AN INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICSCopyright : by the Publisher All rights are reserved . No part of this book may be translated, reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying recording, without the prior written permission of the publisher . 2008 Edition Seb ly a 2 ls: 20 | Publishers DAR ALFALAH 818 \.Ue | P.O, Box 818 11910 @ise | Swaileh 11910 oi! | Jordan 009626 -S411547 Slay ila | Tel & Fax 009626 - 5411547Copyright : by the Publisher All rights are reserved . Ni prt ofthis ik my Be teomelted rpranced, sored iy retnesalsskem, on wansimted in any form or hy any meas, rome oF mechancel, tudng ploreeping records wit the prior vein permson af be pbisher 2008 Edition est ean 28 | Pale DARALEALA 1910 SE | Sai 1900 SER | inten ens. Sse yc | TH Ta ws Lepdeninceuna, Chis aetna og ay gh og el [ oi eile aoe TA] ISBN 9057 — 401 = 491 (4) Preface Chapter 1. Chapter 2. emoseytle ge CONTENTS Introduction ‘The Triangle of Meaning “Types oF we Meaning and Information “The Sorntic Theory Sengence an! Uterance Sercence and Proposition Propeston, Sentence, an iterance Sense and Reference Relerina Expressions and Referens Sense ane Refersnt Exetsncs ‘The Coneept of Reference Refering expressions The Equative Sentence Predicator Presicae Preficate Degree Reference and Defintencss Refering Expression and Predicate Generic Sentence Universe of Discourse Daxctie Words Extension PraoiypeChapter 4 Chapter 5 Synonymy Parepiase Byponyny Hyponyn-Syronyny Relawnship Entslment Entalment-Paraphrase Relavonshp Entailmoat Hyponyry Relatenship Exereses Dissimilarity of Senses, Antony ‘Binary Amtonviny Converse Antony Giadable Antonis Perpendicular Artceymy Extensional Anonsmny Partial Attonyiny yee Antonyimy Rank Antonyny Affinty Anionymy Bilal and Multiple Antorymy Commadicoriness Atonyny-Contradctrineas Relation Exoreses Ambiguity of Senses Homcaymy Polsserny Homcaymy and Svs y Accounting for Polysemy and Homonymy Sentoncs Ambiguity ‘Word-Ambisuity and Sentence Ambiguity Grammatical Ambiguity Chapter 6. Chapter 7. ‘The Types of Meaning Analyucal Meaning and Syathetic ‘Meaning onadicton Tevical Meaning ani Grammatical ‘Meat Meaning and Comoct ‘Meaning and External Factors Relative Meaning Psyelologiel Meaning Titeral Meaning and Figrative Meaning Neaning and Defiation ‘Manning and Stereotype Basic Meaning and Secondary Meaning Splice Meaning Echoie Meaning Semantic Unite ‘Meaning an Parts of Speech Meaning and Roles Exeteises The Analysis of Meaning. Word Fea Word Dstabution Meaning of Meaning Seminrie Feaires ‘Types of Semantic Features Relations between Semantic Features Smaitic Featates and Synonyany Semarce Features and Antonis asic Senantis Features Role of Sernane FesturesChapter 8, Semantic Fields Nature of the Semantic Feld Members af the Semantic Field Malnple Membership Examples of Semantic Fields ‘Words and Semartic Fields Types of Semantic Fields Relations within the Semantic File Applica of Semantic Frelde Exereses Chapter 9, Meaning and Logic Logical Words The Logic of An Inference from dad Truth Probalves, TheLagic of Or The Logic of Negstor Truth Probl of Negstrs TheLogieof If Exereses Answers to the Exercises Selected Bibliography Appendix 1 Symbols Appendix II: Abbreviations Subject Inder The Author's Books Table (3~1)- Relations hetweon some Terms Tab 4-1) Quadatrl Relatons Table (4-2) Sense Relations “Table ($~ 1) Homenymny,Palsseray, and Syn ay ‘Table( 71) Antoromy and Semantic Feaes “Table (72) Meanina-Measurement Seale “Table (91) Tu Pebbles of and Table (92) Truth Probebiies of Or Table (9—3 ) Th Probabiites of Bur FIGURES: igure (11) The Triangle of Meaning Figure (4-1), Types of AntonymyPREFACE Semantics is & tranch of sheoeieal linguists, and iis often an obligatory course ten by students majo in Enalsh or im lingusties . Such students may fi book. esresally when similar hooks ae either not available or too complicated for ureraraduntes Some inesest in ths This book contains nine chapters, ciccussng those topics respectively : introduction, refering expressions, similarity of senses, clisimilrity of senses, ambiguity of senses, types of seming, analysis of meaning, semantic Feld, and Finally the relaion between meaning and louie . Every chapter ends in an adequate numberof xereses At the end ofthe boc, thre are the flowing: (1) answers tp the exerites, (2) selected bibliography, (3) an appenic for symbols, (2) an appendie far abbreviations, and (5) 4 aubjeet index , Whenever the staent feds new symbol, he ie to refer to Appondis I tthe end ofthe beck to know tho indication of the symbol Far abbreviations, bei to refer to Appendix I ‘This beok is designed to be @ textbook for university suaents faking & course cn sertanties cs hoped that it may be useful as 2 weneral reference aswell CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Somanies, the moypology ofthe term tel, isthe study of meaning, ie, meanings of words and sentences Semantics isa brag of nguisios As we krow, linguistics dived into wo major branches «theoretical lingsisties and applied linguistics Theoretical linguistics meinly includes syntax, morphology, phonetics, the history of language (L), and semantics , On the otter hand, applied lnguistes rainy includes langusue teachin L testing, lexcooraphy, translation, psysholingvsties, and socilingustics ‘The Triangle of Meaning “The word tobe head or ead Thus, it has two fara the auible a spotun form, which consists of phones that we hear through our ears and the readable or writen. form, which consists of graphemes, ic. eters, that we ean perceive dow eyes The word as a meaning stred inside our ends, and ithas 0 rferemt in the world around i This referent can be a person, animal, cc thing ‘Therefore, there are thes diferent concepts word, mesning, and referent. These concepts ave elfen fom ene ancther, yet they ae strongly elated The fst amony the three to exits the referent, of course, hecause the being precedes the word in existence The referost exists iret, thon the word comes sccompaied with its meaning thet pints othe referent Word Referent igwe =I The Tana of Meaning In semanties, meaning is not relate © words oy, Lut to seniences as well In fae, in actual usage of for commonicaion, we ute sents more often than ielated words In bor caves. iz, words and sentences, the main punpose of L is vo coney meaninas fom tbe speaker to uhe heer oF ftom ube vier othe reer 1 ‘Types of Meaning ‘Le us assume thet an ermployee has made a seticus mistake ‘which has angered is hoes. The hos said," Vou've dee x great 19, man "The bos, n ct, warmed to Blame the employee, be, ‘insted, he praised him. Di the bes sally man what he sail? (Certainly, be did. He said something ard meant somethin lie “This shows us tha there are dere types of meaning |The sentence meaning (Mi). Its the meaning conveyed bythe semence a it noutrelly stands, ice its surface structure tells, widout relating it othe speaker's intentions or the speech cerrest 2. The speaker's meaning (ML). Is the easing inanded by the speaker . This meaning waxy contact the sentence meaning: the sertence may say semithing, but the speaker means seanathing el. The speaker's meaning ean be reveled thro ‘ho apeaker's facial Features, voice tone, eye looks, the general «cme ofthe kind of relationship that exists between the speaker and the bearer Some oral of these firs combined tozeter help the hearer to determine ithe speaker's menting matches the sentence meaing oe not 3. The hearer’s meaning (MD). 