Semantics

Semantics: it is a word taken from two different languages: the French

and Latin languages. (Sema) refers to either Sign or signal, (semantics)
(Semantikos) as far Semantics in Arabic, it means a science of meaning or the
study meaning. It's impossible for you to use meaning as plural because meanings
or science of mornings belongs to rhetorical components:
( science of meanings ‫علم المعاني‬, Trope ‫ علم البديع‬,Eloquent science ‫)علم البيان‬
Semantics has associated with three important Arabic linguists: AL-
Khalil Bin Ahmed Al farahidi, Ibin Jenni (Othman Al mousilli) and (Abdulqahir al
jurjany .The Arab linguists have agreed unanimously that Ibn Jenni found
semantics in Arabic first where no one before him did the same. Most of theories
and thoughts were based on Ibn Jenni theories.
It is important to mention only four linguists in English who try to
investigate (Semantics) first. Max Muller (1862) who published two important
books about semantics, (science of language) was the first book and the second
book was the science of thoughts) .These two books were the first attempt to
introduce something important in semantics, this happened in France between
(1862-1887). (Max Muller) tried to divide languages on the basis differences and
similarities, concerning the form of words according to sound and constructions
(structure of word) .
(Michel Breal) he was very interested in studying Semantics. He was the first one
in all over the world who wrote a short piece of writing on (semantic) in (1897). In
(1900) Semantics was used for the first time in a wide way and in an official way.
Semantics become an acceptable (term) in English and others difference languages.
We must mention (Adolf Noreen) (1854-1925) issued a published a book which
was in title (Our language). He dedicated a part of this book to study the meaning
using (semiology) his views were strong basic for so many theories which
developed by (Europeans and Americans). He tried to divide the studies and study
of meaning into two parts; descriptive and anthropological studies which deal with
historical development.
(Ogden and Richard) were the most important linguists at the beginning of 20th
century. They published co-research which was in title (The meaning of meaning)
in (1953). They also produced 16 different meanings. It is also important for us to
mention Bloomfield and he did a lot contributions to semantics and he was a
modern (American linguist).
 Differences in Semantics between Arabic and English
1- Sound an image in mind in Arabic .
2- Word and it's reference in English.
3- The Arab linguist could restricted the study of Semantics only
(Logicians linguists ‫ )علماء المنطق‬and (Origin scientists ‫)علماء االصل‬.
4- English could have a general way to investigate in Semantics,
philosophers were the first to study Semantics. We have to mention
stylists ‫ علماء االسلوب‬, Sociologist ‫ علماء االجتماع‬,linguists, Neurologists
،‫ االعصاب‬،‫علماء االحساس‬
‫ العقل‬people who are interested in studying Semantics (Art and literature)
and (Psychologists).
5- Ibn Jenni was the founder of Semantics in (1150).
6- Michel Breal he did his contribution in )1897(.

