Chapter 8: Mechanical Failure

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How do cracks that lead to failure form?
• How is fracture resistance quantified? How do the fracture
resistances of the different material classes compare?
• How do we estimate the stress to fracture?
• How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature
affect the failure behavior of materials?

Ship-cyclic loading Computer chip-cyclic Hip implant-cyclic

from waves. thermal loading. loading from walking.
1
Chapter 8 - 2
 Kırılma

Fracture mechanisms
• Ductile fracture (Sünek Kırılma)
– Accompanied by significant plastic
deformation
• Brittle fracture (Gevrek Kırılma)
– Little or no plastic deformation
– Catastrophic
Any fracture process involves two steps - crack formation and
propagation – in response to an imposed stress.

The mode of fracture is highly dependent on the mechanism of

crack propagation. 5
 Ductile vs Brittle Failure
• Classification:
Fracture Very Moderately
Brittle
behavior: Ductile Ductile

%AR or %EL Large Moderate Small

• Ductile fracture is Ductile: Brittle:
usually more desirable Warning before No
than brittle fracture! fracture warning

6
 Example: Pipe Failures
• Ductile failure:
-- one piece
-- large deformation

• Brittle failure:
-- many pieces
-- small deformations

7
 Moderately Ductile Failure
• Failure Stages:
void void growth shearing
necking fracture
nucleation and coalescence at surface
s

• Resulting 50
50mm
mm
fracture
surfaces
(steel)
100 mm
particles From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Fracture surface of tire cord wire
serve as void Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd loaded in tension. Courtesy of F.
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley and Roehrig, CC Technologies, Dublin,
nucleation Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P. OH. Used with permission.
sites. Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, pp.
347-56.) 8
Moderately Ductile vs. Brittle Failure

cup-and-cone fracture brittle fracture

9
 Brittle Failure
Arrows indicate point at which failure originated

V-shaped “chevron” markings

10
Brittle Failure

radial fan-shaped ridges

11
 Brittle Fracture Surfaces Tane içi kırılma
• Transgranular (through grains)

316 S. Steel
(metal)
Reprinted w/ permission
from "Metals Handbook",
9th ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
Copyright 1985, ASM
International, Materials
Park, OH. (Micrograph by
D.R. Diercks, Argonne
National Lab.) 160 mm

Al Oxide
(ceramic)
Reprinted w/ permission
from "Failure Analysis of
Brittle Materials", p. 78.
Copyright 1990, The
American Ceramic
Society, Westerville, OH.
(Micrograph by R.M.
Gruver and H. Kirchner.) 3 mm

Scanning electron fractograph of ductile

cast iron showing a transgranular fracture surface. 12
 Brittle Fracture Surfaces Tane sınırları
• Intergranular (between grains) kırılması

304 S. Steel
(metal)
Reprinted w/permission
from "Metals Handbook",
9th ed, Fig. 633, p. 650.
Copyright 1985, ASM
International, Materials
Park, OH. (Micrograph by
J.R. Keiser and A.R.
Olsen, Oak Ridge
4 mm National Lab.)

Polypropylene
(polymer)
Reprinted w/ permission
from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Defor-mation and
Fracture Mechanics of
Engineering Materials",
(4th ed.) Fig. 7.35(d), p.
303, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996.

1 mm
(Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977, Vol.
13
3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.)
 Ideal vs Real Materials
• Stress-strain behavior (Room T):
s
E/10 perfect mat’l-no flaws TSengineering << TS perfect
materials materials
carefully produced glass fiber

E/100 typical ceramic typical strengthened metal

typical polymer
0.1 e
• DaVinci (500 yrs ago!) observed... Reprinted w/
permission from R.W.
-- the longer the wire, the Hertzberg,
"Deformation and
smaller the load for failure. Fracture Mechanics
of Engineering
• Reasons: Materials", (4th ed.)
Fig. 7.4. John Wiley
-- flaws cause premature failure. and Sons, Inc., 1996.