1s the meanins understood by the adresse oc hearer Whon you boar sentonce, seu may 4gt angry, andthe speaker astonishingly sys to yeu,“ Why have {you got angry? Lhaven't meant what you have understood" This proves that the hearer may get a meaning diferest fram the speaker's meaning The speaker may mean pruie, but dhe hearer undersiands ame The speaker may mean fim, bt the erestee undersands serionsness o vice versa. The previous vivaiion Ww an empleo) ilsinderatdiny oe ‘Ts, de sentence may have tee meanings The fist is dhe sentence meaning as stands neuriy, inependent of ay context or situation, dependent on ts lesemes and yraramtical structure The second isthe speaker's meaning es meant by the speaker Tho thir ie the hearer’ meaning 3©cndrstoe by she hearer ‘We my havea variety of eatons among the three meanings |The three meanings may be identical » Mi = M ‘hich is the mict sommon station 2. The dee meenangs ae differnt Mi 4 Me #Ms 3. Mi= Mb but Mb isdbifeent 4.Mi=Mb but Nf isdifferent 5. M>=Ms, hut Mais diferent Meaning and Information ‘Tho ceatoneo, basically, has meshing, and iti apcken to especially in a dialogue or conversation Station . Bat i often happen that we say a sentence not 10 inform, but to establish or reinforee social relatens For example when you say wo someone, * It is cold tse.” you sre nat infin hin OF tie he dae a iow Vee purpose i meray to chat, to start & conversation, to initiate a now social relationship, of to seinforee an old ene , Mest sentences ave Infounaive, but aot all. Some seutences have zeep information, and their sole Faretion is social The Semantic Theory Semanics is a general scionco that deals with all languages, nct with ore single language The examples may be in| 4 certain language, but the serantic theory self apples wo al languages All that has been Sa so far i thie ok appies to all languages. Beery has strangle of mesreng and three types of smcaning (MMs Mo). Siilarty all shat wil be eid Ito inthis book appli to all L's ‘As the chemical theery universal, and the physical theory 1s similaty 50, the semanti> theory i universe as well. Le plicable to all L's n fant, al scenic fats ane theories me nivoralSentence and Utterance ‘The sentence, a semantic unit, hac several definitions, Hove sm semantics, special definition is nosded A sentence (S) i a Seal combination of swords concatenated horizontally in sccordance with special syntati rules, and itis realized in the spoken or ites fons In commas, the utterance could te one werd oF more 2. whole S or part of i, spoken with a pause before and pause after IF ve have a sentence Like The boy answered al the quesions by hinself Wis 8 could be one utterance sf spoken with one pause hefone and one after. The seme S oul be eight uteranees of = pare comes after every word it could bo two urtraness or moro, depending en how itis spoken ‘Therefore, we can see these diferences between the $ and the uterance (U) |The Sis abstraot whereas the U is real speech atacted to 2 certain place time, speaker, hearer. and stuston 2 The $ isa complete syrtzctc ant, wherene the U may be syatitcaly complete or not sinc it may be only a pat of thes 3. The Sisturned real though the 4. The sante «an be tuned ino ene U oc aor, depending ‘on dhe numberof pauses mee ding saying the S 4 5. The same Sean be renizad sheough mulhons of U's Whenever the § is spoken, it becomes a new different U since every U has a diffeentstuation (spodr, heater, time, glace, coveasion ) and diffrent phonetic qualities ( stress, intonation, arteltion Jn tis book, from now en, f9 dsingush the $ fiom the U, the S wil be writen in nates, whereas the U il appear between quotanon marks Notice tbat in daily conversation, people often use pars of sentences anf complete sentences as well Sentence and Proposition Before wo say aS, thee an ea inthe mind, which we wil call s proposition (P) . We first thin, then we from a S, ad finally we change the S into an U, The P is the esiense of caning IP statement is used, it assens the Pez, Sin eonuas, iT question used, t contains a P asked abe, but not asseted, ex, Se Ian imperave is made, also contains the P demanded to be cared out, but not asserted, eu, $3 1, fete for Landon 2 Die leave for onkon ? 3.Close he door “The Panay be ttc fae Ihe P mashes eat, ite, a, The card is spherical. Wit doos no, iis flee, 6, The cant i orset amgry, athe speaker astonishingly soy to yon," Why have you got angry? haven't meant what you have understood.” This proves that the hear may yet a meaning different from the speaker's meaning The speaker may mean. pals, but the hearer understands blame The spesker may mean fi but the aedressee understands seriousness oF vice vera . The previous situation isan example of misunderstanding or “Thus the semtence may have three mesmings ‘The first isthe fentence meaning a6 it stands neutaly, independent of ay contest oF stunton, dependent on its lesemes and grammatical strgture ‘The second is he speaker's meaning as meant by the speaker The thd isthe hearers meanings urersiood by the hearer We may have varity of tlaions among the thee meanings 1 The three meanings may be identical” Mi = Mb = Mb, ‘whic is the most common station 2. The tree meanings are diferent: Mi? Me Me « 3M Mo, but Me i tern 4M) = Ms but Me i ieren 5. Mr=Ms, but Ms different ‘Meaning and Information ‘The seetence, basically, as a meaning, and it is spoken to unform the hearer, especially na dialogue or conversational situation — But it often happens thal we say a sentence not 19 snform, but to establish or seinfce social restons