Types of Meaning
A large number of Semanticists, Pragmatics, and different schools of
linguistics differ on how to divide meaning because multiple- factors can
affect the nature of it .Other disciplines such as Psychology, Psycholinguistics
, Sociology, Sociolinguistics, neurology, philosophy, Logic, Mathematics,
Anthropology and Philology can add something different to the types of
meaning besides the way in which meaning is defined. Semanticists did all
their best, and consequently found more than fifty types of meaning. It is
significant to mention them in a very succinct ‫ بليغة‬way.
Word meaning , Lexical meaning, Sentence meaning, Utterance meaning, Speaker
meaning, Structural meaning, Grammatical meaning, Phonetic meaning, Phonological
meaning, Semantic meaning, Textual meaning, Expression meaning, Explicit meaning,
Implicit meaning, Descriptive meaning', Situational meaning , Literal meaning, Non-
literal meaning, Referential meaning, Denotational meaning, Communicative meaning,
Social meaning, Connotation meaning, Affective meaning, Allusive meaning,
Associative meaning, Attitude meaning, Collocational Meaning, Expressive meaning,
Emotive meaning, Reflected meaning, Contextual Meaning, Straightforward Meaning,
Ironical Meaning, Inferential Meaning, Logical meaning, Interpersonal Meaning,
Experiential meaning, Background Meaning, Formal Meaning, Basic meaning, Thematic
meaning, Organizational Meaning, Performative meaning, Cultural meaning, Intended
meaning, Interpreted meaning, Stylistic meaning, and Conceptual meaning.
Definition of Meaning
Meaning In Arabic
Jamal Adin (1980:58) asserts that meaning can be associated with the
abstract and tangible ideas ‫ افكار ملموسة‬which are transported from the mind of
the speaker to the mind of the listener by means of sounds. In other words; the
idea that lies in the mind of the speaker can have reflection in the mind of the
listener out of words.
Salient types of Meaning in Arabic
There is a large number of different meanings in Arabic. But it is very
important to mention only four types that take priority over other types
because there are of great importance to both researchers and readers. These
meanings can be mentioned based on very few words and they are as follows :
psychological meaning, Social meaning, Literal meaning, and lexical
meaning.
(1) Psychological meaning: it is considered to be subjective, autonomous
and distinguished meaning because it is private and different from one
individual to another.
This meaning get very explicit in the normal talks between individuals,
especially writers and other groups of people. It is thus easy for others to
consider this type of meaning in terms of their writings ( Ateya (1975:17)
(2) Social Meaning Anees (1965; 178), maintains that both Social and
Stylistic meaning in Arabic and English can have compatible views, both
happen under social circumstances. Geographical area and different places
can have big impact on this type of meaning, i.e, people who belong to
different places can have different views about the Social meaning since
people deal with meaning everyday speech.
(3) Literal Meaning
Al-khuli( 1961;92 ), argues that the aim of using words literally is to
attract the attention of other listeners to think more so as to understand the
true meaning . Literal meaning is concerned with different words that are not
used very often in a daily speech. It is widely used in Arabic rather than other
languages.
(4) Lexical Meaning
Ibrahim (1958,62), ascertains that lexical meaning refers to the meaning
of a word in the lexicon. The lexical meaning can cause some of expressions
to have ambiguity since some words are difficult for listeners to understand
their meaning.
Meaning in English
Ogden and Richards (1972:56), remark that meaning is related strongly
to the ideas of speaker and listeners. The Speaker is an important element to
convey the meaning
Paramount ‫ االساسي‬Meaning in English
The English Semanticists have divided meaning into fifty types as they
were mentioned in the first title, we can't go into details now because it would
take too long. So five different meanings that are most important or that you
must do before anything else will be studied in a very few words.
1. Structural Meaning
Trager (1949:182), considers structural meaning as all the relations between
the components of a sentence with regard to words that constitute the
sentence, the difference between sentences, mood and sense, etc.
2. Additional Meaning
Malmberg (1964: (35), maintains that additional meaning can have special
features other than the ‫ بقية‬rest of meanings whereas organic, psychological
and social characteristics can add something different to this kind of meaning
"Gossip" is considered as a character which is related to the mind of people
and refers to a female rather than male.
3. Stylistic Meaning
leech (1969:17), stresses that stylistic meaning refers to the highly eloquence
of language so as to show the types of language which are used in writing a
given passage of language. The passage has to have an effective role in this
type of meaning.
4. Cognitive Meaning
Leech (197): 28), affirms that conceptual and cognitive are treated alike. They
are concerned with the basic components of word that would be a part of
meaning like "needle" which might include thin, sharp and steel
5. Semantic Meaning
Tharp (1977: 114), States that Semantic meaning is related strongly to the
study of how meaning is expressed out of signs and language. This meaning
includes how words, phrases and people mean and refer throughout in
intention and assumptions , punctuation, facial expressions, tone effects can
have a strong connection with this type of meaning.
Table(1) : Differences in Meanings between Arabic and English
language Types of language
Arabic Literal Lexical Social Semantics Syntactic

English Cognitive Structural Stylistic Lexical Grammatical

Source : Bisher (1963:124) and Leech (1974:96).

Research
Is to see what everybody else has seen and to think what nobody else
has thought. There is more to you than the eye see.
Ex :He is on the make.(Psychology of English language) Idiom
Arabic and English can have two contrastive properties or
(characteristics) or (trait) feature. Prolixity ‫ االسهاب‬and bluntness ‫االيجاز‬
Prolixity means using too much words that you really don't need them, as
far bluntness, it means saying exactly what you think in a not polite way.
 These two different languages are closely related to nature and
psychology of language. There are unlimited cases and situations that are
impossible for the speaker to understand easily and that's because of nature
and psychology. The Speaker nerves all beginner must deal with these cases
as they are .Some time the first and the second property nature (prolixity and
bluntness) are used interchangeably .that's why it's impossible for you to see
that the English people did explain ,define and divide meaning into 50 terms
or names or kinds) depending on prolixity and this is unknown thing in
English .thus, English has become a first language which is being used in all
over the world. Then that's because of bluntness. It could unable English to be
a peripheral language whereas so many people can learn it easily unlike other
different languages Arabic, Chinese and other languages
1-Social Meaning
Is related to any grammatical forms or linguistics expression that are
govern by social rules there are many example to clarify social meaning like;
greetings, good-bye, see off courtesy (euphemism), apologizing. Any case,
situation , habits that are connected with the social issues are certainly
concerned with the social meaning.
2-Conceptual meaning
It is called cognitive meaning and logical meaning and it is regarded to
be as central factor in linguistic communication. It's organized in terms of
contras dire features. It is important to have two examples; the words woman
and needle the components of the two words would be parts of conceptual
meaning. woman - male, adult, human needle: Sharp, pain, steel, thin.

