1

Metal-Forming Processes 279

~hird pass : In the third pass, the requi site forgiJ1g shape is acquired as in Fig 7 48 Th f h
die a d . . . d · p· · · • e arrangement o t e
n the punch c;wi ues lS presente m tg 7 .49 .

fig 7.49 Arrangement of punch and die cavities for Example 7.3

7.4 EXTRUSION
Extrusion is the process of confining the metal in a closed cavity and then allowing it to flow from only one
opening so that the metal will take the shape of the opening. The operation is identical to the squeezing of
toothpaste out of the tooth paste tube.

7.4.1 Extrusion Principle

A ty pical extrusion process is presented in Fig. 7.50. The equipment consists of a cylinder or container into
which the heated metal billet is loaded . On one end of the container, the die plate with the necessary opening
is fixed. From the other end, a plunger or ram compresses the metal billet against the container walls and the
die plate, thus forcing it to flow through the die opening, acquiring the shape of the npening. The extruded
metal is then carried by the metal handling system as it comes out of the die. A dummy block which is a steel
280 Mf!l1ufacturing Technology

-
Extruded
metal
Plunger

Heated metal billet

Fig 7.50 Typical extrusion set-up

disc of about 40 mm (0.50 to 0.75 of diameter) thick with a diameter slightly less than the container is kept
between the hot billet and the ram to protect it from the heat and pressure.
By the extrusion process, it is possible to make components which have a constant cross-section over any
length as can be had by the rolling process. Some typical parts that are extruded are shown in Fig. 7.51. The
complexity of parts that can be obtained by extrusion is more than that of rolling, because the die required
being very simple and easier to make. Also extrusion is a single-pass process unlike rolling. The amount of
reduction that is possible in extrusion is large. Generally, brittle materials can also be very easily extruded. ft
is possible to produce sharp comers and re-entrant angles. It is also possible to get shapes with internal cavities
in extrusion by the use of spider dies which are explained later. Large diameter, thin wa1led tubular products
with excellent concentricity and tolerance characteristics can be produced.

0
Fig 7.51 Typical extrL1s1on slwpes

The !low of the metal in the ex trusion rrocess is shown schematicall y in Fig. 7 .52. The extrusion ratio is
<leftned as the ratio of cross-sectional area of the billet to that of the extruded section. The typical values of
the cxtru.o;, ion ratio ~re 20 ~o 50. Low_ ex trnsion ratios are used for intermediate operations when the bille_ts
are extruded to a given diameter before the fina l extrusion . Since hot ex trusion involves temperatures 10
the ran ge of 500 to l 200°C dependin g on the work material extmded, the cylinder and ram are severely
 Metal-Forming Processes 281
affected by the temperatw·e' as well as_the stress~s. The pressures applied
may range from 35 to l 000 MPa. Typical extrns1on pressures for various --- - - -- - - -
materials are presented in Tabl~ 7.19. The extmsion pressure for a given
material depends on the extrns1011 temperature, the reduction in area and
tJ1e extrusion speed.

Table 7.19 Extrusion pressures

/-Soft Iead ______ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _275 to 420

I C-o~pe~-~earing leads 300 to 500
I Tin bearing alloys 420 to 620
j----------------- - - - -- - -- --------1
, Tin base alloys 275 to 700
'
1_S_~~ ~opper
•
alloys about 200 Fig 7.52 Flaw of metal inextrusion
----------- -- - -- - - - !
, Hard copper alloys up to 850
t silico~-bronze
I
950
f Alwnini~ba~-; Iloys 70 to 700
- ------- - - - -- - - -- - - - - - -----!
Magnesium base alloys 35 to 350
Zinc base alloys 700 to 850

The extrusion speed depends on the work material. Some of the light alloys may be extruded at a speed
of 0.05 mis, whereas for the copper alloys it may be as high as 4.50 mis. Too high an extrusion speed would
cause excessive heat generation in the extruded metal causing lateral cracks.
A classification of extmsion processes is presented in Fig. 7.53.

