Fundamentals of Compressibie Fluid Dynamics P. Balachandran Senior Scientist and Deputy Divisional Head Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre Indian Space Research Organisation ‘Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala Prentice-Hall of India iivate Limited New Delhi-110001 2006 in guRs, 425.00 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUID DYNAMICS P. Balachandran © 2006 by Prentice-Hall of india Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in waiting from the publisher. (SBN-61-203-2857-4 ‘The export fights of this book are vested solely with the publisher. Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, M-87, Connaught Circus, New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Jay Print Pack Private Limited, New Debi-110015,Contents 15 Properties of the Continuum 4 — 15.1 Density at a Point in a Continuum 4 1.6 System and Ce 1.7 Concepts and De in 17.1_Thermodynamic Property 6 1.1.2 Thermodynamic Process and Cycle 7 6 19 Laws of Thermodynamics 8 19.1 Zeroth Law of cs 8 aoe First Law of Thermodynamics 9 40 “110.1 Equation of State _J/ 1,102 Change in Entropy in a Perfect Gas 12 1.103 Isentropic Process _/3 Review Questions 13 2.1 Introduction _i6 22 Extensive and Intensive Properties 6 23 Conservation of Mass and Continuity Equation 17 23.1 Conservation of Mass for a System 17 vvi___Contents 23.3 Integral Form of Continuity Equation 20 23.4 One-Dimensional Differential Form of Continuity Equation 2/ 24 Conservation of Momentum and Momentum Equation 22 24.1 Conservation of Momentum for a System 22 242 Conservation of Momentum for Control Volume _ 23 243 Integral Form of Momentum Equation 25 24.4 One-Dimensional Differential Form of Momentum Equation 26 245 Bulers Equation 28 246 Bemoullis Equation 28 25 Conservation of Energy and Energy Equation 30 25.1 Conservation of Energy for a System 30 25.2 Conservation of Energy for a Control Volume 30 25.3 Integral Form of Energy Equation 33 254 Steady Flow Energy Equation 33 255 Energy Equation for a Non-flow Process 35 2.6 The Second Law of Thermodynamics and Entropy Equation 35 26.1 Second Law for a System 35 Review Questions 36 3. CONCEPTS OF COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 38-8 3.L_Introduction__38 3.2 Velocity of Sound 38 32.1 General Equation for Velocity of Sound 39 322 Velocity of Sound in Incompressible Fluids _4/ 323 Velocity of Sound in Terms of Bulk Modulus of Elasticity _4/ 324 Velocity of Sound in a Perfect Gas _ 42 325. Effect of Molecular Weight 43 33__Mach Number and Its Significance 43 34 _Incompressible, Subsonic and Supersonic Flows 44 35 Physical Difference between Various Flow Regimes 46 35.1 Pressure Field Created By a Point Disturbance 46 35.2 Mach Cone and Mach Angle 48 353 Flow Around a Wedge 49 354 Von Karman’s Rules of Supersonic Flow 50 36 Concept of Stagnation Condition 51 3.6.1 Stagnation Enthalpy 52 362 Stagnation Temperature 53 363 Stagnation Pressure 54 3.64 Stagnation Density 54 365. Stagnation Velocity of Sound 55 366 Relation Connecting Stagnation and Static Properties 55 3.6.7_Entropy Change in Terms of Stagnation Properties 56 37. Kinetic Form of Steady Flow Energy Equation 58 37.1 Full Form of the Adiabatic Energy Equation 59 37.2. Prandil Velocity Ellipse (Adiabatic Steady Flow Ellipse) 59Contents vii 38__Reference Speeds of Compressible Flow _ 60 Critical Speed of Sound 60 382 Stagnation Speed of Sound 61 383 Maximum Isentropic Speed 61 384 Reference Mach Number M* 62 3.85 Dimensionless Velocity Viag 64 3.8.6__Crocco Number _64 39 Stream Thrust and the Impulse Function 65 3.10 Effect of Compressibility on Dynamic Properties 66 3.10.1 Dynamic Pressure 66 311 Steady One-Dimensional Compressible Flow of Perfect Gas 69 312 Simple Flows 70 Mlustrative Examples 71 Review Questions 83 Problems 84 . ISENTROPIC FLOW 86-135 41 Introduction 86 42 Governing Equations 86 42.1 _Isenn 4.22 Flow Expansion and Compression 90 4.23 Performance Curves 90 43 Effect of Area Variation 9/ 43.1 Shape of Nozzle 93 43.2 Shape of Diffuser 94 433 Choking 95 44 Reference States and Isentropic Flow Relations 96 44.1 Property Ratios in Terms of Mach Number 97 442. Area Ratio in Terms of Mach Number 99 443 Impulse Function Ratio 10] 444° Mass Flux in Terms of Mach Number /0/ 44.5 Mass Flux in Terms of Pressure Ratio 103 44.6 Mach Number and Area Ratio in Terms of Pressure Ratio 106 44.7 Use of Gas Tables and Charts 108 45 Super Nozzles 108 46 Differential Equations Governing Flow with Area Change 91/0 46.1 Differential Form of Governing Equations /// 462. Differential Equations in Terms of Area Change 1/3 4.63. Influence Coefficients 1/4 47 Adiabatic Flow 14 4.7.1 Adiabatic Process in Mollier Diagram = 1/5 4.72. Fluid Properties in Adiabatic Flow 1/6 4.73 Losses in Adiabatic Flow 117 Mlustrative Examples 17 Review Questions 132 Problems 1345. Contents FANNO FLOW 136-182 5.1 Introduction 136 52 Fanno Line 137 52.1 Governing Equation 137 5.22 Fanno Line in Mollier Diagram 138 523. Limiting Condition for a Fanno Flew 47 524 Choking Due to Friction 142 53 Fanno Relations for a Perfect Gas 145 53.1 Temperature Ratio 145 5.32 Pressure Ratio 146 53.3 Density Ratio 147 534 Velocity Ratio 148 5355 sure Ratio 148 5.3.6 Impulse Function Ratio 149 54 Change in Entropy Due to Friction 150 55 Dynamic Equation for Fanno Flow 151 $5.1 Friction Coefficient 15/ 552 Pressure Drop Due to Friction 152 5.6 Differential Equations Governing Flow with Friction 153 5.6.1 Differential Form of the Governing Equations 153 562. Influence Coefficients 156 5.63. Integration of the Equations 157 564 Tables and Charts for Fanno Flow 160 5.7_Isothermal Flow in Long Constant Area Ducts 160 Goveming Equations 16! Nature of Property Variations 163 