Lets know the module .... O QDefinition, Ofunctions, Otypes of foundations, Qfoundation loads, selection criteria for foundations based on soil conditions, bearing capacity of soil, methods of testing, Cmethod of improving bearing capacity of soil, settlement of foundations, precautions against settlement, Qshallow and deep foundations, different types of foundations — wall footing (strip footing), isolated footing, combined footing, raft foundation, pile foundation etc. Drawings- wall footing, isolated footing, and combined footingIntroduction O Foundations ( sub structure) is the lower portion the building , usually located below ground level, which transmits the load of the super structure to the sub soil a foundation is therefore that part of the structure which is in direct contact with the ground to which the loads are transmitted "Q The soil which is located immediately below the base of the foundation is called the sub-soil or foundation soil, while the lowermost portions of the foundation which is in direct contact with the sub soil is called the footing.Functions of foundations The basic function of a foundation is to transmit the dead loads, super ¥. Stepped wall footing >vi._Grillage foundation Friction pile Combined pile Compaction pile Rectangular combined footing, ‘Trapezoidal combined footing Combined column -wall footing -2. Combined footing .3. Strap footing mason of 4, Solld stab system 4. Drilled ealssons 4. Mat (raft) foundation Beam slab system Cellular system i. Greular H, rectangular Deep - Foundations (Its depth is equal to or greater than its width) 1. Deep strip footing. 2. Pile foundation « 3. Pier (drilled « caisson) foundation 4. Well (caissons). foundation. 2 Shallow foundations ~ 3. Strap footing 4. Mat (raft) foundation Spread footings — spread footings are those which spread the super imposed load of wall or column over a larger area . Spread footings support either a column or wall. Spread footings may be of the following kinds; Single footing for a column Stepped footing for a column. |. Sloped footing for a column Wall footing without step Stepped footing for wall Grillage foundation 3.8 SBSpread footing Combined footing Strap footin; Mat (raft) foundation bod 2 Shallow foundations Pepe (o) anee (oy SRR 10 seeeo Font foorne Foon Single footing for a column Stepped footing for wall Grillage foundation Strip footing7 2. Shallow foundations 7 4 Spread footing Combined footing . Strap footing Mat (raft) foundation Combined footing ~ a spread footing which supports two or more columns is termed as combined footing. The combined footings may be of the following kinds; i. Rectangular combined footing & > SA UE xe “s) TRape zoe.1. Spread footing 3. Strap footing 4. Mat (raft) foundationSpread footing Combined footing Strap footing Mat (raft) foundation low fe i pepe Strap footing - if the independent footings of two columns are connected by a beam, it is called a strap footing. A strap footings may be used where the distance between the column is so great that a combined trapezoidal footing becomes quite narrow, with high bending moment. In that case, each column is provided with its independent footings and a beam is used to connect the two footings. COLUMN COLUMN FOOTING STRAP BEAM ECCENTRICALLY LOADED COLUMN FOOTING1. Spread footing Shallow foundations . 2° Combined footing 4. Mat (raft) foundationSpread footing Combined footing Strap footing Mat (raft) foundation Shallow foundations Pepe Mat foundation ( Raft foundation )- a mat or raft is a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath a structure and supports all the walls and columns. When the allowable soil pressure is low, or the building loads are heavy, the use of spread footings would cover more than one half the area and it may prove more economical to use mat or raft foundation. Raft may be divided into three types, based on their design and construction; i. Solid slab system ii, Beam slab system iii, Cellular system =1. Spread footing . . Combined footing Shallow foundations . ootiny shallow foundatio: 3. Strap f . 4. Mat (raft) foundation i. Solid slab system ii, Beam slab system iii, Cellular system a a 8 8 FLAT SLAB BEAM AND SLABDeep strip footing . Pile foundation . Pier (drilled caisson) foundation |. Well (caissons) foundation Deep foundations Bepe Deep strip, rectangular or square footings — the usual strip, rectangular or square footings come under the category of deep foundations, when the depth of the foundation is more than the width of the footing. deep ground surrace a a ok 7T47 o>1, Deep strip footing . 2. Pile foundation Deep foundations ~ 3° pier (drilled caisson) foundation 4. Well (caissons) foundation Pile foundation — pile foundation is that type of deep foundation in which the loads are taken to a low level by means of vertical members which may be of timber, concrete or steel . Piles used for building foundation may be of four types; a con = i. End bearing pile Coton It Friction pile ‘oe It Combined pile Paecap i iv. Compaction pile Pes or Ober It It Tyeot xp i Foundations iu "1 Gomes koe sewing it Camaamn ie1. Deep strip footing 2. Pile foundation 3. Pier (drilled caisson) foundation 4. Well (caissons) foundation Pier foundation ( drilled caisson foundation)-— a pier foundation consist of a cylindrical column of a large diameter to support and transfer large super imposed loads to the firm strata below. The difference between pile foundation and pier foundation lies in the method of constructions. Pier foundation may be of the following types; i. Masonry or concrete pier = ii, Drilled caissons1. Deep strip footing 2. Pile foundation Deep foundations 3 Pier (drilled caisson) foundation 4. Well (caissons) foundation Well foundation ( or caissons)— well foundations or caissons are box like structure — circular or rectangular — which