Mda Salt Intake Eng

DIETARY SALT
INTAKE SURVEY
IN THE REPUBLIC
OF MOLDOVA, 2016
DIETARY SALT
INTAKE SURVEY
IN THE REPUBLIC
OF MOLDOVA,
2016
AUTHORS
Francesco P Cappuccio Division of Health Sciences, Warwick
Medical School, University of Warwick,
Coventry, United Kingdom; and Head
of the WHO Collaborating Centre for
Nutrition.
Lanfranco D’Elia Department of Medicine, Federico II
University of Naples, Italy; and WHO
Collaborating Centre for Nutrition,
Coventry, United Kingdom.
Galina Obreja State University of Medicine and
Pharmacy “Nicolae Testemitanu”,
Chișinău, Republic of Moldova.
Angela Ciobanu Public Health Officer, WHO Country
Office in the Republic of Moldova,
Chișinău, Republic of Moldova.
KEYWORDS
SALT INTAKE
SODIUM
POTASSIUM
IODINE
DIETARY INTAKE
REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA
DISCLAIMER
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ABSTRACT
High salt consumption is an important determinant of high blood pres-
sure and reducing it would improve health outcomes by lowering car-
diovascular disease and therefore death rates. Reducing salt intake has
been identified as one of the most effective public health measures and
is one of the leading targets at global, regional and national levels to
reduce the burden of noncommunicable diseases. The purpose of the
Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova was to establish
current baseline average consumption of salt (sodium), potassium and
iodine through 24-hour urinary excretion testing among a random
sample of the adult population (aged 18–69 years), and to assess the
knowledge, attitudes, practices and behaviour around dietary salt in
order to enable more efficient planning and the implementation of an
effective salt-reduction strategy in the Republic of Moldova. The survey
was a population-based survey of adults aged 18–69 years and carried
out in three stages: questionnaire survey, physical measurements, and
24-hour urine collections. The sample for the survey was selected us-
ing a stratified probabilistic method in three stages from the master
sample used by the National Bureau of Statistics, to be nationally rep-
resentative. From a total of 1950 individuals selected from the sampling
frame, 1307 (67%) provided suitable data for inclusion and the final
sample included 858 participants.
CONTENTS
List of illustrations........................................................................................................VII
List of abbreviations................................................................................................... VIII
Foreword......................................................................................................................... IX
Acknowledgements......................................................................................................... X
Executive summary......................................................................................................XII
1. Background.............................................................................................................. 1
2. Survey goal and objectives.....................................................................................3
3. Survey methodology...............................................................................................4
3.1 Survey design....................................................................................................4

3.2 Survey population and sampling....................................................................4
3.3 Sample size........................................................................................................5
3.4 Sampling............................................................................................................5
3.5 Ethical considerations......................................................................................6
3.6 Training of field data collectors in survey methodology.............................6
3.7 Pilot testing........................................................................................................7
3.8 Data collection process.....................................................................................7
3.9 STEP 1 Questionnaire survey...........................................................................8
3.9.1 Assessing diet.........................................................................................8

3.9.2 History of NCDs and their risk factors.................................................8
3.9.3 Lifestyle advice.......................................................................................9
3.10 STEP 2 Physical measurements.......................................................................9

3.11 STEP 3 Laboratory analysis............................................................................ 10
3.11.1 Analytical methods.............................................................................. 10
3.12 Survey data collection.................................................................................... 10
3.12.1 24-hour urine sample collections....................................................... 10

3.12.2 Sampling of various foods....................................................................11
3.13 Monitoring of data collection.........................................................................11

3.14 Data entry.........................................................................................................11
3.15 Data cleaning and weighting.........................................................................11
3.15.1 Data cleaning........................................................................................ 12

3.15.2 Data weighting..................................................................................... 12
3.16 Data analysis................................................................................................... 13
4. Survey results........................................................................................................ 14
4.1 Recruitment and response rate......................................................................14
4.2 Sex and age distribution of respondents...................................................... 15
Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016 V

4.3 Demographic and socioeconomic characteristics....................................... 15
4.4 History of NCDs and their risk factors.......................................................... 16
4.4.1 History of CVD....................................................................................... 16

4.4.2 History of raised blood pressure......................................................... 16
4.4.3 History of diabetes............................................................................... 16
4.5 Anthropometry................................................................................................17
4.6 Blood pressure and pulse rate....................................................................... 18
4.7 UNa excretion..................................................................................................20
4.8 UK excretion.................................................................................................... 22
4.9 Urinary volume and UCr excretion...............................................................24
4.10 UI excretion.....................................................................................................24
4.11 Proportion of the population meeting WHO target recommendations
for sodium, potassium and iodine consumption.............................................. 25
4.12 Dietary salt: knowledge, attitudes and practices........................................26
4.13 Fruit and vegetable consumption.................................................................28
4.14 Food consumption frequency........................................................................28
4.14.1 Bread......................................................................................................28
4.14.2 Cereals...................................................................................................28
4.14.3 Pizza, pie and pasta..............................................................................29
4.14.4 Salty snacks.......................................................................................... 29
4.14.5 Processed meat products.....................................................................29
4.14.6 Processed fish products.......................................................................29
4.14.7 Dairy products......................................................................................29
4.14.8 Pickled and marinated vegetables, sauces........................................30
4.15 Salt content in food samples.........................................................................30

4.16 Household consumption of iodized salt........................................................31
5. Conclusions............................................................................................................ 32
6. References.............................................................................................................. 34
7. Annex 1. Questionnaire.........................................................................................36
8. Annex 2. Data tables.............................................................................................. 47
8.1 Demographic indicators ................................................................................ 47

8.2 Anthropometry and physical measurements............................................. 51
8.3 Diet...................................................................................................................55
8.4 Dietary salt...................................................................................................... 76
8.5 Personal medical history...............................................................................82
8.6 Cardiovascular disease (CVD) history........................................................... 87
8.7 Lifestyle advice................................................................................................88
VI Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Table 3.1. Survey sample calculation by age and sex..................................................... 5
Table 3.2. Sample distribution by area of residence....................................................... 5
Table 3.3. Exclusion criteria............................................................................................... 8
Table 3.4. Definitions of hypertension, its management and control.......................... 10
Table 4.1. Sex and age distribution of respondents......................................................... 15
Table 4.2. Mean height (cm) of participants by sex and age group............................... 17
Table 4.3. Mean weight (kg) of participants by sex and age group............................... 17
Table 4.4. Mean BMI (kg/m2) of participants by sex and age group.............................. 18
Table 4.5. Mean waist circumference (cm) of participants by sex and age group............ 18
Table 4.6. Mean hip circumference (cm) of participants by sex and age group.......... 18
Table 4.7. Mean WHR ratio of participants by sex and age group................................. 18
Table 4.8. Mean SBP (mmHg) of participants by sex and age group............................. 19
Table 4.9. Mean DBP (mmHg) of participants by sex and age group............................. 19
Table 4.10. Mean pulse rate (b/min) of participants by sex and age group.................. 20
Table 4.11. UNa excretion (mmol/24h) in total and by sex............................................. 20
Table 4.12. Daily salt intake (g) overall, by sex and by area of residence..................... 20
Table 4.13. UNa excretion (mmol/24h) by area of residence, both sexes...................... 21
Table 4.14. UNa excretion (mmol/24h) by area of residence and sex............................ 21
Table 4.15. UNa excretion (mmol/24h) by age group, both sexes................................... 21
Table 4.16. UNa excretion (mmol/24h) by age group and sex......................................... 22
Table 4.17. UK excretion (mmol/24h) overall and by sex................................................ 22
Table 4.18. Daily potassium intake (g) overall, by sex and by area of residence......... 22
Table 4.19. UK excretion (mmol/24h) by area of residence, both sexes......................... 23
Table 4.20. UK excretion (mmol/24h) by area of residence and sex.............................. 23
Table 4.21. UK excretion (mmol/24h) by age group, both sexes..................................... 23
Table 4.22. UK excretion (mmol/24h) by age group and sex.......................................... 23
Table 4.23. Urinary volume (ml/24h) and UCr excretion (mg/24h) overall, by sex and
by area of residence......................................................................................... 24
Table 4.24. UI excretion (mcg/24h) and iodine content of table salt (mg/kg) overall, by
sex and by area of residence.......................................................................... 25
Table 4.25. Proportion of participants meeting WHO recommended targets for salt
and potassium consumption, overall, by sex and by area of residence.... 26
Table 4.26. Proportion of participants meeting WHO targets for iodine consumption
(based on UI concentrations in mcg/L derived from 24-hour urine
collections) overall, by sex and by area of residence................................... 26
Table 4.27. Practices relating to the use of salt................................................................ 27
Table 4.28. Salt content in various food samples (grams of salt per 100 g of food)..... 30
Table 4.29. Consumption of iodized salt per household by area of residence,
level of education and wealth index............................................................. 31
Fig. 4.1. Stepwise procedure for excluding records after assessing the completeness
of 24-hour urine collections...........................................................................14
Fig. 4.2. Geographical sampling........................................................................................ 15
Fig. 4.3. Distribution of mean UNa excretion, both sexes.............................................. 21
Fig. 4.4. Distribution of mean UK excretion, both sexes................................................ 24
Fig. 4.5. Distribution of mean UI excretion, both sexes.................................................. 25
Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016 VII

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AIDS acquired immune deficiency syndrome
ANOVA analysis of variance
BMI body mass index
CI confidence interval
CVD cardiovascular disease
DBP diastolic blood pressure
DHS Demographic Health Survey
HIV human immunodeficiency virus
MDL Moldovan lei (currency)
MICS Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey
NBS National Bureau of Statistics
NCDs noncommunicable diseases
ODK Open Data Kit
PPS probability proportional to size
PSU primary sampling unit
OR code quick response code
SBP systolic blood pressure
SD standard deviation
SSU secondary sampling unit
STEPS WHO STEPwise approach to surveillance
TSU tertiary sampling unit
UCr urinary creatinine
UI urinary iodine
UK urinary potassium
UNa urinary sodium
WHO World Health Organization
WHR waist-to-hip ratio
VIII Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016

FOREWORD
Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death in the Republic of Moldova,
accounting for more than half of all deaths (approximately 57%). One of the major
causal factors for cardiovascular diseases is high blood pressure. Evidence from recent
decades suggests that high dietary salt consumption is an important determinant
of rising blood pressure incidence and the associated risks. A high-sodium diet is
considered one of the most important dietary risk factors to health globally and
the reduction of salt intake represents one of nine global targets for preventing
and controlling noncommunicable diseases within the Global Action Plan for the
Prevention and Control of NCDs 2013–2020. In addition, salt reduction is a priority
highlighted in the Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Noncommunicable
Diseases in the WHO European Region, as well as in the European Food and Nutrition
Action Plan 2015–2020.
The Government of the Republic of Moldova is committed to reducing population salt

intake nationwide to less than 8 g per day by 2020 (representing a 30% reduction).
This target is envisaged under the National Programme on Food and Nutrition for
2014–2020 and in the National Action Plan for 2016–2020 on the implementation of
the National Strategy for Prevention and Control of Noncommunicable Diseases.
Achieving this target would only be possible by implementing a comprehensive and
multisectoral approach that includes but is not limited to the reformulation of food
products, labelling, school food policies, and public awareness campaigns.
It was estimated that the citizens of the Republic of Moldova have a high level of dietary
sodium intake, but data were not available on the actual figures. The objectives of
the National Salt Intake Survey were: to provide baseline data on sodium, potassium
and iodine consumption across a random sample of the adult population; to identify
food products that contribute to the population’s high dietary sodium intake (along
with their frequency of consumption); to evaluate the iodine content in the samples
of table salt used in the population’s diet; as well as to assess their knowledge,
attitude, practices and behaviour around dietary salt. Intake of sodium, potassium
and iodine were estimated by measuring urinary excretion, which closely reflects
an individual’s intake.
The findings of the study will be used to design effective national population-
based interventions directed at reducing dietary sodium intake through a whole-
of-government and whole-of-society approach and at better handling high blood
pressure levels and the associated cardiovascular risks among the population.
Svetlana CEBOTARI, Haris HAJRULAHOVIC,

Minister of Health, WHO Representative
Labour and Social Protection to the Republic of Moldova
Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016 IX

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors express their sincere gratitude to the government officials of the Republic
of Moldova, who showed keen interest and strong support for the National Dietary
Salt Intake Survey in the country; notably Dr Aliona Serbulenco, State Secretary,
Ministry of Health, Labour and Social Protection.
Special thanks go to the team of the National Public Health Agency (now the
national Public Health Agency), who was involved in preparation of the survey and
data collection.
Financial support
The WHO Regional Office for Europe would like to express its gratitude to the Swiss
Agency for Development and Cooperation for financial support in conducting the
survey and preparing this report as part of the project “Support to strengthening
governance and policy dialogue in health sector – 2nd phase”.
Contributors
Writing group: Francesco P Cappuccio, Division of Health Sciences, Warwick Medical
School, University of Warwick (United Kingdom) and Head of the WHO Collaborating
Centre for Nutrition; Lanfranco D’Elia, Department of Medicine, Federico II University
of Naples (Italy) and WHO Collaborating Centre for Nutrition; Galina Obreja, State
University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Nicolae Testemitanu”, Chișinău (Republic
of Moldova); and Angela Ciobanu, Public Health Officer, WHO Country Office of the
Republic of Moldova, Chișinău (Republic of Moldova).
Editorial group: FP Cappuccio, L D’Elia, G Obreja, A Ciobanu, Jo Jewell, Technical

Officer, Division of Noncommunicable Diseases and Promoting Health through the
Life-course, WHO Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen (Denmark), and João
Da Silva Rodrigues Breda, Head of the WHO European Office for the Prevention
and Control of Noncommunicable Diseases based in Moscow, Russian Federation
and Programme Manager Nutrition, Physical Activity and Obesity, World Health
Organization, Regional Office for Europe.
Principal investigator, site coordinator: G Obreja.
Data preparation and analysis: FP Cappuccio, L D’Elia and G Obreja.
Consultancy support in data collection, cleaning and preparation for analysis: Stefan
Savin, Technical Officer, Surveillance and Population-based Prevention, Prevention
of Noncommunicable Diseases, WHO, Geneva (Switzerland).
X Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016

Project team members from the Republic of Moldova
From the National Bureau of Statistics: Lilian Galer and Calincu Dmitrii.
From the National Centre of Public Health (now the National Public Health Agency):
Valentina Bors, Tatiana Eremciuc, Ala Gheorghiev, Mariana Gincu, Vasile Odobescu,
Vitalie Puris, Ion Salaru, Raisa Scurtu, Natalia Silitrari, Alexandra Silnic and Nelea
Tabuncic.
From regional centres of public health: Vasile Moraru, Elena Revenco (Balti
municipality); Lilia Gurin (Basarabeasca District); Veaceslav Carp, Stanislav
Ovcinicov, Igor Berbec (Cahul District); Iurie Bobu (Falesti District); Nicolae David
(Hancesti District).
From the Preventorium of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova: Anastasia Mandric,

Ecaterina Salaru.
Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016 XI

XII Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Background
In the Republic of Moldova, noncommunicable diseases are the leading cause of
death, and CVD represents the main cause of population morbidity and mortality,
accounting for every second death in 2016. High blood pressure (hypertension) and
unhealthy diet are the leading risk factors for most of the CVD burden in the Republic
of Moldova.
High salt consumption is a significant determinant of high blood pressure and

reducing it improves the blood pressure and associated health outcomes. In the
Republic of Moldova it is a common habit to add salt to food at the table and when
cooking, as well as eating processed foods that have high salt content. In 2013 a
national survey indicated that 24.3% of those surveyed always or often added salt
to food, and 32.4% always or often ate processed foods that are high in salt. The
World Health Organization currently recommends that adults should consume no
more than 5 g of salt daily. Since most countries in the world eat far in excess of this
target, the current global action plan has set as a health priority to reduce population
salt consumption by at least 30% by 2025.
There is no reliable measure of salt consumption in the Republic of Moldova.

Comprehensive, up-to-date data on population salt intake in the country are therefore
urgently needed.
Objective
The overall objective of the present survey was to establish the current baseline
average consumption of salt (sodium), potassium and iodine in a random sample of
men and women in the Republic of Moldova.
Methods
The survey was carried out in three stages: questionnaire survey, physical
measurements, and 24-hour urine collections. The sample for the survey was selected
using a stratified probabilistic method in three stages from the master sample used
by the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), to be nationally representative. From 1950
households and individuals selected from the sampling frame, 1307 (67%) provided
suitable data for inclusion. Of these, 449 (34%) were excluded during quality-
control checks (on completeness of urine collections). The final sample included 858
participants (66% of the suitable sample), of which 326 were men and 532 women,
aged between 18 and 69 years.
Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016 XIII

Results
The prevalence of hypertension (blood pressure >140 and/or >90 mmHg or being on anti-
hypertensive medications) was 45.5%, with no difference between the sexes. Almost
two thirds of respondents (74.3%) were not taking medication and had raised blood
pressure, with higher prevalence in men (82.4%) compared to women (69.2%).
Mean urinary sodium (UNa) excretion was 173 + 79 mmol/24h; higher in men than women
(184 + 86 versus 166 + 74 mmol/24h, p<0.01); and higher in rural than urban areas (180 + 80
versus 160 + 76 mmol/24h, p<0.001). UNa excretion tended to increase with age, more so
in men than women, and was equivalent to a mean salt consumption of 10.8 + 4.9 g per
day. Men consumed more salt than women (11.5 + 5.4 versus 10.3 + 4.6 g per day; p=0.001).
Higher salt consumption was detected in rural compared to urban areas (11.3 + 5.0 versus
10.0 + 4.8 g per day, p<0.001). Only 11.3% of the survey respondents consumed 5 g of salt per
day or less; in rural areas the proportion was lower (10.0%) than in urban areas (13.5%).
Bread is the biggest contributor of salt in the diet; every 100 g of bread provides an
average of 1.85 g of salt. More than half of the population (55.4%) consumed bread 2–3
times per day with a higher proportion among the rural population (61.6%) than among
people living in urban areas (45.4%). One fifth of the population consumed sausages,
salami and liver sausage and almost a quarter consumed cheese 2–4 days per week,
adding 1.88 g of salt with every 100 g of product eaten.
Mean urinary potassium (UK) excretion was 73 + 31 mmol/24h, and higher in men
than women (76 + 33 versus 71 + 30 mmol/24h, p=0.02). The proportion of participants
consuming adequate amounts of potassium (>90 mmol per day) was 49.7%; again,
higher in men than women (52.5% versus 47.9%).
Fruit and vegetable consumption was generally low: more than half of the population
surveyed (56.4%) reported eating fewer than five servings of fruit and vegetables per
day; thus being at higher risk for noncommunicable diseases. Consumption of fruit and
vegetables was higher among the urban population.
Mean and median urinary iodine (UI) excretions were 225 and 196 mcg/24h for both sexes,
respectively. UI excretion (as measure of intake) was adequate in 41% of participants,
irrespective of sex and area of residence. UI excretion was above requirement or excessive
in a total of 30% of respondents, while 29% were deficient (only 2.3% severely).
Salt intake in adults in the Republic of Moldova exceeds the WHO recommended
maximum target of 5 g per day by more than twofold. More than half (57.2%) of the
856 households visited consumed salt containing 15 mg/kg of iodine or more, while
23% of them consumed salt that was not iodized. Awareness, attitudes and behaviours
around salt and its importance indicate a need for intensive awareness and health
promotion campaigns to improve the uptake of preventive strategies aiming to reduce
salt consumption and increase potassium and iodine intake.
A national programme for reducing salt intake and promoting increased potassium
consumption in the Republic of Moldova needs to be implemented through systematic
efforts, including food product reformulation; product labelling; and public education
involving the health sector and the food industry, with the objective of achieving a 30%
reduction in salt consumption by 2025. This would also be an opportunity to revise
the criteria for iodine fortification in the adult population, aiming to correct both the
deficiency still present in some people, and the excess detected in others.
XIV Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016

