M.

Murali Mohan
Dy. Suptd (O)
 LOSS OF EXCITATION - CONTENTS

Excitation:-
What it is ?
Why is required ?
How it will be provided ?
When it will be lost ?
What will happen if it lost ?
What are the Protection Schemes available?
 GENERATOR
• Generator is a rotating machine which converts
Mechanical Energy from Prime mover into Electrical
energy.
Basic Principle:
• Basically Generator works on Faraday’s laws of Electro
Magnetic Induction.
Ist Law: Whenever a conductor placed in a rotating magnetic
field an EMF will be induced in that conductor.
IInd Law: The magnitude of the Induced EMF is Directly
Proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages.
E = K.L dØ/dt
L = Length of the magnetic flux lines K = Constant
dØ/dt = Rate of change of flux linkages
 EXCITATION – WHAT IT IS ?
Creating the required Magnetic Field
strength in the Rotor winding of the
Generator by giving D.C supply which
when cut by conductors produces Voltage.
The system which is
used to Supply,
Control & Monitoring
of the D.C supply is
called the Excitation
system.
system
EXCITATION – WHY IS REQUIRED ?
1) Basic requirement for the generation of
Magnetic Field in the air gap between the
Rotor and the Stator.
2) Results in the creation of the “Rotating
Magnetic field” in the air gap.
3) To Regulate the Terminal Voltage.
4) To control Reactive Power flow and facilitate
the sharing of reactive load between the
machines operated parallel in the grid.
5) Enabling the Maximum utilization of
Machine Capability.
 WHAT IS REACTIVE POWER ?
• In AC power networks, while Active Power
corresponds to useful work, Reactive Power supports
voltage magnitudes that are controlled for system
Reliability, Voltage stability, and operational
acceptability.

• Reactive power is essential to “move Active Power”

through the Transmission and Distribution system to
the customer.

• Reactive power is required to “maintain the Voltage”

to deliver Active Power (Watts) through transmission
lines.
Contd….
 Reactive Power
Limitations:

• Reactive power does

not travel very far.

• Usually necessary to
produce it close to
the location where it
is needed.

(Apparent Power (S))2 = (Active Power (P))2 + (Reactive Power (Q))2

Contd….
Analogy of understanding Reactive Power

Reactive Power (MVAR)

)
VA
(M
er
w
Po
nt
re
pa
Ap

Power factor

True Power (MW)

Power Factor = Active power / Apparent power = Kw / kVA

= Active Power / (Active Power + Reactive Power)
= Kw / (Kw + kVAr)

The higher kVAr indicates Low Power Factor and vice versa.
REACTIVE POWER SOURCES AND SINKS
EXCITATION – HOW IT WILL BE PROVIDED ?

Excitation system

D.C Excitation Static Excitation Brush less Excitation

(up to 110MW) System (200MW) system (500MW)

Stage- Stage-
1 2&3
EXCITATION – WHEN IT WILL BE LOST ?

1) Field Open Circuit (Field Current is zero).

2) Field Short Circuit (Field Current is too high).
3) AVR Control Failure.
4) Accidental Tripping of Field Breaker.
5) Loss of supply to the Main Exciter.
6) Poor brush contact in the Exciter.
7) Field Circuit Breaker latch failure.
8) Slip Ring flash over.
EXCITATION–WHAT WILL HAPPEN IF IT LOST ?

• The Generator delivers both Real and Reactive

Power to the grid. The Real power comes from the
Turbine while the Reactive power is due to Field
Excitation.

• When Field Excitation is lost while the Mechanical

Power remains intact, it would attempt to remain
synchronized by running as an Induction
Generator.

• As an Induction Generator, the machine speeds up

slightly above the synchronous speed and draws
Excitation from the grid. Contd….
 Before Loss of Excitation Qe

Mechanical
Input
Pm Pe
Generator Grid
jQe
Pe
Speed = Ns Generator
Field Current = I f Voltage = V rated

Loss of Excitation condition

Mechanical Pe
Input
Generator
Pm Pe
Generator Grid
jQ LOE

Speed > Ns Q LOE

Field Current I Voltage = V LOE
f = Zero
• Operation as an Induction Generator necessitates the
flow of “Slip frequency” current in the rotor, the
current flowing in the Damper Winding and also in
the slot wedges and surface of the solid rotor body.

Now there are Two Possibilities:-

• Either the grid is able to meet the reactive power
demand Fully or meet it Partially.