Extrusion

Hot Cold

J i i
Backward Forward Backward
Forward

i Impact
Hydrostatic Cold
extrusion extrusion extrusion
forging

Fig 7.53 Classification of extrusion processes

7.4.2 Hat Extrusion Processes

I. Forward Hot Extrusion . ·_. . ·11 . the flow of metal in the
d . Fig 7 50 is called the forwa rd hot extrus10n, s1gmfy1 g f fr ' t"on is prevalent
The process re_pres~nte m . . that of the ram. In forward extrusion, the problem o ic J
forward direction, 1.e. the same as
282 Man11/acturing Tec.hnology

because of the relative motion between the heated metal billet and the cylinder walls. This is particularly severe
in the case of steels because of their higher extrusion temperatures . To reduce this friction , lubricants are to be
used. At lower temperatures, a mixture of oil and graphite is generally used. The problem of lubrication gets
compounded at the higher operating temperatures. Molten glass is generally used for extruding steels. This
stays in liquid form at the operating temperature and provides necessary heat insulation to the hot metal billet
in addition to Jubrication . To reduce the damage to equipment, extrusion is finished quickly and the cylinder
is cooled before further extrusion.

2. Backward Hot Extrusion

Jn order to completely overcome the friction, the backward hot extrusion, as shown in Fig. 7 .54 is used. In this,
the metal is confined fully by the cylinder. The ram which houses the die, also compresses the metal against
the container, forcing it to flow backwards through the die in the hollow plunger or ram. It is termed backward
because of the opposite direction of the flow of metal to that of ram movement. Thus, the billet in the container
remains stationary and hence no friction. Also, the extrusion pressure is not affected by the length of the billet
in the extrusion press since friction is not involved. The surface quality achieved is generally good since there
i~ no heat cracking due to the friction between the billet and the extrusion cylinder interface. The disadvantage
of backward extrusion is that the surface defects of the billet would end up in the final product unlike direct or
forward extrusion where these are discarded in the extrusion container. Though advantageous, this process is
not extensively used because of the problem of handling extruding metal coming out through the moving ram.

Clyinder

Extruded
metal

Die
Fig 7.54 Backward hat extrusion process

7.4.3 Cold Extrusion

l Forward Cold Extrusion
The f~rward_cold ex_trusion is similar to that_of forward hot extrusio n process except for the fact that the
ex~rus1on ratios possible _are lower and ex trusion pressures are higher (Table 7 .20) than th.at of hot extnision.
It 1s normatly used f~r s1_mplc shapes rcq~iring better surface finish and to improve mechanical properties.
Examples of the appl1 cat1 ons arc cans, vanous aluminium brackets , shock absorbe r cylinders rocket motors
a nd heads, etc. '
 - -
ltat•rla\
--
~t~~-• Pft~~.:- Jl!'a
~"'1.1 ~..:~ i H1'"l
45\1k,Sft.1

°',. . ftC"l~ --M°ll' t,, ! lt'O

-
Ctfi:~l S-00 t..1- 2500
..,.'\)l) tU ~I~)

2. lmpHCt Extrosizm·
~ had--,va:rd c('' d e:x:rrus,c-7l is ttud·1 rtk_"'re ~i-mmN·« part,cularty with softer m:itcri::tl.s: S1Kh as ahlmmmm
and its alloys ln b.ad.-v:-1.u-tl cold e~trosk''1 C'l'hled th-e- impact extru...~oo. the se1 up C\)nsists of .i di,e and a p;.mdl
as shown m Flg . .. 55. 1be slug for m.:L.\_ti;::g the \."\._'ffiP\")nent ts kept on the die .md ilie punch strikes the stu.g
again._q the die The metal 1s t."len e, truded tht-ough tt~ gap beh\--een the rum,.~fl and dtc< opl)(..\s.tte to the pur.ch
mO\--mlellL as rn F1g - .55 Because of the rmp:lCi fore.?, the s.ide w~uls go straight -along the pur.ch though they
are, not confined. The height of the side \,-alls 1s; controlled ti,~, tht: amount of me-t:l.l m the, s{ug.. Trus p ~ !S
more commool) u.._-.ed for ma~ the rollapsjt-1,e tubes fur housing p-as_~~ liquids rmd s:im1hT Jrtl~tes.