-- larger samples contain longer flaws!

kusur 14
 kusur
Flaws are Stress Concentrators!
stress raisers For tensile loading,
computation of
maximum stress
at a crack tip

Griffith Crack
1/ 2
æaö
sm = 2so çç ÷÷ = K t so
è rt ø

where
rt = radius of curvature
rt so = applied stress
sm = stress at crack tip

Adapted from Fig. 8.8(a), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

15
 Engineering Fracture Design
• Avoid sharp corners! smax
s0 Stress Conc. Factor, K t =
s0
2.5
sw
max

r, h 2.0 increasing w/h

fillet
radius
1.5

1.0 r/h
0 0.5 1.0
sharper fillet radius
By way of comment, it should be said that stress amplification is not restricted to
these microscopic defects; it may occur at macroscopic internal discontinuities 16
(e.g., voids), at sharp corners, and at notches in large structures.
 Crack Propagation
Cracks having sharp tips propagate easier than cracks
having blunt tips
• A plastic material deforms at a crack tip, which
“blunts” the crack.
deformed
region
brittle ductile

Energy balance on the crack

• Elastic strain energy-
• energy stored in material as it is elastically deformed
• this energy is released when the crack propagates
• creation of new surfaces requires energy

17
 Criterion for Crack Propagation
Crack propagates if crack-tip stress (sm)
exceeds a critical stress (sc)
1/ 2
i.e., sm > sc æ 2Eg s ö
sc = ç ÷
è pa ø
where
– E = modulus of elasticity
– gs = specific surface energy
– a = one half length of internal crack

For ductile materials => replace gs with gs + gp

where gp is plastic deformation energy

18
Kırılma tokluğu
 Fracture Toughness Ranges
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
100
C-C(|| fibers) 1
70 Steels
60 Ti alloys
50
40
Al alloys
30 Mg alloys Based on data in Table B.5,
K Ic (MPa · m0.5 )

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

20 Composite reinforcement geometry is: f
Al/Al oxide(sf) 2 = fibers; sf = short fibers; w = whiskers;
Y2 O 3 /ZrO 2 (p) 4 p = particles. Addition data as noted
10 C/C( fibers) 1 (vol. fraction of reinforcement):
Al oxid/SiC(w) 3 1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM Int.,
Diamond Si nitr/SiC(w) 5 Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606.
7 Al oxid/ZrO 2 (p) 4 2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc.,
6 Si carbide Glass/SiC(w) 6 Waltham, MA.
5 Al oxide PET 3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture
4 Si nitride Mechanics of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press
PP (1986). pp. 61-73.
3 PVC 4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO.
5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of
Ceramic Matrix Composites for Application in
2 PC
Technology for Advanced Engines Program",
ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, ORNL, 1992.
6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci.
Proc., Vol. 7 (1986) pp. 978-82.
1 <100>
Si crystal PS Glass 6
<111>
0.7 Glass -soda
0.6 Polyester
Concrete 20
0.5
Three Point Bending
 Darbe Testi
Impact Testing
• Impact loading: (Charpy)
-- severe testing case
-- makes material more brittle
-- decreases toughness
Adapted from Fig. 8.12(b),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig.
8.12(b) is adapted from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J.
Wulff, The Structure and
Properties of Materials, Vol. III,
Mechanical Behavior, John Wiley
and Sons, Inc. (1965) p. 13.)

final height initial height

22
 Influence of Temperature on
Impact Energy

• Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)...

FCC metals (e.g., Cu, Ni)

Impact Energy

BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914ºC)

polymers
Brittle More Ductile

High strength materials (s y > E/150)

Temperature Adapted from Fig. 8.15,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature

26
 Design Strategy:
Stay Above The DBTT!
• Pre-WWII: The Titanic
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Dr. Robert D. Ballard,
The Discovery of the Titanic.)
• Problem: Steels were used having DBTT’s just below
room temperature. 27
• WWII: Liberty ships
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(b), p. 262, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Earl R. Parker,
"Behavior of Engineering Structures", Nat. Acad. Sci.,
Nat. Res. Council, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY,
1957.)
 Yorulma
Fatigue
• Fatigue = failure under applied cyclic stress.
specimen compression on top
Çok önemli
motor counter akma-kopma
bearing bearing

flex coupling sınırının altında

tension on bottom tekrarlı yük !!!
• Stress varies with time. s
smax
-- key parameters are S, sm, and
sm S
cycling frequency
smin time

• Key points: Fatigue...