• If the grid is able to fully satisfy this demand for

reactive power, the machine continuous to deliver
active power of ‘PeMW’ but draws reactive power of
‘QLOE’ MVA and there is no risk of instability.
Contd….
• However, the Generator is not designed as an
Induction Machine, so “Abnormal Heating” of the
Rotor and overloading of Stator winding will take
place.
• If the Grid able to meet the Reactive Power
demand partially then this would be reflected by
fall of a Generator Terminal Voltage.
Voltage The
Generator would be under excited.
• There are certain limits on the degree to which a
Generator can be operated within the Under
Excited mode.
Reduced Excitation weakens the magnetic coupling
between the Rotor and Stator.
Contd….
 If the coupling becomes too weak, the Turbine
output cannot be fully converted into Electrical
form (Pa = Pm-Pe).

This leads to acceleration of Rotor, resulting

into increased ‘δ’.

Increased Rotor Angle force the Generator to

lose Synchronism.

• Therefore, the operation in case of loss of

excitation must be quickly detected and
checked. Contd….
• If a generator is operating at full load
when it loses excitation, it will reach a
speed of 2% to 5% above normal.

• This over speed condition will be harmful

to Steam Turbine driven Generators.
Generators

• If a Generator is operating at reduced

loading (< 30%), the machine speed may
only be 0.1% to 0.2% above normal.
Contd….
• When Excitation is lost, rotor current (If),
Internal voltage (E) and terminal voltage (Vt)
falls.

• Due to reduced voltage, Stator current

increases for the same ‘Pe’.

• As V/I ratio become smaller, the Generator

Positive Sequence Impedance (Z+) as measured
at its terminals will reduce and enter the 4th
Quadrant of the R-X plane.
POWER FLOW DIRECTION AND POWER FACTOR
Q-II MVAR + jX Q-I

P P
Q Q
Machine acts as an Machine acts as an
Synchronous Motor Synchronous Generator

- MW  MW

-R O +R

Machine acts as an Machine acts as an

Induction Motor Induction Generator
P P
Q Q

Q-III - MVAR - jX Q-IV

Generator Active and Reactive Power after LOE
Voltage Drop and Rotor acceleration During LOE fault
Typical Generator Capability Curve
LOSS OF EXCITATION – PROTECTION SCHEMES

• The simplest method by which loss of excitation

can be detected is to monitor Field current of
the Generator.

• If the filed current falls below a threshold, a

loss of field signal can be raised.

• A complicating factor in this protection is the

Slip Frequency Current induced in the event of
loss of excitation and running as an Induction
Generator. Contd….
• The quantity which changes most when a Generator
loses Field Excitation is the Impedance measured at
the Stator terminals.

• On loss of excitation, the terminal voltage begins to

decrease and the current begins to increase, resulting
in “Decrease of Impedance”.

• The Loss of Excitation can be unambiguously detected

by a Mho relay located at the Generator terminals.

• In 1949, a Single Phase “Offset Mho Relay” was

introduced for the high speed detection of “Loss of
Excitation” in Synchronous Generators.
Contd….
There are Five LOE protection schemes used today, namely,

1) R-X Scheme with Single and Double Relay Scheme

(Based on Generator terminal Impedance
measurement).

2) R-X with Directional element Scheme (-do-).

3) G-B Scheme (Based on Generator terminal Admittance

measurement).

4) P-Q Scheme (Based on Generator Active and Reactive

power output).

5) U-I Scheme (Based on the measurement of Phase Angle

difference between Phase Voltage and Current).
However, R-X Schemes is widely used in Power Systems.
Contd….
 IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT (SINGLE ELEMENT)

• The diameter of the circle set equal to the

“Synchronous Reactance” (Xd) and Offset
will be set equal to one - half of the
“Transient Reactance” (X’d/2).

• This circle is operation zone for LOE relay.

• As viewed from the machine terminals the

Relay will operate for any impedance
phasor that terminates inside the circular
characteristic.
Contd….
• In normal operation condition, the Generator
generates Active and Reactive Power to the system
which means both ‘R’ and ‘X’ are positive and the
Terminal Impedance is located in the First Quadrant
in R-X plane.

• When the Excitation is lost, the Generator starts to

draws Reactive power from the system and ‘X’
becomes Negative from the LOE relay point of view.