Pvnch

Die ___,

... '

~
RQ7.55
~ ,..._;...._;;:,.:,_:;;:,.._:-; : , , , . . : ~ ~ ~ ~

3. Cald-[xtrusia.n fDrging
lk wld exuu.sivn furgmg 1, :>tmi1ar t0 1 .
mu_cb Ulh.kcr and iht',r height 1, >null_ ~~-1-<'t cl>.tTIJ.:Smn but wtth. the m.J.m .J.tft:erenci! rru:u the- ~1Je \lit;-:lUs are
tlh
PuLl.:h skP.i.-'f)' de-!lCench O \ t•r .i-.,. ,1u l 1.: r a ~u -:ontams J di~ and pun\;h. ':a.et 1..-,. s.huwn m F•i!• ., So. Th.:
... u .h. :, g r..ept on th~ J', th , . . -:
and 1he res.r bt:mg e. . . Lf\lJed rhroul-!h th, _ k · \b wrgrng .:>0ml! m~tal ~~o=n the puoch anJ ~ Jie
1
generated arc shvn and tb,l·i. v. Hh :n.., ,~ 1. _cl ,lHllh: ..: ~t\\ 1;en tli.:· pund1 and <h.= silk W-.llls Toe ~1.de- \\ 3.J!.s th~
u, t-jected hy me-an!!. 01 rht' ~Jeuor pu, Pu pr_ rt ...1m~ lhc ""nd un..hl..c thc unpa,:t ~xt.rus1vn \ ft~t"\\..U-US. me "''-'IDI'QO:('nl
m lu'-'u m th~ 1.hc
 ~
l -r- Punch

----
- Die

Ejector

The back.-ward cold--c-xtrusion processes are different from other extrusion processes in that, each stroke
of ihe punt'~ prepares a directly usable single component which may not necessarily have a uniform cross
section over its entire- length. _.\!so. these are limited to smaller sizes and for nonferrous alloys only.

7*4.4 Tnoting for Cold Extrusion

Cold exrrusion is one ofthe important processes in view of the fact that most of the material is used in forming
d1e- final shape and is conYenient for automated mass production. The typical example is the body of spark plugs
USed in internal c-omblli.-rion engines. In the process both the forward as well as backward extrusions are used.
_-\ rypical example of a gear blank as it is produced in cold forging \Vlth its various stages shown in Fig. 7.57.

fi2, 7.57 ::1.c;?S ~., ~ g ;rcrhclion uf a(Jear blank using cold extrusion

The ~hapes that can be successfull y cold extruded are the variants of the basic products such as rod, tube
and can. The types of dies used fo r these variants are shnwn in Fig. 7.5 8.
The estimation of extrusion pressure in many cases is done ·with the help of empirical relationships. An~be~
of relations which agree reasonably close with the experimental results are given in the literature. A t)'Pica
 Metal-Forming Processes 285

