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Cem Alptekin
Introduction Culture, aside from its reference to the artefacts of a given community,
involves socially acquired knowledge. This knowledge is organized in
culture-specific ways which normally frame our perception of reality such
that we largely define the world through the filter of our world view. Put
differently, schemas, which are cognitive structures through which we
interpret information, evolve largely as part of a society’s imposition of its
own differential view of reality on its individual members. Culture, then,
as ‘socially acquired knowledge’, can be said to play a central role in
cognition.1
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the very process of language learning’. For example, while a child from
the Anglo-American world will normally think of a dog as ‘man’s best
friend’, Middle Eastern children are likely to perceive it as dangerous and
dirty. Similarly, whereas the image of the secondary-school teacher in
Japan is one of an intelligent, high-status, authoritarian, and humble male,
the image of the typical Anglo-American teacher does not necessarily
match these traits. It follows that when learners confront uses of the
foreign language they are acquiring, ‘their natural inclination is to
interpret them in reference to this established association’ (Widdowson,
1990: 110).
The role of The ‘fit’, or consistency, between the culture-specific aspects of cognition
schematic and the native language undergoes a substantive degree of conflict when
knowledge in one begins to learn a foreign language. The acquisition process causes
language learners’ schemas to be subjected to novel cultural data whose
acquisition organization for purposes of comprehension and retention becomes
difficult or even impossible to achieve. As a case in point, a learner of
English who has never resided in the target-language culture will most
likely experience problems in processing English systemic data if these
are presented through such unfamiliar contexts as, say, Halloween or
English pubs. Even if these are explained, the learner may still fail to
perceive Halloween or the pub in the same way in which they are
normally evoked in the mind of the native speaker of English, as one’s
natural tendency is to assess a novel stimulus with respect to one’s own
cultural system. As such, it is possible that the learner in question will
react to Halloween or the pub context with less than full comprehension,
regardless of how much explanation is provided. And if one cannot fully
access the schematic data, one can hardly be expected to learn the
systemic data with any ease.
One area where the violation of the ‘fit’ is shown to influence foreign
language learning negatively is that of reading comprehension. It is well-
established that readers make use of culture-specific schemas in relating
input to what they already know and, consequently, construct the writer’s
intended meaning. When the relevant cultural background assumptions
and constructs are missing, however, reading tends to turn into a time-
consuming, laborious, and frustrating experience (Brown et al., 1977;
Steffensen et al., 1979; Reynolds et al., 1982; Nelson, 1987). In fact,
familiarity with the dictionary definition of the lexical items and
knowledge of the sentence structures in a text do not seem to be enough
for learners to comprehend new information. Wallace (1988) attributes
this problem to the learners’ lack of what she calls ‘cultural competence’,
that is, ‘a very complex package of beliefs, knowledge, feelings, attitudes
and behaviour’ (Wallace, 1988: 33).
Given that culture plays a major role in cognition, which in turn
significantly affects comprehension and interpretation, one of the salient
issues in foreign language pedagogy is the determination of the type of
schematic input to be presented to the learners. This article aims at
discussing target-language culture elements learners often face in EFL
Target-language culture in EFL materials 137
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materials, the practical and theoretical rationale for the use of such
elements, and the social and psychological problems which ensue.
Following the discussion, certain suggestions concerning the use of
different types of schematic input in English language teaching are
offered, with a view to facilitating the language learning process.
Elements of the Writing operates in terms of schemas moulded by the social context in
target-language which the writer lives. Writers not only construct mental representations
culture in EFL of their socially acquired knowledge, but such schematic knowledge also
materials influences their writing in various areas such as the rhetorical
organization of a text, audience awareness, topical priorities, etc.