• As a result, the Terminal Impedance loci in R-X plane

moves to the ‘Forth Quadrant’ and the endpoint of
terminal Impedance ranges between the sub Transient
Reactance and Synchronous Direst Axis reactance.
 When the measured
+X Impedance falls into
-R +R the operating region,
X’d/2 the relay function will
be picked up and
after a certain Time
Xd Delay to enhance the
security for power
Relay Operating
swing,
Characteristic
-X A trip signal will be
sent to the Generator
Breaker.
Typical impedance loci on loss of Excitation

II X Rated Medium I
Load Load
-R Time = 0 R
X’d/2 Low load

Initially it’s a
Motoring
Action when Trip
Excitation fails
Time Increasing
Xd

Locus of Apparent
Impedance
After motoring action
Machine starts to work
III As Induction Generator IV
-X
• To limit system voltage, the Generators may have to
operate Under Excited and absorb VARS from the
power system.

• It is important that the Generator be able to do so

within its capabilities as defined by the Generator
Capability Curve.

• The Generator Under Excitation Limiter (UEL) must

be set to maintain operation within the capability
curve.

• The Loss Of Field Relay must be set to allow the

Generator to operate within its Under Excited
Capability.
Impedance measurement (Double Element)
• This protection scheme applies Two offset Mho
Impedance circles by using the Generator Terminal
side Voltages and Stator Currents as input signals.

• The Offset-mho relay in the impedance plane has two

circles with a diameter of Direst Axis Transient
Reactance X’d and a Negative offset of X’d /2 for the
Outer Circle.

• And the diameter of ‘1.0’ (pu) and a Negative offset

of X’d /2 for the Inner Circle.

• Zones 1 and 2 are for detecting LOE with full load and
light load. The typical time delays for Zone - 1 & Zone
- 2 are about 0.1 s & 0.5–0.6 s.
 +X
Heavy load Light load
-R 130 +R
Machine operating
X’d/2
Limit in Leading PF

1.0 pu Zone-1

Xd
Steady state
Zone - 2
Stability limit
Machine
capability
Min Exciter
Zone - 2 setting crosses
Limiter
Steady state stability limit
-X
 R-X with Directional Element Scheme
• It’s a combination of Two Impedance elements,
a Directional unit and an Under voltage unit
applied at the Generator Terminals.

• The Zone - 2 element is set to coordinate with

the Steady State Stability Limit. The top of the
Zone - 2 circle (positive offset) is set at the
System Impedance in front of the Generator.

• It will detect reduced or Loss of Excitation

condition, raise an alarm and if the
abnormality persists, Trips the Generator.
 +X Heavy Load
Light Load
XTG+Xmin SG1
-R +R
- Xd/2 Zone-2
Directional
Element

1.1Xd
Zone-1
Impedance locus
During loss of field

Machine capability
Min Exciter Limiter

-X

Two zone Loss of field scheme with Directional unit

Stage – 1 Relay details Stage 2&3 Relay details
+X +X
-R +R -R +R

Z1 X’d/2 Z1 X’d/2

Z2 Z2

Xd Xd

-X -X

Z1 = 2.17 Ω
Z2 = 12.25 Ω
CT Sec = 5A, PT Sec = 110V
Make – ALSTOM, Type = YCGF
Model – YCGF11AF1A
Z1 = 3.0 Ω
Z2 = 14.88 Ω
CT Sec = 5A, PT Sec = 110V
Make : English Electric, Type = YCGF
Model – YCGF11AF1A5
 Typical Relay setting calculations
Information required:-
PT Ratio : 22000 : 110 = 200 : 1
CT Ratio : 20000 : 5 = 4000 : 1
Transient Reactance (X’d) : 0.30 Ω (0.16 to 0.45 Ω)
Synchronous Reactance (Xd) : 2.50 Ω (2.0 to 3.90 Ω)
Generator Rating : 588 MVA
Generator Voltage : 21.0 KV

Calculation:-
T = CT Ratio / PT Ratio : 4000 / 200 = 20
Base Ω (Pri) = KV2/MVA : 21 X 21 / 588 = 0.75 Ω
Base Ω (Sec) = T X Base ohms (Pri) : 20 x 0.75 = 15 Ω
X’d (Sec) = X’d x Base Ω (sec) : 0.30 x 15 = 4.50 Ω.
Desired offset = X’d/2 : 4.50 / 2 = 2.250 Ω.
Xd (Sec) = Xd (pu) x Base Ω (sec) : 2.50 x 15 = 37.50 Ω
Diameter of circle = 37.50 Ω
Offset setting = 2.250 Ω
Stage – 1 Relay details
CT Ratio - 8500 / 5A
PT Ratio - 18.7KV / 110V
Diameter = 12.25 Ω
Offset ZR =2.17 Ω
K1 = 0.91, K2 = 2.5
K3 = 0.5, K4 = 2.0
K5 = 13.4
Timer Setting
Trip = 2 sec - 2A/40G
Reset = 10 sec - 2B/40G
VTIGM setting = 80V
VAA21:- Time delay on reset
= 200 m sec. ( fixed )
Z1 = K3+K4 = K2 Ω
Z2 = K 1 x K 5 Ω
Type - YCGF
Model – YCGF11AF1A
Stage - 2 Relay details
CT Ratio - 20,000 / 5A
PT Ratio - 22KV / 110V
Diameter setting - ZF = 14.88 Ω
Offset setting - ZR= 3 Ω
K1 = 0.8, K2 = 3.0
K3 = 1.0, K4 = 2.0
K5 = 18.6
Timer Setting:
Trip = 2 sec - 2A / 40G
Reset = 2 sec - 2B / 40G
VTIGM setting = 80V
VAA21 = 200 mA
Z1 = K3+K4 = K2 Ω
Z2 = K 1 x K 5 Ω
Type - YCGF
Model – YCGF11AF1A5
 400 KV Bus -I