--can cause part failure, even though smax < sy.
--responsible for ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.
28
 Cyclic Stresses
There are three common ways in which stresses may be
applied: axial, torsional, and flexural.
Fatigue Tests
Fatigue Tests
Fatigue Tests
 Types of Fatigue Behavior

S = stress amplitude
• Fatigue limit, Sfat: case for
--no fatigue if S < Sfat unsafe steel (typ.)
Sfat

safe Adapted from Fig.

8.19(a), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure

S = stress amplitude
• For some materials, case for
there is no fatigue unsafe Al (typ.)
limit!
safe Adapted from Fig.
8.19(b), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
3 5 7 9
10 10 10 10
N = Cycles to failure
33
 Rate of Fatigue Crack Growth
• Crack grows incrementally
typ. 1 to 6
da
= (DK )
m
dN
~ (Ds ) a
increase in crack length per loading cycle
crack origin
• Failed rotating shaft
-- crack grew even though
Kmax < Kc
-- crack grows faster as
• Ds increases Adapted from
Fig. 8.21, Callister &
• crack gets longer Rethwisch 8e. (Fig.
• loading freq. increases. 8.21 is from D.J.
Wulpi, Understanding
How Components Fail,
American Society for
Metals, Materials Park,
OH, 1985.)
35
Fatigue
Comet Jet Airliners: The first commercial jet
aircraft was the de Havilland Comet, which
entered service in 1952. On January 10th 1954,
after only 1,290 pressurised flights a Comet
crashed into deep water off the island of Elba.

Alexander Kielland Platform, North Sea:

The Alexander Kielland was an
accommodation platform for oil workers in the
North Sea. On March 27th, 1980 there was a
storm and high seas but nothing that the
platform had not weathered before.
 Sürünme
Creep
Sample deformation at a constant stress (s) vs. time
s
s,e

0 t

Primary Creep: slope (creep rate)

decreases with time.
Secondary Creep: steady-state
i.e., constant slope (De/Dt).
Adapted from
Fig. 8.28, Callister &
Tertiary Creep: slope (creep rate) Rethwisch 8e.
increases with time, i.e. acceleration of rate. 37
 Creep: Temperature Dependence
• Occurs at elevated temperature, T > 0.4 Tm (in K)

tertiary

primary
secondary

elastic

Adapted from Fig. 8.29,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

38
 Creep Failure
• Failure: along grain boundaries.

g.b. cavities

applied
stress

From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of

Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: Pergamon
Press, Inc.)
Turbine blade

39
 Creep Failure
Gas Turbines
Large Jet
engines operate
around 10,000
rpm

Turbine blade

40
 Prediction of Creep Rupture Lifetime
• Estimate rupture time
S-590 Iron, T = 800ºC, s = 20,000 psi

100 Time to rupture, tr

T (20 + log t r ) = L

Stress (103 psi)

20 function of
temperature
10 applied stress
time to failure (rupture)

data for
S-590 Iron

12 16 20 24 28
1 (1073 K )(20 + log t r ) = 24 x103
103 L (K-h)
Adapted from Fig. 8.32, Callister & Rethwisch
8e. (Fig. 8.32 is from F.R. Larson and J. Ans: tr = 233 hr
Miller, Trans. ASME, 74, 765 (1952).)
41
 Estimate the rupture time for
S-590 Iron, T = 750ºC, s = 20,000 psi
• Solution:

Time to rupture, tr 100

Stress (103 psi)

T (20 + log t r ) = L
20
temperature function of
applied stress 10
time to failure (rupture)
data for

(1023 K )(20 + log t r ) = 24 x103 S-590 Iron

1
12 16 20 24 28
103 L (K-h)
Ans: tr = 2890 hr
Adapted from Fig. 8.32, Callister & Rethwisch
8e. (Fig. 8.32 is from F.R. Larson and J.
Miller, Trans. ASME, 74, 765 (1952).)
42
 SUMMARY
• Engineering materials not as strong as predicted by theory
• Flaws act as stress concentrators that cause failure at
stresses lower than theoretical values.
• Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
• Failure type depends on T and s :
-For simple fracture (noncyclic s and T < 0.4Tm), failure stress
decreases with:
- increased maximum flaw size,
- decreased T,
- increased rate of loading.
- For fatigue (cyclic s):
- cycles to fail decreases as Ds increases.
- For creep (T > 0.4Tm):
- time to rupture decreases as s or T increases. 43
Which failure mechanism?