For example, when You say to someone, It is cold today." you are not informing him of what he does not knoe . Your purpose here is merely to chat, to Sat a conversation, 1 initiate a new social relationship, of to reinforce an old one - Most sentences are Informative, but aot all Some sentences have zero information, si heir soe fanetion soa ‘The Semantic Theory Semantics is a general scince that deals with ll languages. not yah one single languave.. The exermples:may bein 8 certain language, but the semantic theory aslf apie to all languages All that has been std so far in this book applies tall Jangoages Every Lhasa triangle of meaning and tree types of ‘meaning (Mi Ms Ms). Sonia, lf hat wil besa later his book applies to all L's As te chemical theory i universal, and the physical theory 1 Silay So, the semantic theory is universal as well, be, applicable to all L's tn ft, all ctentifc facts and theoies areSentence and Utterance The sentence, a semantic unt has several definitions. Here, In semantics, special definition ts reed sentence (S) isa ides! combination of words concatensted horizontally in sccofdance with special syntatis rules, ad itis realized inthe spoken or wnite for In contrast, the utterance could be one word ot mor 1 whole § ce pat of &, spoken with a pause before and a pause afer I we hive a sentence like The boy annneved all the quesions by inset, is $ could be one wsterance if spoken with une pause before and ove after . The same could be eight uterances if a pause comes afer every werd It could be two urterarees or more, depending on how ii spn ‘Therefore, we can see these differences etwoen the S and ‘he utermee (U) 1. The S is aburat, whereas te Ui eal speesh attached to a sortin place time, speaker, hearer, ad sittin 2 The § isa complete syrsactc unit, wheteas the U may be ayatactsally complete ar not since it ay be oly 4 pat of thes, 3 The Sis turned real tough the U 4. The same S ca be wumed ino one U or mere, depending on the numberof uses mae during saving the S 5. The same S can be realized through milions of U's Whenever the S is spoken, it becomes a new diferent U since every U has a different situation (speaker, here time. nee ccersion } and different phonetic qaslties (sires, intonation articulation) Te tht boos from now on, to dintingish the S from the U, the $ wil be writen in nics, wheres the U will agp between quotation marks Netie tat in daily conyecsation, people olen ae parts of sentences and complete sentences well Sentence and Proposition Before ve say aS, theres an idea in the mind, which we wil call a proposition (P) . We fist thik, then we from a S, and finally we change the $ into an UC. The P isthe essence of seaning IF statement is used assers the Pew. $1. In contrast, i= question i sed it contins a P asked shoot hi not asserted, 2, $+ IF an imperative is made, it ako contains the P domaraled to be extied cu, but net asserted, 2g, 83 1. He ef for London 2. Did he leave for Loman ? 3: Clase the door ‘The Panay be wu otf Ifthe P matches sealiy, i ue, 8, The cart is spherical «AF dows not, it false, eu, The santh flor,From nowon, i this book, the $ will appear in tales the U kemeen quotation eras, and the Pin the normal fom of The truth an fasty of the P ens te truth and fabty of ‘he S an the U1 the Pets, bs the Sand the Face tae ‘8e Pi alto boll the S andthe Vanessa fe ‘This, the § can be tue of false, and can be grammatically correc or incorrect. Look t these sentences ‘The earth oes mad he 0) The sa goes raed dhe cars * The ge rsd th crs The car go route sot Se is hath true an (grammatically correct $515 ‘alse but conrect Se ie both fale ad incorrect S> ie trie hut inorvest “This shows thatthe conceots oF rue fale are here dlftet from those of correct /incorect The eonespt of truth is dependant cn weaning, bu che eoucept of correctness is dependent on amr The P is independent of Lif we bring five persons af ferent native L's, and they observe the same event, they will smoct probably for the aime P's since they have a corion iver human too, the brn When it comes othe Sand the U, each oF them wil express the came Pin s diferent S and slfferent U, degensing on his native L Proposition, Sentence, and Utterance iow ae these theee concepts ofP S, and U rlated? Wis ve they sina difercot? 1. AS for vows leuess, the P and the $ have no loudess ‘because they are abstract, ut the U as 2. As for grammatical cortestness the P has no correctness Since iti language independert, bur the Sand the U have since Hey cen be corteet o incorost 2. As fer he information val, all he P,S, and U ean be trae oF fae, depending on mating relity 4 As for dialect, the F ins no dialect since it L independent. The § has no cae since wt absiact ‘The Ue adalest, depending onthe speaker's diet ‘As for L dependence, the Pie I indepondnt, but both the Sand the U are dependent 6. As forabstracmess, tne P athe § are alsua {steal and actual TAs fr order, the Pests fist, followed bythe Shieh realized by an U 1 but the U Notice that the same P ean be Expressed in many 8°, ad the sume 5 can be realized in aions of U's For example, the that Ali broke the snow can be expressed in mere than ten ss ”1AM Broke the wie 2. The one who broke the winder is Al 43. Ali the one who broke the wiadow 4. The ineaber ofthe wirelow ish 5A isthe breaker fhe window 65, He who broke the wend i A Altre why broke the windne 1. The window was brcken ty Alt 9.118 Alt who broke the wir 10, Wha cl was to Bethe win “These tea 8's belong to the sme P, and each ofthe can be ‘ealized by millions oF U's, depending on difres sinaions ane fren speakers, Sense and Reference Every scaemic eld has is own tems, and so does semantiss . In this fold, each of the terms ~ sense.” and reference " has its own indication The sense of word explains its elation with other word i the sane agg, e 2 rely is synonym of woalhy, go isthe opposite of come, and ‘orange is aki of fruit In contra, reference is the ration of the word with the extemal world. Ii the relation between the word and the being which it refers to and which exis in the fufside world . This being could be» hurvan, anal, plas thing, of plate, €g, John, Hoo, ee, sone, and Rowe, reepectvely ‘There isa difference between words and beings , The word ‘hair for example, is nok chai, nor the Word car 8 car ‘Words ae lanauase expressions, and they are par of L Beis refered to by werds are extemal entities, and they are pat ofthe fetemal world Referane is the colation between words and these boing We shal calle L expression