3-Affective meaning
It's a connotational meaning and it deals with personal feelings, first
and to focus on a specific topic on subject that the speaker is going to clarify
it. It's also the meaning that it tries to convey emotional expressions much
more than concentrating on other message.
4-Reflective meaning
It's a type of connotative meaning. It's organized depending on
polysemic nature of many words. Therefore, it is difficult for the learner to
understand this meaning for the first time because there are many words
which are difficult to be understood because of their meaning take for
example the following phrase
look out! Fine police ‫شرطة الغرامات‬
ponder over Reflect mediate ‫يتأمل‬
5-Connotational connotative meaning:
It is one type of meaning, it is possible for you to conceive this meaning
which related to a linguist expression as well as its literal meaning . It is
possible to see connotational meaning throughout overtones, literal meaning,
and nuance. It is concerned with a connotation of a word or utterance like the
connotations of the word “summer” which refers to(( long nights, short days,
bad mood, and some picnics on the beach)).
6-Thematic meaning:
It is a type of meaning and is called thematic because the speaker can show
the theme of the utterances. Thematic meaning is related to practical
contextual presupposition. The speaker also can refer to this meaning based
on ordering, focus, and emphasis.
We have the same proposition in this meaning with a set of sentences and
different thematic meaning as in the following sentences:
-Sami has not written this poem.
-This poem Sami has not written.
-It is this poem that Sami has not written.
-This poem has not written by Sami.
-They are different in thematic (structure) meaning. They have the same
proposition. They also have truth values. They have the same conceptual idea.
Truth value:
It is a term and the purpose of it is to make a whole judgment to prove that
this sentence is completely(TRUE).
Presupposition:
This term was not fixed the a lot of studies have been conducted by different
linguists. Freges was the first person who figures this term officially.
You can see a big miss up between Arabic and English because of the huge
difference between the two different languages. The Arabic native speakers
do understand the meaning of presupposition as the presupposition in English
(i.e he (Arabic speaker) imagines that he can deal with the same term alike or
in a similar way).
The meaning of presupposition in English refers to something but the same
terms in Arabic refers to something else.
Presupposition means inference or piece of information may be related to
syntactic and grammatical aspect as well preferences of words and utterances.
Presupposition is related strongly with the following points.
1 - When you use presupposition, you must focus on names and description of
other of components in the sentence.
2 - Presupposition must be associated with the truth values.
3 - The presupposition of a sentence is a presupposition of its negation.
4 - Presupposition depends on logical analyses.

The following examples is illustrative:

1- Mustafa won the race. 2- Did Mustafa win the race? 3- Mustafa did
not win the race.
Truth values:
It is a term used in semantics and logical semantics, it deals with the status of
a sentence to see if this sentence is true or false.
Truth values may include the criteria that enable language user to have a
complete judgment whether the sentence is true or false. It is also used by
logicians to explain something important like they used the numbers one and
zero in order to represent values.
Truth conditions:
It is a term used clearly in both semantic issues and logical matters, it refers to
the condition that a sentence must be true.
The following example can be expressive, “snow is white" if and only if snow
is white ((because there is a differences in colors)
“Ali is honest” if and only if Ali is honest.

