1/28/2019 A to Z of Vitamin & Mineral Deficiencies & Toxicities in Horses | Horse Journals

MINERALS

Unlike vitamins, minerals are inorganic substances, yet their role in equine body functions is no less important. There
are 14 minerals that are considered essential for horses, and these can be classified as one of two categories:
macrominerals and microminerals, or trace minerals. Macrominerals are required in relatively large quantities in the
diet and include calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, sodium, chlorine (as chloride), and sulfur. Trace
minerals, which are required in much smaller quantities, include iron, copper, iodine, zinc, manganese, cobalt, and
selenium.

All minerals can be dangerous when present in high enough levels, yet toxicity in horses is rare. For that matter, so is
deficiency. Far more problematic, because it is far more common, is imbalance of levels of minerals whose specific
ratio to each other is required to optimize the horse’s health and wellbeing. Calcium and phosphorus are one such pair,
sodium and chloride another.

Macrominerals:

Calcium (Ca) & Phosphorus (P)

Calcium and phosphorus are vital macrominerals in the horse’s body, working together to build and strengthen bone.
Calcium is also essential to neuromuscular and cardiac function, cell membranes, blood clotting, and temperature
regulation. Phosphorus, in addition to bone growth and maintenance, is responsible for aiding in energy metabolism
and various cellular functions.

Calcium and phosphorus are presented together because it is absolutely critical that they be present in the horse’s body
in the correct proportion (with at least as much calcium as phosphorus). A 1:1 ratio of calcium to phosphorus is
considered ideal, although an excess of calcium can be tolerated as long as the level of phosphorus has reached a
certain threshold. However, the amount of phosphorus should never exceed the quantity of calcium.

Forages, especially legume hay, are rich in calcium, while grains have a naturally high phosphorus content. Therefore,
a low-forage, high-concentrates diet could result in calcium deficiency/excess phosphorus. Calcium deficiency can
also be caused by ingestion of certain plants (e.g. sorrel, dock, rhubarb, etc.) that inhibit calcium absorption.

Imbalance: Excess phosphorus can impair calcium absorption, resulting in calcium deficiency. Calcium deficiency can
result in abnormal bone development in young horses, osteomalacia or osteoporosis in older horses,
hyperparathyroidism (“big head disease”), loose teeth, and weight loss. These same symptoms may also be caused by
phosphorus deficiency.

Magnesium (Mg)

Magnesium has an important function in muscle contraction, nerve impulses, and energy metabolism, as well as being
one of the major minerals present in the horse’s skeletal structure. A horse’s daily requirement for magnesium is
usually satisfied by the normal presence of this macromineral in most hays and grains.
https://www.horsejournals.com/horse-care/illness-injury/prevention/z-vitamin-mineral-deficiencies-toxicities-horses 1/6
1/28/2019 A to Z of Vitamin & Mineral Deficiencies & Toxicities in Horses | Horse Journals

Deficiency: Rare in horses, an insufficient quantity of magnesium in the body is believed to be a possible causal factor in
excitability and muscle tremors or cramping. It may also play a role in insulin resistance and equine metabolic
syndrome but, while a link between magnesium deficiency and diabetes in humans has been demonstrated, there is no
scientific evidence to confirm this theory.

Toxicity: Over-supplementing with magnesium can have a severely negative impact on the horse’s digestive and
metabolic systems.

Potassium (K)

Potassium is an electrolyte that is vital for maintaining cellular osmotic pressure and electrical activity, as well as
regulating the body’s acid/base balance, and thus plays a crucial role in muscle and nerve function. Relatively high
concentrations of potassium are found in most types of forage.

Photo (above): Hard-working horses are more likely to develop potassium deficiency, particularly when training or
competing in hot, humid climates. A commercial electrolyte supplement can help prevent potassium loss and/or
replenish potassium levels in the horse’s body. Photo: Rayand/Flickr

Deficiency: Because sweating results in potassium loss, horses in hard work, especially those in hot, humid climates, may experience
symptoms of potassium deficiency, which include muscle cramps and/or weakness, fatigue, impaired ability to sweat, and decreased response
to thirst. A commercial electrolyte supplement will replenish potassium levels in the body.

Toxicity: For most horses, excess potassium in the body is harmlessly excreted in the urine. However, potassium intake
should be carefully restricted in horses with hyperkalemic periodic paralysis (HYPP), a genetic disease characterized
by a buildup of potassium in the body that can severely impair muscle function.