Change in Entropy 166 Maximum Length of Duct 167 Mlustrative e Examples 168 Problems 181 RAYLEIGH FLOW 183-216 6.1 Introduction 183 62 _Rayle 621 reming Equations 184 622 Rayleigh L Line in Mollier Diagram 185 623 Simple Heating Process 186 63 Significance of Maximum Entropy and Enthalpy State 189 63.1 Choking in Rayleigh Flow 189 632 State of Maximum Enthalpy 189 633 Mach Number at Maximum Entropy and Enthalpy 190 634 Region between Maximum Enthalpy and Entropy 194Contents _ix 64 Rayleigh Relations for a Perfect Gas 194 64.1 Pressure Ratio 195 642 Stagnation Pressure Ratio 196 ‘Temperature 196 Stagnation Temperature Ratio 197 645 Density Ratio 198 646 Velocity Ratio 198 64.7 Change in Entropy Due to Heat Transfer 198 648 Working Tables and Charts 199 65__Amount of Heat Transfer 200 65.1 Choking Due to Heat Transfer 201 65.2 Maximum Possible Heat Addition 203 204 Mlustrative Examples 206 Review Questions 214 Problems 215 SIMPLE FLOW WITH MASS ADDITION 217-233 71 Introduction 217 72 Effect of Mass Addition 2/8 721 Differential Equations Governing Mass Addition 2/8 722 Influence Coefficients 22/ 723 Summary of the Effect of Mass Addition 222 73. Equations for Property Ratios 222 73.1 Integration of Influence Equations 222 732 Property Ratios from the Basic Equations 223 733 Mollier Diagram Representation of Mass Addition 225 734 Tables and Chans 226 Mlustrative Examples 228 Review Questions 233 GENERALISED ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW 234-245 81 Introduction 234 8.2 Formulation of Differential Equations 234 82.1 Conservation of Mass 234 822 Conservation of Momentum 235 823 Conservation of Energy 236 824 Other Equations 237 83 Method for Solving 238 83.1 Differential Equations in Matrix Form 238 83.2 Influence Coefficients 239 833 Method for Solution 24/ 84 General Features of Flow of a Perfect Gas 242 Review Questions 245» 10. Contents NORMAL SHOCK WAVES 246-290 9.1 Introduction 246 92 Types of Waves in Compressible Flow 247 93 General Characteristics of the Normal Shack _248 93.1 Governing Equations 249 93.2 The Hugoniot Curve 250 933 Normal Shock on Fanno and Rayleigh Curves 253 94 Normal Shock Equations for a Perfect Gas | 255 94.1 Prandtl-Meyer Equation 255 942 Mach Number Downstream of Normal Shock 257 943 Velocity and Density Ratio Across Normal Shock 258 944 Pressure Ratio Across Normal Shock 258 94.5 Temperature Ratio across Normal Shock _260 946 The Stagnation Pressure Ratio 261 94.7 Stagnation to Static Pressure Ratio 262 948 Change in Entropy across Normal Shock 263 949 Tables and Charts 265 95 Rankine—Hugoniot Relations 266 96 Weak and Strong Shocks 269 | Strength of Shock Wave _269 96.2 Shock Condensation 271 97 Moving Normal Shock Wave 272 Mlustrative Examples 273 Review Questions 288 Problems 289 OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVES 291-321 10.1 Introduction 297 10.2 Weak Compression and Expansion Waves 291 103 Compression Shock Wave and Expansion Fan 293 104 Analysis of Oblique Shock Wave 294 104.1 Upstream and Downstream Velocity Triangles 204 1042 Governing Equations for Oblique Shock 296 1043. Variations in Flow Parameters 299 10.44 Relation between Deflection Angle and Wave Angle 300 1045 Tables and Charts for Oblique Shock 302 1046 Other Oblique Shock Relations 304 105 Mach Lines 306 106 Expansion of Supersonic Flow 307 106.1 Analysis of Prandtl-Meyer Flow 308 10.62 The Prandtl-Meyer Angle 3/1 Mlustrative Examples 314 Review Questions 320 Problems 3211. 12. Contents xi FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES AND DIFFUSER 322-361 ILL Introduction 322 112. Operation of Nozzles Under Varying Pressure Ratio 322 112.1 Convergent Nozzle 322 1122 Convergent-Divergent Nozzle 325 113 Under Expansion and Over Expansion in Nozzles 330 113.1 Under Expansion 330 1132 Over Expansion 330 I14 Losses in Nozzles 333 114.1 Nozzle Efficiency 333 1142 Velocity Coefficient and Discharge Coefficient 335 1143. Actual Exit Mach Number 336 1144 Change in Entropy 337 115 Performance of Diffusers 339 115.1 Total Pressure Recovery Factor 340 1152 Isentropic Diffuser Efficiency 347 1153 Kinetic Energy Efficiency 342 11.6 Subsonic and Supersonic Air Intakes 343 116.1 Intemal Compression Subsonic Intakes 343 11.62 External Compression Subsonic Intakes 344 11.63 Supersonic Intakes 344 117 Wind Tunnel 346 11.7.1 Blow Down Wind Tunnel 347 11.72. Atmospheric Entry Wind Tunnel 347 11.73. High Enthalpy Wind Tunnel 347 11.74 Continuous Flow Wind Tunnel 348 Mlustrative Examples 350 Review Questions 359 Problems 360 MEASUREMENTS IN COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 362-397 121 Introduction 362 122 Measurement of Temperature 363 | Inserting Probe inio the Flow 363 Using Near Wall Temperature 365 Stagnation Temperature Probe 366 123 Measurement of Pressure 367 123.1 Static Pressure 368 « 1232 Stagnation Pressure 369 1233 Prandtl Pitot Static Probe 369 1234 Kiel Probe 370 1235 Pitot Tube for Supersonic Flow 372 124 Measurement of Flow Velocity and Mach Number 374 124.1 Measurement in Subsonic Flow 374 1242 Measurement in Supersonic Flow 374 1243 Hot Wire Anemometer 376xii 13. Contents 125 Quantitative Estimation of Flow Direction 380 125.1 Claw Type Direction Probe 38/ 125.2 Cobra Probe 381 125.3 Wedge Probe 387 126 Measurement of Flow Rate 382 12.6.1 Obstruction Meters 382 127 Flow Visualization 384 128 Deasity Variation Techniques 386 128.1 Principle of Optical Instruments 387 128.2 Schlieren Apparatus 388 1283 Shadowgraph 390 1284 Interferometer 39/ 129 Laser Velocimeters 393 Review Questions 395 AIR BREATHING PROPULSION 13.1 Introduction 398 132. Aircraft Propulsion Engines 399 13.2.1 Propeller Engine 399 132.2 Turbojet Engines 399 132.3 Turboprop and Turboshaft Engines 405 1324 Turbofan