linguistic approaches has focused on meaning of word long time ago

since a word is considered to be basic unit for both syntax and semantics ,
consequently, a large number of theories have come into existence. We are
not going to refer to all but it is important to choose some of them which are
of great importance to the study of word meaning. The difference in meaning
and its definition was as a result of differences in an approaches beside
different trends as regards philosophy , morals, psychology logic and literary
aspects. The difference in views was clear since each specialist wants what to
define (meaning) is to meet needs and requirements of his school field. So, it
is significant to select the uppermost theories as follows:
1. Referential theory - Denotational theory
Ogden and Richards, who were the first to develop this theory and they
explained it based on the following triangle:
 This triangle expresses three different elements of meaning. it says
there is no immediate relationship between word as a symbol and referent
thing. Word can have two parts: a form is connected with its symbol , function
and content is related to thought or reference .
Note: This theory has developed by Ogden and Richards depending on their
celebrated book entitled "The Meaning of Meaning" .
Criticism
A large number of linguists took an exception against his theory by
proposing contradicted views as follows:
1. This theory has explained linguistic phenomenon out of language
framework.
2. This theory was established based on studying the external beings
(objects),e,i ( referent thing), neglecting what surrounds the speaker since he
is responsible for important aspects of meaning.
3- a lot of words like No, to, but, and or do not refer to an existing thing.
These words cannot be tangible and the theory could build its foundation
depending on tangible things.
4. The meaning of a thing is not the thing itself, i-e. it does not mean the thing
itself, e.g. The meaning of an apple is not the meaning of an apple itself since
an apple is eaten but Her meaning is not eaten .

2. Ideational theory - Image theory - Mentalistic theory

John Locke was the first English philosopher who found something new
about this theory where nobody knew or had found before. The concept of the
theory is connected to words which must have a strong relation with
"thoughts". This theory points out that language is regarded as a means of
conveying ideas, i. e. Language can make ideas, thoughts, feelings, etc.,
known to others (people). This theory emphasized the importance of
expressions meanings more than word meaning. Ideas and thought which are
in our mind can have independent existence and also have independent
functions of language, if someone is satisfied in his ideas and wanted to keep
them for himself, here there is no need for language. This theory requires each
linguistic expression to have an idea which must be present in the mind of a
speaker. The speaker and listener share the idea or the expression. Any
expression means idea and the listener must have the same idea in his mind.
The speaker must share the idea with the listener. Ideas and expressions must
be treated alike. In general, this theory focused on ideas, imaginations which
are present in the mind of both speakers and listeners. Indeed, Meaning of
word or expression refers to idea (thought), mental image, or the relationship
between symbol and idea. The followers of this theory ascertain that ideas
must be connected with imagination, therefore, if someone says "chair", both
the speaker and listener can have a certain imagination of the chair. opponents
of this they confirm that ideas and thoughts are regarded as a special property
for the speaker and this was said by followers of this theory. The question
raises itself how can the speaker transport the meaning to the listener. A lot of
words are not accepted to be imagined like some tools and abstract words.
These words do not have mental imagination in the mind of both speaker and
listener and the theory depended completely on ideas and imaginations. Thus,
it is impossible to think too much of these words and they contradict the
principle of the theory. Disapproval of this theory was a strong foundation for
most modern curricula which appeared during this century since these modern
approaches took another trend to make "Meaning" more objective and more
acceptable.
3. Behavioral theory
Bloomfield was the owner of this theory and he put the whole emphasis on
language as a major tool for communication. The theory also has paid attention to
things which are observed openly. Consequently, it contradicts the image theory
which concentrates on idea or imagination. This theory could help to appear
different trends in Semantics, Psychology, Linguistics and Philosophy . Nowadays
the theory has become much more accepted than before. Behavioral theory can has
found based on the following beliefs:
1- The theory does not accept to believe in mental terms such as mind, idea and
imagination. The theory refuses to accept "introspection" as a means to get a
valuable matter in psychology. The latter must concentrate on noticeable things
immediately. Psychology must take care of apparent manner (behaviour) far away
from inside operations Chidden things in imaginations. This can be applied to
language to focus on events and actions which can be noticed and recorded easily.
2- The theory has paid a great attention to the role of language and Teaming to
acquire behavioral patterns.
3- The theory suggests that everything in the world can be governed by the rules of
nature.
4- It is possible to describe behaviour response as stimuli which is produced by
environment.
5- Indeed, this theory has gained a big promotion since Bloomfield was one of the
best figure who took part in developing the scientific study of language in the first
half of this century. He was much more interested in investigation of behavioral
doctrine and linguistics.
6- Bloomfield gave a good example to explain speech event; while Jack and Jeil were
walking in the way (road), they saw an apple falling on the ground. Jeil asks Jack
to bring it for her since she was hungry. Jack went quickly and he brought an apple
for her. This example expresses responses and stimuli and Bloomfield tried to
relate them to language especially the matter of meaning. Therefore, stimulation!
and response are both very important to reach meaning concept in an easy way,
Bloomfield's approach was accepted as an attempt at clarifying the concept of
meaning and there is a lot of merit in this approach