tht seers to an extemal being ‘referring expression (RE) and call the enteral ben a referent (R) The relation betveen the RE and the Rs reference Referring Expressions and Referents Not all L epressions ae refering expressions (RES), and otal esemal beings ate referent (R's) In te erence Pec oaks te the ner we ae not ein oa pee ct oF ba, tut indicating cas and igs in genoa Ths, thoes rt a RE, aor igen ‘Lock a this uterance (U) ;° Have you seen the eat? "The ‘om bere isa RE because the speaker is asking about a specif cat, ‘ic i the referet ofthis RE ‘The RE may be one word o more For example, the boy under the wee "isa RE consisting of five woud," Psi ceonsisng of one word only . Noviee dat ve same LE maybe «RE or not, depending’ on the stanton. Th in “the boy under the tre "is a RE, but ve in Tho tree may be everarcen ornot "is det a RE. The RE nist refer to a specie hing inthe external work The referent (R) may be constant o changeable forte same RE Look at these RE's the som.” the moon,” Mola,” “ ernst,” “ Paris ” IF these RE's ate repeated anilons of ties by different people, they always rer to the tne Ria, Thete tre exarplea of constant R's of he see RE Look at dese refering expressions (RE'S) “ibe King ot England” © the President of the USA,” apd ~ the Minster of éusation "The reerent oF each ehanges fom te to time For instance, the US president now ss not the same person before twenty years These ae examples of changeable R's ofthe same RE (Consider this U My left hand." This RE does not heve a constant RH overty persons say she save U, each one willbe talking about his own left hard. Here is an example where changing the speaker changes the Rone RE, but twenty diferent Rs you tay," Tm going to the capital,” dhe copitat i aRE, bt fs R depends on the speaker and on hie location, ie, the country ho sin. The cape bere a BE witha sangoable R » In some csees, tho Ris the same slthoush the Es are different. If you soy," The capita of France." or Pais” you te indicating the ae R although you ar using fest RES Sense and Referent There ae several differences erween the sense and the referent (RY 1 Sens isthe elation between a language expression (LE) and ether LE's inthe same language (L), but the Ris specific being the external weed 2 Seive is not seated to wows only, bul to phrases nd senvences as wel, eg. fom, Inthe hk de book Ki we, but ‘he R is related to RE's only , The sentence dees net have aR; ly the RE hes R 4 Sense is sbsiact, ut the R is often real and concrete svsting nthe external world, g, the sm 4 Bvory meaningfal LE as «sence, bt aot every LE has a referent Fr example, in the U" Science is wef” there are no E's and, conseuedtly, 20 R's ae involved EXERCISES Exercise 1-1 ll each biank with one suitable word 1 Semantess the study of 2 Somantiesis a ranch of theoretical3. The tangle of meaning clades: the word, meaning, and A. The word ae a fc and io 5 Meaning exis in the aman bat the vevent exist inthe extemal 6. Lanwuage is usually used to exchange but itis semetimes used to develop relations 7. The wtorance ney have thre meanings: the meaning, meaning, and Exercise 1-2 Are these statements ete (1) oF false (F) |The sentence meaning ay coma te speaer's smearing 2 The speaker's meaning may contradict the heare’s rearing — 3. All sentences aim at providing the hearer wih new informatica 4 Every L has 2 special sermantie theory 5S The U2 complete speken S 6.The Sina val she U 7 Trath aphiesto the Pony, not tothe Sor the U 5. The P may be grammatially conrect or ions 9 The S truth is telaed 0 informatio, but emrecmess fered to gerne 10 The Pas dependent 11 Senge ond reference are synangmnous terms 12, The same P ean be anpriieed by different S's in ne Lormore Exercise 1-3 Give one example of each: 1 aire correct § 2 a fase incoroot § 3. ttre incorrect S 4 a false correct S Bxereise 1-4 Fil in the slots sith (2) if the concept is appl wih (= )ifnot applicable able and Ne Conceot Proposition | Sentence | tera 1 [vos tutss ‘efecrntoral th showing a diate guys depondot «6 [atewaes Exercise 1-5 Decide whether each i true (T) o Flee (E) 1 Sense and referee aro synonym — 2. He went to schoo! This is an U as3 4 S.A RE is oy Ewith sense 6 The Ris th same reference 7. The RE isthe same a the R im is alvays a RE Hones isaRE ‘8. Sense applies to wore, pases, an sentences 9. The RE has one ward oniy 10 The same RE may have diferent R's LDaferent RES my have he sae R Exercise 1-6 Which referent is constant (C) ‘constant (NC) ? 1 3 4 5 ~The Mediertansan Sea” * The capital of Exype Bauhdal ‘Mars Hs book" "Tee fier” CHAPTER 2 THE CONCEPT OF REFERENCE ‘The concept of reference may reque mote elaberation AS explained before, reference is he relation between RE-and i R However, not all langeage expression (LE's) are RES . In fit, LLE's can be clesiied nto Far ype 1. Some LE's ace alnays used as RE's, eg. my Sher, London, Cain, Ammon . Whenever we use such LE'S hey ees 0 & specific being existent in the extemal world. Such LE's alway have their R's; theafore, they are RE’s 10, vefering eapressions 2 Some L's can be REs or rot, depending on the sisson ‘which dey ave used in In dhe uteranee (U) Look 1 A man i coming,” man is & RE because it refers loa specie Inthe U He needs man to help bir,” mam is rot a RE: i is a predicating expression (PE)3. Some LE's earmot have R's at ll; they exnnat be sed ss E's, they are always used as PE'S ex, gus, hones, medal 4 Some LE's connate RE's or PR's. er aml. on They include conjunctions, repesition, nagaors, and simile paricles Such LE’s are caled linking expressions Referring Expressions Which language expressions (LE's) can be sefering expressions (RE'S) ? The ypsal LE's that ean be RE's are the fallowine 1 The definite NP, e, she man, this brave man the man andor das arse HE the ND is dante, tnd to be RE However, noi all definite NP's make RE’, st depends on (be situation Inthe U Look a theca.” the car isa RE, but in the UT ess ter than the hip, cay not RE 2. The proper netn, eg, Lorain, Jobs, he Rel Sar This includes the names of persens, counties, cites, rivers, seas, oceans. muta, RE2 is REs . Such inversion proves that a cetain $s equative. Look at these S's S.The cayis kre 6, The boys knest The last tw S's © not equstive because inverse is not possiblesince 6's 7 snd 8 are ungramesaical 7 args the ey. 8, * Hanes is he boweve, inversion sot the ely eiteron Look a thi $ 9. Whar ws needed ta ass of water eee, in Se, seversion is possble A glais of water i wha i neue. Nevertblos, Soi not an eguntine sentence