I GEOMETRICAL OPTICS We have just discussed reflection and refraction. Now wish to consider the properties of devices which make use of these effects such as mirrors, prisms, lenses, etc. Although light is fundamentally a wave phenomenon we have already shown that important aspects of its propagation can be described in terms of lines, called rays, which are drawn perpendicular to a wavefront, i.e., in the direction of propagation of the wave. The description of the behavior of light in terms of rays is a central concept in geometri- cal optics and provides a very simple and convenient model for calculating the behavior of optical systems such as mirrors or lenses. ‘This procedure neglects effects due to interfer- ence and diffraction, although this is generally not too serious if we consider large optical components. We may summarize the laws governing ray behavior as follows: [~§) Ina homogeneous medium each ray is a straight line ii) When a ray is reflected, the incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the surface are all in the same plane and the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. iii) when a ray is refracted, the incident ray, refracted ray, and normal to the surface are all in the same plane and the angle of incidence @, is related to the angle of refraction by Snell’s Law, i.c., njsin 6; = m sin Oy. [Consider initially the properties of mirrors which take advantage of reflection. Mirrors. Mirrors are finding ever widening application in the construction of lasers, telescopes, etc., especially in the x-ray, UV, and IR. It is relatively easy to produce a reflecting device which will perform satisfactorily over a large wavelength range. This is advantageous as it is very difficult to find materials to make transmissive devices such as lenses which are transparent over a broad wavelength range because of absorption within the material. Further, lenses may produce chromatic aberrations because their behavior is wavelength dependent, whereas the behavior of a mirror is not wavelength dependent, Mirrors were initially fabricated by coating a polished block of glass, a very stable material, with silver which has a high reflectivity in the UV and IR. An improved mirror can be made by using a vacuum-deposited aluminum coating protected by a thin overlayer of siliconmonoxide or magnesium fluoride to prevent atmospheric oxidation of the aluminum and hence degradation of the mirror. In critical applications where even small reflection losses cannot be tolerated, mirrors are used which comprise many thin layers of vacuum-deposited dielectric materials of carefully controlled thickness. ‘This system acts as a mirror because of interference effects, Plane mirror Consider now the simplest mitror of all, a plane mirror. How will a point source appear when viewed in a plane mirror? Rays from the object reach the eye as shown in the diagram. ‘The eye does not realize that reflection has occurred and thus, to the eye, the entrant rays appear to be diverging from I, referred to as the image of O. As is evident from the figure, tri- angles OAB and IAB are congruent, i.e., O. 1 ‘Thus O and I are equal perpendicular distances from the mirror, and line OI is normal to the mir- ror, ‘The image I lies on a line through O normal to the mirror and an equal perpendicular distance one, behind the mirror ‘The relationship between O and Iholds for all rays entering the eye no matter the location of the eye or point of reflection on the mirror. The point I is referred to as the image of O, the object. In this case it is referred to as a ‘virtual image as the rays of light do not actually emanate from I but only appear to, i.e., the rays do not physically cross at 1. v Ask now how does an object of finite size appear yiauoev when viewed in a mirror, ‘This is readily determined since each point on the object acts as a point source and is thus imaged at a point an equal perpendicular distance behind the mirror. Thus we can build up the image of eles | the object point by point.Note - The image is erect and life-size. However, if we view a right hand in a mirror it appears as a left hand. This results because the side of an object pointing away from the observer is viewed in a mirror, and it would be necessary to turn the hand around in the absence of a mirror in order to see this side. ‘Thus a right hand coordinate system will appear a5 a left-hand coordinate