Engine 405 Ramjet Engine 406 1 Pulse Jet Engine 409 133 Thermodynamic Cycle 470 13.3.1 Basic Brayton Cycle 4/7 1332 Open Brayton Cycle for Propulsion Systems 425 Diffusion Process 417 1334 Compression Process 419 1335 Combustion Process 420 6 Expansion Process in Turbine 421 133.7 Expansion in the Nozzle 422 134 Propulsion Performance Parameters 423 134.1 General Thrust Equation 424 1342 Thrust of Turbojets 426 1343 Thrust of Ramjet 427 1344 Effective Jet Velocity 427 135. Thrust, Power and Fuel Constimption 427 135.1 Jet Power or Thrust Power 427 1352 Propulsive Power 428 1353. Specific Thrust and Specific Impulse 428 1354 Specific Fuel Consumption 429 135.5 Thrust Coefficient 429 136. Energy Flow and Efficiency 429 13.6.1 Energy Flow in Propulsion Engines 429 1362 Efficiency Considerations 430 398-469)13.7 Contents xiii 1363 Propulsive Efficiency 431 1364 Speed Ratio 432 1365 Thermal Efficiency 437 1366 Overall Efficiency 433 Comparison of Propulsion Systems 434 137.1 Propeller Engine 434 13.7.2 ‘Turboprop Engine 434 13.7.3. Turbojet Engine 435 13.7.4 Turbofan Engine 436 13.75 Ramjet Engine 436 137.6 Pulsejet Engine 437 Mlustrative Examples 438 Review Questions 466 Problems 468 ROCKET PROPULSION 470-525 14.1 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 Introduction 470 Chemical, Nuclear and Electric Propulsion 471 Rocket Propulsion Parameters 471 143.1. Thrust Equation 471 14.3.2 Energy Flow and Efficiencies 473 1433. Specific Impulse and Total Impulse 475 1434 Effective Jet Velocity 476 1435. Specific Propellant Consumption 476 143.6 Mass Flow Coefficient and Thrust Coefficient 477 143.7 Characteristic Velocity 478 1438 Mass Ratio and Propellant Mass Fraction of a Rocket System 478 Gas Dynamic Relationships for the Rocket Engine 479 144.1 Nozale Flow Parameters 480 1442 Area Ratio for Complete Expansion 487 1443 Exit Velocity of Jet 487 Design Parameters for Rocket Engine 48! 145.1 Mass Flow Coefficient 482 145.2 Ideal Thrust Equation and Thrust Coefficient 482 145.3 Characteristic Velocity 483 ‘Types of Chemical Rocket Engines 484 146.1 Solid Propellant Rocket Engine 484 1462 Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines 486 1463 Hybrid Rocket Engine 490 Propellants 497 147.1 Solid Propellants 497 14.72 Liquid Propellants 492 Combustion of Solid Propellants 494 1481 Linear Burning Rate 494 1482 Propellant Area Ratio and Pressure Limit 495 1483 Regressive, Neutral and Progressive Burning 495 1484. Grain Designs for Restricted and Unrestricted Burning 496xiv Contents 149 Combustion of Liquid Propellams 496 149.1 Injection of Liquid Propellant 496 149.2 Ignition 499 1410 Other Non-Air Breathing Propulsion Engines 500 14,101 Nuclear Rocket Engine 500 14.102 Electrical Rocket Engines 50/ 1411 Flight Performance 503 1411.1 The Rocket Equation 504 14,112 Altitude Gain During Vertical Flight 506 1411.3 Multi-stage Rockets 14.114 Escape Velocity 507 Mlustrative Examples 508 Review Questions 521 Problems 523 APPENDIX AI _ Isentropic Flow Tables for Perfect Gas (y= 1.4) 527 APPENDIX A2_ Fanno Flow Tables for Perfect Gas (y= 1.4) 531 APPENDIX A3 Isothermal Flow Tables for Perfect Gas (y= 1.4) 536 APPENDIX A4 Rayleigh Flow Tables for Perfect Gas (y= 1.4) 539 APPENDIX AS Simple Mass Addition Tables for Perfect Gas (y= 1.4) 544 APPENDIX A6 Normal Shock Tables for Perfect Gas (y= 1.4) 548 APPENDIX A7 Oblique Shock Tables and Charts for Perfect Gas (y= 1.4) 551 APPENDIX A8_ Prandtl-Meyer Flow Tables for Perfect Gas (y= 1.4) 565 APPENDIX A9 Table of Standard Atmosphere 568 INDEXPreface This textbook is written for the large community of engineering students and practising engineers. ‘The purpose of this book is to provide a mature approach to the subject which has wide applications in the fields of mechanical, chemical and aerospace engineering. In the past few years, the subject has played a very important role in the design and development of compressors, turbines, missiles, rockets and aircrafts. Most of the universities in India and abroad have included the subject of Compressible Fluid Dynamics (or Gas Dynamics) as one of the core subjects in their undergraduate curriculum. Some universities have included the subject as a major module in their course on Fluid Mechanics. ‘The basic theory presented in the book has been evolved out of simple and readily understood principles. A sincere effort has been made to put forward the theory in a concise, compact and lucid manner. In presenting the theory, simple mathematical methods have been preferred so that the subject can be easily grasped by the undergraduate students. However, some advanced material is also included so as to provide a firm foundation for more advanced work. The subject matter has been amply illustrated by incorporating a good number of solved and unsolved problems. The International System of Units (SI) has been adopted throughout the book. At the end of each chapter, review questions are provided, which can help the readers in having a quick revision. A few exercises have been added for the readers to solve themselves independently. Answers to these exercises are also provided. 