I.

Ancient Mesopotamia

By roughly 6000 to 8000 years ago, agriculture was well under way in several regions including
Ancient Egypt, around the Nile River; the Indus Valley civilization; Mesopotamia, between the
Tigris and Euphrates rivers; and Ancient China, along the Yellow and Yangtze rivers. This is
because the regular river floods made for fertile soil around the banks and the rivers could also
supply fresh water to irrigate crops. It’s no coincidence that as agriculture allowed for denser and
denser populations along with more specialized societies, some of the world’s first civilizations
developed in these areas as well.
Ancient Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia—mainly modern-day Iraq and Kuwait—in particular is often referred to as the

cradle of civilization because some of the most influential early city-states and empires first
emerged there—although it’s not the only place! Its modern name comes from the Greek for
middle—mesos—and river—potamos—and literally means a “country between two rivers.”
Those two rivers are the Tigris and Euphrates. Not only was Mesopotamia one of the first places
to develop agriculture, it was also at the crossroads of the Egyptian and the Indus Valley
civilizations. This made it a melting pot of languages and cultures that stimulated a lasting
impact on writing, technology, language, trade, religion, and law.
Associated with Mesopotamia are ancient cultures like the Sumerians, Assyrians, Akkadians, and
Babylonians. Learning about this time period can be a little confusing because these cultures
interacted with and ruled over each other over the course of several thousand years. These terms
can also be associated with city-states, languages, religions, or empires—depending on the time
and context we are looking at.
Sumerians

Let’s start with Sumer. We believe Sumerian civilization first took form in southern
Mesopotamia around 4000 BCE—or 6000 years ago—which would make it the first urban
civilization in the region. Mesopotamians are noted for developing one of the first written scripts
around 3000 BCE: wedge-shaped marks pressed into clay tablets. This cuneiform—another way
to say wedge-shaped—script was also adapted by surrounding peoples to write their own
languages for roughly 2000 years, until Phoenician, which the letters you are reading now are
based on, began to become the dominant script in the first millennium BCE. Cuneiform is also
the script that one of the world’s first great works of literature, The Epic of Gilgamesh, was
written in. Mesopotamians used writing to record sales and purchases, to write letters to one
another, and to tell stories. The incredibly important invention of the wheel is also credited to the
Sumerians; the earliest discovered wheel dates to 3500 BCE in Mesopotamia.
Sumerians built ships that allowed them to travel into the Persian Gulf and trade with other early
civilizations, such as the Harappans in northern India. They traded textiles, leather goods, and
jewelry for Harappan semi-precious stones, copper, pearls, and ivory.
Sumerian religion was polytheistic—or worshipped multiple gods—many of which were
anthropomorphic—they took human-like form. Temples to these gods were constructed atop
massive ziggurats which were in the centers of most cities. These structures would have taken
thousands of people many years to construct.
Akkadian Empire

Around 3000 BCE, the Sumerians had significant cultural interchange with a group in northern
Mesopotamia known as the Akkadians—named after the city-state of Akkad. The Akkadian
language is related to the modern languages of Hebrew and Arabic. These languages are known
as Semitic languages. The term Semitic comes from the biblical character Shem, a son of Noah,
the purported progenitor of Abraham and, accordingly, the Jewish and Arab people.
Around 2334 BCE, Sargon of Akkad came to power and established what might have been the
world’s first dynastic empire. The Akkadian Empire ruled over both the Akkadian and Sumerian
speakers in Mesopotamia and the Levant—modern day Syria and Lebanon. The Empire of
Akkad collapsed in 2154 BCE, within 180 years of its founding.
Assyrian Empire

Assyria is named for its original capital, the ancient city of Ašur—also known as Ashur—in
northern Mesopotamia. Ashur was originally one of a number of Akkadian-speaking city states
ruled by Sargon and his descendents during the Akkadian Empire. Within several hundred years
of the collapse of the Akkadian Empire, Assyria had become a major empire.
For much of the 1400 years from the late twenty-first century BCE until the late seventh century
BCE, the Akkadian-speaking Assyrians were the dominant power in Mesopotamia, especially in
the north. The empire reached its peak near the end of this period in the seventh century. At that
time, the Assyrian Empire stretched from Egypt and Cyprus in the west to the borders of Persia
—modern-day Iran—in the east. The major exceptions to Assyrian dominance were the
Babylonian Empire established by Hammurabi and some more chaotic dark ages where there
wasn’t a dominant power.
Babylon