system when viewed in a mirror. This process is referred to as inversion or mirror inversion. Thus a single reflection inverts the coordinate sys- tem, but.a second inversion resulting from a sec- ond reflection will recover the original coordinate system. Images observed using two mirrors inclined toward each other If we have two mirrors inclined at an angle we may see multiple images. Consider, for example the arrangement shown, The eye will view an image O; of O reflected in mirror (1). In addition, an image O2 of O will be formed by mirror (2). However, light from the image point O; may also be reflected by mirror (2) when Oj will act as an object for mirror (2), resulting in the image Oy2. 2 cannot act as an object for mirror (1) as itis behind the plane of this mirror as viewed by the observer. Thus the observer sees three images. The number and location of the images seen by an observer typically depends on the anglebetween the mirrors and positions of the object and observer. Multiple reflections of this type for the basis of a kaleidoscope. U of mirrors to measure sm: Mirrors are often used in conjunction with a collimated light beam to amplify and measure small rotations or yy deflections that occur in sensitive instruments such as torsion balances. te ‘The deflection is observable, even though very small, be- cause 4) the scale across which the light beam moves is far from the mirror when a small angular deviation of the light beam will result in a measurable deflection of the spot. ii) if the mirror rotates through a small angle 6¢ the resultant angular displacement of the beam is 50 = 256. ‘This is readily proven. If the mirror is initially in the plane MM’, the total angular deviation of the light: beam is @ = 2a where a is the angle of incidence. If the mirror rotates by 5 the new angle of incidence of the beam is a + 6 and the new angular deviation is 2a + 54) = 2a + 264. ‘Thus we have 69 = 266. Curved mirrors Now we wish to study the optics of curved reflecting surfaces - a subject referred to as catoptrics. The fact that. curved mirrors can form images was well known at the time of the early Greeks, indeed it was discussed by Euclid. Consider the problem of imaging a point object O using a curved mirror. If the rays emanat- ing from the object O are all to converge on a common final image point I we require from Fermat's principle that the optical path lengths associated with the various ray paths be equal so that they all represent a common stationary value of the. optical path length. This can be accomplished by use of an elliptical mirror. By definition an ellipse is that surface for which the path length between two fixed points, referred to as foci, via any 4point P on the surface is constant. It also has the prop- erty that anormal at P bisects the angle OPI, ie., 6; = 6. ‘Thus if we locate the object at one focus of an elliptical mirror it will be imaged at the other focus. Note - For a concave elliptical mirror all the rays emanating from O actually cross at I, the image point, and we therefore have a real image at I. - if we use a convex ellipsoidal mirror we can form, for example, virtual images of virtual objects! In general elliptical mirrors are difficult to fabricate. However, over a small region we can approximate an el- liptical surface by a spherical surface. Since spherical mirrors are easy to make we ask the question - under what conditions might a spherical mirror perform ade- quately? Point object O on the optic axis of a spherical concave mirror of radius of curvature R. Consider imaging a point object O located on the optic axis of a spherical concave mirror of radius of curvature R. (The optic axis is the axis of symmetry of the mirror.) Consider a ray from the object which makes an angle @ to the optic axis and strikes the mirror at Q at an angle of inci- dence 8. The normal to the surface at Q passes through the center of curvature C of the mirror and makes an angle @ to the optic axis. ‘The reflected ray from Q crosses the optic axis at I where it subtends an angle d. Geometrical considerations require that AOQC a=0+8>6= -6 AOQI 6+28=6 ) ie, 0+2a-28=¢ ie, 2a=0+9 (2) 5If we restrict the discussion to rays such that the angles a,, and ¢ are small, ie., the rays that travel approximately parallel to the optic axis, termed the pararial region, then antena O~tan.d $~tand (3) when 2tana~tan+tan@ — where alll angles are