1 take this opportunity to extend my sincere thanks 10 my teachers, students, colleagues of TKM College of Engineering, Kollam, Kerala, and Indian Space Research Organisation, Thiruvananthapuram and Mr. Pradeep Kumar of Pentium Graphics, Thiruvananthapuram, for many simulating discussions and providing useful suggestions. Thanks and appreciations are also duc to the staff of M/s Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi for their expertise and perseverance in bringing this title to completion. In the first edition of a book, some mistakes invariably creep in. I will be happy if these are brought to my attention. Also I will be happy to receive suggestions from students, teachers and practising engineers for improving the book in subsequent editions and make it more valuable. P. BALACHANDRAN xvCHAPTER 1 Fundamental Principles 1.1 INTRODUCTION The subject, fluid dynamics is of great significance to man since it pervades nearly every scientific and engineering discipline. Most of the processes occurring in nature starting from minute movements on earth to the formation of galaxies involve fluid dynamics. Understanding the dynamics of fluid motion provides chance to utilize and control the fluid motion in various natural and scientific systems for the benefit of the society. Compressible fluid dynamics, often called gas dynamics, is a branch of fluid dynamics which is concemed with the causes and effects arising from the motion of compressible fluids. With the development of gas turbines, jet propulsion and high speed aerodynamics, the theory to describe the behaviour of fluids taking into account the compressibility and temperature change became important to the concemed engineer. As such, the subject basically differs from the classical fluid dynamics in this respect, In compressible fluid dynamics the thermal and chemical effects are also considered along with the fluid motion whereas in classical fluid dynamics these effects are usually neglected. ‘The subject brings together the concepts and principles from several branches of science, including mechanics, thermodynamics, aerodynamics and chemical kinetics. In applications like steam and gas turbines, high speed turbo compressors, high speed aerodynamics and jet rocket and missile propulsion the theory of compressible fluid dynamics is essential to obtain optimal design This book deals with the topic, keeping in mind the needs of a mechanical engineer, even though the subject is of interest to both mechanical and aeronautical engineers. ‘The aeronautical engineer is keen in the motion of an object in still air whereas the mechanical engineer is more interested in the situation where the fluid is also in motion. For example, consider the case of a jet engine. The aeronautical engineer is more interested in the flow past the external surface of the body to obiain an optimum surface contour for the system whereas the mechanical engineer is concerned with the design of the engine where he has to deal with the fluid flow process within the moving parts of the engine. Like any other physical phenomena, the processes involving flow of compressible fluid must, also begin from the statement of the four fundamental physical laws: 1. The law of conservation of mass 2. Newton’s second law of motion 3. The first law of thermodynamics. 4. The second law of thermodynamics.Fundamentals of Compressible Fluid Dynamics In addition to these fundamental laws, certain laws related to the fluid being employed are also needed for the analysis. Examples are the equation of state for perfect gas, shear stress relations and heat conduction equation. Some underlying principles and relations in thermodynamics and fluid mechanics are briefly reviewed in this chapter so as to begin the subject from the basic principles. 1.2 DEFINITION OF A FLUID A fluid may be defined as a substance which is capable of flowing. It has no definite shape of its own and it continuously deforms when shearing forces are applied. It experiences relative motion between their elementary parts as long as shearing forces are present. A liquid is a fluid which possess a definite volume which varies slightly with pressure and temperature. Liquids are difficult to compress and hence are considered incompressible for practical purposes. It forms a free surface separating it from atmosphere or any other gas present. A gas is a fluid that possess no definite volume, but always expands until it fills its container, Even a small change in pressure and temperature of the gas has got significant effect on its volume. A vapour is a gas whose temperature and pressure are such that it is near to the liquid state. For the purpose of easiness in analysis, fluids are classified as ideal fluids and real fluids. A fluid with no viscosity and surface tension is called an ideal fluid. It is incompressible and encounters no resistance as it moves. Real fluids possess the properties such as viscosity, surface tension and compressibility and therefore resistance is always offered by these fluids when they are set in motion. Only real fluids exist in nature. Ideal fluids are imaginary. 1.3. COMPRESSIBILITY OF FLUIDS At normal conditions, there cannot be much variation in volume (thus density) on varying pressure or temperature of a liquid and hence liquids are considered as incompressible medium for ordinary practical purposes. Gases and vapours, on the other hand show variation in volume (thus density) for even a small change in pressure or temperature. Hence, gases and vapours are considered as compressible fluids. While analysing the fluid in motion, itis quite natural to classify the flow as compressible and incompressible based on the fluid which is flowing, viz., gases and liquids. But, this assumption is not absolutely correct because one cannot reach the conclusion about the compressibility of the fluid system without analysing the processes involved in the system. For example, consider the flow of conditioned air in an air conditioning duct. Here, the flow is taking place without much change in density. This is achieved by allowing the gas to move with low velocities while its temperature maintained more or less constant, In this example, even though the flowing fluid is compressible, the flow cannot be considered as a compressible flow since it