy Wasp. @ + The Colonial Period ‘A page from The New England Primer, the most common textbook for children in Colonial America F.. tsa ws to tach reading by means of pious texts which would prepare youngsters to understand the Bible, 3,000,000 copies of the Primer were supposedly sold, figure ‘which eloquently reflects the setters belies inthe importance ofiteracy. Leaving England after the Restoration, ‘Tylor continued te wity and meditative tradition of Eng lsh Metaphysical poetry in a Puritan context. The Preface to "Gods Determinations” shows some of his range from typically curious and intricate detail: ‘Who Lacan Flite the earths fne, ‘Wit Rivers ike green Ribbons Smaragdine? (emerald) ‘Who made the Seats Seve [border , andi ocks ikea Quilt al wthin iver Box? Wi spread its Canopy? Or curtain Spunt ‘Who inthis Bowing Alley bowid the Sun? = to close verbal play on just two words, making it “al” outof nearly “nothing” (Ot what might is this Whose single frown Doth hake the word st wold shake it down? ‘Wich ll fom Nothing [etched from Nothing, lt ath Alon Nothing et lets Nothing fl Gave Alto nothing Man indeed, whereby Tough nothing man all might him Glarif. The complet ofthe Puritan mind led, infact, not toa denial of art, but toa set of complex typo logical, symbolistic and metaphysical usages which ‘assed on into the American literature of later times. Ceasvow and P Harrenont in rtrodution to American Stusies Longrnan © M. Bradbury and H. Temperey 981 Major Trends in Literature ‘The most typical forms of Puritan literature are historical works, biographies, sermons and poetry. Historical works ‘They aimed at recording the life of the Puritans, their journey to America, and the major events, as well as the everyday chronicle, of their life in the New World. Therefore, they often much resemble mere annals. A few major works of this type: ‘William BrxoroRD, History of Plymouth Plantation. Edward JoHNson, History of New England Cotton MatHer, Magnaiia Christi Americana, Underlying all these writings, one always finds the idea of Providence; the world which is described is always seen as a reflection of the divine order so that constant analogies are drawn between the beauty of nature and the skill ofthe Architect who created it. Biographies and Diaries “These were Important works forthe Puritans ins far as they constuted the best way of trang the working of grace in men, AS PMiagn and TJounsow explain n ther Book The Parton, "Te ways of grace were manifold and no two men ever underwent the crs in a perfectly sar fasion; norder that we might know the nature and manifestations of the dss, twas necessary to peruse the records of those who had undergone it, and to keep a full medical chart upon our own Puc and temperature, The art of biography as understood by the Puritans was the preparation of cate Fistoies. And every man who was concerned about his vn plight shoud take down a dally record Of his fluctuations and his symptoms 0 that he could view himself withthe complete objectivity dksnanded for accurate diagnos of his pri helthor sks” Here ar some examples of such wrtngs Thomas Surano, Autsbiogphy Increase Marie The it ond Death. f Rar Mather Samvel Swat, Bio. Sermons and Theological Works Sermons were by far the mast cammon sort of literature in these Colonial communities totally controlled by the church. Dozens of ministers published the sermons that they had written, the best known being those of Nathaniel WARo, John Corron, Thomas Hooxsr, Increase and Cotton MATHER, and Jonathan Eowanos. Meant to convince the congregation and to be later discussed and reflected upon, they had to be clear and well-constructed and were usualy written in the plain and straightforward style which Is so often considered characteristic of Puritan writing. But the influence of the Bible often made for eloquence and sometimes even rhetorical ingenuity and extravagance. Poetry In spite of the Puritans’ admiration for the classics and poets lke Mito, poetry was often distrusted for appealing too much to the senses and the imagination, so that verse tended to be imitative (of Virgl, Horace, Spenser, or Sidney for instance) rather than original ‘Three poets stand out, however: ‘Anne BraostReer, Michael WiccLesworr,and Edward TAYLOR Major Trends in Literature « The Rise of a National |X Literature 1765-1865 ay Walt Whitman Nathaniel! Hawthorne Ralph Waldo Emerson iu eee Dude 1765 Stamp Act. 1767 Townshend TaxActs, 1768 British troops sent to Boston. 