positive quantities 2PQ PO, PO cP ~ TP * OP @ ie, ‘These are all positive quantities. But if we choose as a convention to measure all distances from P, we can define PO =p (object distance) PC = R (radius of curvature) PI = q (image distance) 2 a 7 i Ss a so 7omtopo Fo mirror formula (5) Note - in the paraxial approximation the image distance q is independent of 0, @, ie., all the rays from O will pass through I. Thus there will be a real image of O at I. If the object is a very great distance from the mirror, i.e. p> —00, we have a plane input wave. Under these conditions the source is imaged at a point called the focus F of the mirror. The distance from the mirror to the focus is PF, termed the focal length f of the mirror. Thus, using the mirror formula we have (6) 1 f “f= where f =PF ‘Thus we may write the general mirror formula as, 12 +-==5=— + only in paraxial approximation 7) poqR f 0 Note -Since the above expression was derived in the paraxial approximation we should not expeet a large spherical mirror to reflect all incident rays parallel to the axis precisely through the focus, only those close to the optic axis, for which ¢ is small It is, however possible to design a mirror that will focus all the rays from a distant object precisely through a focal point even if it has a large aperture. Such a mirror is parabolic in 6shape and mirrors of this type are widely used in astro- nomical telescopes since these are typically used to view very distant objects. ‘Thus, @ parabolic mirror will focus a plane wave to a point. Conversely, if a source of light is located at the focus of a parabolic mirror reflection results in the production of a parallel beam of light. Such mirrors are used in flashlights, automobile headlights, etc. Parabolic mirrors are also used off-axis as mirrors for microwave reflection. Tests of sign convention and mirror formula We ask how does the mirror formula hold if we have virtual objects or images, or if we use a convex mirror. Consider the point object O located on the optic axis of a concave spherical mirror. A ray of light converging on 0 is reflected by the mirror at Q. Geometrical considerations require that, ACQI g=at8 ACQO B=atd ie, @=2a+@ 2=G-6 ‘Thus, in the paraxial approximation we may write 2tana ~ tang — tand (8) : 2PQ_PQ_ PQ he “Gp =P PO ® all written as positive quantities as the angles are positive. Thus 7 - 2 1 pe7 RPO Rats (10) ‘Thus the mirror formula will always work when used with a rigorous sign convention even. for a convex mirror for which R > 0.Image formation in a mirror Will now discuss the imaging of an object of finite size in a plane perpendicular to the optic axis by a concave mirror. The object can be viewed as a collection of point sources each of which will be imaged by the mirror at the corresponding image point. Thus we can build up the final image from a collection of images of different points on the object. In the paraxial approximation each image point will be the same distance from the mirror when the position of the final image can be calculated by use of the mirror formula. We can understand the process of image formation by use of a geometrical construction called a ray diagram. Since the foot of the object is a point source on the optic axis it will be also imaged on the optic axis (as just discussed) at a position given by the mirror formula. However, if we wish to determine the nature of the image of O we can do so quickly by drawing carefully selected rays from the tip of the object. i) A ray from the tip of the object $ parallel to the optic axis must be reflected through the focus of the mirror, ii) A ray of light from S passing through the center of curvature of the mirror will strike it normal and hence retrace its path. iii) A ray of light from $ through the focus of the mirror must be reflected parallel to the optic axis. iv) A ray from § striking the center of the mirror P is reflected so as to make equal angles with the optic axis. ‘The point at which rays drawn in the above manner cross (at $') is then the image of S. ‘Thus, in the present case where |p| > |R| the mirror forms a real but inverted image of O that is diminished.Magnification of the image ‘The magnification of the image is readily computed by remembering that a ray strik- ing the mirror at its center, P, is reflected so as to make an equal angle with the optic axis, Thus, height of image hy PL_g height of object he PQ p where the minus sign is included as the image is inverted even though p,q have the same & by similar triangles | (11) magnification sign. Object located between the focus and the concave mirror ‘The ray diagram shows the image to be erect, vir- ‘tnal and magnified, Ask is this in agreement with what would be cal- culated by the use of the mirror formula. c oO (12) se 1 iG @ = 2 but p and f are both negative, although f has the greatest magnitude. ‘Thus q > 0. ice, we expect the image to be formed to the right of the mirror when it must be virtual. Further, since M = ~4, and q is positive, p negative, then M > 0, the image is erect. Astronomical telescopes Large astronomical telescopes are constructed using mirrors rather than lenses, referred to as reflecting telescopes. Lenses are not used in large telescopes because: i) it is difficult to get a sufficiently large block of glass of good optical quality. ii) It is difficult to support a lens as it: can only be supported around its rim and may sag under its own weight. Remember, a mirror can always be supported on its back and may be lightened by using a honeycomb structure. Can also use multi-mirror telescopes! 9iii) The focal length of a mirror is independent of the wavelength of the light itis focusing, i.e,, it has no chromatic aberration. ‘There are several configurations of astronomical telescopes in use. Since these instruments are designed to image objects at great distances, and have large apertures to collect: a lot of light, parabolic mirrors are employed. ‘The basic instrument is just a parabolic mirror. However, it is not always convenient to locate complex analytical instruments at the prime focus, so several telescopes have een devised to bring the focused image either to the rear : or the side of the telescope. i Newtonian Gregorian Cassegranian Prisms A prism is a transparent body two of whose boundaries are non-parallel planes. Consider the refraction of a beam of light as it traverses a prism of apex angle A and refractive index ng As a light ray traverses the prism it will be refracted as it both enters and exits the prism and will in general suffer a net devia- tion 6 referred to as the angular deviation. ‘At the first refraction the ray is deviated through an angle (Bj, ~ 6) and at the second refraction it is deviated through a further angle (Ore — 62) ‘Thus the total angular deviation is given by consideration of APTR and is 5 = (81 — Ox) + (Bex - O22) (13) 10but since PQRS is a cyclic quadrilateral, the exterior angle of APRS at S is A, when A=0n +02 (a4) and 6 may be written 5=01+02-A (15) ‘We wish initially to write the expression for 6 in terms of 8, and A, both of which are generally known. Eliminate 42 using Snell’s law, n; sin 6, ng sin Ojo ie, Oy =sin {22smea} (16) m but from Eqn . (14) we may write 2 = A —0g1, when 02 = sin {Zaina - au) (7) ™ = sin {22¢in Acosta ~ coe Asinds)} 1 but application of Snell’s law at the first surface yields nysin a = n2sin Oe e., sin By = sind (18) 2 7 1 when — cos@q = (1 —sin-? 0)" {i - Geyraintan} (19) 2 Substitution into Eqn. (17) yields 6 =O +sin {Eesnaa - (2) sin”? @y)'? — eattsnas} -A (20) nm N, na ne 1n we, 6 =O, -+sin {na [tar —srta] -sindu cons} (21) 1 ‘This expression gives the deviation 6 of the ray in terms of 61, A, and n2/n;. Note that 5 depends on n2/mi, ie., 5(A, 61,1, 72). However, this equation is sufficiently complex that it is difficult to intuit the behavior of § in response to changes in no/n1 oF 641 We can get: some idea of the behavior if we consider the special case where A and 6, are small, and as a result, so too are 61,042, and A uIf these angles are small, then we may approximate Snell's law as applied at the two faces. ‘These expressions then reduce to msin§y = msingg > mOr~min ie, Cr~ bu (22) 1 msingg = msingg > mia~mln ie, O2~ 260 (23) ‘Thus, we may write 6 as b= 0540q—A~ (05-400) -A={% -1} 4 2) : : i.e., for small angles _{%_ b= {= fa (25) Note - In this special case the deviation is independent of the angle of incidence 6:1. In addition, we see that the deviation de- pends on the ratio of n2/ni. If this ratio = > 1 then the deviation will be in the sense initially chosen, i., 5 > 0. If ma/m <0, then 6 < 0 and the deviation will be in the My n, ‘opposite direction to that chosen in the ini- 2 >! ae 1 1 tial diagram. : Dispersion ‘We have just shown that the deviation of a ray by a prism depends on the ratio n2/n1. hie However, the refractive index of most me- dia is wavelength dependent and as a result ight bus Y% speetrurn the deviation produced by a prism will de- pend on the wavelength of the radiation. If a beam of white light is directed into a prism the component wavelengths are deviated by different amounts, and as a result emergent beams at different wavelengths travel in different directions. ‘The incident beam is said to have been dispersed and the effect is known as dispersion. ‘Thus, if we use an input beam of white light, the wavelength dependence of the deviation disperses the wavelengths that compose white light giving a spectrum. 