Criticism
1. Not all situations require response and stimulation to reach the intended
meaning e.g. "Your son is patient" (ill) as a sentence will be produce a sort
of inclination with the listener to go quickly to his son where is he. As for
a large number of sentences, there is no inclination like this in the example
above.
2. This theory was a theory of inclination which failed to find a certain
inclination is related to most words in our linguistic daily behaviour.
3. Responses and stimuli may have a lot of interpretations and analyses that
do not apply for a lot of situations.
4. Contextual theory
This theory was called contextual Approach or operational Approach
Firth was the pioneer of this trend where he put a big emphasis on the social
function of language. This theory includes well known linguists like Sindair,
Mitchell, Intosh, and Halliaday and Lyons. The latter was the best brain in
that time when the did all his best to develop Firth's context theory. Meaning
of word in the sights of this theory is how to use word in language, the way in
which it is used, and the role the word can play in showing intended meaning.
Thus, Firths maintains that meaning is not uncovered Unless putting word in
different contexts. The owners of this theory say that most Semantic units fall
in the neighbour of other units. Meaning of these units are impossible to be
clear unless observing the other units which come as a neighbour or near to
them. The important aspect in meaning is to see the word and how to relate it
to other words. So, the way which enables us to understand word meaning is
to observe a referent thing first and how to describe and define it. Therefore,
the study of words meanings requires contexts and situations to be analysed in
which words are used and consequently linguists proposed four types of
contexts: linguistic Context, Emotional context, Situation context and Cultural
context. As for linguistic context, the word "good" in English which is the
same as "Zain" and "hasin" in Arabic. This word used in different contexts as
in the following meanings:

• He is a good man. (this is moral aspect).

• She is a good doctors (it means good at performing)
• The flour is good (good refers to purity).
The same word is used in different contexts. So, its meaning is different from a
context to another with regard to emotional text, indeed it determines the degree of
power and weakness in excitement. The word "love" in English is different from
that of "like" in spite of their participating in the meaning origin and it is "love".
The word (‫ )يكره‬and (‫ )يبغض‬in Arabic are different from each other; yet they meet
the meaning origin, i.e. the word "‫ "يكره‬shares the meaning origin with the word
"‫"يبغض‬. Emotional context requires cultural or social environment to be limited in
which word is used to reach the intended meaning. As for " looking glass" is
regarded as a sign for supreme social class comparing with "mirror", the same thing
happens with the word "rich" compared to the word "wealthy. The two words
"‫"عقيلته‬, and "‫ "زوجته‬in Arabic , the first one refers to the distinguished social class
while the second concerns ordinary language. Another word with Arabic is "Jathir
"‫"جذر‬, " which means something with the farmer and it can have another meaning
with the linguist. The same word, may mean a third meaning, concerns mathematic
scientist. Situation context is concerned with the external situation in which word is
used; the best word as a good example is to see the word "‫ "يرحم‬which is used in
two situations"‫ "يرحمك للا‬is used when someone tries to sneeze while"‫ "للا يرحمه‬is
used defiantly which means to ask God for mercy in life and afterlife.
(5) General Considerations
leech (1974:71) says that Firth was impressed by B. Malino was who
belongs to anthropological school. B. Malinowski affirms that language played an
important role in primitive societies and he deals with language as a form of
motion not as a means of reflection, language in its development and meaning were
strong foundations for his thought school. Not only anthropology confirms
contextual trend, but philosophy has come to confirm the same trend. Wittgenstein
was the another philosopher who mentioned in this book entitled " Philosophical
Investigation" that he agreed with Firth's theory and he thinks that all opinions
about context trend are right, especially the meaning of word is how to use in
language. Either other trends or linguists were unanimous in their decision about
the authenticity of context theory.