Punch

Container Container

Workpiece ~ - - - - Workpiece

Forward rod extrusion Forward cup extrusion

Container

~~~~~~~0\-- Workpiece

_,___ _ _ Ejector

Backward cup extrusion

fig. 7.58 Typical die and punch shapes for different cold-extrusion processes

relationship developed by PERA (Production Engineering Research Association, England) for calculating the
maximum pressure for backward extrusion of carbon steels (0.1, 0.2 and 0.3% carbon) is given below:

2
p - ~[ 3.45 ln ~: +I. 15] kN/mm

where -r = the upper yield point, kN/rnm2,

0.1% C steel 0.2% C steel 0.3% C steel,
-r, kN/mm 2 0.29 0.31 0.36
AO = Cross-sectional area of the extruded component, and
Ab = Cross-sectional area of the billet
 286 Nanufaclunng Tochnolagy
06
This expression is valid for extrusion ratios ranging from 1.65 to 4.25 using billets wi th - length"to-
diamete r ratio.

7.4.5 Extruding Tubes ,

Hollow objects such as tubes and other shapes can also be obtained b~ forward_hot_extnision._ One way ?f
obtaining a tube is by means of a solid ram in a double-action press as 1s shown m Fig. 715 9 , FtrSt, th e soltd
ram moves through the heated metal billet creating a hole at the centre. Later, the hollo~ plunger moves the
metal billet through the die. Because of the presence of the solid ram very close to th e die, the necessary hole
is made in the extruded metal.

fig 7.59 Extruding tubes in a double-action press

Another way of obtaining hollow shapes is by the use of a spider extruding die. The spider die is essentially
an extrus ion die with a stub mandrel, for the hollow portion to be generated. It is held to the die by means of
thin ribs simulating the spider legs. The material when extruded flows through the openings between the legs
and form as the central opening because of the stub mandrel. The metal flowing out is actually separated but
gets welded together since it is still in plastic state. A typical spider-die construction is shown in Fig. 7.60.

Hydrostatic Extrusion
Another extrusion process that is being used for special applications is the hydrostatic extrusion. In this, the
metal billet is compressed from all sides by a liquid rather than the ram. The presence of liquid inside the
container efirrunates the need for any lubricant and also, the material is more uniformly compressed from all
sides throughout the deformation zone. Because of this, highly brittle materials such as grey cast iron can a_lso
be extruded . A typical hydrostatic extrusion operation is shown in Fig. 7.61. Some of the pressure-transmitt~g
fluids used are castor oil with 10% alcohol, SAE 30 mineral lubricating oil, glycerine, ethyl glycol and iso
pentane. The hydrostatic pressure range is from 1110 to 3150 MPa. The commercial applications of the pr~e~
are limited to the extrusion ofreactor-fuel rods, cladding of metals, and making wires ofless ductile matenals.
 Container
Die
\
I

_ _,___ Ram

Fig 7.60 Spider die far hallow shapes

Pressure transmitting
fluid

Die

Extruded
metal

Metal billet

Fig 7.61 Hydrostatic extrusiaf1

7.5 WIRE DRAWING

A wire by definition, is circular with small diameters so that it is flexible. The process of\\.ire drawing is to
obtain wires from rods of bigger diameter through a die. Wire drawing is always a cold-working µ ~ .
A typical wire-drawing die is shown in Fig. 7.62 and the wire drawing machine in Fig. 7.61. The \Vi.re-
drawing die is of conical shape. The end of the rod or wire, which is to be further reduced is made into a point
shape and inserted through the die opening. This end is then gripped on the other side wit:h a gripper, which
would then pu]) the wire through the die. The wire thus drawn is then coiled row1d a power reel as :illO\\TI in
Fig. 7.63 .
 11
Powder Metallurgy
Objectives
After completing the chapter, the reader will be able to

• Understand the basics of powder-metallurgy process

• Learn about various metal-powder production methods
• Know the different steps involved in powder metallurgy part preparation
• Understand the advantages and limitations of powder metallurgy
• Learn other developments in the compaction process
• Design parts for powder-metallurgy process

11.1 INTRODUCTION
Powder metallurgy is the name given to a process in which metallic powders are heated Gelow their melting
temperatures to achieve the bonding. In reality the Powder-Metallurgy (PIM) process involves that metal or
alloy powders are compacted into the desired shape after blending, and then heated in a controlled atmosphere
at a temperature below the melting point in order to achieve the bonding of the particles to get the desired