12‘8 For most materials, na(X) decreases as \ increases, and thus, since the deviation is greatest when n2 is greatest, we expect blue light to be deviated more than red light by a prism. blue Angle of minimum deviation If we calculate, or measure, the angle of deviation 6 as ‘a function of the angle of incidence, it is seen to pass red through a minimum. This deviation is referred to as the ¢ V7 angle of minimum deviation, bn. in ‘The angle of minimum deviation is easy to locate exper- imentally by simply observing the beam emerging from the prism as the prism is rotated, and thus it is a useful quantity. ‘We can argue by symmetry that minimum deviation occurs when 0,1 = 042, ie., when a ray traverses the prism symmetrically. This can also be proven mathematically Suppose that minimum deviation occurs when 6; 4 02. If we reverse the direction of the ray through the prism the principle of reversibility states that the deviation is unchanged. But in the reverse direction 0,1 + 0.2, i. we expect a minimum deviation at an angle of incidence 0. i.c., if Oa # Ot we expect to have two different angles of minimum deviation! However there can only be one, so we require 0: = @2. When 6 = dp i ., at the angle of. minimum deviation, we have bin +A $m = O1+02—-A=Wa-A ie, Gn 2 ‘Also, since any ray passes symmetrically through the prism 8x1 = 6:2 A A= On + Oa = 20 Us z Application of Snell’s law to the refraction at the entrance face yields ny sin 8; = nz sin A if medium 1 is air (26) (27) (28) (29)‘This equation forms the basis of a very accurate method for determining n2/n as 6m and A can be accurately measured. This approach can also be used to measure the refractive indices of liquids - simply employ a hollow prism with plane parallel sides full of the liquid of interest. No deviation is introduced by the plane parallel glass sides of the prism. Reflecting prisms In certain applications prisms are used in place of mirrors as reflectors by making use of total internal reflection within the prism or by silvering one face. If we wish to use a prism as a reflector we need to be certain that no dispersion will occur since this would result in images at different locations depending on the wavelength of the light. 8, That this will not occur using an equi-angle prism can be readily seen. Consider the reflecting prism shown in the diagram. The incident ray makes an angle greater than the critical angle with the near face and is totally internally reflected. however, we craw the image of the prism in this reflecting plane itis seen to be equivalent toa thick planar block of glass. Thus the direction of the emergent ray is not dependent on its wavelength, since applying Snell’s law to a block of glass with parallel sides we have nysin 6 = nasinGa = n2sin Be =n sinB2 (30) ie, 61 =62 — independent of the value of n In a right-angled prism the rays are deviated by 90° results in the usual mirror inversion. UZ 4rh Ina porvo-prism a ray is deviated 180° by two internal reflections and no mirror in- version occurs, although the image is spa- cially inverted. Thus we can use two of these prisms in planes 90° apart to erect fan inverted image. This fact is made use of in prism binoculars. A Dove prism is used with collimated light and has the interesting property that it rotates the image at twice the rate that itself is rotated about a longitudinal axis. bop \ th q 4 Lenses - refraction at curved surfaces oe Lh. ~e- 180° ‘The lens is the most widely used optical device, indeed we even view the world through the pair in our eyes. The lens dates back to the burning glasses of antiquity. Consider a point object O, rays from which arrive at a curved boundary between two transparent media. Let O be on the optic axis or symmetry axis of the boundary. ‘The rays from the object are refracted as they enter the medium, i.e., at the bound- ary. We ask is it possible to choose the shape of the boundary such that after re- fraction the rays will converge on some im- age point I. If the rays leaving O are to converge on image point I we require from Fermat’s principle that the optical path length from O to I via all paths be the same so that all the ray paths represent a common stationary value of the optical path length. 