400 KV Bus -II 400 KV Bus -I

400 KV Bus -II

CORE-5

CORE-4
METERING EM CORE-3 VT1:- 64G2,59G,81G,27G,99GT,64G1,98G,21,40G LBB LBB
CORE-2 87
VT2:- AVR / EHG / SYNC SPARE
CORE-1 HV
400KV TEE PROT1/2
51 VT3:- PERFORMANCE TEST / AVR /EHG / B/B PROTN B/B PROTN
TEE PRT
400KV CVT NGT LOW FRWD /REV POWER RELAYS
B/B PROTN B/B PROTN
CORE-1

CORE-2
DIFF 1/2

87
GT TRANS Y/∆
T
VT3
87 51
GT UT

METERING
87
CORE-8
AVR EHG UT
CORE-7 51
NUT
CORE-6

VT2 VT1 87
GENERATOR G
UAT
∆/Y
CORE-5

CORE-4 EHG
CORE-3 37 37 32 32
TESTING
GA GB GA GB
50 46 98 40 40 21 CORE-2 64
DR
GDM G G GB GA G RUT

CORE-1

100% STATOR E/F (64G1)

& INTER TURN PROTN (95G)

Typical Generator Protection scheme (500MW)

 ANSI/IEEE Standard Device Numbers
1 - Master Element
2 - Time Delay Starting or Closing Relay
3 - Checking or Interlocking Relay
4 - Master Contactor
5 - Stopping Device
6 - Starting Circuit Breaker
7 – Rate of Change Relay
8 - Control Power Disconnecting Device
9 - Reversing Device
10 - Unit Sequence Switch
11 – Multifunction Device
12 – Over speed Device
13 - Synchronous-speed Device
14 – Under speed Device
15 - Speed or Frequency-Matching
Device
16 – Data Communications Device
20 - Elect. operated valve (SV)
21 - Distance Relay
23 - Temperature Control Device
24 – Volts per Hertz Relay
25 – Synchronizing Check Device
26 - Apparatus Thermal Device
27 – Under voltage Relay
30 - Annunciator Relay
32 - Directional Power Relay
36 - Polarizing Voltage Devices
37 - Undercurrent Relay
38 - Bearing Protective Device
39 - Mechanical Conduction
Monitor
40 –Field failure Relay
41 - Field Circuit Breaker
42 - Running Circuit Breaker
43 - Selector Device
46 –Phase- Bal. Current Relay
47 - Phase-Bal. Voltage Relay
48 - Incomplete-Sequence Relay
49 - Transformer Thermal Relay
50 - Instantaneous Over current
51 - AC Time Over current Relay
52 - AC Circuit Breaker
53 – Field Excitation Relay
55 - Power Factor Relay
56 - Field Application Relay
59 – Over voltage Relay
60 - Voltage or Cur. Balance Relay
62 – Time-Delay Stopping / Opening
Relay
63 - Pressure Switch
64 - Ground Detector Relay
65 - Governor
66 – Notching or jogging device
67 - AC Directional OC Relay
68 - Blocking or “out of step” Relay
69 - Permissive Control Device
74 - Alarm Relay
75 - Position Changing Mechanism
76 - DC Over current Relay
78 - Phase-Angle Measuring Relay
79 - AC-Reclosing Relay
81 - Frequency Relay
83 - Automatic Selective Control or
Transfer Relay
84 - Operating Mechanism
85 – Pilot Communications, Carrier
or Pilot Wire Relay
86 - Lockout Relay
87 - Differential Protective Relay
89 - Line Switch
90 - Regulating Device
91 - Voltage Directional Relay
92 - Voltage and Power Directional
Relay
94 - Tripping or Trip-Free Relay
 Induction Generator
• An Induction Generator or Asynchronous Generator is a
type of AC Electrical Generator that uses the principles
of Induction motors to produce power.