are sunk from the surface of either land or water to the desired depth. They are much large in diameter than the pier foundations or drilled caissons. Well foundations or caissons are hollow from inside, which may be filled with sand, and are plugged at the perimeter wall, called steining. This type of foundations are not used for buildings. Based on shape classified as follows; 7 i. Circular ae ii. rectangular = Fig 1 Parts of a Well FoundationSelection criteria for foundations based on soil conditions, (>) O Selection criteria for foundation for buildings depend on two factors, i.e. factors related to ground (soil) conditions and factors related to loads from the structure. The performance of foundation is based on interface between the loadings from the structure and the supporting ground or strata. The nature and conditions of each of these varies, so, the selection of appropriate foundation becomes necessary for these variations depending on circumstances. Selection of Foundation based on Ground Conditions: The ground or soil condition is necessary for determining the type of suitable foundation. The soil on which the industrial, commercial or residential building rests may be stable, level and of uniform composition, but in some situations it may be otherwise. Following are criteria for selecting suitable foundation based on soil c dition: Where soil close to the surface is capable of supporting structure loads, shallow foundations can be provided. Where the ground close to surface is not capable of supporting structural loads, hard strata is searched for, and in some cases, it may be very deep, like in case of multi-storey buildings, where loads are very high. So, deep foundations are suitable for such cases.Selection criteria for foundations based on soil conditions, OField up ground have low bearing capacity, so deep foundation is required at that place, whereas uniform stable ground needs relatively shallow foundation. QLevel of the ground also affects foundation selection. If the ground is not leveled, and has gradient then step foundation may be preferred. Selection of foundation based on Loads from Building: The loading condition i.e. type and magnitude of loads, depends on the form and type of building to be constructed. Un case of low rise building with large span, the extent of loading is relatively modest, so shallow foundation is preferred in this case. UWwhile high-rise building with short span has high loads. Therefore, deep foundation is required in such cases. Deep foundation is provided because ground a i compacted. Cin case of framed structure multi-storey building, where loads are application, the use of pads and piles are common. Where, loads of the buildings are uniformly distributed, like from ma lad are not needed.Bearing capacity of soil, A foundation should be designed to satisfy two essential conditions ; i. Itmust have some specified safety against ultimate failure . ii, The settlements under working loads should not exceed the allowable limits for the super structure. Bearing capacity is the power of foundation soil to hold the forces from the superstructure without undergoing shear failure or excessive settlement. used for the design of foundations (i.e. for determine the dimensions of the foundations ) is determined on the basis of the above two criteria. In general, the supporting power of a soil or rocks is referred to as its bearing capacity. The term bearing capacity is defined after attaching certain qualifying prefixes, as defined below; Gross pressure intensity (q) Net pressure intensity (q,) Ultimate bearing capacity (qo Net ultimate bearing capacity (qui) Net safe bearing capacity (qus) Safe bearing capacity (qs) 7. Allowable bearing capacity (qa) PRE e prUltimate Bearing Capacity (q,) : It is the maximum pressure that a foundation soil can withstand without undergoing shear failure. Net ultimate Bearing Capacity (q,,) : It is the maximum extra pressure (in addition to initial overburden pressure) that a foundation soil can withstand without undergoing shear failure. ae = Ge ~ Fo Here, q, represents the overburden pressure at foundation level and is equal to yD for level ground without surcharge where y is the unit weight of soil and D is the depth to foundation bottom from Ground Level. Safe Bearing Capacity (q,) : It is the safe extra load the foundation soil is subjected to in addition to initial overburden pressure. 4 4a, ra Here. F represents the factor of safety. Allowable Bearing Pressure (q,) : It is the maximum pressure the foundation soil is subjected to considering both shear failure and settlement.Methods of testing bearing capacity of soil The bearing capacity of soil can be determined by the following methods; Rankines’s analys a) Analytical methods involving the use of soil parameter Terzaghi’s analysis : Gravity loading platform method b) Plate load test on the soil . Reaction truss method ©) Penetration test a) presumptive bearing capacity values from codesPlate load test on the soil ‘Sand Bags Platform for loading Dial Gauge Testing Plate Foundation Level O Itis a field test for the determination of bearing capacity and settlement characteristics of ground in field at the foundation level. Q The test involves preparing a test pit up to the desired foundation level. O Arigid steel plate, round or square in shape, 300 mm to 750 mm in size, 25 mm thick acts as model footing.Q Dial gauges, at least 2, of required accuracy (0.002 mm) are placed on plate at corners to measure the vertical deflection. Q Loading is provided either as gravity loading or as reaction loading. For smaller loads gravity loading is acceptable where sand bags apply the load. OQ Inreaction loading, a reaction truss or beam is anchored to the ground. A hydraulic jack applies the reaction load. Q Atevery applied load, the plate