involves no density variation during its motion. In contrary, a liquid which is considered as an incompressible fluid, can be allowed to flow with variation in density, merely by subjecting it to extreme pressure changes. The above example reveals that the classification as compressible and incompressible flow has to be made not on the basis of the type of fluid flowing but on the basis of the process the fluid is undergoing. ‘The inference from the above discussion is as follows. As long as the gas flow at slow speeds the variation in density is of lower magnitude and hence the flow can be treated as an incompressible flow. But on increasing the flow velocity the change in density becomes appreciable and the flow has to be treated as a compressible flow.Fundamental Principles _ 3 A limiting condition for arriving at a demarcation between a compressible flow and incompressible flow is based on the comparison of flow velocity with the velocity of an infinitesimal pressure pulse in the fluid medium (i.e, velocity of sound in the medium), The flow is considered incompressible if the ratio of the flow velocity to velocity of sound in the medium (defined as Mach number} is less than 0.3. If the ratio is greater than 0.3, then the flow is considered as a compressible flow. 1.4 THE CONTINUUM APPROACH AND THE MOLECULAR APPROACH For studying the processes involving fluid, two different approaches can be followed; the continusm {macroscopic} approach and the molecular (microscopic) approach. Eventhough both of them, when carried out perfectly, can yield the same result, the methodology involved in the two are entirely different. In the microscopic approach, the processes involving fluid are described from the molecular stand point. The fluid is considered as a collection of discrete particles (atoms or molecules) which are in random motion and undergo elastic collisions with each other and with the walls of its container. The conservation of mass, momentum and energy can be applied to each particle, The final quantitative description of the flow can be arrived at by averaging the detailed microscopic solutions. In the macroscopic approach, the detailed molecular structure of the fluid is replaced by an infinitely divisible substance, continuum, The concept of continuum makes it possible to deal with the fluid on a macroscopic scale. It is assumed that every differential element of a body contains 2 large number of molecules and that the average statistical properties of the molecules contained in an elementary volume represent the macroscopic properties of the fluid at a point in the region of that elementary volume. Since each fluid property in a continuum has a unique value at each point in space, all fluid properties are continuous functions of position and time, Eventhough most of the flow problems can be dealt with the continuum approach, it has got certain limitations. If the characteristic dimension of the system under consideration is very small, compared with the molecular distance between the molecules (mean free path), the concept of continuum becomes invalid, This situation occurs at very high altitudes, where the air pressure is very Jow and the mean distance between molecules are large. The dynamics of such rarefied gases can be studied by applying the principles of gas dynamics, kinetic theory and statistical mechanics and the subject is known by the name rarefied gas dynamics. Thus, whenever we deal with highly rarefied gases as in flight at high altitudes, high vacuum technology or electronic tubes the approach of classical gas dynamics must be abandoned in favour of the statistical approach of rarefied gas dynamics. ‘The above discussion reveal that the continuum approach is valid as long as the characteristic linear dimension pertinent to the flow field is large as compared to the mean free path. The ratio of the mean free path /, to any characteristic linear dimension Z is a dimensionless parameter called the Knudsen number (Kn) and is defined by Kn = Ig/h a.) The continuum approach is valid for flows in which Kn < 0.01. Flow with the Knudsen number higher than 0.01 is generally termed as free molecular flow or transition flow depending on the magnitude of the ratio, Knudsen number greater than 3 is referred to as free molecular flow. The regime between the continuum and the free molecular flow is called transition flow regime.4 Fundamentals of Compressible Fluid Dynamics 1.5 PROPERTIES OF THE CONTINUUM In this book the study on the motion of the fluid is made by treating the fluid as continuum. As mentioned in the last section, the simplicity in the analysis of the compressible flow problem with the assumption of continuum is that instead of dealing with instantaneous states of innumerable molecules, it is possible to deal with certain macroscopic properties describing the gross behaviour of the substance, In compressible fluid flow, the relevant properties are density, normal stress (pressure), shear stress, velocity, temperature, internal energy, entropy, viscosity and thermal conductivity. To understand more on the concept of continuum, some of the properties as applied to continuum are defined in this section. 