1. BACKGROUND
1. BACKGROUND
T
he Republic of Moldova is a lower-middle-income country with a population of
3.4 million, of which 53% live in rural areas. It is situated in south-eastern Europe
and has common borders with Romania and Ukraine. The administrative
structure consists of municipalities, an autonomous territorial-administrative unit,
and districts divided into communes. The country’s gross domestic product per capita
is increasing, but remains lower than that of other countries in the region.
The country has been undergoing an epidemiological transition since the 1990s.
As a result, the prevalence of disease related to lifestyle and health behaviours
– including CVD, diabetes, cancer, chronic hepatitis and cirrhosis – is increasing
steadily and these diseases have become the leading causes of population mortality.
Noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) are the leading cause of death in the Republic
of Moldova; responsible for more than 85% of all deaths annually. As is the case in
other developing countries, the Republic of Moldova is now facing a double burden of
disease, comprising newer challenges, such as obesity and NCDs, as well as infectious
diseases, such as tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS. According to national health statistics
from 2016, the following diseases were the leading causes of death in the Republic
of Moldova (1): diseases of the circulatory system (617.3 per 100 000 population);
neoplasms (175.3 per 100 000 population); chronic hepatitis and cirrhosis (80.1 per
100 000 population); injury and poisoning (66.2 per 100 000 population); and diabetes
(11.5 per 100 000 population). Diseases of the circulatory system are the leading cause
of population morbidity and mortality, and accounted for every second death in 2016
(1).
High blood pressure and unhealthy diet are the leading risk factors for CVD in the
world and among the risk factors that account for most of the disease burden in the
Republic of Moldova (2). High salt consumption is an important determinant of high
blood pressure and reducing it can directly improve health outcomes and indirectly
reduce overall mortality through the beneficial effects on systolic blood pressure
(SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP). In the Republic of Moldova, the prevalence
of raised blood pressure in adults aged 18 years and over was 40% in 2013, with no
difference between the sexes. It is a common habit in the Republic of Moldova to
Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016 1
add salt to food at the table and when cooking, as well as to eat processed foods
that have high salt content (2). The STEPS survey of noncommunicable disease risk
factors (carried out in 2013–2014) indicated that 24.3% of respondents always or often
added salt before eating or while eating, and 32.4% of respondents always or often
ate processed foods that are high in salt (2).
There is compelling evidence from experimental epidemiological, migration and

intervention studies, as well as meta-analyses, to indicate that high salt intake is
associated with raised blood pressure and adverse cardiovascular health (that is,
coronary heart disease and stroke) (3–6). In addition, high salt intake is related to
adverse health effects independent of its effects on blood pressure (7).
WHO currently recommends that adults should consume no more than 5 g of salt
per day (8). Even though sodium intake varies in populations across the world, in
the vast majority of countries, salt intake is high and it exceeds both physiological
requirements and recommendations (9,10). The Republic of Moldova lacks data on
actual salt consumption. The European Food and Nutrition Action Plan 2015–2020
recommends that countries adopt comprehensive salt-reduction strategies (11). Salt-
reduction strategies in the WHO European Region, including the Republic of Moldova,
encompass monitoring and evaluation actions as one of their important pillars
(12,13). Hence, comprehensive, current data on salt intake in Moldova are urgently
needed, using at least one accurately collected 24-hour urine sample for assessing
UNa, which is regarded as the gold standard method to assess salt consumption, at
least for a population average (14).
In contrast to sodium, evidence from epidemiological studies and randomized

trials point to the beneficial effects of dietary potassium on blood pressure and
cardiovascular health (15). This effect is more pronounced in those with high sodium
intake (16). In addition to sodium, potassium can also be determined accurately in
24-hour urine collections, hence avoiding the need to rely on reported dietary intake
data and national food composition tables (which may not always be up to date).
Iodine deficiency is a public health problem in the Republic of Moldova and salt
iodization has been implemented since the late 1990s to prevent iodine deficiency
disorders. Other voluntarily iodized foodstuffs, including bottled iodized water,
are available on the internal market, which may increase iodine intake in some
population groups. A WHO special expert consultation held in 2013 concluded that
policies are needed to (a) increase salt iodization and (b) reduce salt intake to less
than 5 g/day. Such policies are also compatible with each other.
2 Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016

2. SURVEY GOAL AND OBJECTIVES
2. SURVEY GOAL
AND OBJECTIVES
T
he goal of the present survey was to establish current baseline average
consumption of salt (sodium), potassium and iodine in a random sample of
the general population of the Republic of Moldova and to explore knowledge,
attitudes and practices around dietary salt for the implementation of the National
Programme on Food and Nutrition for 2014–2020. The objectives were to survey a
random sample of men and women aged 18–69 years from urban and rural areas
of the Republic of Moldova, in order to: acquire information on demography,
knowledge, attitudes, practices and behaviours through a questionnaire; obtain
physical measurements of anthropometry, blood pressure and heart rate; obtain 24-
hour urine sample collection to determine daily excretion of sodium, potassium,
creatinine and iodine; to identify food products that contribute to the high dietary
sodium intake of the population, as well as their frequency of consumption; and to
evaluate the iodine content in the samples of table salt used in the population’s diet.
The National Salt Intake Survey is a part of the activities foreseen under the Biennial
Collaborative Agreement between the WHO Regional Office for Europe and the
Ministry of Health, Labour and Social Protection of the Republic of Moldova within
the project “Support to strengthening governance and policy dialogue in the health
sector, 2nd phase”, funded jointly by WHO and the Swiss Agency for Development and
Cooperation. It is also reflected in national policy documents, such as the National
Programme on Food and Nutrition for 2014–2020 and the National Action Plan for
2016–2020 on the implementation of the National Strategy for Prevention and Control
of Noncommunicable Diseases 2012–2020, as a monitoring tool to measure progress
in implementing national policies on NCDs.

3. SURVEY METHODOLOGY
3. SURVEY
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Survey design
The survey was carried out using three consecutive steps, similar to the WHO
concept of using a stepwise approach for the surveillance of risk factors for NCDs,
and considering local needs and resources.
STEP 1 comprised a questionnaire survey – an adapted version of the WHO STEPwise

approach to surveillance (STEPS) Instrument for Non-Communicable Disease Risk
Factor Surveillance (see Annex 1, Chapter 7). This was a face-to-face interview, using
a questionnaire to collect demographic information, as well as information on diet
(including consumption of foods contributing to high salt intake, fruit and vegetable
consumption, oil and fat consumption, and dietary salt); history of high blood
pressure, diabetes and CVD; and whether participants had received lifestyle advice.
STEP 2 comprised a series of physical measurements of overweight and obesity using

specific tests and devices (body weight and height, waist and hip circumference),
along with blood pressure and heart rate.
STEP 3 comprised 24-hour urine sample testing for sodium, potassium, iodine and
creatinine content, as well as household salt testing for iodine.
The adapted version of the instrument was translated into Romanian and Russian,
and used to take into consideration specific characteristics/requirements within the
country.
3.2 Survey population and sampling
A total of 1307 randomly selected respondents participated in the survey. They were
all aged 18–69 years, and the group comprised both sexes, as well as residents of all
districts and the territorial-administrative unit of Gagauz-Yeri, along with Chișinău
and Balti municipalities. The survey did not cover the districts from the left bank of
the Nistru River and the municipality of Bender.

3.3 Sample size
In general, to detect approximately 1 g reduction in salt intake over time using 24-hour
UNa excretion, with a standard deviation of 75 mmol/day (alpha = 0.05, power = 0.80), a
minimum sample of 120 individuals per age and sex stratum is recommended (17,18).
To account for attrition (e.g. non-participation, incomplete collection or implausible
values), which may be as high as 50%, up to 240 people per age and sex stratum
should be invited to participate. Thus, a minimum recommended sample size of 120
was multiplied by 8 estimated age and sex groups and adjusted for an anticipated
non-response rate of 50%. Calculations resulted in a minimum final sample size of
1920 individuals (see Formula 1).
Formula 1. Sample size calculation

n = 120 * 8÷0.5 = 1920
The survey sample ensures accuracy of the results both at national and area of
residence (urban/rural) levels, as well as by sex and by age group (18–29, 30–44, 45–59
and 60–69 years).
The estimated sample size consisted of 50 primary sampling units (PSUs; communes
or cities, or sectors within cities), 1920 secondary sampling units (SSUs; households),
and 1920 tertiary sampling units (TSUs; individuals) (Table 3.1).
Table 3.1. Survey sample calculation by age and sex

Age Sex Non-response rate Total
(years) Men Women (%)
18–29 120 120 50 480
30–44 120 120 50 480
45–59 120 120 50 480
60–69 120 120 50 480
Total 480 480 50 1 920
3.4 Sampling
A probabilistic master sample (used by the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) for the
Household Budget Survey) was applied in order to select the sample for this survey.
The nationally representative stratified probabilistic sample was extracted in three
stages (phases). The list of all PSUs (communes, cities/sectors in the cities) was used
as a sampling base at Phase 1, the list of all households at Phase 2 and the list of all
eligible individuals within the selected households at Phase 3 (Table 3.2).
Table 3.2. Sample distribution by area of residence

Stratum PSU Households (individuals)
Urban 20 780
Rural 30 1 170
Total 50 1 950
In the first stage, two phases of sampling were applied. The Phase 1 survey base
consisted of 931 PSU, of which 150 PSU were selected, with the probability proportional

to size (PPS) within each stratum. The strata were formed by the intersection of
statistical areas (north, centre, south and the municipality of Chișinău), with area
of residence (urban/rural), and the size of the communes (large and small). Thus,
Phase 1 resulted in 11 sampling strata.
Each PSU represents one administrative-territorial unit (level 1: commune) in

accordance with the Classifier of Administrative-Territorial Units of the Republic of
Moldova (19). Exceptions include the municipalities of Chișinău and Balti, as well as
the cities of Cahul and Ungheni, for which one PSU represents a part of the locality.
The 150 PSU extracted at Phase 1 represented the survey base of the second sampling
phase (Phase 2). These 150 PSU were stratified by area of residence, resulting in two
strata – urban and rural. Within each stratum, the PSUs were ordered from north
to south to obtain a default geographical stratification. Then, from each stratum,
the required number of PSU (20 urban PSU and 30 rural PSU) were extracted, with a
probability of extraction proportional to their size (number of population) using the
systematic extraction procedure.
For Phase 2 of sampling, the list of respondent households within the Household
Budget Survey carried out by the NBS of the Republic of Moldova in 2014 was used as a
sampling base. Thus, 39 households within each PSU were randomly selected, using
the systematic extraction procedure.
Phase 3 selection took place on site, within the 1950 households selected at the
previous stage. This stage involved the random selection of only one individual (aged
18–69 years) from within the household to respond to the questionnaire.
PSU sample selection at Phase 1 and SSU selection (of households) at Phase 2 of
sampling were carried out in collaboration with the NBS. Respondent selection at
Phase 3 of sampling took place in the field, and was carried out by the interviewers
(random selection using an Android app).
3.5 Ethical considerations
The survey was carried out in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki (20,21) and
the principles of good clinical practice. Ethical approval for the survey was obtained
from the Committee of Research Ethics of the National Public Health Agency. All
participants were informed about the survey goal and objectives, as well as the
procedures that would be applied. Prior to data collection the selected household
participant received information and signed a consent form. To ensure confidentiality
of all collected and archived data, unique identification numbers were assigned to
each participant and data registers refer only to these numbers. The information
and consent forms were available in both Romanian and Russian languages.
3.6 Training of field data collectors in survey methodology
Field data collectors and field data supervisors were recruited from the National
Centre of Public Health (now the National Public Health Agency) and the territorial
centres of public health from among the individuals who had previously participated