becatce it dogs not have any RE The eqtive sentence mast meet 0 coils Fas, it must have two RE’ indicating the same KL Secon the sentence mist alles inversion Predicator Lock at tese sentences 1. Canim isa (city) in Ati 2. Khel was a (gins) 2. The presen (ature) is took The underins unis i these three 8's ate RE's because they indiete spocific R's , Afr excluding the RE's from cach sentence (8), we look for the iost important werd in what remains, Such a word i called a predieator “The predators in these three Ss (3) are bracketed, ard hey are city semis, and enored respectively. Netce that the fredicwior in semanties is diteren fiom the predictor in syntax, which is sed forthe Fintan of he ver amine thetecontons 4 The ks (on) the el 5. The banks (seri) 6 Lhe ak was (os) sestondy In sentences (45), wat is ordertned is RE, and wha Js bracketed 5 = predicator Notice that the predicator can be a prepoition (Se), an adjective ( Se) a verb (Se ) oF a ne 6 ‘We must emphasize some pets tere 1 Every simple sentence has one preiator only. eg. S's ry 2. Every smnple semence may fave one RE, 2, $2, $5, $0, crmore, 24, 51,82,56 4. Analyzing the S nto a RE: anf predic is completely ifferont fons analyzing it into a subjct and predicate: The fs ‘analysis belongs to semantics, whereas the second one below to symtay Predicate ‘The predator is stern relate to enti 8, is sekence pendent In ccna, & predicate is any word that may potentially bea predeator For example, the words brave, wath ‘mart boy, sed cn ean be predcators in vome sentences, 20 they ‘are predicates a9 well. The misin dilfezence between the te terms is thatthe predictor is word actully used in a certain sentence, wherens the preicte isa word that an be potently eed ina aontonee The predicate is not necesuily one word abiowsh it i sualy 0% is sometimes a group of words sueh as Jook fi, »look for, switch om, and other prepositional verbs and phrasal verbs 1 a certain 5 or U, the predator has one meaning only in the writes or speaker's mind. Talking about several meanings ofthe predeat is merely an analytes! outlook The simple $ has one predcstor only, but t may include several predicates. [nthe U " Look at thts beautiful bird with 1s Deautfil colors.” the preceator is Mok ef, but beautiful is a predicate here, which ean be a predieaor in other posible Predicate Degree In one simple sortence, thare may be one RE oF more, with lone pratiater However dllerentpeediestors eoeire a different number of R's inthe sme S. Look these 8s 1 The bey (sky 2 He (ne) the apple (sre his rasher au “4 Sia is (beacon) Sond ant Lark 5 The-pen ts (under | te book 6 The garden ts (beens) 7 be ssl (achid) 8 Lol (a brother} of Robert » In S's (1-8), the RE is underlines, and the prediesior Js bracketed — Each predcator needs a certain number of E's, and this nuaber is called the predicate degree OF couse, whatever apples 10 the prelicaer applies wo the predicate as well Analazng S's (1-1), one can see that sep needs one RE, $0 1 5 a one-degree predicator . The predestor ote in (S2) 18 twordegree predicator The word gave (Ss) a three-degree predicator, hornczn (Ss) three dewrees, under ($5) to degrees, Aeon Se) one deatee, child (7) is ore degree, and rother (Sa) swe degrees Sersonet (1-8) may show us tho fllowing 1. Adostives are wally ono-degroo predates (Ss) 2 Nun are usually ene-dezt predicates (Sr), bat some nouns Like Bron str, and father ore twordesres proieates because eat needs two RE’s (Ss) 3. The predicao: (er predicate) can bea vet (51, 8282) 8 preposition (4, Ss ), an adjective ($6), oF aun (87, Se) 4A vet may be one degree (81), two dewees (82), oF hee egnees (83) 5. A preposition may be two degrees (Ss) oF three deurees wo 15 When sentences are made, one must observe the predicate Aree: there she S wll othe ncceptable ”Reference and Definiteness What is the relation between the RE and definiteness ? Is efiniteness a condition of the RE 7 Does indefinienes indicate thatthe LE nota RE ? Let us examine these four U's |. “Thebow is honest ° 2° The boy may get sick asthe wit 43 * Look thre | Ise a hoy climbing the ree 4. ALbov must have broken the window” Jn Us, the speaker has a cert boy am his mind therefore ‘he boy her iss RE In Us, the speaker tals abou hoys and gis in general, thus, dhe Boy in Us ie nat a REE. This proves that te definite article the ie not condi forthe RE. The nen may have se before, yet itis nct a RE, eg, the hoy in Uz JnU, boy isa RE although it has an indefinite atl before it because i indicates» specific bay In conta, dyin Us is not ARE because it doesnot inleste «spevifie boy This proves tha he indefinite article does act alvays negate reference — an indefinite noun (grammatically speaking )can bea RE (U2) oF 8 n-reFerning expression (4) ‘These four uterences (I=) show tha definite LE may be « IRE ono depending om the situation , They algo show that an sncifinte LE may be RE or not, This meen that definiteness i {grammatical concept that dees not necessarily guarantee specificiey The LE may be definite, yeti is act a RE, on the chor and it my’ be indi yeti is aE. * Definite and * indeiite ave grammnical tern not itty parallel othe semauric ero * wefeving expression" (RE) and * non-tefesing expression“ (NRE) Referring Expression and Predicate Can the predicate be a part of a RE ? Look at these 2, Lhe hhc Loar he arvved ok at the Coney cut Cat he Se commer In (1), the Bho car is a RE, and blve isa predicate, used as part ofthe RE to balp the hearer identify the R, Similarly, in (2) all the undstined_ phrase is one RE, which includes three predicates between brackets: pret ad at help deny the eat and far to help identify the cores “This demonstates thatthe RE may jnelude one priest or more obelp the hearer enti the referent Generic Sentence Does every § include a RE” The answer is No, Some sentences do not indicate specific K's and thus do-nct have RE's. Look at these sentences 2: eae t's mane. o3. Dhe ple faster hun de car 4 Lars Fook ike tigers 5. Water is eserte oie 6 Lhis.cos i ok. Examining the previous S'S, one notices that S'S (1-5) indiate the Ivhever, cow, plane, cas, and water in general, hhence, nore of them has a RE Such S's are called generic sentences In commas, Ss has a RE, 4e, this cams, which Andheates that Ses not a gener S The generic mown inn generic 8. in English, ean be expressed different nays The anicle she before the singular countable oun, as in) bb Thearticle a before the singular countable noun, 2sin 2) The countable plural noun wthout an atte esi (4) The