1.5.1 Density at a Point in a Continuum Let us consider a continuous fluid occupying a volume V as shown in Fig. I.la, At any instant of time the volume encloses some amount of mass m. In order to write the density at any point P inside the volume; consider a small elementary volume AV, comprising mass Am surrounding the point P. The ratio Am/AV is called the average mass density of the fluid within the elemental volume and can be denoted by p. Now, let AV shrink to smaller and smaller values about the point P. A plot of AmlAV against the shrinking volume AV is shown in Fig. 1.1b. As AV shrinks, initially, the average density tends to approach an asymptotic value, with the material inside the volume becoming more homogeneous. However, when AV becomes smaller than a minimum value, it can contain only few molecufes and hence the value of Am/AV fluctuates widely as one or more molecules either enter or leave AV, Consequently, the magnitude of Am{AV becomes indeterminate. {m Eb Domainot —.jomain of - molecular «i» Domain of effects continuum @ (b) Fig. 1.1 Density ot @ point in @ continuum. With the help of the plot, itis possible to define a limiting volume AV’, to demarcate the region of molecular effect with the region of continuum. Using the limiting volume AV’. the density of the fluid at the point P, denoted by p is defined as Am aay a2 This definition of density illustrates the concept of continuum and shows the true nature of a continuum property at a point.Fundamentol Principles 5 1.5.2 Stress at a Point Let us consider a small elemental area AA in any plane surrounding any point P, located in a volume of continuous fluid, as shown in Fig. 1.2a. The fluid on one side of AA will exert force AF on the fluid on the other side and vice versa, The force AF can be resolved into two components, the force acting normal to the area denoted by AF, and the force acting tangential to the area denoted by AF. By shrinking the area AA, it is possible to get a limiting area (AA’) (Fig. 1.2b) defining a normal force and a tangential force acting at P. The fluid pressure (normal stress) at the point, denoted by p is defined as the limit of the normal component of force per unit area. AF, p = Limit - Limit | 47 +|—-| & . du (=) (1 y 2p Oh oh dh = (7+ (Flo (1.22)12. Fundamentals of Compressible Fluid Dynamics For a constant volume process, Eq. (1.21) reduces to ou =|) ar 2 du (=) (1.23) and for a constant pressure process, Eq. (1.22) reduces to or ‘The specific heat of a fluid is defined as the heat capacity of the fluid mass. Thus, specific heat C, is the quantity of heat per unit mass necessary (o raise the temperature of a system by unit temperature, The amount of heat added for a given temperature differential depends on the process by which heat is added. For the constant volume process, the specific heat at constant volume can be written using Eq, (1.2 n= (Flan (1.24) ly c, = @uan, (1.25) and for the constant pressure process, using Eq. (1.24), we get, CG, = Quan, (1.26) For any process between states 1 and 2, the heat added can be written as a= fear 1 where, C= C, for a constant volume process and C = C, for a constant pressure process. For a thermally perfect gas, C, and C, are function of only temperature. From the perfect gas equation, it ean also be proved that R=6,-C, 1.27) A calorically and thermatly perfect gas is one in which the specific heats C, and C, are independent of temperature. 1.10.2 Change in Entropy in a Perfect Gas From the first law of thermodynamics (Eq. (1.15)) we know, dg = dh — vdp For a perfect gas, py = RT and h = C,T. So the equation becomes, dy dq = C,dT — RTP (1.28) Pp Substituting in the equation for entropy change, ds = dg/T, we get, aoc, Re (1.29) Fe ‘This equation, eventhough derived for a reversible process, is also valid for irreversible process since the equation contains only the state variables. For any finite process between states 1 and 2, change in entropy can be obtained by integrating Eq. (1.29).Fundamental Principles 13, non eGft—af® 7 = C, In (TyT,) - R In (pyp,) (1.30) Also, from Eq. (1.12), we know, dq = du + pdv = cer EE ay ? ‘The change in entropy is és= Bac p& T T Y On integration between states 1 and 2, we get, $2— 8) = Cyn (TyT)) + R In (vy) a3 1.10.3 Isentropic Process An isentropic process is one which involves no change in entropy during its occurrence. Such a process has no heat exchange with surroundings, that is, the process is adiabatic as well as reversible. Although real processes are never truly isentropic, irreversible effects are often, quite small. With the isentropic assumption, Eqs. (1.30) and (1.31) leads to, TT, = (pal, "7 = (yh (1.32) An alternate form of this equation is pv'= pip? = constant (1.33) In the study of compressible flow, the concept of isentropic change of state is very important. Most of the flow phenomena of engineering importance can be approximated to an ideal phenomenon using the assumption of isentropic flow. For example, consider the flow through a nozzle of a jet engine or flow over an airfoil. In the region adjacent to the nozzle wall and airfoil, a boundary layer is formed wherein the dissipative mechanisms of viscosity, thermal conductivity and diffusion are strong. Hence, there is increase in entropy within the boundary layer. But, for the fluid elements outside the boundary layer, the dissipative effects are negligible. Also, no transfer of heat from or to these fluid elements takes place. Hence these fluid elements are experiencing adiabatic and reversible process, making the flow isentropic. Also, since the boundary layer is thin, large region of flow field is isentropic. Therefore, a study of isentropic process is directly applicable to many types of practical flow problems. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1, Define a fluid, Differentiate between an ideal fluid and a real fluid. 2. Distinguish between a gas and a vapour. 3. What is a continaum? Under what conditions the assumption of continuum is valid? 4. Using the concept of continuum define fluid pressure at a point.14 5, 10. 1. 12. 13. 14, 15. 16. 7%, 18. 19, 20. 