Sodium (Na) & Chloride (Cl)

https://www.horsejournals.com/horse-care/illness-injury/prevention/z-vitamin-mineral-deficiencies-toxicities-horses 2/6
1/28/2019 A to Z of Vitamin & Mineral Deficiencies & Toxicities in Horses | Horse Journals

Both sodium and chloride have an important function in regulating body fluids and conducting the electrical impulses
in nerves and muscles, and they are the most important of the minerals lost through sweat and urine during exercise
(otherwise known as electrolytes). When combined, these two minerals form sodium chloride, or salt.

To compensate for the fact that most natural forages contain very little sodium, sodium chloride is often added to
concentrates. As a general rule of thumb, salt should always be made available to horses, either free choice in the form
of a salt block or by adding it to the feed. If offered free choice, the horse’s salt consumption should be monitored.

Photo (above): Salt can be offered free choice in the form of a salt lick or block, but the horse’s use of the lick should be monitored to prevent
overconsumption. Photo: Katie Brady/Flickr

Deficiency: While uncommon in normal circumstances, sodium chloride deficiencies can occur in physically stressful
situations involving intense exercise and/or hot, humid climates. Deficiency usually presents with uncoordinated
muscle movement and chewing, decreased sweating, decreased performance, dehydration, constipation, loss of
appetite, and general weakness.

Toxicity: Because excess sodium and chloride are both readily excreted in urine, high salt intake is usually only a
problem if the horse doesn’t have access to clean, fresh water. Salt toxicity can result in colic, diarrhea, frequent
urination, weakness, and death.

Sulfur (S)

Sulfur is an important component of biotin (vitamin B ) and thiamine (B ), the amino acids methionine and cysteine,
insulin, chondroitin sulfate, and heparin (an anticoagulant), making it essential to the health of many of your horse’s
body systems. Organic sulfur (as opposed to inorganic sulfur, which is not absorbed by the horse’s body) is present in
most forages and grains in adequate amounts to satisfy a horse’s requirements.

Deficiency: Sulfur deficiency has never been reported in horses and appears an unlikely problem.

https://www.horsejournals.com/horse-care/illness-injury/prevention/z-vitamin-mineral-deficiencies-toxicities-horses 3/6
1/28/2019 A to Z of Vitamin & Mineral Deficiencies & Toxicities in Horses | Horse Journals

Toxicity: Sulfur toxicity is very rare except in extreme cases of overdose. High sulfur intake is not likely to be cause for
concern since sulfur is readily excreted in the horse’s urine and feces.

Microminerals:

Cobalt (Co)

Cobalt is used by the bacteria in the horse’s hindgut in the synthesis of cobalamine (vitamin B12) – this is its only
known function in the body.

Deficiency: No deficiencies in cobalt have been reported in horses.

Toxicity: No excesses in cobalt have been reported in horses.

Copper (Cu)

Copper is the trace mineral heavily associated with the formation and maintenance of elastic connective tissue,
metabolism of iron, energy production within the cellular mitochondria, and production of melanin. The copper
requirement for most horses is thought to be met by the forages in a normal diet, but more research is needed before
the exact requirements are definitively known.

Deficiency: Copper deficiency in horses is rare, but has been implicated in developmental orthopedic disease in young
horses as well as arterial ruptures and chronic anemia. Loss of pigment in the hair coat may also be a sign of a
deficiency.

Toxicity: For toxic levels to occur, copper intake must be relatively high, making copper toxicity in horses very rare.
Possible symptoms may include liver damage.

Iodine (I)

Iodine’s only known function is as a vital contributor to the synthesis of the thyroid hormones thyroxin (T4) and
triiodothyronine (T3), which affect every system in the horse’s body, including muscle metabolism and the nervous,
respiratory, and cardiovascular systems. Most horses receive adequate iodine from their normal diet, the exception
being horses fed forages grown in iodine-deficient soils.

Deficiency: Inadequate amounts of iodine in a horse’s body may result in a goiter (an enlarged thyroid gland) on the
underside of the throat along the jaw. Other signs of an iodine imbalance include poor coat and hair loss, lethargy, low
body temperature, and increased susceptibility to infectious diseases. Iodine-deficient mares also tend to give birth to
stillborn or weak foals.