Characteristics of Contextual Approach

It is important to mention there points as advantages of this trend as
follows:
1- Contextual approach can make meaning easy to be analysed objectively
2- This trend makes us away from internal mental cases which are still a
puzzle, i.e. something that is difficult to understand or explain. It also
deals with words as actions and events which accept to be objective
when understanding the intended meanings.
3- Context theory and its analyses were conducted within the framework of
language. Therefore, this theory was much more away than referential,
image and behavioral theories.
4- Contextual approach focused on relations to be studied within
dimensions of language. One who researches on a linguistic
phenomenon without language frame like the one who looks for a place
to get out from a room which has not doors and windows and
consequently context approach was better than other theories to be
dominated nowadays.
 Criticism
Man cannot make something perfect because nobody is perfect. Though this
theory offered excellent and realistic ideas but it is impossible to be correct
without faults. So, the theory was criticized for some points as follows:
1. Firth did not propose a comprehensive theory for a linguistic structure,
but the only offered views in semantic theory since meaning must be
compared of context relations, phonetics, syntax and semantics.
2. Firth was very specific in talking only about context of situation
overlooking other types of context.
3. He exaggerated to give more of context idea than is needed or usual and
he was very excessive to concentrate on context to explain the intended
meaning.
4. If context is unable to help one who wants to know the meaning of a
word throughout contexts in which word is used there will be a problem
which can add something difficult to context theory.
5. Context theory faced a lot of difficulties to reach the meaning of words
in "idiomatic expressions" and "phrasal verbs".
Lexical Relations
The English word in general aren't treated as abstracts units, but they are
treated depending on the relationships of world. If you are asked about the
meaning of "liberty" your answer can be, it's the same as "freedom". If you are
going to look for the meaning of "quick", the answer is the opposite of "slow".
We have another example like "lilac" which means a type of "flower"
therefore, we describe meaning of the word not based on its component
features, but we can describe the meaning itself in terms of its relation with
the other words. This procedure is used accurately in semantic description of
language. This procedure is also used in an important analysis of lexical
relations.
(polysemy &homophone)
polysemy: It is a word taken from Greek and it consists of two parts, (poly
and semy) which means one word and it can have special treats. Polysemy
refers to one word which can have the same pronunciation, the same spelling
with different meaning. it's possible for you to see a large number of words in
English. Polysemy is also seen in the Arabic language, but the word itself
(polysemy) is different in both English and Arabic, polysemy is called in
Arabic (‫)المشترك اللفظي‬, so this is the first difference in giving a name. let us
have two words in English as a good example case, fine whereas (case and
line) the two words can have different meanings the first one can have three
different meaning: Judicial Complain, Cane and condition. As far the second
word, it can have more than five different meanings: good, brilliant,
interesting payment for breaking the law, and delicate.
We have two words in Arabic as example of polysemy, the first one is
)‫ )التابوت‬and (‫)الماعون‬. The two words are taken from the Glorious Qur'an
because words which can have more than two different meanings have a
roused a big excitement among the Arab commentators to interpret the verses
of Glorious Qur'an, the first word may have three different meanings: the first
one means (a box) a (wooden box) which is used to keep the body of death
man safe, the second mean is concerned with the pictures of angels, the third
meaning suggest something that are strong related to terror and death.
(Don't bother me, I said something to put an ease. ‫)عنصر التشويق‬
with regard to the second word (‫(الماعون‬, it can have more than two different
meanings: it's not a dish as other people imagine or think of it, but the
intended meaning or real meaning is referred to people who believe in "God"
" Allah" to pay amount of money or food to poor people (‫الزكاة‬, ). Some
commentators suggest that (‫ )الماعون‬refers to the rude treatment against
the poor people when they ask for food or money. This is just to make
you aware that there is a huge difference between Arabic and English.
(Homophones) is regarded as one type of lexical relation, it is one world with
the same spelling, as it is same pronunciation and it can have meaning.
Minute(time)
Minute 1. miss up ‫مشكلة‬
2. This is a type of meal :meat, soup and vegetable

Homophony and Homography

Homophony: refers to two or more words that are pronounced in the same
way, but they are spelt differently. they can have different meaning.

Homography: means to or more words that are spelt a like they are
pronounced differently, but they have unrelated meanings. like
Minute: time Minute: meal , vegetables
Lead :cord is used to lead a dog. Lead : metal
Tear: eye drop Tear :destroyed
bear an animal bear to carry something
what is known by a writer might not be known by others everybody is
different in anything.
 The difference between Semantics and Semiotics

Morris (1964: 32), maintains that the term "Semiology' is not of English origin
but it has come from Greek origin, namely; from the Greek word Semeion" which means
a "sign". Most linguists theories suggest that language is considered to be a science and
phenomenon at the same time since both language phenomenon have problems and it is
possible to deal and resolve them precisely in terms of logical preludes and conclusions
and consequently. Semiology can be studied as a science and phenomenon
simultaneously.

Note: Semiology , Semiotics and signifies are seen the same. George (1964: 107),
illustrates that though Semantics plays a very important role in language besides it her
connections with logic and philosophy, signifies can include lots of linguistics branches
and actually linguistics is treated as less important than Semiology. The role of
Semiology may become very explicit throughout language. Semantics and Semiotics
overlap to some extent, there are essential differences between them · Semiotics is much
more comprehensive than Semantics in that it concludes a lot of linguistic branches.
Moreover, it deals with multiple area,

Black (1947:260), points out that Semiotics is expressed for the scientific study of
linguistics and non-linguistic symbols. Semiotics is regarded as a science and
phenomenon. Semiotics can have very strong connection with following concepts:
philosophy , psychology, linguistics, Semantics, Syntax, stylistics, biological, and
sociological issues. Sign means precise description for all things. it includes words and
sentences, linguistic and non-linguistic Symbol, rituals, conventions, and customs.
Semiotics may include sign, concept, sound and image.