21. Fundamentals of Compressible Fluid Dynamics Based on the concept of continuum, differentiate between normal stress and shear stress of a fluid at a point Write down the definition of density? How will you define density at a point in a fluid domain? What are the four basic fundamental laws of nature that forms the basis for the study of fluid dynamics? What is compressibility? Differentiate between a compressible fluid and an incompressible fluid. What is the basis for classifying a flow as compressible flow and incompressible flow? Explain. The flow of a compressible fluid need not be a compressible flow. Explain. Under what conditions does a flow can be considered as a compressible flow? The analysis of air flow in an air conditioning duct is usually carried out assuming it as an incompressible Quid. Explain, Under what conditions does the density variation during a flow is appreciable? Distinguish between continuum approach and molecular approach followed in fluid flow analysi What is rarefied gas dynamics? What is the type of approach that is being followed in the study of rarefied gas dynamics? Define Knudsen number. Based on Knudsen number classify the regimes of fluid flow. Explain briefly the difference between the controt volume approach and system approach. Define the terms: stem, boundary, surroundings. Discuss on closed and open systems. Define thermodynamic state, property and process. What is the concept of cyclic process? Discuss briefly on the concept of thermodynamic equilibrium and its importance in the analysis of thermal systems, What is the difference between intensive property, extensive property and a specific quantity? Classify the following properties of the system, whether they are intensive or extensive. (mass (ii) weight Git) volume (iv) velocity (v) density (vi) specific volume (vii) mole fraction (iii) pressure (ix) temperature (3) elevation (xi) potential energy (ii) enthalpyREBR 26. 27. 29, 3. 32. 33. 35. Fundamental Principles 15 Define energy. Distinguish between stored energy and energy in transition. Distinguish between work and heat. Discuss with example. Does heat and work are properties of a system? State the Zeroth law of thermodynamics and indicate how it helps to introduce the concept of temperature. State the first law of thermodynamics and write the first law equation for a system undergoing an infinitesimal thermodynamic change. Define intemal energy and enthalpy. What are the constituents of energy in a flow process? Distinguish between reversible and irreversible process. State any two statements of second law of thermodynamics. With the introduction of reversibility concept, the second law provides a method for determining efficiency of a process. Explain. Define entropy. Define real gas and ideal gas and state the ideal gas equation? State the concept of specific heat. Write a relation between the two principal specific heats and characteristic gas constant for perfect gas. Derive a general equation for change in entropy in a perfect gas. Explain the concept of isentropic process. In what way does it aid the study of compressible flow? Explain.CHAPTER 2 Conservation Laws for Compressible Flow 2.1 INTRODUCTION As in the case of incompressible flow, the analysis of a compressible flow problem is based on one or more of the following equations expressing the physical laws of nature, 1. The equation of continuity which express the conservation of mass in the flow proces: 2. The equation of motion (the momentum equation) which express the relations of conservation of momentum in the fluid. 3. The equation of energy (the first law of thermodynamics) which express the conservation of energy in the fluid. 4, The entropy equation which express the second law of thermodynamics for the flow process, Apart from the above, the thermodynamic properties of the fluid are considered from empirical equations, tables of properties or idealized models such as characteristic gas equation, Depending upon the problem being studied, mathematical expressions developed from the above laws are combined so that relationships pertinent to the specific problem being analysed are obtained, Engineers are much familiar with the first four concepts as applied to a system of specific mass, a rigid body having system boundaries. Since fluids are extremely mobile, it is difficult to identify the boundaries of a fluid system to any appreciable length of time. It is therefore simple to think in terms of the control volume (defined in section 1.6); a given volume in space through which the fluid flows. To make practical use of control volume concept for the analysis of flow problems, it is first necessary to formulate the conservation concepts into a form suitable for the control volume. Hence, the major goal of this chapter is to develop the general equations for the four basic principles when a fluid flows through a control volume. ‘The general equations, which are termed as the governing equations, are derived initially in their integral form which are applicable to any type of flow, and then in their corresponding differential form applicable to one dimensional steady flow. 2.2 EXTENSIVE AND INTENSIVE PROPERTIES Generally in the study of fluids, the concer is on open systems such as those associated with ducts, Pipes or transfer lines, compressor or turbine blades, nozzles or diffusers, ete. through which the fluid moves. Such a region is selected for the purpose of analysis and is defined as the control volume. As mentioned in the beginning of this chapter, equations for the governing conservation laws are to be derived for a general control volume. Before deriving the equations, it is useful to define intensive and extensive fluid properties as applied to the contro} volume. 