settles gradually. The dial gauge readings are recorded after the settlement reduces to least count of gauge (0.002 mm) & average settlement of 2 or more gauges is recorded. Load Vs settlement graph is plotted as shown. Load (P) is plotted on the horizontal scale and settlement (A) is plotted on the vertical scale. Red curve indicates the general shear failure & the blue one indicates the local or punching shear failure. The maximum load at which the shear failure occurs gives the ultimate bearing capacity of soil. \ ht #Plate load test on the soil) Penetration test 65 kg Hammer Tripod Bore Hole Split Spoon Sampler Eo Olt is a field test to estimate the penetration resistance of soil. Olt consists of a split spoon sampler 50.8 mm OD, 35 mm ID, min 600 mm long and 63.5 kg hammer freely dropped from a height of 750 mm. OTest is performed on a clean hole 50 mm to 150 mm in diameter. split spoon sampler is placed vertically in the hole, allowed to freely settle under its own weight or with blows for first 150 mm which is called seating drive.The number of blows required for the next 300 mm penetration into the ground is the standard penetration number N Apply the desired corrections (such as corrections for overburden pressure, saturated fine silt and energy) Q Nis correlated with most properties of soil such as friction angle, undrained cohesion, density ete.Method of improving bearing capacity of soilMethod of improving bearing capacity of soil 7 Some times, the safe bearing pressure of soil is so low that the dimensions of the footings work out to be very large and un economical. In such a circumstance, it becomes essential to improve the safe bearing pressure, which can be done by the following methods; 1. Increasing depth of foundation 2. Compaction of soil 3. Drainage of soil 4. Confining the soil 5. Grouting 6. Chemical treatment Ramming moist soil Rubble compaction into the soil Flooding the soil vibration Vibroflotation Compaction by pre-loading Using sand pilesIncreasing depth of foundation Ithas been found that in granular soil, the bearing capacity increases with the depth due to the confining weight of overlying material. However this is not economical since the cost of construction increases with the depth. Q Compaction of soil ithas found that compaction of natural soil deposits or man-made fills results in the improvement of bearing capacity and reduction in the resulting settlement . Compaction of soil can be achieved by the following means a) Ramming moist soil b) Rubble compaction into the soil c) Flooding the soil @)_ vibration e) Vibroflotation f) Compaction by pre-loading g) Using sand piles OQ Drainage of soil it is a well known fact that the presence of water decreases the bearing power of soil , specially when its saturated. This is because of low shearing strength of soil in presence of excess water. Drainage results in decreases in the voids ratio , and improvement in bearing capacity.Q Confining the soil some times the safe bearing pressure of the soil is low due to the lateral movement of loose granular soil. Such a tendency of lateral movement can be checked by confining the soil, out side the perimeter of foundation area, by driving sheet piles , thus forming an enclosure and confining the soil Q Grouting this method is useful in loose gravels and fissured rocky strata. Bores holes in sufficient numbers are driven in the ground and cement grout is forced through these under pressure. The cracks, voids and fissures of the strata are thus filled with the grout, resulting increase in the bearing value. Q Chemical treatment in this method, certain chemicals are grouted in the place of cement grout. The chemical should be such that it can solidify and gain early strength.Settlement of foundations CO ( The vertical downward movement of the base of a structure is called settlement and its effect upon the structure depends on its magnitude, its informality, the length of the time over which it takes place, and the nature of the structure itself. Foundation settlements may be caused by some or a combination of the following reasons; 1. Elastic compression 2. Inelastic (or plastic ) compression 3. Ground water lowering 4. Vibrations 5. Seasonal swelling and shrinkage 6. Ground movement on earth slopes 7. Other causes1. r + Settlement of foundations Q Elastic compression of the foundation andthe underlying soil. Inelastic (or plastic ) compression of the underlying soils, which is much larger than the elastic compression. The in elastic compression can be predicted by the theory of consolidation. Ground water lowering repeated lowering and rising of water level in loose granular soil tends to compact the soil and cause settlement of the ground surface. Vibrations due to pile driving, blasting and oscillating machineries may cause settlement in deposits of granular soils. Seasonal swelling and shrinkage of expensive clays. Ground movement on earth slopes, such as surface erosion, slow creep or landslide. Other causes such as adjacent excavation, mining subsidence, underground erosion, etc.Causes of failure of foundation and remedial . Unequal settlement of sub soil . Unequal settlement of masonry . Sub soil moisture movement . Lateral pressure on the walls . Lateral movement of sub soil . Weathering of sub soil due to trees and shrubs . Atmospheric actionCauses of failure of foundation and remedial measuresSite Preparation «Remove trees and any debris +Remove top soilSite Layout Cy) \A Ensure lot lines are known & setbacks are~ complete Layout building perimeter +Use batter boards Establish building corners & building perimeterExcavation O +Excavate foundation along line created by = batter boards +Excavate remainder of soil inside perimeter «If deep foundation, taper edges to prevent collapse «If soil unstable, or very deep - use shoring