15‘Thus we require that, omy + ling = Som + 8:2 (31) but 8, ; are fixed, so we require fons + &ng = constant (32) and this defines a Cartesian Oval. When the shape pf the boundary satisfies this condition the object O will be imaged at I - O and I can then be referred to as conjugate points. Tt is, however, generally rather difficult to make boundaries that correspond to Cartesian Ovals. They can be approximated over smnall areas by spherical boundaries. Refraction at spherical surfaces Consider now the imaging of a point object © located on the optic axis of a spherical interface of radius of curvature R between media of re- fractive indices ny and na. Consider a ray of light from O that makes an angle @ to the optic axis. ‘This ray is refracted at Q as it crosses the boundary and then subsequently crosses the optic axis at I at angle ¢. Geometrical considerations require A0QC p=0+a Acai B+e ie, B=a-g (33) Snell’s law yields n; sin p = nosin 8, which, if p and @ are small, ic., if we are in the paraxial regime, may be approximated as np ~ m8 (34) when we have (8 +a) = na(a— 9) (35) ie, mO+ md = (n2—m)a (36) 16which, under paraxial conditions, @ ~ tan, etc. may be written ny tan@+nytang=(n2—n,)tana all angles positive quantities (37) ; BQ) koe PQ oo ie, mop tmp = (r2—m)pq all quantities positive distances (38) If we measure all distances from P and define PO=p, PI = q, and PC = R mm _m q oP R Note - This equation is independent of @ and 4, this any paraxial ray from O will cross the ie, © in paraxial regime (39) optic axis at I and I will be the image of O. Conversely, an object at I is imaged at O. O and I are conjugate points. Refraction at two successive boundaries Consider now a system consisting of a piece of material of refractive index ny having spherical boundaries of radii R, and Ry located between media with indices m,n3. Ask what are the imaging properties of this system. Consider a point object O located on the optic axis of the “lens”. The first surface will image O at I. I’ then serves as the object for the refraction at the second surface. At the first surface we have PY PO Ry (40) and for the second surface Pal ~ Pal because Pil! = P1P2 + Pal! => Pol! = Pil! - PiP2 = Pal! -t. This can be used to compute the image position. However, in the special case when PPs, i.., t, is small we have a thin lens, thus Py ~P2=P and we may write mg ty _ mam Pr PO ~ (@) tat _ tama a. = IWwhen addition yields (44) where PO = p, P! ‘We can define two principal foci for this system which is referred to as a lens. = q and O is imaged at I 3) The first principal focus P; is the position of an object on the optic axis whose image is formed at infinity, i.e., ¢ =Ph. ‘Thus, since g = co we have =m _-m_-m_ mam PO PR ft where by definition O is at the first principal focus. fr = PF, is termed the first focal length of the lens. ii) The second principal focus F is the position of the image on the optic axis formed by ng Ro Re an object at infinity, i.e., p ‘Thus we have Ng _ Ms Ms Ma— Mm | Mg—me (46) Pl Pie 2 Ri Ry where I is at F2 by definition. So = PF) is termed the second focal length, loosely referred to as the focal length.“ ‘Thus, summarizing we have (47) $--3 (48) Note - The ratio of the focal lengths depends on the indices of refraction of the media on either side of the lens. If they are not equal, then fi # fo. In the special case of a thin lens in air, ny = ng when fy =~fo. We may then write Le a) a ape wt mi ho oh . (2) fe -a}‘This is termed the lens-maker’s equation but it only applies in the case of a thin lens, ny = mg and in paraxial approximation. Note - The focal length of the lens depends on nz which is wavelength dependent. Thus the position of the image corresponding to a fixed object position will depend on the wavelength of the light, an effect referred to as chromatic aberration. ‘The quantity 1/fy is referred to as the power of the lens. If fo is expressed in meters, the power is given in diopters