1773 Boston Tea Party. Beginning of the war for American Independence. TTS Fighting at Lexington, Concord, Bunker Hil 1776 Declaration of Independence. “Thomas Pan: Comman Sense 1778 Alliance with France 1781 Surrender atYorktown. | St Jou DE Crévecaur: Letters from v7 onhercan Famer na 1783 Treaty of Paris ends the war eae ad LE 1788 Consent ba : | 1109. George Wahingon becomes et US Presider ol it94 a 1795 Philip Freneau: Poems, _ 1003 Loin Pras. 1804 ys and Cark expan | 1809 ‘Washington lnviva: The Knickerbocker’ History of NewYork 7 _— 1817 ‘William Cullen Brrant: Thanatopsis. . 1819 Washington Invna: The Sketch Book. - 1623 Monroe Docin procimed James animore Coore Te Paneer : 825 the Hutson fle Schoo tae James Fenimore Coows The Lat of be Mohican 1927 J James Auouson: Birds of America, ‘imes Fenimore Coontn: The Pri. Foundation ofthe American Anuslavery Society. Raiph Waldo Enexsow: Notue | Beginning of the Underground Railway. Alexis be Tocquentue Democracy in America. - Edgar Allan Pos Tales of the Gotesque, Ralph Waldo Grenson: Essays Er Alan Poe The Rovn and Ot Pcs. 1845 Annexation ofToas. Bova: Te Nara of the Lie of Frederick Dawgs, _ Hany Wadsworth Lveraiow: Ege War with Mexico James Rusell Lowe: The Biglow Popes: 2 Fable for Cit. David Henry Twoneau: Ci Disobedience 34 + The Rise of a tational Literature ee cia 1849 Calfornia Gold Rush 1850 California joins the USA, I Our) Herman Meine Moby Dick 851 [Nathaniel Hawroene: The House ofthe Seren Gables. i “Finry David Twonta Wale. Wale Wiraan aoe of Gros ra iin) ‘Secession of Southern States; 1951 beginning of War. 1863 Emancipation Proclamation, ‘Sur vember uf Lee at Appon 1865 Abolition of slavery. ‘Assassination of Lincoln. Literature and Society ‘When the American revolution broke out, there was already enough ofa literary culture in America ‘0 encourage the growth of a national literature. In 1764, seven Colleges had already be founded in the Colonies (Harvard, Willam and Mary Yale, the University of Pennsylvania, Princeton, Columbia, Brown), mainly teaching Latin, Greek, philosophy and mathematic. Literary societies and circulating libraries were appearing everywhere to cater to the needs of a growing reading public. And yet. the Federal period was nota time for artistic development. The reason for the paucity of literary production is partly to be found in the social and religious background ofthe time. ‘The Enlightenment was an age of rationality and order which saw the gradual decline of the preceding Calvinist beliefs. Most of the architects of the new republic were delsts who believed that God was 00d and could be found in the contemplation of the natural universe. What mattered was toleration, harmony and conformity to the laws of nature. The 17th century’s harsh doctrines of predestination, the conception of a wrathful God punishing sinners in hell, were giving way to a distrust of superstition (expressed by Thomas Painé in The Age of Reason) and an optimistic belief that man was good and ‘capable of infinite improvement. It was a time when people believed in science and inquiry, when men's ideals were becoming more social: what mattered was reason, etics,and how certain forms ‘of government could help to serve men. These principles were admirably embodied in the person of Benjamin Franklin. ‘One of the consequences in terms of art and literature was a fascination for balance and restraint; hence the neo-classcism of the age and its preference fora clear, direct, and measured style. Yet this interest revealed itseff almost exclusively in political writings; the forceful styl so admired was used in pamphlets, papers, essays. rather than in more introspective forms of literature. Indeed the Federal age did not favour the description of emotions and inner conflicts. Literature was not turned towards the analysis of the self, but towards more rational aims. Drama was not even encouraged, usually being considered improper and immoral By 1800, most of the books read in America were imported English books, mainly novels. (sentimental and Gothic works) much enjoyed by the growing public of women readers. This popularity of British literature was partly due to the lack ofa genuine copyright law in America w made it much easier to publsh pirated editions of English works and often obliged an American author ‘to pay for the publication of his own work. Literature and Society + 35 ‘Washington Auisron (ITI0-1843), The Poor Author ‘nd Rich Bookseller, 1818, This painting llusteates the plight ‘of 19th centary American writes with very ite copyright protection The election of Andrew Jackson to the presidency, in 1828, marked the beginning of a new era: the age fof the Common Man. The frontier moving west, the expansion of the continent according to what was stil considered the will of God ("Manifest Destiny”) could only strengthen this rising belie in equality. ‘The need to assert it may have been all the