properties. The powder-metallurgy process enables to produce parts in their final shape eliminating the need for
any additional machining. Raw material is not wasted dming the processing while unusual materials or mixtures
can be utilized. It is possible to get parts with unique properties not possible by any other manufacturing
process. Most of the powder-metallurgy parts are in the size range of less than 2 kg, though parts as large as
20 kg were made. Large parts require very expensive tooling and as such are not widely made by powder
metallurgy.
The limit to the size of a PM component is based on the final density and the available press size. Typical
values are the projected area (area perpendicular to the pressing direction) usually is between 4 and 16,000
mm 2, with length between 0.8 to 150 mm, although 75 mm is the practical maximum. There are parts weighing
above 10 kg in production today.
Though powder metallurgy was appeared to have been used by Egyptians around 3000 BC, the modem
developments have started in the mid or late nineteenth century. The early interest was in the self-lubricated
bearings. Later the invention of incandescent light required the filament to be made by PIM process. The
invention of tungsten carbide in the l 920's utilised the P/M process. Later the automobile industry has utilised
the PIM process to a great extent, and even today it accounts for a large volume of its usage. Many of the
enhancements in various powder-metallurgy technologies have taken place in the last 70 years.
The powder-metallurgy process requires a number of processes that need to be carried out as show~ in
Fig. 11.1. It first starts with the production of metal or alloy powders of the requisite size and distribution.
 Powder Mctah'urgy 461

Metal po,vders Additives

Blending

W arm compacting Cold compacting

Sintering

Secondary Secondary
m anufacturing finishing

P/M product

Fig. JU ~--:... ·-..:. 3.: :: ~ <) tj_;=.; r;z,);gting thEt'ariaus operations in pnwdar-metallurgy prm;e.ssing

~ o:e m_e1,aJ or alloy p<Y~l.·ders need to be blended with suitable additives and lubricants. The thorough blending
T ::~ po;;.i.·ciers and additi\·es ensures that the additives are uniformly distributed which would facilitate thc-
~~ctio::J process later. This blended powder is placed in the die and then pressed or compacted by a punch.
1 :.tere are a number of compacting methods that are used. The compacting methods can be broadly classified -
as ~ id.. warm and hor compacting. In each of these varieties, there are more processes that are possibk
s-.:cb. as die compacting, pressure-less sintering, isostatic extrusion, injection moulding, rolling, slip casting,
::o!d ;onning , elc . some of which will be discussed later. After compacting, the material is tenned as · green
:omp2..ct". Til.is has the o\·eraU shape of the part required, but has not enough strength as a working part since
~e powders are not bonded together. To achieve the bonding, the green compact is kept in a furnace with
:...½e re.quisiie atroosphe-re and heated for a finite time. During this process, the lubricants in the compact gets
e·;apo:rared while the bonding takes place. This is termed sintering. After the sinrering the P/M pan can be
op:iona lly done with other manufacturing operations such as repressing, coining. sizing, resintering, forging ,
~ero Ping_ o~ meta1 infiltration c,r finishing operations s uch as machining, heat h·eating, steam treating. pbting,
• ..:...T.bhng. shot peening or oil impregnation.

H.2 PRDOUCTtDN OF METALUC POWDER

~ e fa1t step in the overal l P\1 process is making metal powders. The final properties of a P.1'·1 product depen,J

I :he propernes of the metal or alloy powders that were used in its production. The important characteristics
._ Ts:1

I
462 Mrmufac/1li'lng lm:hnol11r1Y

of' powder~ include th e parl icle shape, size, and the size distribution. There are a number of prooei;ses u.:.eo
for th e manufacture of metal/alloy powders:
• Solid-state reduction ,
• Atomi sation,
• Chemical , and
• Electrnlysis

l Solid-State Reduction
This process is generall y used fo r producing iron powder. In this process, the selected metal/alloy is crush...aj.
mixed with carbon and passed through a continuous furnace where a reaction takes place, which 1ea~:es ~
cake of sponge metal. This sponge metal is then crushed after separating from all non metallic material. T'o:::n
it is sieved to produce powder. The purity of the powder is dependent on the purity of the raw materials. rne