Concave and convex lenses in air Ask now what are the signs of fo appropriate to concave and convex lenses in air, i.c., TM > Mm, i) Conver lenses - thicker in the middle. If we have a double convex lens, then Ry > 0, Ry <0 when EAB ea}oe ‘Thus fo > 0 (if m2 > m) If we have a concavo-convex lens, also termed a meniscus lens, Ry and Rp are both greater than zero but Re > Ri and again fo > 0. ‘Thus, in general fy > 0 for any lens in air ce which is thicker at its center than its edges 2 - referred to as a converging lens. & & ii) Concave lenses - thinner in the mid- dle. If we have a double coneave lens in air, ie., ny > mi, then Ry <0 and Ry > 0 then 1_(m ia -=(2-1))--— 52 aR) m-m} © 19fo <0. Indeed, in general fy < 0 for any Jens that is thinner at its center than at its edges - referred to as a diverging lens. Caution - Convex lenses are not, always converging. If placed in a medium such that mz 0, corresponds to a real image - rays must pass through the lens to form an image. Since the ray passing through the center of the lens is undeviated be- cause we have air on both sides of the lens, the magnification M intro- duced by the lens is given by 20fy _ image height _ gp _ : kh. object height ppp. +p<0, tus 5 <0 (53) showing the image is inverted as is correct. ‘Therefore for a lens in air (ny = ns) (54) Note- If my # ns, ie., the media on either side of the lens have different refractive in- z dices, then a ray passing through the cen- 5 hy ter of the lens will suffer a net deviation, Snell’s law yields nysinp = nzsiny = ng sin pl (55) ‘Thus in the paraxial approximation we have nyp ~ nso! when the magnification, M will be given by image height _ gp! _ mg 5 F Se =— 56) Detbecht g ponne 4 general expression (56) Image formation in a diverging lens in air The ray diagram shows that we have an upright, virtual image diminished in size which is to be expected on the basis of the Jensmaker’s equation 4 my = ny, ie, in air (57) thus ; z + ; > q<0 implies a virtual image (58) h Also M=4q/p > M>0, ic., image is erect, but |g| < |p| => diminished. 2.Magnification at a si boundary gle spheric ‘Again a ray passing through P will be deviated and in the paraxial regime we have nysin p = ngsinp! (59) ql ea he, mpwmp « b= (60) when M=%-™9 — @1 pp Tap Total magnification after several surfaces is product of separate magnifications. Lens combinations in air Consider now the properties of lenses in series in air. i) Two thin lenses in contact ° Ee ‘Ask how can we find the image of an object {fy O produced by two thin lenses L and L’ in | contact. This can be done by use of a ray diagram, In the absence of L, L would form an im- age of O at I’. If we introduce lens L’ the ray through their common center travels undeviated as before but the ray traveling parallel to the optic axis is refracted by L’ through its focus F, when the image I is located as shown. ‘We may also compute the image location by use of the lensmaker’s equation and compute an effective focal length for the combined lenses. For lens L we have 7 - az 1 1 1 + (62) (63) (64)Tio t 1 le, G-c=e+qer— (65 gq Pp fe fe frcomb (65) where focoms is the effective focal length of the combination. ‘Thus we may write i — 66 YP frcom’ ee where ¢ is the image location for the combined lenses and p the object position. facoms, the effective focal length of the lens combination LL is given by Sreom = hth (67) ii) Two thin lenses separated by a distance d, less than the focal length of either lens Consider then the determination of the position of an image produced by such a system by use of a ray diagram. In the absence of L! the lens L will image the object at I’. Having determined the po- sition of I’ we can draw a ray to it passing through the position of the center of LI. If now we introduce lens L! this ray will be undeviated, while the ray initially par- allel to the optic axis when leaving L will be refracted through F}, when the image position is determined. ‘We may also determine the image position by use of the lensmaker’s equation, For lens L we have Lie gah (es) For lens L’ we have 3 ” where q = +p’, ie., p’ =q—d. Substituting for q we obtain oma ) Pf «given pyd, fan fh obtain m) Ph - dlp + fa) 23‘The overall magnification of the system will be the product of the separate magnifications of the two lenses. ag ___ Ph ¢ (7) py PP + fe) { 2h — a} fog Mron = 55 apt fo) . Optical instruments Lenses are frequently employed in