mass noun without an ail sin (5) In bret, generic sentences do not have RE's and do not indicate R's Universe of Discourse Whar is the context of cenversaion ? fy could be real oF Imaginary . Most attic works dea with imaginary universes, this is quite atvious in poetry, dramas, novels, shott stores, and cariors, all of which have tragic or eomis characters, real or ‘megary No long discourse can continse without R's and RE's even if these R's are imaginary Imaginary referents do exis! the imaginary universe: you may siy that such imaginary R's ae real ta their own world of imagination 1 is mentionworthy that no. mater how imaginary. the universe is, it cannot be completely 9, because the speaker or writer cannot make an absolutely imaginary charter or ‘universe owing co his inbily to completely rid humse of the real world In addtion, st all be very difiealt or saber Impossible forthe hearer to understand an absolutely imaginary world. The imaginary world is neve absolutly so i salwars fa mistre of reality and imagination Thus either the speaker rr the hearer ear escape the effect of the worl of facts on the world of fition 1 to conversers wart to communicate they must unify their lumiverse of disccurse They both must know whether they indieate the real world or an smazinary world athersise, ceommuniestion woud cera fl “The toyve of discourse usually centers around the RE"S ‘which may indicate real R's or araginary R's In chapter |, it‘va mentioned thatthe R must bee specific beng nthe externa world Hore and now, we need to modi thie litle by sayin that the Red not he real and concrete In cur daly discourse, ‘ve tea! many LE asf they ate RE athowh they donot refer te conerste beings, such a tay, lmorrny, sextondy; nest yar, 9 o'clock ete. Any LE indicating a certain divtanee, number, of fime ie a RE, eu, 20 sales Mrve Inandrd, 10 o'clock, scopoctively Deictic Words Meat L words moun what they mean indapendont of the Siuation of woege In other woud, thy are noe dopendent onthe speaker, heaer, tims, or place of the uterence (U), ex, door, hair, ear fa, ship In cenitast, every L has some words whose mearings partly depend on the situation , Such words ave called deetie words (DW) ¢2.° you" whose K changes secordng tothe stustion This" you "sone RE, but thas millions of diferent R's We DW's depend on the speaker. eg. we The R of cach depends on who is speaking. Some DNV's depend en the place of conversation eg, tere, there, wise R depends on ‘where they se snd. ‘The ether DW's the depend on place are lerronstratves, ie, is, that, Nese. thaw IF you sey ‘hus ty” the R depen om here you are 6 (Other DW's depend on the time of speaking, eg, bla, sessrcday,tomonrom, tonight now, lest night . Each of thos indicates different R depenting on the time of epeiking . For example, loa can be any day im history depending on when it wor anid ‘The previously-manionsd DW's are—_pronouns, demonstrative, come sdverbo of tims end some adverbs of place, In edition, thoeo ae tvo DW's that ere verbs come and go “Their meaning deptade on the place of the aca in elition 1 the hearer or doer, Fthe hearer eto move towards the speak, "come "is und Otherwise, we use "go". Ite sposkor say, Come to the schoo,” thie meane that he himssl is 9 the choc! Otherwso, he would say, Go othe school.” “This explain why we have to change these DW's when we change direct speech into repered speech; there is 2 complete change in situation - a change in the spooker, here, rime, and place. In mest eas these charges happen come go, ! fe, we they Bone» dene, mow tha, this tha, yesterday > the day befire, for sample Not only thi, but tenvs aleo change 19 aut the new time, 6g. write —» wrote, wrote had Which DW's are 10 be changed when we change direst apesct int: reported epsech depends on whether ot not thevas mentioned that de R must be w specifi being nthe exsenal world Here and now, we ness 49 roify this 2 he by saying thatthe R weed not be veal and conesete .Inour daily eigcourse, ‘we Weat many LE's ay if they ane RE's although they do not refer ‘o concrete beings, eh as fc) fomorn, yeeray, nest ee 9 olelook, ee. Any LE inbeating a certain distance, number, ot lime #9 4 RE, cx, few mules, tree hnadred, 10. o'clock, respectively Deictic Words Most L words icant what they mean independent of the situation of wsege In oer wou they are wot dependent on the spcoksr hearer, time, oF place of the atermce (U), ex, don, fear car,fan hip In coast, every I has some words whose meanings partly Aepend on the situation . Such weeds te called deietie words (DW), €g. you.” whose R chimges aceoning tothe situation This" you” is oreRE, but it has mallions of ferent R's Some DW's depend on the epedker, ey. J. ve The R of seach dapensts on who is speaking Some DW's depend on the plice of conversation, ¢g. hore, ther, whose R depends on where dy ace said. The cthor DW's tha depend on place ae ermonstratives, 2, this, thot, these, thase . IF you aay ‘hos oy"the R depends om shre yon are ther DW's depend on the time of speaking, ex, lay, ler, tnmrerow, tonight wom, last might. Each of these indices a diffrent R depending on the tine of peaking - Fer ample, foukey cam be any day i history, depending on when it was ‘The previousy-mentoncd DW's are pronours, demonstratives some adverts of time, and sore adverbs of place, In addition, there are two DW's that ate verbs < come and x0 ped on the ‘Their meanin ce ofthe speaker in relation 0 the hearer or doer Ifthe hearer i to move towards the speaker, “come "is used. Otherwise, we use “go "Wee specker says, Come to the schoel” this means Hat be himself is ot the school Otherwise, he would say," Go othe sce!” ‘This explains wity we have to change these DW's when we change direct speech inl seperted spzech, thee is a complete lange in situation a change in dve speaker, bere, time, an place In most eses these changes bappen: came go, he, Wwe hey, Nene there, now — then, ths >a, sesueday > the day before, for example. Not only thi, but tenses also change to suit the new time, ©, write —» wrene, wrote had Which DW's are w be changed when we change divest SpeGeh into’ repbetel ape depends on ‘whether or ace thE ”spsokor, hese, tne, or place changed [the time has wot chuged. DW's of me do not change If the place has nce lunged, DW's of ple dono! change, ands0 08 Extension ‘What does a predicate cover The prodiate car covers all ca that mey be indieated by thin predate in all places and all times. the past presen. and future Such coverage i called the extention ofthe pee