powder particles are irregular and spon gelike which can be readil y compressed to give good green strength.

2. Atomisation
Atomisation breaks molten metal into small droplets by rapidly freezing, before the droplets come into cont2.c1
with each other or with a solid surface. The atomisation is achi eved by bringing the thin molten metal stream
in contact with the impact of high-energy jets of gas or liquid . Air, nitrogen and argon are commonly usoo
gases, and water is the liquid most widely used. In atomi sation, the particle shape is determined largely by the
rate of solidification and varies from spherical, if a low-heat-capacity gas is employed, to highly irregu!ar if
water is used. By varying the design and configurations of the jets, pressure and volume of the atomising :fhrid
thickness of the stream of metal, etc. it is possible to control the particle-size distributi on over a wide range.
This technique is applicable to all metals that can be melted and is used commercially for the production
of iron, copper, alloy steels, brass, bronze, aluminium, tin, lead, zinc and cadmium. It can also be use.d 6
selected instances for high melting-point materials such as tungsten, titanium, and rhenium. As shovm in
Fig. 1 l .2, the liquid metal is siphoned by the high velocity jet of gas expanding through the nozzle. Tne liquid
metal will be atomi sed and sprayed into the collection chamber.

Collection chamber

Nozzle
Spray

Gas

Siphon - - -----4-1

Metal powder
~-----
------------ · Molte n metal

Fig 11.2 Atamisatmn 11si11g agas s/reem to prndur:e metal powder

 flowdn,· Motoflur[JY 463
Another variation of the gas atomi·s a11011
. stream, . . t1 · p·
into a dun which is immediate! t process . lS s ?wn 1f1 . ,g. 11 .3. The rnoltl.lll meta l fl ows by gravity
fom1ing spherical paiticles, which ar:t; _0111tsed by tl~e htgh-press~rc gas jets CO tTling from both sides, thereby
len collected Ill the collect1on chamber.

Molten metal Molten metal

Water _ ___,__.."-11'. ~-:::J-ol- - Water

Gas Gas

Collection chamber

- 4->1- Collection chamber

~ ~ ~ ~ ~: - Metal powder
777
Fig. 11.3 Anather methad af atamisatian using agas stream ta
praduce metal pawder Fig. 11.4 Atomisation using water stream to produce metal powder

Figure 11 .4 shows the atomisation process similar

to Fig. 11.3 , except high-pressure water jet is used
in place of gas. Water provides higher cooling rate,
however the particles produced are not spherical, but
are irregular in shape. One disadvantage of using water
is that the surface of the powder particles gets oxidised.
This can be taken care of by using synthetic oils in
place of water.
In the rotating disk method shown in Fig. 11.5 ,
Collection chamber
molten metal falls on to a disk that is rotating at high Metal powder

speeds. The liquid metal that is impinging on the

1 disk will be thrown out rapidly into small droplets Fig. 11.5 Atomisation 11s1i1g arotating disk ta produce metal powder
by the disk, which are solidified and collected in the
collection chamber.
Another method of atomisation is the rotating consumable electrode method as shown in Fig. 1l .6. Here
1
the metal is melted by the arc between the rotating conswnable electrode and the stationary electrode. Since
~he electrode is rotating, the molten metal is atomi sed by the centrifugal force and collected in the chamber
in which inert gas is fill ed.
464 Me11ufPt!urm(J rn;/m(l/f/gy

Inert gas ,,--:==i-- Vacuum

Rotating
r
I
consumable
electrode t 4. Spindle

~:::;?
Non-rotating
tungsten
electrode
\
Collection port

Fig. 11.6 Atom1set1on using a rotating consumable electrode ta produce metal powder

3. Electrolysis
The desired metal is made as anode in an electrolytic cell such that it is di ssolved by the elec_trolyte in th~
cell and then transported and deposited on the cathode in a spongy or powdery fonn. The deposit 1~ remo_vea,
washed, and dried to get the metal powder. Copper is the primary metal produced by electrolysis but non.
chrom ium , and magnesium powders are also produced using this process.

11.3 PROCESSING METHODS

After the metallic powder is produced, the next steps in the processing are the blending of the powders and
uimpacting before the compact is sintered.

11.3.t Mixingand Blending

( ;ern:rally, c1 si ngle metalli c powder may not have all the requisite properties required for a part . Hence. a
num ber of dj fferent powders wi th the requi site propertie~ are mixed to achieve the necessary balance of the