Numerous studies in contrastive rhetoric (e.g. Clyne, 1981; Hinds, 1983;
Koch, 1983; Kobayashi, 1984; Norman, 1984; Matalene, 1985;
Johnstone, 1986; Nishimura, 1986; Connor and Kaplan, 1987; Alptekin,
1988) demonstrate how thinking and writing operate in terms of culture-
specific schemas. As a case in point, Clyne (198 1) shows the fundamental
contrasts between English rhetorical patterns - which are generally
characterized by linearity in the presentation of ideas - and German
rhetorical patterns - which are marked not only by digressions, but also
digressions from digressions. Similarly, Koch (1983) points out that,
unlike Western modes of argumentation, which are based on a syllogistic
model of proof, Arabic argumentative prose makes use of repetition as a
device for textual cohesion and rhetorical effectiveness. In the same vein,
Jenkins and Hinds (1987), speaking of audience awareness skills, indicate
that while American business letters are reader oriented, the French ones
are writer oriented, and the Japanese ones are oriented to the space
between the writer and the reader. Finally, it is no secret that topical
priorities change from one culture to another. For example, while the
White House seems to be a favourite topic with American EFL textbook
writers, the British Royal Family appears to be a popular topic with
British EFL writers.
Such examples show that EFL textbook writers, like everyone else, think
and compose chiefly through culture-specific schemas. Because native
speakers have face validity in EFL circles (Alptekin, 1990; Phillipson,
1990), most textbook writers are native speakers who consciously or
unconsciously transmit the views, values, beliefs, attitudes, and feelings
of their own English-speaking society - usually the United States or
United Kingdom. As such, when learners acquire a new set of English
discourse as part of their evolving systemic knowledge, they partake of
the cultural system which the set entails.
Rationale for One reason for EFL textbooks focusing on elements about the American
using elements of or British culture stems from the fact that it is generally not cost-effective
the target- for publishers to set materials in the learner’s society, as such a decision
language culture would cause other learners from other societies not to make use of the
Commercial materials in question on account of their irrelevance to their own cultures.
considerations Furthermore, the schematic focus on the target-language culture may
offer a lucrative deal to the writer(s) as well as the publisher in those cases
where the textbook is made use of in both EFL and ESL contexts.
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Author preference Another reason is that native-speaker textbook writers, who normally
reside in their own Anglo-American culture, find it hard to compose data
that go beyond their ‘fit’. By contrast, the presentation of the ‘fit’ through
sets of discourse particular to the target language culture is relatively easy
and practical. They write about their own culture and in tune with that
culture’s formal schemas, where they are ‘at home’ so to speak.
Target language in Apart from such mundane matters that affect the determination of the type
its own culture of schematic input in EFL materials, one witnesses theoretical claims
about the necessity of teaching the target language in relation to its own
culture. In fact, various sources on the subject repeat the orthodox yet
unsubstantiated notion that language and culture are inextricably tied
together, and that it is impossible to teach a foreign language without its
culture base. Stewart (1982), for instance, regards the target-language
culture as an essential feature of every stage of foreign language learning,
and asserts that teaching the formal aspects of the foreign language while
referring to the native culture of the learner is virtually useless. Valdes
(1986: 121) considers the use of the native culture in foreign language
teaching a ‘trap’, leading to a ‘gross misfit’ or an ‘impasse’. Besides, she
claims that it is virtually impossible to teach the foreign language without
its cultural content. Byram (1988) generally supports the belief that a
language cannot be taught separately from its culture. If this is done, he
says, it would lead to a denial of a purported fundamental purpose of
language learning, namely, giving learners the opportunity to cope with
experience in a different way.
Problems with Although practical advantages do exist in teaching and presenting the
the rationale target language in relation to its own culture, there are several problems
Lack of experience associated with this approach as well. To begin with, it forms part of the
‘strange paradox’ that, while in mother-tongue teaching the clarity of
children’s ability to express themselves is emphasized, in foreign
language teaching learners are forced to express a culture of which they
have scarcely any experience (Brumfit, 1980: 95). Secondly, developing a
new identity, or what Byram (1989: 57) calls ‘otherness’, as a result of
one’s sudden exposure to the target-language culture, is likely to cause a
split between experience and thought which is conducive to serious socio-
psychological problems affecting the learner’s mental equilibrium
negatively. Anomie (Alptekin, 1981), regression (Green, 1977), and
schizophrenia (Clarke, 1976; Meara, 1977) are perhaps the worst of such
problems in that, among other things, they are associated with reluctance
or resistance to learning.