optical instruments such as telescopes, microscopes, etc. Perhaps the simplest optical instrument is the magnifying glass. Magnifying glass The closer an object is to the eye the greater the detail that can be discerned. However, most people cannot focus their eyes on an object closer than ~ 25 cm from the eye, referred to as the near point, i.e, the eye can only focus on objects situated more than d = 25 em from the eye. ‘Thus with an unaided eye the angle sub- tended by an object of height h at the eye is limited to the value @, = —h/d (the neg- ative sign is because , > 0 but d <0.) However, we can form an erect, virtual, magnified image of a small object: formed by a convex lens and this image can be viewed by the eye provided it is a distance greater than d from the eye. When viewed through the lens the object appears magnified because the image subtends a larger angle @ at the eye than would be possible using an unaided eye. Since the size of the image on the retina is proportional to the angle it subtends at the eye it is convenient to define a quantity termed the angular magnification or magnifying power via M=— (74) 24‘We can compute the angular magnification realized using a single magnifier in two extreme cases: 4) if the image is viewed by the eye at infinity ‘To achieve this the object must be located at: the first focal position of the lens when 8 Doe 4 Oa-F Magne Fah n (0 >0 but f, <0) ii) If the image is viewed by the eye at the near point With q = d, from the lensmaker’s equation we have of Ph ena Be PS Id (77) angular magnification M = ; peel (78) Magnifying glasses typically use lenses with fp ~ 5 em when the angular magnifications achieved, which in this case are equal to the linear magnifications, are 6/f ~ 4X. In practice, lens aberrations limit magnifications achievable to ~ 3X. For greater magnification we need to use two or more lenses in combination. ii) Compound microscope and telescope In their simplest. form these consist of two convex lenses, the first of which, called the objective, is used to form a real image of the object. The image formed by this lens is then viewed by a second lens, the ocular or eyepiece, which is essentially a simple magnifier. 8) Compound microscope care chive This instrument is used to view small objects close at hand. The objective is used to form a magni- fied real image of the object. ‘The lateral magnification of the ob- Jecti is given by (79)_(h- Mea" ig [7 where M<0 as q>fr (80) 2 This image is viewed by the ocular. If the overall image is viewed by the eye at infinity, then the overall magnification of the system is given by Mror = MM! = (1- 2H) 4 <0 image inverted (81) b) Astronomical telescope This instrument is used to view i large distant objects. Since the ob- Ject distance is very large, the ob- — g, 8. fe jective lens forms a real image at its second focus. This image is then viewed through the ocular. The to- cy § tal angular magnification of the sys- tem is thus given by (82) If Gis small tand~@ + hy, fi both<0 (83) ‘Thus the total angular magnification of the instrument is M=£ but fy'<0 so M<0, image is inverted (84) if For high magnification we require large fo, short fr In an astronomical telescope the fact that the image is in- verted is not usually a prob- lem. In a terrestrial tele- = fa > scope we wish to view an erect image so include an ad- ditional lens in the system to invert the image produced by the objective. 26The resultant telescope is quite long and many had draw tubes of the type frequently thought of as being associated with wooden sailing ships and pirates. ‘The inversion may also be accomplished by use of two erecting prisms using internal reflec- tion. This is a more compact approach and is used in modern prism binoculars. We may obtain an upright image directly by use of a Galilean telescope. In this instrument ‘an objective lens is used to form a real, inverted image and this is viewed by a. diverging eyepiece lens. If we wish to view the image at infinity then the image produced by the objective must be located at the first focus of the eyepiece lens. Thus, since h; = fo) = f{0, the angular magnification is given by wt BYE) foe ® Since both fy and f{ are positive, the magnification is greater than zero and the image erect. ‘The instrument is short but has the disadvantage that it only has a narrow field of view. ‘This lens system, however, is used in opera glasses. aT