Morris (1938:87), ascertains that the range of pragmatics depends on Semiotics

in some way or other . A descriptive way of pragmatics has treated the basic aspects
of semiology. it also handled psychology, biological issues, and sociological aspects
which affect sign functions.

Annajar (2010: 20), confirms that rhetoric is one of the most important
fundamental of Pragmatics.

Maris (1938:6), says that semiotics is the basic brick of Pragmatic fundamentals.
Therefore, Semiotics may be in the opposite side of rhetoric in Arabic. So, Pragmatics in
English is equivalent to rhetoric in Arabic
 Psychology of language

understanding surface and unintelligible word

of language deep meanings problems of reference

of word language

The meaning of Psychology of language

Source : Nairne( 1977:92)

Differences between Linguistics and non- linguistic phenomenon

Linguistics Science Uprooted in Logician Deserving to be

phenomenon language preludes and researched
results
Non-linguistic Natural and Accidental Difficult to be Sometimes it
phenomenon unusual issues analysed deserves to be
things researched and
sometimes no
Source : Morris (1946:22)

Pei ( 1966: 79), views that the property which makes Semiology distinguishable from
other systems might not appear clearly but in terms of language. In spite of all that,
verily, the importance of semiology remains unclear with people It is no doubt that the
matter of language itself is to refer to the matter of Semiology, if one wants to recognize
the real nature of language, he will have to understand its connections with other systems
of Semiology.

Morris (1946:52), mentions that Semiology is regarded as an independent science and it

is called Semiotics since it is related to signs and symbols. So a sign is the connection
which relates opinion or concept to sound image not referring to the relation between a
thing and its nature. The physical aspect of sound not refer to a sound image, but
indicates psychological image of sound, e.e. a psychological image of sound can have
certain effect on senses. Therefore, the linguistic sign can have psychological entity
which refers to two aspects; concept and sound image which are illustrative as in the
following figure:
 Linguistics Sign

Concept Sound image

Figure(1) : Linguistics sign as a psychological entity

Source: Morris (1946:52)

Differences between Sign and symbol in English

Sign Concept Arbitrary nature Real changeable Concept and Sound

symbol signifier No arbitrary not Real symbol not audio-visual
changeable changeable
Source : pei (1966:82)

There are three terms in Semiology : Sign which means a whole opinion or
concept, signified may be concerned with a concept ,while signifier is meant by Sound-
image. Through Symbol and sign are used in the same way ; there are two traits that
make symbol and sign different from each other. The first one is the arbitrary relation
between signifier and signified. This means that linguistic sign includes arbitrariness.
Using symbol doesn’t meet with arbitrariness.

Preliminary notes in Semiotics

Semiotics is a Science and regarded as a scientific study of linguistic symbols and
non-linguistic symbols which are considered to be tool of communication. Ferdinand de
Saussure suggests that Semiology , Semiotics and signifies are treated in the same way.
Semiotics is a science whose job is to study symbols in a general way and linguistics is
one of its branch. Sign and symbol are likely to be similar in spite of some differences .
These signs or symbols may be signs in the road or signals which are used as signs
conducted by the hand or nodding of the head. They may be words and sentences.
Semiotics deal with the following aspects : (1) Semiotics is used signs and symbols are
used as tool of communication in language, (2) focusing on the relation between a
symbol and what the symbol refers to and (3) Semiotics emphasizes the symbol to study
it based on the symbol relations with each other. Thus, Semiotics includes a lot of
branches of linguistics, especially semantics, syntax and style. Semiology is more
comprehensive than semantics since the latter (semantics) consists of and takes of only
linguistic symbols. As for Semiotics, indeed, it deals with signs and symbols whether
they are linguistic or non-linguistic.
 Differences between Semiotics and Semantics

Semiotics Adolf Noreen Dealing with Linguistics and a Much more A scientific
1925 linguistics and lot of language comprehensive study of
non- belong to than semantics linguistic
linguistics semiotics and non-
symbol linguistic
symbol
Semantics Michel Breal Dealing with A branch of Less The study
1897 only linguistic comprehensive of meaning
linguistics psycholinguistics
symbol
Source : George (1964:74 ) and Bathes (1976:15)

Differences between Semantics and pragmatics

Pragmatics means the study of intended meaning that is conducted by a speaker or writer.
You normally try to understand not only what the words, but what the writer or speaker
of those words intended to convey. (Yule, 1996:127).