• Induction Generators and motors produce electrical power

when their rotor is turned faster than the Synchronous
Speed.

• In Generator operation, a Prime mover (Turbine) drives

the rotor above the synchronous speed. The stator flux still
induces currents in the rotor, but since the opposing rotor
flux is now cutting the stator coils, an active current is
produced in stator coils and the motor now operates as a
Generator, sending power back to the Electrical Grid.
 Synchronous Reactance and Impedance
• The overall reactance of the Armature
winding is the sum of its Leakage
Reactance plus Fictitious Reactance,
which is known as Synchronous Reactance
(Xd).

• The Impedance of armature winding is

obtained by combining its Resistance and
its Synchronous Reactance. It is called
Synchronous Impedance ‘Zs’.
• Synchronous Reactance determines steady-
state current. However, when a sudden change
from steady state occurs, such as short circuit,
other reactance's come into play. This happens
because the flux in the machine cannot change
immediately.
• Sub-Transient Reactance determines maximum
instantaneous current. It lasts up to about 6
cycles.
• Transient Reactance is a longer lasting
reactance determining current up to as much as
5 seconds.
• Zero Sequence Reactance determines neutral
currents in grounding studies. It is also a factor
in determining neutral currents when third
harmonics are encountered.
• Negative Phase Sequence Reactance is used in
calculating line-to-line faults.
• Transient Reactance (X’d):- It is One of the Five
reactance figures frequently used by engineers
when comparing Generator capability with
load requirement, or when comparing one
Generator with another.
 Total Short Circuit Current
a) Sub transient Reactance = X’’d
b) Transient Reactance = X’d
c) Synchronous Reactance = Xd
RELAY NUMBERS AND THEIR UNIVERSAL NOMENCLATURE
21 G GENERATOR BACK UP IMPEDANCE PROTECTION
40 G A / B FIELD FAILURE PROTECTION
46 G NEGATIVE SEQUENCE PROTECTION
DR DIGITAL FAULT & DISTRUBENCE RECORDER
98 G POLE SLIPPING PROTECTION
37 GA / GB - 32GA / GB LOW FORWARD / REVERSE POWER RELAYS
87 G GENERATOR DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
87 GT OVER ALL DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
87 T GENERATOR TRANSFORMER DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
87 UT UNIT AUXILLIARY TRANSFORMER DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
64 RUT UNIT AUXILLIARY TRANSFORMER RISTRICTED EF PROTECTION
51 NUT UNIT AUXILLIARY TRANSFORMER EARTH FAULT PROTECTION
51 UT UNIT AUXILLIARY TRANSFORMER OVER CURRENT PROTECTION
50 Z BREAKER FAILURE PROTECTION
87 HV TRANSFORMER HV WINDING + OVER HANGE DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
51 NGT GENERATOR TRANSFORMER BACK UP EARTH FAULT PROTECTION
99 GT GENERATOR TRANSFORMER OVER FLUXING PROTECTION
64 G2 95% STATOR EARTH FAULT PROTECTION
81 G UNDER FREQUENCY PROTECTION
51 G OVER VOLTAGE PROTECTION
27 G UNDER VOLTAGE PROTECTION
 Excitation
• Synchronous machine maintains constant flux.
When DC field current gets reduced (under
excited), to strengthen main field, it absorb
reactive power (draw current from AC supply
mains).

• In reverse, when DC field current gets increased

(over excited), to weaken main field, it deliver
reactive power to the bus bar.

• All these are controlled by magnetizing and

demagnetizing effect of Armature Reaction
• Generator Active Power output equation:
Eq Us
Pe = ----------- Sin δ
Xs
Where
‘Pe’ = Active Power output to the system.
‘Eq’ = Gen int. vol. behind the d-axis Synch Reactance.
‘Us’ = Equivalent System Voltage.
‘Xs’ = Direct axis Synch Reactance.
‘δ’ = Angle between Eq and Us.

Pe α Eq, Us Sin δ.
• As the Generator internal
Voltage Eq is a function
of Field Voltage, the
Generator Active Power
output is a function of
Field Voltage as well.

• When the generator

operates at δ=90◦, any
increase of Mechanical
Power or decrease of
Electrical Power will lead
to Generator Loss of
Synchronism. Generator Active Power
Vs Load Angle