Babylon was a minor city-state in central Mesopotamia for a century after it was founded in 1894
BCE. Things changed with the reign of Hammurabi, from 1792 to 1750 BCE. He was an
efficient ruler, establishing a centralized bureaucracy with taxation. Hammurabi freed Babylon
from foreign rule and then conquered the whole of southern Mesopotamia, bringing stability and
the name of Babylonia to the region.
One of the most important works of this First Dynasty of Babylon was the compilation in about
1754 BCE of a code of laws, called the Code of Hammurabi, which echoed and improved upon
the earlier written laws of Sumer, Akkad, and Assyria. It’s similar to the Sumerian king Ur-
Nammu of Ur’s code, written from 2100 to 2050 BCE. Hammurabi’s code is one of the oldest
deciphered writings of significant length in the world. Written in about 1754 BCE by the sixth
king of Babylon, Hammurabi, the Code was written on stone stele—slabs—and clay tablets. The
Code consists of 282 laws with scaled punishments depending on social status, adjusting "an eye
for an eye, a tooth for a tooth". For example, if a person from a noble class broke an enslaved
person’s arm, they would have to pay a fine, whereas if a noble person broke another noble
person's arm, the offending noble would have their arm broken. Some have seen the Code as an
early form of constitutional government, the presumption of innocence, and the ability to present
evidence in one's case.

The Babylonian Empire established by Hammurabi lasted for 260 years until Babylon got sacked
by invaders in 1531 BCE. In the period between 626 BCE and 539 BCE, Babylon asserted itself
again over the region with the Neo-Babylonian Empire. This new empire was overthrown in 539
BCE by the Persians who then ruled over the region until the time of Alexander the Great, 335
BCE.

II. The 13 Dynasties that Ruled China in Order

1. Xia Dynasty (c. 2070-1600 BC)

The Xia dynasty was the first Chinese dynasty. It was founded by the legendary Yu the Great (c.
2123-2025 BC), known for developing a flood control technique that stopped the Great Flood
that ravaged farmer’s crops for generations.

There is a severe lack of documented evidence about this dynasty and therefore very little is
known about the Xia period. Most scholars believe that stories about it were spoken, rather than
written. It is not until the Zhou Dynasty, 554 years later, that we see written recordings of this
first Chinese dynasty. For this reason, some scholars believe it to be mythical or quasi-legendary.
2. Shang Dynasty (c. 1600-1050 BC)

The Shang dynasty is the earliest recorded Chinese dynasty supported by archaeological
evidence. 31 kings ruled much of the area along the Yellow River.
Under the Shang dynasty, there were advances in maths, astronomy, art and military technology.
They used a highly developed calendar system and an early form of modern Chinese language.

3. Zhou Dynasty (c. 1046-256 BC)

The Zhou dynasty was the longest dynasty in the history of China, ruling the region for almost 8
centuries.
Under the Zhous, culture flourished and civilisation spread. Writing was codified, coinage was
developed and chopsticks came into use.

Chinese philosophy blossomed with the birth of the philosophical schools of Confucianism,
Taoism and Mohism. The dynasty saw some of the greatest Chinese philosophers and poets:
Lao-Tzu, Tao Chien, Confucius, Mencius, Mo Ti and the military strategist Sun-Tzu.

The Zhous also developed the Mandate of Heaven – a concept that was used to justify the rule of
kings, who had been blessed by the gods.
The dynasty ended with the Warring States period (476–221 BC), in which various city-states
battled each other, establishing themselves as independent feudal entities. They were finally
consolidated by Qin Shi Huangdi, a brutal ruler who became the first emperor of a unified China.

4. Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC)

The Qin dynasty marked the beginning of the Chinese Empire. During Qin Shi Huangdi’s reign,
China was greatly expanded to cover the Ye lands of Hunan and Guangdong.
Although short-lived, the period saw ambitious public works projects including the unification of
state walls into a single Great Wall. It saw the development of a standardised form of currency, a
uniform system of writing and a legal code.
The Qin emperor was remembered for his ruthless megalomania and suppression of speech – in
213 BC he ordered the burning of hundreds of thousands of books and the live burial of 460
Confucian scholars.
He was also responsible for building a city-sized mausoleum for himself, guarded by the life-
sized Terracotta Army of more than 8,000 life-sized soldiers, 130 chariots with 520 horses and
150 cavalry horses.

5. Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 AD)

The Han dynasty was known as a golden age in Chinese history, with a prolonged period of
stability and prosperity. A central imperial civil service was established to create a strong and
organised government.
China’s territory was extended to most of the China proper. The Silk Road was opened up to
connect to the west, bringing in trade, foreign cultures and the introduction of Buddhism.
Under the Han dynasty, Confucianism, poetry and literature flowered. Paper and porcelain were
invented. China’s earliest written record on medicine, the Yellow Emperor’s Canon of Medicine,
was codified.
The name ‘Han’ was taken as the name of the Chinese people. Today, the Han Chinese make up
the dominant ethnic group in China and the largest in the world.

6. Six Dynasties Period

Three Kingdoms (220-265), Jin Dynasty (265-420), Period of the Northern and Southern
Dynasties (386-589).
Six Dynasties is the collective term for the six successive Han-ruled dynasties during this
turbulent period. All had their capitals at Jianye, present-day Nanjing.

The Three Kingdoms period has been romanticised repeatedly in Chinese culture – most notably
in the novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms. 

7. Sui Dynasty (581-618)

The Sui dynasty, although brief, saw great changes in Chinese history. Its capital was held at
Daxing, present-day Xi’an.

Confucianism disintegrated as the dominant religion, making way for Taoism and Buddhism.
Literature flourished – it is thought that the legend of Hua Mulan was composed during this time.
Under Emperor Wen and his son, Yang, the army was enlarged to the largest in the world at the
time. Coinage was standardised across the realm, the Great Wall was expanded and the Grand
Canal was completed.

8. Tang Dynasty (618-906)

The Tang dynasty, sometimes known as the Golden Age of Ancient China, was considered the
high point in Chinese civilisation. Its second emperor, Taizong, was regarded as one of the
greatest Chinese emperors.

The period saw one of the most peaceful and prosperous periods of Chinese history. By the time
of the rule of Emperor Xuanzong (712-756), China was the largest and most populous country in
the world.

Major achievements were seen in technology, science, culture, art and literature, especially
poetry. Some of the most beautiful pieces of Chinese sculpture and silverwork originate from the
Tang dynasty.
The dynasty also saw the only female monarch in the history of China – Empress Wu Zetian
(624-705). Wu organised a secret police force and spies across the country, making her one of
the most effective – yet popular – monarchs in Chinese history.
9. Five Dynasties Period, Ten Kingdoms (907-960)

The 50 years between the fall of the Tang dynasty and establishment of the Song dynasty were
dominated by internal strife and chaos.

In north China, 5 would-be dynasties followed one another in succession. During the same
period, 10 regimes dominated separate regions of south China.
Despite the political turmoil, some key developments took place during this time. The printing of
books – which had begun in the Tang dynasty – became popular.

10. Song Dynasty (960-1279)

The Song dynasty saw the reunification of China under the Emperor Taizu. Major inventions
included gunpowder, printing, paper money and the compass.

Plagued with political factions, the Song court eventually fell to the challenge of the Mongol
invasion and was replaced by the Yuan dynasty.

11. Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368)

The Yuan dynasty was established by the Mongols and ruled by Kublai Khan (1260-1279),
grandson of Genghis Khan. Khan was the first non-Chinese ruler to take over the entire country.

Yuan China was considered the most important part of the vast Mongol Empire, which stretched
from the Caspian Sea to the Korean peninsula.

Khan created the new capital city of Xanadu (or Shangdu in Inner Mongolia). The main centre of
the Mongol Empire was later moved to Daidu, present day Beijing.
The Mongols’ reign in China came to an end after a series of famines, plagues, floods and
peasant uprisings.

12. Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)

The Ming dynasty saw a huge growth in China’s population and general economic prosperity.
However the Ming emperors were dogged with the same problems of previous regimes and
collapsed with the invasion of the Manchus.

During the dynasty, the Great Wall of China was completed. It also saw the construction of the
Forbidden City, the imperial residence in Beijing. The period is also known for its blue-and-
white Ming porcelains.
13. Qing Dynasty (1644-1912)

The Qing dynasty was the last imperial dynasty in China, succeeded by the Republic of China in
1912. The Qing were made up of ethnic Manchus from the northern Chinese region of
Manchuria.