FExiension difts fem sense in two ways Fst, extension refers 19 a atoup of conevere beings, whereas sense does net Secoral, exienion connects the predicate wily the extemal world, wherens sense comets the predicate with other words inside the seme I. On the ater hand, both extension an sense sare similar 9 that they ae not dependent on an occasion, tation, or uterance Betension, in addition, dfs fom tferene in mo ways Fis, exeasion a group, wheveas reference is jus between the RE snd is R Seecnd, extension isnot depertent on fy occasion, situation, ce utterance, wheress reference is. Oa the otter hind, both exersion and sefeenes ave similar in that they conneet LE's withthe ecersal woe OF couse, ii is obvious at word wun: exension, -eerence and referent (R) ae five elated fem, yet they are net synonymous Every word Ts a sense, but not neessriy an etension; for example, has sense, but has no estesion, no reference, and no R The Rita ieee inthe extension . Every reference has # R These five tery ate closely slated, but each 's ferent rom the ether four Exersio is net rested t9 nous aly, such ab cam, ship, fuse Adjectives suc as re have extersion as well. Anyhing reo wall times and places mes the extasion of red. The prolate extcion ix all the poten predicate, rears of time and place referents of tit However, the extension of « prodicte is net alway» lear We are somstines not sue wheter thing comes ander a eran extension ar rat For example, some may raise questions whether the fat can come under the extension of the aeennd st thse prs Bot / ship, dre, lary a, fl! aan, sean rver.ake sea Prototype Why are ye in doubt whether dns comes under the extension of ve ? Its because we do not know the aeouate vais or features of ire or sh What makes ate a tree ard bush a bush 7 Do the features of ive allow Fuh in the membership of me? Here comes the prototype, which i atypical member inthe centension of acetate predicate The sea, for stance, a fi, »bout wot atypical one, ie, Hote proetype, bese Host Fes do rat look like a seal. The ostrich i bird with wings, but not & Frotetype of Binks. The paln-inve certainly tee, but mol a rretotspe of toes, Hecause most trees do not look ike a palm tree oth the ime and the shnanf are men, but neither is a prcttype of mam, because must men are neither stants nor arts ‘Therefore, thee are cear difeences berween the referent (), extension, and prototype The R is a being indicated by a IRE in 9 sorta wterance in. conto station , The extension is all potential R's, indopendent of situations The protoype is « typical member inthe extension Fer example, the R oF * the tree is cortsin tre in a certain situation and coain utterance, and the extension of mee is ll the tees in all places and all times, whereas the prototype of sme is a typical normal tree \which isa memborin the extension of tree EXERCISES Exercise 2-1 hich Kind of expression i each: always KE, always 4 PE, both, ar Hiaking expression ? 1. Rome 5 green 2 Shakespeare ow ” 3 honesty 7. doxter 4. accurioly 8.ond Exercise 2-2 Undertine the only predicator in each 1.The capita eso the shor 2. The man ae the fond 3 Mis cas red 4. eisin Canada Exercise 2-3 Underline the RE in these U's: 1. Heisastilled dcetor.” 2.” Khalid isa billet ead” 3° Youre better shan Alin sain” 44 Planes are similar birds” Exercise 2-4 Go back to the previous exercise, and identify the predicates in those utterances Exercise 2-5 Are these sentences equate? 1 The elnirment ix Job 42h fates ramen i Ab 2 Balwant st ome 4 Ths physic has wot come yor Exercise 2-6 ‘What isthe degree of euch bold-type predicate ? 1 The wacnr ask is shot wo gustions 2 The bret has flown way 3 he sory is wer interesting 44 Mets John's fther 5: The ball is onthe ee Exercise 2-7 Is the hold-type LE a RE or a predicate ? 1. How heat this garden is! 2 His heautifl garden needs more catenin 5 Water isessemel te “4 ie works an engineer 3 debnan scan nest mae Exercise 2-8 Are these sentences generic (G) or non-generie (NG)? 1 The monkey isa manna, 2. THs brs very baad. 3 Beings are euher diving or nnelving. 4 He bow the house inthe suburs $ Plans dif from animals We dectie worden these U's 1 *Tagree with you concerning this issue.” 2° Weill meet here * He isnorthere now 4° Goto im today ee tomonaw Exercise 2-10 Decide whether cach is trve(T) oF false (F). 1, Eitentien i similar 16 dente in that they both ‘comnest the word withthe eetrnal world 2. Both extension ad reference connect the weed “with the extemal eld 3. The sense and reorerce of he word sre synonyms The reference and referent of a wont are synonymous 5 Rnowine sense helps to identify extension (6 Exension apples to nous, butnot to adjecves 7A referee is dependent on situation 8 The protoype fs deperstenton a station 9. The prototype is one of the members of the 10; Bstecion vindopenide Fe sitionCHAPTER 3 SIMILARITY OF SENSES Thee are various hinds of relationships between word senses, Such senses may be ideal, similar, or diferent The sess fact ia true about sentence senses. In this chapter, we shall 00 how consis can e identical or similar In the following chapter, we shall discuss ow senses can be different er Assinar Synonymy Synonymy is the ienity of the senses of two words or sore , Each word is called synpeym, and it synonymous with the ater ene cr nes The bes test of synonyiny is weplac Ts word can replace another without changing the sentence meaning, the to wwords are synoryne In th S, He is « courageons solar, cian replace coneexeois with brave without afecing the sentence meanina (SM). As 2 real the two word courageous and rove are synonyms If we want 1 use symbels. relaionship canbe sybolized ike this - courageous = brave 4 Synonymy, m addition. is mutual In othee words, if word A 15 synonymous wih word B. it fOlloNs that word Bis synonymous with woud A, of course - Synonymy ean also be bemeen more than two words, ex, Bright, clever, tmetigen, een, smart However synonymy is ately eomplete kia rate ty have toe synonymous words that ean replace esc ether in all contests le most cates, synonymy is partial : a woud is synonymous with mother in aoe contest, bl nt in all For exemple, sen iy sleep thinking, deep rivers. and prfinml thinking, bat we cance sa ‘prfounl rivers In fact, some semanteists anne that languaze cannot possibly have complete synonyms They hold thar does nce need two words that are exac the sare iv all aspects an all contexs; there must be some diTerense, no mater how sights nay be, between the two synteny. Such linguists believe tae all