16Conservation Laws for Compressible Flow 7 An extensive property depends on the mass of the fluid contained within the control volume. Examples are, volume, mass and momentum. In the present book, all the extensive properties, except mass, are denoted by capital letter. Example are U for intemal energy, $ for entropy and H for enthalpy. A general notation for any extensive property is N. ‘The property which is independent of the mass of the fluid inside the control volume is called an iniensive property. There are two types of intensive properties. The properties like pressure, temperature, etc., are naturally independent of the mass. The properties like specific internal energy u (internal energy per unit mass), specific entropy s (entropy per unit mass), specific enthalpy h (cathalpy per unit mass), are intensive properties, since they are specific values of the corresponding extensive properties. A general intensive property is denoted by n. For fluids obeying the continuum concept, the specific property n is defined by n= Limit = 1) Am Am dm where AW is the magnitude of the extensive property in an infinitesimal mass Am of the fluid. Also, from the definition of the specific property, the value of the corresponding extensive property can be written as wef adm (2.2) sem Since density p is defined as mass per unit volume dm/dv, Eq, (2.2) transforms to N= I np dv (23) where the integration is performed over the. volume occupied by the system. The following are the extensive and intensive properties (N and n) associated with the four basic conservation equations. mass, m = J pdv (n=1) (24) ’ momentum, mV = [ V pdv (n= V) (2.5) stored energy, E = J epdy (n=e) (26) ’ entropy, 5 = j spay (n=3) Qn ’ 2.3 CONSERVATION OF MASS AND CONTINUITY EQUATION 2.3.1 Conservation of Mass for a System The principle of conservation of mass states that mass may neither be created nor be destroyed, When referred to a fluid system of fixed identity, the law of conservation may be written as: In the absence of nuclear and relativity effects, the mass of a system is a constant. Thus, m = constant18 Fundamentals of Compressible Fluid Dynamics dmidt = 0 (2.8) where m is the mass of the system and d/dr is the time derivative. For consistency with the relations to follow, the system mass can be thought as the integral over all elementary masses, dm, within the system. We then have, d “ dm dt J system 0 (2.9) 2.3.2 Conservation of Mass for Control Volume Let us consider a control volume bounded by a control surface as shown in Fig. 2.1 through which fluid is flowing. In order to arrive at the statement for the law of conservation of mass applied to the control volume, a system is initially considered and the law is applied to the system. To relate the system with the control volume, the system is defined such that, at time f it occupies the fluid within the control volume plus the fluid which is going to enter the control volume in the next infinitesimal interval of time 8. ‘System at time ¢ @ ) Fig. 2.1 Motion of o fiuid system relative to @ control volume. Now, consider the system and control volume after time 8 t. By definition, the control volume remains fixed in space whereas the system moves in the general direction of the streamlines. The system has occupied a new position such that it includes the fluid inside the control volume plus that which has left the control volume during the time interval 8 1. The two positions of the system are shown by dotted lines. For convenience of the analysis, consider three regions of space J, II, and III as shown in figure. The control volume which is fixed in space is represented by region II. The system, which is moving, occupies regions I and Il at time f whereas at time 1 + 3 1, it occupies regions UI and IIL. Since the mass of the system is conserved, the mass of system at time 1 is equal to mass of system al time 1+ 81, Mathematically we can write, (mm), + ma), = Cn), .5e + Cares where (mi), is the mass of fluid in region I at time f and so on. A simple rearrangement then gives,Conservation Laws for Compressible Flow 19 (rma),,5, ~ (ma), =m), = Cm) Dividing the equation by the infinitesimal period of time 87 and taking the limit as 1 tending to zero, we get, vimin Me — CO). 8 pimig OL iin MMtndose (2.10) an or or a In the above equation, as 8 goes to zero, the left handside represents the time rate of change of mass within region II. Also, in the limit, the region Il coincides with the control volume. Hence, the left hand side of Eq. (2.10) becomes, (2.11) where m,, denotes the instantaneous mass of fluid within the control volume. ‘The second term on the right hand side of Eg. (2.10) can be written in terms of elementary masses in region III. sit (oa (37m aos Limit aa ass a a Lae where (iy ).,;, represents the amount of mass crossing the elementary surface area SAgg of the control surface during the time interval 81. (See Figs. 2.1a and b). Summing over the elemental control surface, we get the rate of mass outflow from the control volume through the control surface, Thus, scny C7 vse — 5m )nse — fae — a Limit = Die as = j iggy = tty (2.12) where the integral is taken over the control surface and sit,,, is the rate of mass outflow from the control volume through the control surface. Similar to the above, the first term ou the right hand side of Eq. (2.10) can be written as tim, “0. > a0 Ot (2.13) or where rij, is the rate of mass inflow to the control volume through the control surface. Substituting Eqs. (2.11), (2.12) and (2.13) in Eq. (2.10), we get, 2 a Dey J dig = fae (2.14a) = Mg — Tagg (2.14b) ‘Thus, the law of conservation of mass when applied to the control volume states that the rate of accumulation of mass within the control volume is equal to the excess of the incoming rate of flow over the outgoing rate of flow.