Table(1): Differences between Semantics and pragmatics in English

Semantics Interprete Meaning of Meaning of Dyadic Abstract

d meaning what is said purely relation meaning
openly linguistic reference and regardless of a
knowledge meaning speaker
listener and
situation
Pragmatics Eloquent How to Is purely Triadic The study of
meaning communicate linguistic relation meaning out of
imply, mean it knowledge speaker context
is openly, aims situation, and
and purpose hearer
Note: The first hints in Semiotics were conducted first by Adolf Noreen in (1925), But

the first person who found Semiotics officially was C.W. Morris.

Before (1957), there is no preliminary practical applications for Semiotics.

Semantics Meaning is Ordinary No It is Semantics
truth condition; meaning hypotheses described can have
the conditions and out of some facts
under which a Implicature discrete and and there is
sentence is true Bluntness determine no debate or
categories challenge
Pragmatics Non- truth Power and Hypotheses Continuous Full of
condition influence and and variables,
felicity the Implicature determinate interpretation
success of Prolixity value debates and
speech act challenge
Note : C.W. Morris is the first person who found the concept of pragmatics in (1938)
throughout Semiotics science.

The beginning of Semantics was the article entitled "Semantics" which published
by Michel Breal in (1897).

Morris (1946.132) states that Semiotics includes, sign, concept, sound and image.
Morris interpreted Semantics, syntax and pragmatics in the light of Semiotics theory as
follows:

Semantics it is expressed for the relationship between signs and things.

Syntax The study of signs in relation to each other.

Pragmatics Signs and their relation with their interpretations.

This is the truth of pragmatics according to Semiotics which was found newly by

C. W. Morris and Pragmatics was a product of Semiotics.

Rhetoric in Arabic is equivalent to the English Pragmatic

Rhetoric Science of meaning properties of speech structure

Science of eloquence using one meaning in different ways.

Science of Trope Devices of ornament and decoration in speech analysis

Source : Alfahre (1968:144) and Morris (1971:43)

Differences between Semantics and discourse analysis

preliminary notes in discourse analysis

The concept of "discourse analysis" can be quite easy to understand since the
main idea of discourse analysis was found newly by four scholars; each one goes together
well with somebody else. This idea appeared first by the French Scholar Michael
Foucault in (1970). This scholar was born in (1929) and died (1984). He was famous for
the well-known approach

D.H.A (Discourse historical analysis ). The other scholars are : Norman fair clough who
is the owner of Argumentative approach ; Van Dijk who founded cognitive approach;
and the last one is Ruth Wodak who found the qualitative approach.

Definition of Discourse analysis

It is significant to define (D.A) in a simple way is that (D-A) is make sense of what we
read in texts, understanding what speakers mean despite what they say;
recognize connected as oppose to jumbled or incoherent discourse.

Semantics in English It is concerned with the study of meaning and it is regarded as a

branch of linguistics which tackles the theory of meaning. Semantics is expressed for that
branch which studies available conditions in symbol so that a symbol can have a clear
meaning. i

Semantics in Arabic
it means a science of meaning and it is important for Arabic users to deal with this
term as a single, because if they use it as a plural, this can lead them to one of Rhetoric
branches as science of meanings is considered to be one of division of rhetoric.
 Difference between Semantics and D.A.
Semantics Michel Dealing with Characteristics Truth
Breal(1897). spoken and of language, conditions
An old idea written reference and
language meaning
Psychology, Meaning of
art and word
literature
Linguistics, Meaning of text
anthropology Philosophy,
logic
Four theories Much more It focus on It is of French
to study comprehensive word meaning origin
meaning than D.A first and
sentences

Discourse Analysis Michael Meaning of text Cohesion, Non- truth

Foucault. coherence conditions
Contemporary
idea (1970) Frame and
structure
Van Dijk, T.A
Linguists and
critics
Norman Fair
clough
Ruth Wodak
Four Less Everything It is of Latin
approaches to comprehensive beyond origin
study meaning sentence
References

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• Ateya, N. (1975), linguistic psychology, Cairo : Egyptian Books Centre.
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Reference
• Morris,e.w. (1938) Foundation of the theory of the sign. Chicago: University of
Chicago.
• _____________(1946):sign, Language behavior, Englewood cliffs: prentice Hall.
• _____________(1971) : Writing on the general theory of sign, Hague: Mouton.