in the STEPS survey in 2013 and/or in the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS)
in 2012 and/or in the Demographic Health Survey (DHS) in 2005. Two workshops
on the National Salt Consumption Survey and its data collection methodology
were conducted by the National Centre of Public Health in collaboration with the
Ministry of Health (now Ministry of Health, Labour and Social Protection) and the
WHO Country Office in the Republic of Moldova. The first workshop took place on 5
December 2015; the second on 18–20 July 2016. A total of 12 national data collectors
attended the workshops.
The training of data collectors was conducted by the survey’s technical working group,
which previously performed similar functions in the STEPS 2013 survey. The training
session on 5 December 2015 was performed in cooperation with WHO expert, Professor
Francesco Cappuccio from the WHO Collaborating Centre for Nutrition of the University
of Warwick (United Kingdom). It focused in particular on the methodology of how
to collect complete and reliable 24-hour urine samples. During the second workshop,
survey staff was trained on the methodology of communicating with households
selected to participate in the survey, obtaining informed consent from the survey
participants, and delivering the questionnaire. The core of the training focused on
the skills required to use an electronic device (tablet) for the selection of one survey
participant at the household level and for data entry.
3.7 Pilot testing
The trained data collectors carried out preliminary testing in Chișinău, aiming to
validate the field data collector’s skills in carrying out the various elements involved
in the data collection exercise. The preliminary testing tasks comprised selecting one
individual from within the household, obtaining informed consent, delivering the
questionnaire, carrying out physical measurements, collecting urine and salt samples
and sending them to the laboratories for testing. Four teams, each comprising two
interviewers and one coordinator/supervisor, participated in data collection; each
team delivered the questionnaire, performed physical measurements, and collected
urine and salt samples on three to four individuals.
3.8 Data collection process
In the present survey, the WHO STEPS Instrument for Non-Communicable Disease
Risk Factor Surveillance was adapted and used for data collection and physical
measurements. The adapted questionnaire was translated into Romanian and
Russian. All participants were visited at home between 21 July and 5 September 2016 by
field team members, who were specially trained health professionals. Every selected
participant was informed verbally and in writing about the survey. After obtaining
informed consent and applying exclusion criteria (Table 3.3), a questionnaire was
carried out with each participant and physical measurements were taken, used to
calculate body mass index (BMI) and waist-to-hip ratio (WHR). Upon completion of
the measurements, the survey participant was informed about the urine collection
procedure; the necessary equipment, the registration form and the participant guide
on urine collection were provided.

Table 3.3. Exclusion criteria
- People unable to provide informed consent
- People with known history of heart or kidney failure, stroke, and liver disease
- People who recently began therapy with diuretics (within the last two weeks)
- Pregnant women, and those who are breastfeeding and/or menstruating
3.9 STEP 1 Questionnaire survey
The questionnaire was used to collect data on respondent’s demographic and

socioeconomic status; diet, including frequency of high salt food consumption, fruit
and vegetable consumption; knowledge, attitudes and practices on dietary salt;
history of high blood pressure, diabetes and CVD; and whether participants had
received lifestyle advice.
3.9.1 Assessing diet
In order to assess the diet pattern of the surveyed population, the respondents were
asked about frequency of consuming foods that contribute significantly to salt
intake; frequency of fruit and vegetable consumption; mean number of portions of
these foods consumed daily; type of oils and fats used for meal preparation; and
knowledge, attitudes and practices on dietary salt. Consumption of foods which
contribute significantly to salt intake and of fruit and vegetables was assessed in
terms of number of servings, with a serving being equal to 80 g. Showcards were
used to collect data on consumption of these foods within a certain time frame (day,
week, and month). Oil and fat intake was assessed by asking about the type of oil or
fat most frequently used for cooking.
Consumption of foods which contribute significantly to salt intake was assessed

by asking about frequency of consumption. The question related to the following
food groups: bread, cereals and porridge; potatoes, rice and pasta; processed meat
preparations; processed fish preparations; cheese and sheep’s cheese; and other
salty foods. Survey participants were asked about the number of portions consumed
within a certain time frame.
Dietary salt consumption was evaluated by asking about frequency of adding salt
or salty sauce to food during preparation/cooking, or before or while eating; and/
or frequency of consuming high-salt processed foods. Participants were asked also
about their perception of the quantity of salt they consumed and its link with health
problems; the importance of reducing salt intake; as well as measures undertaken
to control it.
3.9.2 History of NCDs and their risk factors
History of diabetes, CVD and raised blood pressure was determined by asking whether
specific measurements for these purposes had been performed by a doctor or health
care worker. Participants were also asked about any medication taken.

3.9.3 Lifestyle advice
Participants were asked about any advice given by a doctor or a health worker during
the past three years relating to reducing common risk factors for NCDs.
3.10 STEP 2 Physical measurements
Participants were not allowed to smoke, exercise, overeat, consume caffeine or have
a full bladder for 30 minutes before the measurements were taken. Body weight,
height, waist circumference, hip circumference, SBP, DBP, and heart rate were
measured in all participants. Body weight (in kilograms) and height (in centimetres)
were measured with an electronic growth management scale. This is a combined
device (scale for body weight with height gauge) with a laser, suitable for survey
purposes. It measures body weight and height, and calculates BMI; a ratio of body
weight in kilograms to the square of body height in metres, calculated according to
Formula 2.
Formula 2. Calculation of BMI
Body weight (kg)

BMI =
Body height (m2)
A BMI of ≥ 25 kg/m 2 indicates that a person is overweight, while a BMI of

≥ 30 kg/m2 indicates that a person is obese. Waist and hip circumferences were
measured by MioType, a non-stretch tape with millimetre precision. Waist
circumference (in centimeters) was measured by placing a tape measure around the
abdomen at the midpoint between the lower margin of the last palpable rib and the
top of iliac crest (hip bone). Hip circumference (in cm) was measured by placing a
tape measure around the bare abdomen at the maximum circumference around the
buttocks. The waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) was computed using measurements of waist
and hip circumferences among all respondents. The WHO reference cut-off for WHR
was used to define obesity at above 0.90 for males and above 0.86 for females (22,23).
SBP, DBP and heart rate measurements were taken three times in the right arm
in a sitting position, using a Boso Medicus Uno instrument with a universal cuff
and automatic blood pressure and heart rate monitor. The first measurement was
eliminated and the mean of second and third measurements was taken for analysis.
The measurements were taken after the participant had rested for 15 minutes, and
with three minutes of rest between each of the measurements (maximum deviation
of cuff pressure measurement ± 3 mmHg, and of pulse rate display ± 5%). Hypertension
definition, management and control are defined in Table 3.4.

Table 3.4. Definitions of hypertension, its management and control
Category Definition
Hypertension Systolic blood pressure (SBP) ≥ 140 mmHg and/or diastolic blood
pressure (DBP) ≥ 90 mmHg, or currently taking anti-hypertensive
medications.
Controlled hypertension Taking medication and SBP < 140 mmHg and/or DBP < 90 mmHg
Uncontrolled hypertension Taking medication and SBP ≥ 140 mmHg and/or DBP ≥ 90 mmHg
Untreated hypertension Not taking medication and SBP ≥ 140 mmHg and/or DBP ≥ 90 mmHg
3.11 STEP 3 Laboratory analysis
Laboratory tests were performed for sodium, potassium, creatinine and iodine in
24-hour urine samples, and for iodine in the sample of table salt collected from
within the participant’s home.
3.11.1 Analytical methods
Sodium and potassium content in the urine samples were determined using an ion-
selective electrode with a Beckman Coulter Synchron CX5PRO System, expressed in
mmol/L (24). Creatinine content in participants’ urine was measured using a kinetic
modification of the Jaffe method, expressed in mg/L (25). UI was determined using
the ammonium persulfate digestion method with spectrophotometric detection
by Sandell-Kolthoff reaction, expressed as mcg/L (26). Iodine determinations in
table salt were made by titration method (27). Sodium, potassium and creatinine
determinations were carried out in a private accredited laboratory (ICS Medical
Laboratory Synevo SRL), and iodine determinations in urine and table salt were
performed at the National Public Health Agency.
3.12 Survey data collection
Data collection for the survey was carried out by four teams of four people; each
team consisted of a coordinator/supervisor, two interviewers, and a driver. Local
guidance, in the form of a family doctor or a nurse, was brought in to reach selected
households. On the day of data collection, the selected households were visited, and
general information was given (verbally) on the goal and objectives of the survey.
Then one participant was selected from among all adults aged 18–69 years in each
household. Further information was given to the selected participant and active
consent was requested. Survey data collection and urine collection, including
physical measurements, then took place at the participant’s home.
3.12.1 24-hour urine sample collections
At the end of the first visit each participant was given a leaflet with explanations,
along with the necessary equipment (a 5-litre screw-cap container for urine
collection and storage; a 2-litre screw-cap container for temporal collection of urine
made away from home; a 1.5-litre cup with funnel, for women, to be used during

urine collection; two plastic bags; and a safety pin as an aide-memoire). Further
equipment included a record sheet on which participants were to note the start and
finish times of their 24-hour urine collection, any missed urine aliquots, and any
medication taken during the collection.
The participants were carefully instructed on the urine collection methodology. The
so-called first-pass urine of the starting day was discarded and the time was noted.
All urine passed thereafter was collected in the container provided. Participants were
instructed to keep urine in a dark and cool place.
Upon completion of the urine collection, the next day, field team members
measured/weighed the total volume of urine collected. They thoroughly mixed the
urine container, collecting two urine aliquots in two separate tubes, which were
taken to a laboratory for testing. The rest of the urine was discarded. At the same
time, a sample (50–70 g) of household table salt (used for cooking and as table salt)
was collected. The urine samples were stored in a cool place for a maximum of
24 hours until transportation to the laboratory was possible. Sodium, potassium,
and creatinine determinations were carried out immediately, and urine samples
for iodine determinations were frozen at -40oC and tested at a later date (within a
month).
3.12.2 Sampling of various foods
In addition, samples of the most frequently sold foods were collected randomly from
a predefined list of food categories (determined within the FEEDcities project (23)
and were tested for salt content using the titrimetric method at the laboratory of the
National Centre of Public Health (now the National Public Health Agency).
3.13 Monitoring of data collection
The data collection monitoring team comprised four representatives from the
National Centre of Public Health (now the National Public Health Agency). Monitoring
was carried out in the field, providing technical and logistical support to the data
collection teams through the data collection process.
3.14 Data entry
Collection of all the survey data was carried out using electronic devices (Android
5.0 tablets). Data from nine electronic devices (eight with field data collected and one
with laboratory results) were uploaded to the Open Data Kit (ODK) Collect database,
completing the data entry process. Each survey respondent had a four-digit unique
identifier (quick response (QR) code).
3.15 Data cleaning and weighting
Data cleaning and weighting was performed at the end of the field work, when all
information collected using electronic devices had been uploaded to the central server.