stronger as it was felt to be threatened. The 19th century was a period of growing industrialization. Inventions such as the steamboat, the cotton gin, railroads, the telegraph, were rapidly changing the face of the country and urbanizing it. The poorer districts of ‘towns grew in size,a proletarian class appeared, the contrast increased between the rich and the poor. Further, mechanization in the northern states made slavery in the Southall the more glaringly inhuman and unacceptable. In the face of such injustice the optimism of the new nation, combined with its faith In utilty, threw the country into a passion for reform. Humanitarianism became the key word and there flourished all sorts of charities, utopian societies, crusades, and communal movements. ‘This background largely contributed to the growth of romanticism in America, with its faith in man, in Intuition, and in the natural goodness of the world, with its relection of the corruption of civilization whose effects America was beginning to feel. These ideas were chiefly voiced by EMERSON and THOREAU. after 1830. Transcendentalism ~ an appeal to the individual and to intuition as opposed to reason, science, and materialism — had a tremendous impact on the literature of the time. It asserted a belief in the creative powers of man’s mind, encouraged the development of a national culture and of more Imaginative writings. Literature had mainly been subservient to religion during the Colonial period, and to politics during the Federal age:it was at last being accepted and even encouraged for its own sake. In keeping with the attacks of the Transcendentalsts on the sprit of conformity which often accompanies mass democracy, the new writers were individualist, often almost prophets (og. WuiTman). In true ‘romantic fashion they also sang the beauties of the land (ke Cores or BavaNr) of, following the English Gothic trend, appealed to feelings, emotions and the mysterious (e.g Por, HAWTHORNE, OF Mewvitte) and found a new interest in the study of ordinary men, of the common people: children, farmers, uneducated frontiersmen, or Indians. American literature had found its identity 36 + The Rise of a National Literature Major Trends in Literature The Federal Age The Literature of Reason lereflected the political and social concerns ofthe time. It comprised a variety of genres: politcal books, pamphlets or documents (eg. Thomas Paine’ Comman Sense, 776 and The Age of Reason, 1793- 1795 or Thomas JerreRsoN’s Declaration of Independence, 1776; esays (e.g, Thomas JFFERSON's Notes an the State of Virginia, 1785); papers (e.g, Alexander HaMiLTON, James MADISON and john Jay's The Federoist, 1787-1788); autobiographies (eg. Benjamin Franxun's Autobiography, 1771-1790) or letters and speeches. The Preromantics Sr Jon o€ Crtvecaun’s Letters fiom on American Farmer, 1702, heralded the Romantic age mith ‘their optimism and idealization of America, their reverence for nature and their sentimentalism and humanicarianism. Philip FReNeAu, the poet of feelings and nature, in the tradition of the English graveyard poets, treated such themes as melancholy and mutability (e.""The Power of Fancy", 1770;"The House of Night: Vision’, 1779). The Age of Romanticism The Knickerbockers So called because they formed a group around Washington Irving, Diedrich Kivicxersccxen being the name of the chronicler of his History of New York. The chief common point shared by these writers was their desire to entertain the reader and their interest in nature which is to be related to the popularity ‘of the Hudson River School in painting, Their most representative works were Washington IRVING'S ‘Sketch Book (1819-1820) and Tales of « Traveller (1824); James Fenimore CooPen's Leatherstocking Toles (1823-1841) and William Cullen BryaNr’s poems of nature (eg. Thanotopss, 1815;A Forest Hymn, 1825; The Prairies, 1833). The Transcendentalists Rejecting Calvinism and the materialism of society, EMERSON and THOREAU asserted their beliefs in deism, individualism and self-reliance, and in the need for a national literature. These ideas, most clearly expressed in Emerson's Nature (1836) or SelfReliance (1841) and in THoneau's Walden (1854) or Civ Disobedience (1848), directly influenced three groups of writers: = The writers of the “American Renaissance”, HawTonne,Pot and Metvitte, whose symbolic and imaginative works are however more pessimistic, dealing withthe individual caught between his own values and those of society (cf. Edgar Allan Poe's Tales; Nathaniel HawrHoRne’s The Scarlet Letter, 1850, co The House of the Seven Gables, 1851; Herman Mecvitic’s Moby Dick, 1851). = Walt Wirrman, the prophet and seer, the believer in democracy, in the