Alien modes of Of course, not all culture-specific schematic knowledge leads to such
behaviour serious problems. Most often, the effects are more subtle. Edge (1987),
for example, points to one such area. He says that the task-based
and problem-solving activities which characterize communicative
approaches and materials are not value-free modes of behaviour. Rather,
they involve Western modes of communication which may not be in
harmony with the traditions of some cultures - including learning
Target-language culture in EFL materials 139
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conventions. Hence, argues Edge, learners from those cultures cannot
learn English properly by behaving in ways which are both alien to their
educational culture and proscribed in their daily life. Little wonder then
that Chinese EFL teachers, for instance, seem to shy away from
communicative procedures and materials (Bumaby and Sun, 1989);
Chinese EFL students prefer teacher-centred instruction over task-based
learning involving the contribution of peers (Young, 1987). After all,
Chinese students are accustomed to simple transfer of information from
the teacher and to retaining such data through rote learning.
Acknowledgement Finally, the position relating a language and its culture appears to ignore
of learners’ needs the positive effects of familiar schematic knowledge on foreign language
learning. Familiarity with both content and formal schemas enables the
learners to place more emphasis on systemic data, as their cognitive
processing is not so much taken by the alien features of the target-
language background.2 Moreover, familiar schematic knowledge allows
the learners to make efficient use of their top-down processing in helping
their bottom-up processing in the handling of various language tasks.3
Needless to say, familiarity in this context refers to schemas based chiefly
on the learner’s own culture.
Numerous examples exist in the literature, in fact, on how familiar
schemas facilitate foreign language acquisition and, in particular,
comprehension. Johnson (1982), for instance, shows that, in reading
comprehension in the foreign language, syntactic and lexical
140 Cem Alptekin
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simplification can be far less important than familiar content schemas.
Similarly, Nunan (1985) suggests that more than the provision of systemic
knowledge, what makes a foreign language text easier to process is the
learner’s degree of familiarity with its content schemas. Based on the
findings of her own extensive research on the subject, Carrel1 (1987)
concludes that good reading comprehension in the foreign language
entails familiarity with both content and formal schemas. Winfield and
Barnes-Felfeli (1982) stress the cognitive processing difficulties
encountered by foreign language learners not only in reading but also in
writing activities involving unfamiliar content schemata. In the same
vein, Friedlander (1990) indicates that foreign language learners’
planning and writing are enhanced when they are asked to write on topics
related to their native language background. Hinds (1984) points to
another interesting aspect of the positive role of familiar schematic
knowledge in foreign language learning through his discovery of a
relationship between the degree of the learners’ familiarity with formal
schemas in essays and the degree of their ability to retain information
from such essays.
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universal concepts of human experience as reference points for the
interpretation of unfamiliar data.
Finally, given that the traditional notion of the communicative
competence of the native speaker is no longer adequate as a goal to be
adopted in an EFL programme, the transition from familiar to unfamiliar
schematic data should not necessarily be thought of as moving from the
learner’s native culture to the culture of the native speaker of English.
Even though this still remains a strong option, other options may involve
transitions from the learner’s native culture to the international English of
such areas as pop culture, travel culture, and scientific culture, or the
culture of one of the indigenized varieties of English (e.g. Indian or
Nigerian English).
Received September 1992
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Nishimura, Y. K. 1986. ‘Prose-organizing strategies Cem Alptekin, Associate Professor of Applied
of Japanese college students: contrastive analysis’. Linguistics at Bogazici University (Istanbul),
Descriptive and Applied Linguistics 19: 207-18. publishes internationally in the areas of second
Norman, N. 1984. ‘Contrastive analyses of language learning and teaching, neurolinguistics, and
organizational structures and cohesive elements in contrastive rhetoric. He has also taught ESL in the
native and ESL Chinese, English and Spanish United States, and EFL in Turkey and North Cyprus.
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