3.15.1 Data cleaning
The purpose of the data cleaning procedure was to identify and correct all possible
errors that may have occurred during data collection and to prepare the dataset
for analysis, thus minimizing the impact of any errors on the study results. The
process started with the download of three data files from the central server; each of
them representing data collected during the three days of the survey. The first step
consisted of identifying duplicates. In order to be able to combine those three pieces
of information later, a unique QR code was used for every respondent. During data
collection the QR code was scanned and stored in the memory of the Android device
and later exported to the server. In some cases, the code was entered manually. This
was allowed in instances when the QR code had been damaged and was unreadable.
When inspecting the data files, it was found that in many cases the code had been
entered manually, and some of these were duplications. It was possible to correct the
duplicate entries by comparing other records on age, sex, location and other variables
among all three files. After the duplications had been cleaned, data files from the
three data collection days were merged (using the QR codes as unique identifiers).
The next step was to identify incomplete records by analysing the initial combined
dataset. In total, 20 records were dropped from the dataset because key variable
records were missing.
The screening of the dataset was performed next in order to identify all possible records
with lack of or excess data, outliers, strange patterns and other inconsistencies.
Owing to the fact that the survey used electronic data collection based on ODK
software which allows the limitation of data entry within pre-established ranges, as
well as use of skip logic questions and links – the number of outliers and data format
errors was considerably reduced. In some cases, inconsistencies were identified and
some of these, where possible, were corrected. The final dataset, with 184 variables,
was then considered clean and ready for the next phase.
3.15.2 Data weighting
Weighting of the dataset was performed in order to make the survey results
representative of the target population in the country; namely, adults aged 18–69 years.
Data weighting was conducted using the sample weight and population distribution
weight. The non-response rate was not applied in the current survey because the
age, sex and other characteristics of non-respondents were not known. Sample
weight was computed using the sample design information provided in the survey
documentation. The final sample weight was calculated as the inverse probability of
selection, at every stage of selection up to the individual level, within the household.
The selection technique was considered when computing the probability of selection
at each stage. The first and second selection steps (PSUs and SSUs) where performed
using the PPS procedure and the probability of selection was calculated accordingly.
The next selection step was to choose households within the SSUs, using a random
selection procedure. The final step was to select one eligible household member using

a random selection procedure. All these probabilities of selection were multiplied
and computed for every respondent. The inverse of the probability of selection was
the sample weight for each survey respondent.
The second phase of data weighting was to calculate the population distribution
weight that allows for the correction of over- or under-representation in the sample
of the targeted age/sex groups. For that reason, both the target population (aged 18–69
years) and the weighted counts of the survey population were divided into eight age
and sex groups and the proportion of each group was calculated. The population
distribution weight specific to each age/sex group was calculated by dividing the
proportion of a specific group from the target population by the proportion of the
same group in the survey population.
Finally, the sample weight of each respondent was multiplied by the population
distribution weight for the specific age/sex group in order to get the final survey
weight.
3.16 Data analysis
The population was also stratified in groups by sex (men and women), by age (18–29,
30–44, 45–59, and 60–69 years), and by residence status (urban and rural settings).
Moreover, in order to convert urinary output to dietary intake, the UNa excretion
or UK values (mmol/day) were first converted to mg/day. Then, sodium values were
multiplied by 1.05, while potassium values were multiplied by 1.3 (28). The conversion
from dietary sodium (Na) intake to salt (NaCl) intake was made by multiplying the
sodium value by 2.542 (as shown in Formula 3).
Formula 3. Conversion of dietary sodium (Na) intake to salt (NaCl) intake
NaCl (g) = Na (g) x 2.542
A T-test for unpaired samples or analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to assess
differences between group means. A Pearson chi-square test was used to test the
association between categorical variables. The results were reported, as appropriate,
as mean (standard deviation (SD) and/or 95% confidence interval (CI)), median, or as
percentages. Two-sided P-values below 5% were considered statistically significant.
Statistical analyses were performed with IBM software package SPSS Statistics
version 20.

4. SURVEY RESULTS
4. SURVEY RESULTS
4.1 Recruitment and response rate
From the 1950 households and individuals originally selected from the sampling
frame, 1307 provided suitable data for inclusion in the survey database [1307/1950 =
67%]. Of these, 449 (34%) were excluded during quality control, as indicated in Fig.
4.1, following a stepwise procedure based on assessing the completeness of the 24-
hour urine collection: those who had missing data (n=11); all those who had declared
missing more than one void of urine collection (n=263); those with urinary volume
of less than 500 mL (n=0); those with a collection duration of less than 23 hours or
more than 25 hours (n=77); those without urinary creatinine (UCr) (n=2); and the
participants whose UCr collection was outside of 2 SDs of the sex-specific distribution
of UCr (n=37, men=13, women=24) [UCr for men > 28.442 – for women < 0.925 & >
21.745]. According to the selection criteria, the final sample was 858 (326 men and 532
women) (Fig. 4.1). The geographical sampling is provided in detail in Fig. 4.2.
Fig. 4.1. Stepwise procedure for excluding records after assessing the completeness
of 24-hour urine collections
1 307 (Total sample)

Missing data (n=11)
1 296
[M=493, F=803]
Participants that have declared missing more than 1 void (n=263)
1 033 [M=387, F=646]

Participants with urinary volume < 500 ml (n=0)
1 033 [M=387, F=646]

Participants with collection of duration < 23 h, > 25 h (n=77)
897 [M=340, F= 557]

Participants without UCr (n=2)
895 [M=339, F= 556]

Participants with collection in which UCr is outside 2 SDs of the
sex-specific distribution of UCr (n=37, M=13, F=24)
858 (Final sample)
[M=326, F= 532]
*Notes. M: male. F: female.

UCr [M >28.442 – F < 0.925 & > 21.745]

Fig. 4.2. Geographic sampling

Fig. 4.2. Geographical sampling

Anenii Noi (1.3%)
Balti (0.8%)
UKRAINE Basarabeasca (1.4%)
Briceni (4.7%)
Cahul (3.5%)
Calarasi (2.4%)
Cantemir (2.4%)
Causeni (0.8%)
Chisinau (30.7%)
Comrat/UTA (4.4%)
Criuleni (4.3%)
Edinet (3.1%)
ROMANIA Falesti (2.4%)
Glodeni (1.2%)
Hincesti (0.7%)
Ialoveni (4.4%)
Nisporeni (3.0%)
Ocnita (2.7%)
Orhei (4.8%)
Rezina (1.7%)
Riscani (0.6%)
Soldanesti (2.6%)
Soroca (2.2%)
Straseni (2.7%)
Ungheni (6.3%)
4.2 Sex and age distribution of respondents
There were 326 men and 532 women (Table 4.1). The age groups were equally
represented by sex. Younger participants (aged 18–29 years) were under-represented
compared to other age groups.
Table 4.1. Sex and age distribution of respondents

Age Men Women Both sexes
(years) n % n % n %
18–29 44 13.5 64 12.0 108 12.6
30–44 92 28.2 133 25.0 225 26.2
45–59 117 35.9 181 34.0 298 34.7
60–69 73 22.4 154 28.9 227 26.5
18–69 326 100.0 532 100.0 858 100.0
4.3 Demographic and socioeconomic characteristics

51
Other demographic and socioeconomic characteristics – including ethnicity, area of
residence, educational attainment, marital status, employment status, and income
– are reported in the data tables in Annex 2 (section 8.1 Demographic indicators,
Tables A1 to A17 inclusive).

4.4 History of NCDs and their risk factors
4.4.1 History of CVD
A total of 3.5% of all respondents reported having had a heart attack or chest pain
from heart disease or stroke (see Annex 2, section 8.6 CVD history, Table A130). A
total of 12.4% of respondents reported taking aspirin regularly and 3.5% of them took
statins to prevent or treat CVD (Table A131 and Table A132). The proportion of women
who reported taking aspirin and statins was higher than that of men (Table A132).
Information on healthy lifestyle advice for reducing the risk for CVD provided by a
doctor or health worker is reported in Annex 2 (section 8.7 Lifestyle advice, Tables
A133 to A138).
4.4.2 History of raised blood pressure
A total of 5.8% of respondents had never had their blood pressure measured (see Annex
2, section 8.5 Personal medical history, Table A111). A total of 73.9% had undergone
blood pressure measurement but had not been diagnosed with hypertension; 7.1%
had been diagnosed with high blood pressure more than a year before survey and
13.2% had been diagnosed with high blood pressure within the last 12 months, prior
to data collection. The proportion of women diagnosed with high blood pressure both
more than a year before the survey and within the past 12 months was higher than
that of men (Tables A109 to A111).
Compliance with high blood pressure treatment regimens was low. About half of all
respondents diagnosed with hypertension were taking medication prescribed by a doctor
or health worker; this level of compliance increased with age (Table A112). Information on
healthy lifestyle advice for raised blood pressure provided by a doctor or health worker is
reported in Annex 2 (section 8.5 Personal medical history, Tables A113 to A116). About one
fifth of respondents reported having seen a traditional healer or having taken herbal or
traditional remedies for high blood pressure (Table A117 and Table A118).
4.4.3. History of diabetes
A total of 16.5% of all respondents had never had their blood sugar measured and
80.0% of them had undergone the blood sugar test but had not been diagnosed with
diabetes. A total of 1.2% of all respondents had been diagnosed with high blood sugar
more than 12 months before the survey and 2.4% within the previous 12 months
(see Annex 2, section 8.5 Personal medical history, Table A121). The percentage of
respondents who had never undergone a test for high blood sugar was higher among
younger age groups compared to older age groups. The proportion of respondents
diagnosed both within the past 12 months and previously was also associated with
age (being higher in older age groups).
The percentage of respondents who never had their blood sugar measured was
higher among women than men (Tables A119 and A120). The proportion of men who
had undergone blood sugar measurement but had not been diagnosed with diabetes
was higher than that of women.