III. Early Civilization in the Indus Valley

The phrase "early civilizations" usually conjures up images of Egypt and Mesopotamia, and their
pyramids, mummies, and golden tombs.
But in the 1920s, a huge discovery in South Asia proved that Egypt and Mesopotamia were not
the only "early civilizations." In the vast Indus River plains (located in what is today Pakistan
and western India), under layers of land and mounds of dirt, archaeologists discovered the
remains of a 4,600 year-old city. A thriving, urban civilization had existed at the same time as
Egyptian and Mesopotamian states — in an area twice each of their sizes.
The people of this Indus Valley civilization did not build massive monuments like their
contemporaries, nor did they bury riches among their dead in golden tombs. There were no
mummies, no emperors, and no violent wars or bloody battles in their territory.
Remarkably, the lack of all these is what makes the Indus Valley civilization so exciting and
unique. While others civilizations were devoting huge amounts of time and resources to the rich,
the supernatural, and the dead, Indus Valley inhabitants were taking a practical approach to
supporting the common, secular, living people. Sure, they believed in an afterlife and employed a
system of social divisions. But they also believed resources were more valuable in circulation
among the living than on display or buried underground.
Amazingly, the Indus Valley civilization appears to have been a peaceful one. Very few weapons
have been found and no evidence of an army has been discovered.
Excavated human bones reveal no signs of violence, and building remains show no indication of
battle. All evidence points to a preference for peace and success in achieving it.
So how did such a practical and peaceful civilization become so successful?

The Twin Cities

The ruins of two ancient cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro (both in modern-day Pakistan), and
the remnants of many other settlements, have revealed great clues to this mystery. Harappa was,
in fact, such a rich discovery that the Indus Valley Civilization is also called the Harappan
civilization.
The first artifact uncovered in Harappa was a unique stone seal carved with a unicorn and an
inscription. Similar seals with different animal symbols and writings have since been found
throughout the region. Although the writing has not yet been deciphered, the evidence suggests
they belonged to the same language system. Apparently, Mesopotamia's cuneiform system had
some competition in the race for the world's first script.
The discovery of the seals prompted archaeologists to dig further. Amazing urban architecture
was soon uncovered across the valley and into the western plains. The findings clearly show that
Harappan societies were well organized and very sanitary.
For protection from seasonal floods and polluted waters, the settlements were built on giant
platforms and elevated grounds. Upon these foundations, networks of streets were laid out in
neat patterns of straight lines and right angles. The buildings along the roads were all constructed
of bricks that were uniform in size.
The brick houses of all city dwellers were equipped with bathing areas supplied with water from
neighborhood wells. Sophisticated drainage systems throughout the city carried dirty water and
sewage outside of living spaces. Even the smallest houses on the edges of the towns were
connected to the systems — cleanliness was obviously of utmost importance.

The Fall of Harappan Culture

No doubt, these cities were engineering masterpieces of their time. The remains of their walls
yield clues about the culture that thrived in the Indus Valley. Clay figurines of goddesses, for
example, are proof that religion was important. Toys and games show that even in 3000 B.C.E.,
kids — and maybe even adults — liked to play. Pottery, textiles, and beads are evidence of
skilled craftsmanship and thriving trade.

It was this intensive devotion to craftsmanship and trade that allowed the Harappan culture to
spread widely and prosper greatly. Each time goods were traded or neighbors entered the gates of
the cities to barter, Indus culture was spread.
Eventually, though, around 1900 B.C.E, this prosperity came to an end. The integrated cultural
network collapsed, and the civilization became fragmented into smaller regional cultures. Trade,
writing, and seals all but disappeared from the area.
Many believe that the decline of the Harappan civilization was a result of Aryan invasions from
the north. This theory seems logical because the Aryans came to power in the Ganges Valley
shortly after the Indus demise of the Indus Valley Civilization. Because there is little evidence of
any type of invasion though, numerous historians claim that it was an environmental disaster that
led to the civilization's demise. They argue that changing river patterns disrupted the farming and
trading systems and eventually led to irreparable flooding.
Although the intricate details of the early Indus Valley culture might never be fully known, many
pieces of the ancient puzzle have been discovered. The remains of the Indus Valley cities
continue to be unearthed and interpreted today. With each new artifact, the history of early
Indian civilization is strengthened and the legacy of this ingenious and diverse metropolis is
made richer.