pn;pemes. Bknding refers to the mixing of the same metal or alloy powders of different size distributions to
reduce the poro~ity levd !) in the PIM product. The powders are al so mixed with other additives to help'.\ ith
the a1loymg prcxess as we ll as lubrication .

The main function of the lubri ~a nt is to reduce the fril'.tio 11 bt'lwcen the powder anti 1he die walls, core rods,
dt . 't.'hcre the powder slide!-t during th e cornpacl1011 pro{.;ess. fhb ensures that the desired uni fom11ty of density
from top to bolfom of the compact. The lubri ca nt wi ll also help in reduci ng the fnl'li on for easy ejection of
1i1e compact and mimmi ~c~ the tendency to fonn cracks. Popular lubriccmts ar~ ~tearic ac id, stearin, metallic
~tl'"::trate-, (tr,pcc., iall y zinc steurn tc) , and increasingly, other organic compound-; ,1f a waxy nature.
 Powrler Molllll11ryy .485
Blending and mixing is nommlly don ~,.1 .· . .
• d rums m
t,e rotatmg . winch. the powder• e, L Y using
, mcchu111c·1l
· · <
p1·oc•·s • T · 1·1 · ·
" · scs. yp1ca y, the mix. mg nwch1ncs will
1
have internal baffles to help throwin g ;~ oosely ~li ed to th c extent of a~o ut 20 to 40% of the volume. Jt. may
O
should be avoided, as it will increase ti po~cle, awa~ so th at there will be thorough mi xing. Ovcm1ixing
m·cen strength of the subsequent co 1.e apparent dcnSJty of the mix. Al so; ove rmixing usuully rt.:duccs Lhc
:,· • · mpacts probably by cornpl t "I · h h 1 · •
thereby reducmg the area of meta l-to-metal co, t , . . . e e Y coating t c w o e s urfa ~c of the partrclc,;,
1
the sintered strength. act on which th c green strength depends. Thi s wi ll also reduce

11.3.2 Compacting
ln compacting, loose powder is con • , l ·
. 1.p1 essec mto a shape known as green compac t whi ch is a very important
step m .powder
. metallurgy The
· . des ir e d c 11aiactenst1cs
•• · · to be ac hieved
· · ' arc hi·gh produc t dens ity,
by compacting
and umfonmty of that density throughout the compact.
Compacting is gener~lly accomplished by the use of mechanical presses and rigid too ls, but hydraulic presses
are also used. Compaction pressures required vary depending upon the type of material used and range from
40 to l 650 MPa. The maximum capacity for the powder-metallurgy press may be o f the order of 1 MN or
less. That translates as capable of a part with a cross-sectional area of 2500 mm 2 with a n a verage compactin g
pressure of 400 MPa. For larger part sizes, the capacity of the press has to be according ly hi g her.
Typical sequence of compacting operation using mechanical press is shown in Fig. 11 .7. At the start of the
cycle, the upper punch moves away allowing for the filling of the die cavity as shown in Fi g. l I .7a. The feed
shoe completely charges the die with powder as shown in Fig. 11.7b. T he amount of powder tilled in the die
is controlled by the location of the lower punch. Compaction begins after the withdrawal o f the feed shoe as
shown in Fig. 11.7c. Compacting process will be completed when the punches complete their intended travel
as shown in Fig. 11.7d. Then the upper punch is retracted and the part is ejected using the lower punch as
·hown in Fig. I l .7e. The cycle will be repeated with the removal of the green compact and recharging for the
,1ext cycle as shown in Fig. 11. 7f.
It is necessary that in order to achieve consistent quality in the final parts, the amount of powder delivered
to the die and the movement of the punches in the die set remain the same for all the components in the batch.
This depends upon powder particle shape which affects the bulk flow rate which in turn affects the amount
of powder delivered to the t?~l!ng. Also, the shape of the particle affects the final dens ity of the compon ent
by controlling the compress1b1ltty.
Th owder particles move primarily in the direction of the applied force. The powder simply compresses,
. e p qual and opposite force is created. The mechanics of compaction are largely governed by friction
unti 1 an ethe die and the pow der an d between th e pow cl er parttc
. lcs. Th e goal durmg. the compaction . eye Ie 1s
.
between . h.t h D . .h l f . h b . I
to impart unifonn de~s1ty t ·o~g oAut. urmg t e _ear~ stage o com~acdtl~n, t e_ contafcth etwe~n part1c es
. · with Jess m1croporos1ty. s t11e compaction mcreases, p1ast1c e10rmat10n o t e part1 c 1es occurs
mcreases nal stage o t· compact10n
· w h en co Id we ld.mg an d mter
. 1oc k.mg o f the pa rt1c
. les occur, 1mpartmg
. .
before t h e fi . . .
. t strength to the green part for eJect10n and fmther handhng.
suffic1en