Tables A122 to A129 provide detailed data on the population diagnosed with diabetes,
in terms of the approach to tackling the condition; those prescribed insulin, other
medication or diet control measures; the proportions of individuals advised to lose
weight, stop smoking or increase their physical activity level; and those seeking
help from a traditional healer or taking herbal or traditional remedies for diabetes
(differentiated by age group and sex).
4.5 Anthropometry
The baseline characteristics of the participants’ height, weight and BMI are reported by
sex, age group and area of residence. Men were found to be taller than women (Table
4.2) across all age groups. They were also heavier, with the exception of the age group
60–69 years (Table 4.3). The resulting BMI distribution indicated that women had a
higher BMI than men across all age groups (Table 4.4). The combined percentages of
the mean BMI was higher within rural areas (BMI 29.1; versus BMI 26.6 in urban areas),
with highest mean BMI recorded among women from rural areas (mean BMI 29.6 kg/
m2) (see Annex 2, section 8.2 Anthropometry and physical measurements, Table A18).
Obesity rates (BMI ≥30) were found to be higher in women than in men (35.3% versus
26.3%), with the highest rate among older adults aged 45 years and above (Table A19
and Table A20). In contrast, prevalence of overweight (BMI 25.0–29.9) was higher in
men than in women (39.3% versus 37.6%). Further classifications by area of residence
and prevalence of overweight or obesity by sex and age can be seen in the Annex 2
(section 8.2, Tables A18 to A23). Table 4.5, Table 4.6 and Table 4.7 show the sex and age
distributions of waist and hip circumferences and the WHR; a measure of adiposity.
Younger men (aged under 59 years) had a higher WHR than women (Table 4.7).
Table 4.2. Mean height (cm) of participants, by sex and age group
Age Men Women
(years) n Mean 95% CI n Mean 95% CI
height height
(cm) (cm)
18–29 44 173.7 170.9 176.5 63 165.2 163.1 167.3
30–44 92 175.6 174.0 177.2 130 163.2 162.0 164.4
45–59 115 171.7 170.3 173.1 180 163.5 162.5 164.5
60–69 72 170.6 168.7 172.4 151 160.9 159.9 161.9
18–69 323 172.8 171.9 173.7 524 162.9 162.3 163.5
Table 4.3. Mean weight (kg) of participants, by sex and age group
Age Men Women
weight weight
(kg) (kg)
18–29 44 71.4 68.1 74.7 63 65.7 62.2 69.3
30–44 92 82.6 79.8 85.4 130 71.8 69.1 74.4
45–59 115 84.3 81.3 87.4 180 80.8 78.7 83.0
60–69 73 94.9 72.5 117.2 151 77.6 75.3 79.9
18–69 324 84.5 79.3 89.6 524 75.8 74.5 77.2

Table 4.4. Mean BMI (kg/m2) of participants, by sex and age group
(years) n Mean 95% CI n Mean 95% CI n Mean 95% CI
BMI (kg/ BMI (kg/ BMI (kg/
m2) m2) m2)
18–29 44 23.7 22.7 24.7 63 23.9 22.9 25.0 107 23.8 23.1 24.6
30–44 92 26.8 25.9 27.6 130 26.9 26.0 27.9 222 26.9 26.2 27.5
45–59 115 28.5 27.6 29.5 180 30.3 29.5 31.1 295 29.6 29.0 30.2
60–69 72 28.7 27.5 30.0 151 30.0 29.1 30.8 223 29.6 28.9 30.3
18–69 323 27.4 26.9 28.0 524 28.6 28.1 29.1 847 28.1 27.8 28.5
Table 4.5. Mean waist circumference (cm) of participants, by sex and age group
Age Men Women
circumference circumference
(cm) (cm)
18–29 42 80.1 77.0 83.1 63 78.4 75.1 81.7
30–44 92 92.9 90.1 95.6 130 85.3 82.7 87.8
45–59 113 97.5 94.8 100.2 179 96.5 94.6 98.4
60–69 71 97.2 93.3 101.1 148 97.7 95.6 99.8
18–69 318 93.8 92.1 95.5 520 91.8 90.5 93.1
Table 4.6. Mean hip circumference (cm) of participants, by sex and age group
Age Men Women
circumference circumference
(cm) (cm)
18–29 42 94.5 89.6 99.4 63 97.4 94.5 100.2
30–44 92 100.2 97.8 102.5 130 102.2 100.1 104.4
45–59 113 101.6 99.5 103.6 179 110.5 108.5 112.5
60–69 71 102.8 100.0 105.6 148 109.4 107.3 111.4
18–69 318 100.5 99.2 101.9 520 106.5 105.3 107.7
Table 4.7. Mean WHR of participants, by sex and age group

Age Men Women
(years)
n Mean ratio 95% CI N Mean ratio 95% CI
18–29 42 0.9 0.8 0.9 63 0.8 0.8 0.8
30–44 92 0.9 0.9 0.9 130 0.8 0.8 0.8
45–59 113 1.0 0.9 1.0 179 0.9 0.9 0.9
60–69 71 0.9 0.9 1.0 148 0.9 0.9 0.9
18–69 318 0.9 0.9 0.9 520 0.9 0.8 0.9
4.6 Blood pressure and pulse rate
Both SBP and DBP increased with age in both sexes (Table 4.8 and Table 4.9). Men had
higher SBP and DBP than women across all age groups. Of all the study respondents,
excluding those taking medication for raised blood pressure, 38.2% had hypertension
(SBP ≥140 mmHg and/or DBP ≥90 mmHg) with higher proportion of men (41.1%) than
of women (36.4%) (see Annex 2, section 8.2, Table A24). The proportion of respondents

who had very high blood pressure (SBP ≥160 mmHg and/or DBP ≥100 mmHg) was
12.2%, with only a small difference between men and women (11.4% in men versus
12.6% in women) (Table A26). In particular, the prevalence of hypertension (defined
as present in those with SBP >140 mmHg and/or DBP>90 mmHg, or individuals on
anti-hypertensive treatment) was 45.5% overall, and comparable by sex (Table A25).
There was an expected rise in prevalence with age in both men and women (Table
A25). The proportion of respondents with very high blood pressure, defined as SBP
≥160 mmHg and/or DBP ≥100 mmHg (or those on anti-hypertensive treatment) was
overall 22.4%, with higher prevalence in women (24.8%) than in men (18.6%) (Table
A27). When analysed together, among respondents identified as having high blood
pressure (SBP ≥140 mmHg and/or DBP ≥90 mmHg) and those taking medication for
raised blood pressure, only 4.4% had controlled blood pressure (taking medication
and SBP <140 mmHg and DBP <90 mmHg), with higher prevalence among the rural
population (5.2%) and in older adults aged 45 years and above (5.0–5.3%) (Table A32
and Table A33). A significant difference was found between men and women (5.9%
of women have controlled blood pressure in comparison with 2.0% of men). Women
from rural areas control their blood pressure better than women from urban areas
(7.0% versus 3.8%) (Table A31).
Table 4.8. Mean SBP (mmHg) of participants, by sex and age group
(years) Mean Mean Mean
n 95% CI n 95% CI n 95% CI
SBP SBP SBP
18–29 44 124.1 121.1 127.2 63 116.3 112.9 119.7 107 119.5 117.1 122.0
30–44 92 130.2 127.6 132.7 130 121.8 119.1 124.6 222 125.3 123.3 127.3
45–59 115 138.8 135.7 142.0 180 136.7 133.4 140.0 295 137.5 135.2 139.9
60–69 72 146.8 141.2 152.5 151 145.5 141.9 149.1 223 145.9 142.9 148.9
18–69 323 136.1 134.1 138.2 524 133.1 131.1 135.0 847 134.3 132.8 135.7
Table 4.9. Mean DBP (mmHg) of participants, by sex and age group
(years) n Mean 95% CI n Mean 95% CI n Mean 95% CI
SBP SBP SBP
18–29 44 81.2 79.0 83.3 63 77.8 75.3 80.3 107 79.2 77.5 80.9
30–44 92 85.3 83.4 87.3 130 83.8 82.0 85.6 222 84.5 83.1 85.8
45–59 115 89.0 87.0 90.9 180 88.3 86.5 90.2 295 88.6 87.2 89.9
60–69 72 90.2 87.1 93.3 151 90.7 88.7 92.8 223 90.6 88.8 92.3
18–69 323 87.1 86.0 88.33 524 86.6 85.6 87.7 847 86.8 86.0 87.6
A total of 21.3% of respondents were taking medications but had raised blood pressure
(SBP ≥140 mmHg and DBP ≥90 mmHg), with much higher prevalence among women
than in men (24.9% among women versus 15.5% among men). Almost two thirds
of respondents (74.3%) were not taking medications and had raised blood pressure
(SBP ≥140 mmHg and DBP ≥90 mmHg) with higher prevalence in men (82.4% in men
in comparison with 69.2% in women). The distribution of respondents according to
their level of treatment by sex, age groups and area of residence are reported in
detail in the data tables in the Annex 2 (section 8.2, Tables A28 to A33).
Mean pulse rate was comparable in men and women and did not vary significantly
by age group (Table 4.10).