vitality of man and in the necessary emergence of an American poetry (Leaves of Grass, 1855). ~ The Schoolroom or Household Poets, LowcFe..ow, Lowe1t, and WurTmier, so called because. of the tremendous popularity of their works which were read at home and in schools. They often used historical themes, folk materials, and traditional forms such as the ballad (eg. Henry Wadsworth Loncrettow’s Evangeline, 1847, or The Song of Hiawatha, 1855); John Greenleaf Warrick’ Snow-Bound: ‘AWinter Idyll, 1866; James Russell Lowet's The Biglow Popers, 1846-1848, and A Fable for Critics, 1848.) ‘Major Trends in Literature + 37 1865-1915 Stephen Crane Emi oickinson aA Jack London Eaith Wharton Henry James Booker T. Washington cr CT ad 1866 1367 1369 1876 Battle of Lite Bighorn. 1877 End of Reconstruction 1879 Edison invents incandescent lightbulb. Reconstruction Act. Purchase of Alaska. 1881 i883 884 1885 First skyscraper bul in Chicago Statue of Liberty dedicated AFL (American Federation of Labor) founded. Ancitruse aw. Frontier declared dosed Chicago World Exhibition ia93 894 1995 Klondike gold rush Beginning of motion pictures, Jim Crowe las upheld by Supreme Court 13. Spanish-American War ‘Annexation of Hawall and the Philippines. 1396 1901 1903 First aeroplane fight by Wright brothers. 1905 1906 San Francisco earthquake, Beginning of Prohibition in some Southern states, 1907 Peake immigration year. 1908 First ModelT. Ford, 1909 NAACP founded 911 i912 1913, i914 Panama Canal opens. Beginning of World War | NG + 1865-1915 Cao John Greenleaf Whrrni:Snow:Bound. Horatio Atos: Rogged Dick "Marke Twa The Innocents Abroad, Mark Twain: The Adventure of Tom Sawyer. Henry Anans: Democracy. Joel Chandler Hasns: Uncle Remus. Henry James: The Portrait of ¢ Lady. (Oliver Wendell Houves: The Common Law. New York Metropoitan Opera House founded. Marke Twat: The Adventures of Hucklebery Finn. Wiliam Dean Howas: The Rise of Sls Lapham. Henry Jars: The Bostonians. Edward Bauany: Looking Backwards Emily Dicknsow: Poems. Wiliam Janes: Principles of Psychology. Stephon Crane: Mogi Kate Chorw: Baye Fok, Staphon Crane: The Red Badge of Courge. Frank Noanis: McTeogue ‘Theodore Drs: Stor Cari. Frank Nona The Octopus. Booker T. Wastinaton: Up from Slavery. Henry Janes: The Ambossadors, Jnek Lonoow: The Cal of the Wid, Edith Wharron: The House of Mirth ‘George Savtavana: The Life of Reoson, Upton Sine. The jungle Henry Aoaws: The Education of Hey Adams. Willa Jones Pragmatism ‘Ash Can School paintings exhibited Robie House (Frank Lloyd Wright). Jack Lonoon: Marin Eden ‘Gorerude Stent Three Lives. ‘Ambrose Buxct: The Devils Dicionary, ‘Theodore Daasex: The Financier Ezra Pouno: Some Imogist Poets. ‘Armory Show of Modern Arn New York. Wila Canen:O Peneers! Robert Faosr: North of Boston, Literature and Society For this new creature, born since 1900, ... ~ the child of incalculable coal-power, chemical power, clectric power, and radiating energy, as well as of now forces yet undetermined ~ must be a sort of God compared with any former creation of nature. At the rate of progress since 1800, every American, ‘who lived into the year 2000 would know how to control unlimited power. He would think in com. plesties unimaginable to an earlier mind. He would eal with problems altogether beyond the range of catlier society. To him the nineteenth century would stand on the same plane with the fourth ~ equally dlllike = and he would oily wondes Iw bode of them, knowing so litle, and so weak in force, should have done so much, The Eccoion of Heney dons An Autobiogrply 1907 In fac, realism and romanticism were both ex pressions of ther time, In an article defending Frank Norris, Howells said that his novels were a response to the needs of his generation: “It is not for nothing that any novelist is bora in one age” (use| He was right in that America was altering with staggering rapidity, Between 1860 and 1900 its population soared from thirty-one to seventy-six nillion, and the balance began to shift from sural to urban living. Towns appeared overnight, and grew to cities within a decade. Chicago, the most spectacular example, was in 1833 a village of 350 in- habitants. By 1870, the 350 had increased to aver 300,000; by 1880, to $00,000; and by 1890, to over a millon. The human scale seemed to vanish, as vast industrial enterprises reared themselves, only to be swallowed up by still aster ones, knit together by comples financing from which the few enormously rich ~ Carnegie, Frick, Vanderbilt, Rockefeller, and their kind — apparently battened upon everyone se, intensifying what Henry George (in his Prog- ress and Poverty, 1879) called “the contrast between the House of Have and the House of Want” A