Toxicity: Iodine toxicity tends to produce clinical signs similar to those resulting from iodine deficiency. However, toxic
levels of iodine are more common than deficits, and more likely to be fatal in extreme cases.

Iron (Fe)
https://www.horsejournals.com/horse-care/illness-injury/prevention/z-vitamin-mineral-deficiencies-toxicities-horses 4/6
1/28/2019 A to Z of Vitamin & Mineral Deficiencies & Toxicities in Horses | Horse Journals

Iron is most often associated with exercise because adequate levels of iron in the horse’s body are vital to maintaining
the functionality of hemoglobin, the molecule in red blood cells responsible for their ability to transport oxygen
throughout the body. Most forages contain plentiful amounts of iron to meet the needs of a horse.

Deficiency: A deficiency of iron is rare, but when it does occur can lead to anemia (low red blood cell count) of which
the first symptom usually noticed is decreased performance and fatigue.

Toxicity: Far more common than iron deficiency, iron toxicity can make a horse more susceptible to bacterial infections
and impair the absorption of other minerals, including copper and zinc. Foals with iron toxicosis may experience
depression, dehydration, diarrhea, liver failure, and death.

Manganese (Mn)

Manganese is essential to the metabolism of fats and carbohydrates and the synthesis of chondroitin sulfate, an
important structural component of cartilage – functions which are mostly involved in energy use and skeletal
formation. Most horses receive adequate intake of manganese through a normal diet that includes fresh pasture, good
quality forages, and grains.

Deficiency: Manganese deficiency has not been observed in horses, but would likely result in defective bone growth such
as limb deformities in foals and possibly a reduced amount of energy available for use by the horse’s muscles, which
could result in decreased performance.

Toxicity: Of all the trace elements, manganese is one of the least toxic when present in very high concentrations;
however, excess manganese might hinder the absorption of phosphorus.

Selenium (Se)

Selenium’s most important role in the horse’s body is as an antioxidant, working alongside vitamin E to protect body
tissues from free radicals at the cellular level. It also has a function in controlling thyroid hormone levels, preserving
muscle integrity, and maintaining the horse’s immune system. The roles of selenium and vitamin E are so closely
related that a deficiency in one can be compensated for by a sufficient quantity of the other. The major source of
selenium in the equine diet is in forages which, if grown in selenium-deficient soils, may not contain adequate amounts
of this trace mineral.

Deficiency: Mild selenium deficiencies can present with subtle signs such as poor coat quality, work intolerance, and
reduced immune function. Gross deficiency can result in cardiovascular problems, muscle disorders such as “typing
up,” cataracts, and impaired reproductive function.

Toxicity: The margin between ideal and toxic levels of selenium is very slight, and selenium toxicity can be far more
dangerous than a deficiency. Symptoms of toxicity include heart and liver damage; degeneration of bones, joints, and
muscles; cracking or complete sloughing off of hooves; and death.

https://www.horsejournals.com/horse-care/illness-injury/prevention/z-vitamin-mineral-deficiencies-toxicities-horses 5/6
1/28/2019 A to Z of Vitamin & Mineral Deficiencies & Toxicities in Horses | Horse Journals

Photo (above): Always consult your veterinarian before incorporating a vitamin or mineral supplement into your horse’s diet. In many cases, the
toxicity that arises from overfeeding certain vitamins and minerals is equally (in some cases, even more) harmful to your horse’s health as
deficiency. Photo: BLW/Wikimedia Commons

Zinc (Zn)

Zinc plays a crucial role in the metabolism of carbohydrates and proteins, and in bone development, and is important
for healthy skin and hooves. Zinc is present in varying amounts in most forages and grains, with pasture generally
containing higher quantities than dry forages.

Deficiency: Zinc deficiency can cause low insulin levels and reduced glucose tolerance leading to increased insulin
resistance. Inadequate levels of zinc might also result in poor coat and hoof quality, reduced immune function, and
increased likelihood of developmental orthopedic disease in foals.

Toxicity: Symptoms of zinc toxicosis, usually a result of horses grazing on pasture contaminated by a nearby metal
refinery, include lameness or stiffness, bony limb deformities, and growth plate enlargement in foals. Excess zinc can
also impair the metabolism of copper.

https://www.horsejournals.com/horse-care/illness-injury/prevention/z-vitamin-mineral-deficiencies-toxicities-horses 6/6