Table 4.10. Mean pulse rate (b/min) of participants, by sex and age group
(years) Mean Mean Mean
n BPM 95% CI n BPM 95% CI n BPM 95% CI
18–29 44 77.2 73.8 80.5 63 74.4 71.9 76.9 107 75.5 73.5 77.5
30–44 92 76.4 74.5 78.3 130 73.8 72.4 75.1 222 74.9 73.7 76.0
45–59 115 78.9 77.0 80.8 180 75.6 74.2 77.0 295 76.9 75.7 78.0
60–69 72 79.0 76.5 81.5 151 76.2 74.8 77.6 223 77.1 75.9 78.3
18–69 323 78.0 76.8 79.1 524 75.2 74.4 75.9 847 76.2 75.6 76.9
4.7 UNa excretion
Mean, median, standard deviation and 95% CI for UNa excretion (in mmol/24h) are
reported in Table 4.11 to Table 4.16 by sex, area of residence and age group. Mean UNa
excretion was 172.7 (SD 79.3) mmol/24h (Table 4.11), equivalent to a mean consumption
of 10.8 g of salt per day (Table 4.12). The graphic distribution of mean UNa excretion
was bell-shaped with a tail towards higher values (Fig. 4.3).
Table 4.11. UNa excretion (mmol/24h) in total and by sex
n Mean Median SD 95% CI

Both sexes 858 172.7 160.9 79.3 167.3–178.0
Men 326 183.9* 170.7 86.0 174.5–193.2
Women 532 165.8 155.3 74.1 159.5–172.1
*p<0.01 (men versus women)
Table 4.12. Daily salt intake (g) overall, by sex and by area of residence
Both sexes 858 10.8 10.0 4.9 10.4–11.1
Men 326 11.5* 10.7 5.4 10.9–12.1

Women 532 10.3 9.7 4.6 10.0–10.7
Rural 531 11.3** 10.8 5.0 10.8–11.7

Urban 327 10.0 9.2 4.8 9.5–10.5
*p=0.001 (men versus women); **p<0.001 (rural versus urban)
Men excreted more sodium than women (mean difference 18.1 mmol/24h, p<0.01).
Excretion was higher in rural than urban areas with a difference in means of
20.3 mmol/24h, p<0.001 (Table 4.13). There was a significant difference between
women in rural areas versus those in urban areas, with a difference in means of
24 mmol/24h, p<0.001 (Table 4.14). Excretion also increased with increasing age (Table
4.15), but more clearly in men (Table 4.16).

Fig. 4.3. Distribution of mean UNa excretion, both sexes
100
N=858
Mean=172.7 mmol/24h
80 SD=79.3 mmol/24h
Frequency (n)
60
40
20
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Urinary Na excretion (mmol/24h)
Table 4.13. UNa excretion (mmol/24h) by area of residence, both sexes

Rural 531 180.4* 172.3 80.2 173.5–187.2
Urban 327 160.1 147.8 76.2 151.8–168.4
*p<0.001 (rural versus urban)
Table 4.14. UNa excretion (mmol/24h), by area of residence and sex

Men
Rural 191 190.9 178.5 85.6 178.7–203.1
Urban 135 173.9 154.5 85.9 159.2–188.5
Women
Rural 340 174.5* 167.4 76.4 166.3–182.6
Urban 192 150.5 143.1 67.1 140.9–160.0
Notes. Men: p=0.08 (rural versus urban). *Women: p<0.001.
Table 4.15. UNa excretion (mmol/24h) by age group, both sexes
Age (years) n Mean Median SD 95% CI

18–29 108 152.5 150.5 69.8 139.2–165.8
30–44 225 166.2 147.8 74.4 156.4–176.0
45–59 298 179.6 170.5 81.3 170.3–188.8
60–69 227 179.6* 161.3 83.6 168.7–190.5
*p<0.01 by ANOVA

Table 4.16. UNa excretion (mmol/24h) by age group and sex
Men
18–29 44 156.0 154.5 65.3 136.1–175.9
30–44 92 178.1 150.0 84.5 160.6–195.6
45–59 117 188.2 181.7 90.2 171.6–204.7
60–69 73 200.9 181.8* 88.7 180.2–221.6
Women
18–29 64 150.1 146.9 73.1 131.8–168.4
30–44 133 157.9 147.6 65.7 146.7–169.2
45–59 181 174.0 163.5 74.8 163.0–185.0
60–69 154 169.5 157.6 79.3 156.8–182.1
Notes. *Men: p=0.04; women: p=0.07, by ANOVA.
4.8 UK excretion
Mean, median, standard deviation and 95% CI for UK excretion (in mmol/24h) are
reported in Table 4.17 to Table 4.22 by sex, area of residence, and age group. The
distribution of mean UK excretion was bell-shaped with a tail towards higher values
(Fig. 4.4).
Table 4.17. UK excretion (mmol/24h) overall and by sex

Both sexes 858 72.7 68.8 31.5 70.6–74.8
Men 326 76.0* 70.1* 33.4 72.3–79.6
Women 532 70.7 67.8 30.1 68.1–73.3
*p=0.02 (men versus women)
Table 4.18. Daily potassium intake (g) overall, by sex and by area of residence

Both sexes 858 3.7 3.6 1.6 3.6–3.8
Men 326 3.8* 3.5 1.7 3.7–4.0

Women 532 3.6 3.4 1.5 3.4–3.7
Rural 531 3.7** 3.6 1.6 3.6–3.9

Urban 327 3.6 3.4 1.6 3.4–3.8
*p=0.017 (men versus women); **p=0.2 (rural versus urban)
Mean UK excretion was 72.7 (SD 31.5) mmol/24h (Table 4.17), equivalent to 3.7 g of
potassium per day (Table 4.18). Men excreted more potassium than women (mean
difference 5.3 mmol/24h, p=0.02). Excretion was comparable between rural and
urban areas (Table 4.19), and across sexes (Table 4.20). Excretion tended to increase
with increasing age (Table 4.21), but more clearly in men (Table 4.22).

Table 4.19. UK excretion (mmol/24h), by area of residence, both sexes
Rural 531 73.8 70.1 31.6 71.1–76.5

Urban 327 71.0 67.1 31.2 67.6–74.4
Note. p=0.2 (rural versus urban)
Table 4.20. UK excretion (mmol/24h), by area of residence and sex

Men
Rural 191 77.1 72.0 32.4 72.5–81.7
Urban 135 74.4 69.1 34.8 68.5–80.4
Women
Rural 340 71.9 69.1 31.1 68.6–75.2
Urban 192 68.5 64.8 28.2 64.5–72.5
Notes. Men: p=0.5; women: p=0.2 (rural versus urban).
Table 4.21. UK excretion (mmol/24h), by age group, both sexes
Age (years) n Mean* Median SD 95% CI

18–29 108 68.8 64.4 33.9 62.4–75.3
30–44 225 70.0 65.4 28.6 66.3–73.8
45–59 298 76.1 72.9 32.4 72.4–79.8
60–69 227 72.8 69.7 31.4 68.7–76.9
Note. p=0.08, by ANOVA
Table 4.22. UK excretion (mmol/24h), by age group and sex

Men
18–29 44 69.6 64.1 36.7 58.4–80.7
30–44 92 76.3 72.3 30.1 70.1–82.5
45–59 117 74.9 70.1 34.7 68.6–81.3
60–69 73 81.1 75.1 33.1 73.4–88.8
Women
18–29 64 68.3 64.8 32.2 60.3–76.4
30–44 133 65.7 60.1 26.8 61.1–70.2
45–59 181 76.9 75.8 31.0 72.3–81.4
60–69 154 68.8* 67.1 29.9 64.1–73.6
Notes. Men: p=0.3. Women: *p<0.01, by ANOVA.

Fig. 4.4. Distribution of mean UK excretion, both sexes
100
N=858
Mean=72.7 mmol/24h
80 SD=31.5 mmol/24h
Frequency (n)
60
40
20
0
0 50 100 150 200
Urinary K excretion (mmol/24h)
4.9 Urinary volume and UCr excretion
Mean urinary volume and UCr excretion are reported in Table 4.23 for the whole sample,
including both men and women and urban and rural settings. As expected, men
excreted more urine than women (probably reflecting higher drinking volumes) and
more creatinine (expression of greater lean body mass) than women. There was less
volume excretion and higher creatinine excretion in rural compared to urban areas.
Table 4.23. Urinary volume (ml/24h) and UCr excretions (mg/24h) overall, by sex
and by area of residence
Creatinine
Volume (ml/24h)
(mg/24h)
n Mean SD Mean SD
Both sexes 858 1441 529 11.7 5.0
Men 326 1505* 536 13.3§ 5.6

Women 532 1401 521 10.7 4.2
Rural 531 1333 427 12.3† 4.8

Urban 327 1616§ 624 11.4 5.0
Notes. *p=0.005; §p<0.001 (men versus women). †p<0.01; §p<0.001 (urban versus rural).
4.10 UI excretion
Mean, median, standard deviation and 95% CI for UI excretion (in mcg/24h) are
reported in Table 4.24 by sex and area of residence. The distribution of mean UI
excretion was bell-shaped with a tail towards higher values (Fig. 4.5). Mean UI
excretion was 225 (SD 152) mcg/24h, with a median excretion of 196 mcg/24h (Table
4.24).

There were no significant differences in daily UI excretion by sex, area of residence,
or age group (see Annex 2, Section 8.2 Anthropometry and physical measurements,
Table A34 to Table A36).
Table 4.24. UI excretion (mcg/24h) and iodine content of table salt (mg/kg) overall, by
sex and by area of residence
UI excretion (mcg/24h)
Both sexes 856 225 196 152 215–235
Men 326 232 200 154 215–249
Women 530 221 190 150 208–233
Rural 529 225 186 145 211–239
Urban 327 224 202 128 210–238
Iodine content of table salt (mg/kg)
Both sexes 856 21.0 – 18.6 19.8–22.3
Men 326 22.1 – 18.2 20.2–24.1
Women 530 20.3 – 18.9 18.7–21.9
Rural 529 16.7 – 18.6 15.1–18.2
Urban 327 28.1† – 16.5 26.3–29.9
Notes. Urine: p=0.3 (men versus women); p=0.9 (rural versus urban). Salt: p=0.16 (men versus women);
†p<0.001 (rural versus urban).
Fig. 4.5. Distribution of mean UI excretion, both sexes
120
N=856
Mean=224.9 mmol/24h
100 SD=151.8 mmol/24h
80
Frequency (n)
60
40
20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Urinary lodine excretion (mcg/24h)
4.11 Proportion of the population meeting WHO target recommendations for

sodium, potassium and iodine consumption
Considering current WHO target recommendations (8,29,30), the proportion of

participants achieving salt consumption targets of 5 g or less per day was only 11.3%,
with similar proportion in men and women. In rural areas the proportion tended to
be lower (10.0%) than in urban areas (13.5%) (Table 4.25).