help- less immigrant proletariat was squeezing into the slums of New York, Pitisburgh, Chicago, Detroit, and a dozen other cities. Many of these immigrants ‘were now coming, for the first time, from central and eastern Europe. Simple peasants from Italy, Jews from Polish ghettos, they were ill-equipped to face their new world, Emma Lazarus, in the sonnet carved on the pedestal ofthe Statue of Liberty, spoke ‘welcome for Europe's tied and poor, the “huddled masses yearning to breathe free” The concept of free invmigration was magnificent, the reality inevitably less 50, Nor did the native-born accept the fact with ‘equanimity, How could a united nation emerge from such polyglot origins? Surely there must be a satura tion point; had it nat been reached? Henry James, visiting his homeland in 1904-1905, after a long absence, was jolted to the depth of his being by Elis Island, the immigrants clearing station,a"visibleact of ingurgitation on the part of our body politic and social” “This affiemed claim of the alien, however immeasurably alien, to share in one's supreme rela tion,” gave him an acute sense of “dispossession,”and he could not help sighing for “the luxury of some such close and sweet and whole national conscious nessa that ofthe Switzer and the Scot” ‘A fastidious person like James might think that litle was left of the older, finer America. The ideal of democracy was mocked when the nouveau-riche married his daughter into the aristocracy of Europe, and the bewildered immigrant placed is wote in the keeping of the ward-heeler. Nor was corruption con- fined to city politic: it thrived in state legislatures and in the Federal Government itself. As for rural ‘America, the farmer was often as discontented as the urban poor whose ranks he swelled. Once the hero of ffferson, the virtuous husbandman, he was now the rube, the hick the hayseed, Agriculture over extended itself as it reached into the rainshadow of the Rockies. Angry and disappointed home- steaders found themselves prey to natural scourges = droughts, locusts, pratie fires ~ and to man- ‘made evils: exorbitant feeight rates, ow prices, tight credit In the 1890s Americans were told, too, that the frontier, the open zone of unsetted land, no longer existed. Even when the Missisippi formed the western limit of the United States, Jefferson had congratulated his fellow-citizens on “possessing a chosen country, with room enough for our descend ants, tothe hundredth and thousandth generation.” ‘But aftr less than a century it might seem that there ‘was na more room: at any rate the idea of ilimitable westward territory was gone Uterature and Society » 195 Puzzled by the capidity of the changes overtaking their land, Americans groped for explanations and panaceas, Some were embodied in Utopian novels, ‘of which Edward Bellamy’s Looking Backward: 2000- 1887's one ofthe few still remembered, [..) Many thought that Science had found a key, in Darwin's theory of evolution. As expounded and popularized by Herbert Spencer it made an extraor- inary impression on the general public as well as on such young writers as Hamlin Garland, Jack London, and Theodore Dreiser. It was not a comforting rev elation forall of them, but at last it seemed tit the facts, In addition to providing a biological analogy for the struggle to survive that went on in the busi- ness world and in the teeming city streets, it lifted a Joad of guilt. Sins were no longer sins, if men’s ac tions were determined by heredity and environment. Nor ofcourse wasit necessary to interpret Spencerian Darwinism as a pessimistic and passive doctrine, If progress was ensured, it did not matter that the ‘method of improvement was predetermined: so long asthe fittest did survive, and perfection came about alter tril and error, it was possible to accept Darwin: ism as a scientific reinforcement of the poetic truth of Longfellow’s “Excelsior” Marcus Cunurr, The Literature ofthe United States Pelican Books, 1954 ©M. Cunife 1961, 1968, 1970, ‘Alfred Sricuirz (1864-1946), The Steeroge, Fria Museum a Ar Paden Pa Gent C. Zoster, PW. Brown 1979,Ph Haha, The works of Alfred Stiga reflet the dual interest ofthe age sentimestality and realism tis iting too that the industrial boom of the late 1th centry should be accompanied by the development of anew form of art, photography, which beease of technical Improvements in the 1870s and 1880s, had become quite popular by the end ofthe century. Stel, who founded the quarterly Camerawork, was one ofthe ist to ry and use photography to convey the particular mosphere ofa situation ata given moment in time. His wellknown photograph Sterag, for instance, taken

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