cases of synonymy are, i fac paral, mot complete However, ome other somanticiss disagree to ths view Wie important to notice thie sysonyeny ix dependent ox the basic meaning of the words. regardless of the secondary. rsychelogical, or stylistic meanings. IP she basic meanings of | the two words afe Lente, the 80 words ae synonym, ex. futher, mate parent . The psychological meanings ofthese t%0 6‘words are differen, with more emoticn stashed 1 the Fist word vet the t90 are spmanyme because the basic meanings are the Syrongmy is essmtelly that of senses, not of words We Ihave to say that he senses of these words ae synonyms, heeause synonymy i mainly a relationship between senses, ot between ‘words Despite this, ou of simplicity and brevity, itis accertable to sy that these words are synonyms As for synonymy criteria, thee are two criteria. The fist criterion is contextual replacement - one word ean replace the ther in certain contexts. For example, He Is 0 teacher of Dinsies where inructor ean replace Wocher, without changing the SM. This test groves that feacker and tnvracior are syporyins The second cnterion is mutual inclusion 2 seacer 1a kind of mtructon and an agro ws a kind of Wecher I eich word isa kind of the other, the to words ee synonsms [Notie that ape and frit are not synonyms, because apple is a sn of fru, but fu is nota kind oF apple As for grammatical eategeies it 1s common that the wo synonyms belong 10 the Same part of speech. The two synonyms are frequently verks, nouns, adjectives, et, es, clerer “brig cleverly brig, cleverness brigitaess «In other words the word isa verb. tis synonym i usually a vet sf the werd 15 a noun, it synonym is wsually 4 noun tbo, ands fon. However, synonyms may helong to different pars of speech aswell, clearness 4a he bright Paraphrase Synonymy i a relationship etween words or senses of words, noi senses of sentences . However, if two S's ae ‘eiieal in sense, they are called paraphrase, and each one is 8 paraphrase of the other, ex. This is a bent wine & This és a sted wire This paraphrasing or paraphrase relationship can be ‘chieved thous two ways, Fis, we may ave two S°s identical in all words except two synonyris in he same postion, e.., He dds homework very quickly & He ads homework very ‘peely. In other wor, we can make paraphrases trough usinz synonyms Second, we may make paraphrases through sransformation To llusrate the second point, look ar tese sentences 4. At Hans’ faher 2: Hand 9 A's som 3. The bay brake de window 4, The win vas broken byte Boy 5.The bay was de one who brake te wind (6. isthe manger 7 The maneayeris.John we examine the previous seven $'s, we find that Sand S: ae pataplnases, ving the same sense . We also find that Ss, Se,and So are porephrases .Simily, Sx and S> are paraphrase “These parophraes are not made by using synonyms, but by transiorming the wrammatical stucne of the $ into anther stricture that Keeps the sense unchanged, ie, 9 change inthe structure without a change in sense We may express the paraphrase relationship between the previous sentences by using the ssmibot=to indica paraphrasing SiESs Ss SSS, SES: Parophesses are always equly tue or fse IPA and B are paraphraser and Ais tue, B rust be also tue IFA and B ave pamphrases and A s fae, B must he fase too In other words, if A and B are paraphrases, both must be either true or false, it cannot be tat one iste and the othe is false Hyponymy [Look at these pairs of words 1. ton, aninal 2arange, fait 3. Proer, relative “4 honest, ene The first word im eseh pair is a kind of the second Word . The Hin is a kind of ana, an orumge is a kind of rut, a brother ws a kind of relotve, and honest a kind of Tn cher words, fim iss hyponym of ancl, a onan is + perordinats of lion. Such a sence relstonship is called byponymy This kyponymy requires two words (or phrases tone of which ia hyporym andthe other isa superordinate To symbolize such a relationship, we may use the sym! 3 ‘which means a igpone of: Jin >a loronge 2frut brother > relaine Jonesy >t Hyponymy works in one dieston only “A isa hyponsm ofB. B isnot ahyponyi of A. Going back to the four examples, the Haris akind of animals bot the anioal is not aed of Hons In oer words, every fom i an animal, bat it isnot the ease that every animal isa fion HEA 9B. all A's ere Bs, and some B's are A's, but no all B's ate A's Ifa fiw is 2 hyponvm of animal, all bons are animal, and Some animals ate Hons, but not all animals are one Hyponymy-Synonymy Relationshi Let us conser synonymy azain i light of kypemymy What isthe relatonsiip between synonymy and hyponymy? I A> Band B> A, A= B. What does this mean ? IF Ass @ hyponym of Band B is a lyponym of A, A and B are synonyms. For example,return > go hock shack > renary rerum ~ go back Another example is elev and bright. Clever isa hypanvn of bright-and fright 1s.a byponyen of clever In other works clowr is 9 kind of Inight and Arghe 18 a kind of closer Therefore. they ae mutual hyponyms Being so, they are ssnoryimt Symbolielly, tis this way clever 3 Arig right clever clever = bright Ts means that smog is hyponyiny Entailment ook at these sentences ($9) 1. She sare a boy 2. saw a person 3. Hekilled a hon 4. He killa onaainat Sh entells 82 she saw a boy, this necessarily means tet she saw « person, because fot is byponstn of person Tus, Si entails Ss, and the relationship between Si and S: is a "elatonship of entatment ‘The same relationship apples 10 Si and Ss S: entails Se and the to S's seein a entailment relationship, because hon 18 a fypomm of animal . Notice that entelment 38 9 sense relationship between sentences, not hetiveen words [Etslmentrequitos thst iA entails B, the trot of entails the truth of B, Por example, fe saw on, aceessary wv ‘on nina, Notice tat the tut of B ds net accesarily entail the truth of A fhe suor a cauimal his does nor neessarly oneal that be saw oot, Ensailment works in one direction only In edition, emailment doss not mean that if A false, B tafalee Fer example, ife dll nor see @ on, this dous nt mewn hitb did wn dea IF A emails B, the th of A necessarily and inevitatty entails the tah of B . However, the fsty of A doesnot ental the flsiy O° I alton, 4 entails B,B does notentail A Using the symbol —» to mean enial, we can express the previous relationships as Slows $1—+ Ss. Sr Se EEntslmont con also be cumulative 1A entails B, and if B emia C, then A entils C. Such entsilmeat can be called ‘maladie entalent , Lock at these S's 5. The boys saw aon 6.The boys sevcn ania 17.The persons saw an ania