fa' single punch will not guarantee uniform compaction. With a single punch as shown in Fig. 11 .8a,
Use oder nearer to the punch gets compressed more . The compacting force will not travel a ll a long the
th e po~ the p,u-t, and as a result, the powder near the bottom of the die gets very little compacting . For thin
th O
dep single punch may be sufficient. Howe ver, for thicker parts as shown in Fig. 11.8b, two punches in a
parts,) a cting press will be used. The use of two punches ensures that the density is more uniform throughout
doub e-a
the part.
466 Manufacturing Technology

-
ff-Punch Feed
shoe

Die

(b) (c)
(a)

(d) (e) (f)

Fig. II. 7 Compacting cycle far a single-level component

(a) (b)

Fig. 11.8 Compacting effectiveness depending upon the number of punches used· (a) Smgle punch with nan-uniform density (b} Two punches ensure
mare uni/arm density of the powder r:ompact1i1g
 The green density (grams per cubic ,centimetre) of the compacted pan:~ i::pon tt.e ,r.e-~e ir-,e.d fof
conl.pacting as shown in Fig. 11 .9. Though the density will also depct;o upon me ettatactciurc'\ of u..e met.a:
powder such as size, shape, and surface texture; oompacting pressure has a greater tnfl1:;~ff--

7.4

7.0

u
l>
oi 66
2:-
·u;
P~.x.:isd
C
0
,:,
C
6 .2
(l)
0
t5
5.8

5.4
0 "lOO 20!:l 30!:l

Compar:tioo DH:S51Jfe . ~LDa

Fig. tLS l2J"1awm af rh:: grien ccrmty w1m the CE,1i; Eti.ug ~'SE1.!1'3 ..=:?~ ly ::.-f- ~ z--:, ::-e ~_-:-3. ~-1!'a:'.' -:r ;;::K-::zr

Degree of compaction experienced by fue metal pcrwder ~ 1..rpon ~ c... 9 .z..~.::.e::! . . :_z.., :.Z.rll re acl::!e-;ed 1

during the compaction process. For .examp!e~as sruT-h'Il in Fig, l l. H~ :er a r.ar. ~-:n ~o .lfveh :s ~r-t,,P(f
by a single punc~ then the density of the powdcr in ~'=ft ~.Jk ID :._-, f: g_ 1! . i fJl:; gf:""'3 ~ cur~~ ~
to the right portion. As a result, the density of the matcrial oa me k:"1 -;, iJ c.a-~·-e ',u-;~-~ · iec--:.~1 ~ ;r-arfrl to tlli:
metal on the right, which will have .a rugher der:.sit) . Tms : ~ ,..'Ld.e,:;:7_;:( ~ ::,:::.1 :.~ .~ ¼e-...r:.::. 7JV cf,, 1E"";. - .

' ~,
fig, IUD

A ii)
 4.68 lf~:11J1FChrnng frr:hrwlogJ1

Sim ilarly. it is impossible to produce uni form

\.'Otnpnction in different thicknesses of parts with u
single punch as shown in Fig. 11 .11 a. Hence. in such
~:ises, it is necessary to provide a separnte punch for
each thickness of the part as shown in Fig. J 1. 11 b .
Tooling is :i ve1y critical element in tJ1e powder-
metallurgy process . The tooling mu st be robust 2
enough to last from severa l hundred thousand cycles (a) (b}
without appreciable wear and damage. The tools are Fig. II.II Camp11ction of a two-level part: (a) Initial condition (b) part
subj ected to high compaction pressures, often as high with different densities after compaction
as 690 MPa for some steel components, as well as the
abrasive characteristics of the powders. Tooling is made with hardened tool steel , while for higher volume
production involving abrasive powders, tungsten carbide is used.
The die set must be able to withstand radial pressure during compaction and hold tolerance in the horizontal
direction of the component. The die set experiences the radial pressure during compaction and wears along the
walls due to the ejection motion of the green part. The punches must possess high compressive yield strength,
toughness and fatigue strength. Core rods are used to shape through holes in the component. Like the dies,
core rods should be made from cemented carbides.

11.3.3 Sintering
Sintering refers to the heating of the green compact in an oven. The heat is supposed to join the various grains
(metal powder) into a single mass, thus developing the necessary strength. The strength obtained in the process
depends on the temperature and time the powder compact is supposed to be in the oven.

The traditional furnace found in the P/M industry is a mesh-belt furnace with three operating zones; a
preheat or de-lube zone where the lubricants and binders are burned off, a sintering zone where the necessary
strength develops, and a cooling zone as shown in Fig. 11.12. The furnaces usually operate between 1100 to
l 200°C for ferrous parts and 800 to 850°C for alloys of copper. The strength achieved by the sintering process
depends upon the sintering temperature as shown in Fig. 11.13 for iron with 1.25% graphite. The trip through
the furnace for a single part takes about 2 to 3 hours, depending upon the size of the part.

Sinter

Preheat
Cool down

Baffle

Fig. 11.12
Schematic cross section of a continuous sintering-belt furm1ce
I
L--