The proportion of participants consuming adequate amounts of potassium (>90 mmol
per day) was 49.7% overall. There were no differences between men and women and
rural and urban participants (Table 4.25).
Table 4.25. Proportion of participants meeting WHO recommended targets for salt
and potassium consumption, overall, by sex and by area of residence
Target All Men Women Urban Rural

(per day) (n=858) (326) (532) (327) (531)
n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%)
Salt 97 38 59 44 53
<5g (11.3) (11.7) (11.1) (13.5) (10.0)
Potassium 426 171 255 152 274
>90 mmol (49.7) (52.5) (47.9) (46.5) (51.6)
Finally, UI excretion (as measure of intake) was adequate in 40.9% of participants,

irrespective of sex or area of residence (Table 4.26). Iodine consumption was above
requirement or excessive in 30.3% of the participants, irrespective of sex or area of
residence. Of the 28.6% who fell into the category indicating insufficient consumption
(equally distributed by sex and area of residence), only 2.3% had severe deficiency
(Table 4.26).
Table 4.26.Proportion of participants meeting WHO targets for iodine consumption

(based on UI concentrations in mcg/L derived from 24-hour urine collections), overall,
by sex and by area of residence
Group All Men Women Urban Rural

(mcg/L) (n=856) (326) (530) (327) (529)
n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%)
Insufficient (<100) 245 (28.6) 95 (29.1) 150 (28.2) 104 (31.8) 141 (26.6)
Severe (<20) 20 (2.3) 6 (1.8) 14 (2.6) 4 (1.2) 16 (3.0)
Moderate (20–49) 60 (7.0) 24 (7.4) 36 (6.8) 28 (8.6) 32 (6.0)
Mild (50–99) 165 (19.2) 65 (19.9) 100 (18.8) 72 (22.0) 93 (17.5)
Adequate
351 (40.9) 132 (40.5) 219 (41.2) 131 (40.1) 220 (41.4)
(100–199)
Above requirement
152 (17.7) 59 (18.1) 93 (17.5) 58 (17.7) 94 (17.7)
(200–299)
Excessive
108 (12.6) 40 (12.3) 68 (12.8) 34 (10.4) 74 (13.9)
(>300)
4.12 Dietary salt: knowledge, attitudes and practices
Consumption of salt was assessed by asking survey participants about the frequency,
quantity and type of salt used in their household, as well as their cooking habits and
their attitudes towards dietary salt. A total of 35.4% of respondents mentioned that
they added salt always or often before eating or while eating (see Annex 2, section
8.4 Dietary salt, Table A83 and Table A84). The middle age group (30-44 years) showed
the highest proportion of those who added salt always or often before eating or while
eating (39.2%). The percentage of men who added salt always or often to their meal
was significant higher than that of women (Table A83).
A total of 61.3% of respondents reported that they always or often added salt when
cooking or preparing food at home (Table A85 and Table A86); this was the case more
often in rural than in urban areas (Table A86). More than half of the respondents
(64.4%) mentioned that they used iodized salt when cooking or preparing food at
home (Table A87 and Table A88). Consumption of iodized salt, however, tended to
decrease with age (Table A87) and it was higher in urban than in rural areas (Table
A88).
About a quarter (26.7%) of respondents felt they consumed too much salt or far too
much salt, with a higher proportion of men than women believing this (32.1% versus
23.3%) (Tables A91 to A94). More than half acknowledged that consuming too much
salt could cause serious health problems (Tables A95 to A98). Despite the fact that
more than half of respondents were aware that salt consumption can cause serious
health problems, only 28.2% considered lowering salt in diet to be very important
(Tables A99 to A101). More than a quarter of respondents mentioned that they
consumed processed foods high in salt, with more men than women doing so (34.9%
versus 23.5%, respectively) and more people in urban settings than among the rural
population (39.2% versus 20.8%, respectively) (Table A89 and Table A90).
Respondents were asked about actions they take to control salt intake on a regular
basis. A total of 81.7% limited their consumption of processed food high in salt; 22.3%
of respondents were using spices other than salt when cooking and 31.1% mentioned
that they did not add salt when cooking. Only 8.8% of respondents noted that they
looked at salt or sodium content on food labels and 14.3% reported that they bought
low salt/sodium alternatives (Table 4.27) (see section 8.4, Tables A102 to A106). A total
of 33.1% of respondents reported avoiding eating food prepared outside of a home and
0.8% took other measures to control salt intake (Table A107 and Table A108).
Table 4.27. Practices relating to the use of salt
Proportion (%)
People who:
(95% C.I.)
81.7
limit their consumption of processed food
[76.9–86.5]
8.8
look at salt/sodium content in foods
[5.3–12.3]
14.3
buy low salt/sodium alternatives
[10.0–18.6]
31.1
do not add salt when cooking
[25.4–36.8]
22.3
use spices instead of salt when cooking
[17.2–27.4]
33.1
avoid eating food prepared outside a home
[27.3–38.9]
0.8
take other measures to control salt intake
[0.3–1.9]

4.13 Fruit and vegetable consumption
Full results on the consumption of fruit and vegetables are given in Annex 2 (see
section 8.3 Diet, Tables A37 to A50). The average consumption was 4.4 servings per
day. The overall consumption was greater in urban than in rural areas (5.1 versus
4.0 servings per day, respectively). More than half the sample of respondents
(56%) reported consuming fewer than five servings of fruit and vegetables per
day.
Fruit was consumed, on average, 5.2 days a week, while vegetables were consumed
5.8 days a week. Compared to rural areas, urban areas had the most frequent
consumption of fruit (6.0 versus 4.7 days a week) and vegetables (6.4 versus
5.5 days a week). Average servings were 2.19 servings per day of fruit and 2.20
servings per day of vegetables, with more consumed in urban than in rural areas
(2.6 versus 1.9 servings/day of fruit and 2.4 versus 2.1 servings/day of vegetables,
respectively).
4.14 Food consumption frequency
Frequency of consumption of food contributing to salt intake during the previous year
was assessed by age group, sex and area of residence by means of a questionnaire
(presented in Annex 1). Respondents were asked about frequency and quantity of
food consumption.
4.14.1 Bread
Bread is one of the staple foods for the population of the Republic of Moldova and
the main source of salt in the diet, alongside salt added to food during cooking or
while eating. Information on bread consumption can be found in Annex 2 (section
8.3 Diet, Tables A51 to A54). The most common form of bread consumed was white
bread. The majority of respondents of both sexes (55.4%) reported consuming white
bread 2–3 times per day. Rural populations consumed higher proportions than urban
populations. One fifth (20.4%) consumed black bread 2–3 times per day. Whole-grain
bread is rarely consumed by the population of the Republic of Moldova; only 1.3% of
respondents reported consuming this type of bread 2–3 times per day.
4.14.2 Cereals
Information on consumption of cereals can be found in Annex 2 (section 8.3 Diet,

Tables A55 to A58). About a quarter of respondents of both sexes (23.1%) reported
consuming cereals or rice once a day, with a higher proportion among women than
men; more frequently in urban than in rural areas; and with variation among age
groups. Only 6% reported consuming breakfast cereals daily (muesli, cornflakes,
oats).

4.14.3 Pizza, pie and pasta
Information on consumption of pizza, pies and pasta are reported in Annex 2 (Tables
A59 to A62). Pizza is not popular among the population of the Republic of Moldova, with
98.5% of respondents consuming this product only once per week or less frequently.
Younger age groups, men, and urban populations were the main consumers of pizza.
Pie, a traditional food in the country, was reported to be consumed 2–4 days per week
by 20.1% of respondents of both sexes, with a higher proportion among men than
women. The proportion of respondents consuming pie 2–4 days per week was higher
among younger age groups and among the urban population. About one in three
respondents (28.1%) reported consuming pasta or macaroni 2–4 days per week, with
a higher proportion among men and among the rural population.
4.14.4 Salty snacks
Information on salty snack consumption is reported in Annex 2 (section 8.3 Diet,

Tables A63 to A66). Salty snacks or crisps were consumed once a week or less by more
than 99% of respondents, with small differences among the age groups, by sex and
by area of residence.
4.14.5 Processed meat products
Information on the consumption of processed meat products is reported in Annex 2

(Tables A67 to A70). One fifth of respondents (19.7%) ate cooked sausages, salami and
liverwurst 2–4 days per week. The highest percentage was identified in the age group
18–29 years (31.8%) and in urban areas (35.5%). Pastrami, smoked ham and cured and/
or smoked salami were consumed 2–4 times per week by 16.1% of the population. The
vast majority of respondents reported consuming canned meat (94.1%) and semi-
prepared meat products (99.1%) once per week or less often.
4.14.6 Processed fish products
Information on consumption of processed fish products is reported in Annex 2 (Tables

A71 to A74). Salty, smoked, marinated or canned fish were eaten by the majority of
respondents (more than 95%) once per week or less, with small variations between
the age groups, by sex and by area of residence.
4.14.7 Dairy products
Information on consumption of dairy products are reported in Annex 2 (section 8.3

Diet, Tables A75 to A78). About a quarter (23.3%) of respondents of both sexes reported
consuming hard or soft cheese 2–4 times per week, with a much higher proportion in
urban (48.1%) compared to rural areas (7.9%). Consumption levels tended to decrease
with age among both sexes. A total of 3.8% of respondents reported consuming hard
and soft cheese once per day and 71.3% once per week or less. Sheep’s cheese was
consumed by a quarter of respondents (24.5%) of both sexes 2–4 times per week, with

a higher proportion in rural areas (30.2%) compared to urban areas (15.4%). About
1 in 10 respondents of both sexes consumed sheep’s cheese 2–3 times per day; 5%
consumed it 5–6 times per week; and 59.6% once a week or less often.
4.14.8 Pickled and marinated vegetables, sauces
Information on consumption of pickled/marinated vegetables, and sauces is reported

in Annex 2 (Tables A79 to A82). Pickled vegetables and sauces (ketchup, mayonnaise,
adjika, etc.) were consumed 2–4 days per week by 14.2% and 12.1% of respondents,
respectively, with the proportion almost twice as high in men as in women. Pickled
vegetables were consumed 2–4 days per week by almost one fifth of respondents
from rural areas (18.9%), compared to 6.5% of those from urban areas. Sauces had
the reverse distribution: about one fifth of respondents (19.4%) from urban areas
consumed sauces 2–4 days per week, compared to 7.6% of those from rural areas.
4.15 Salt content in food samples
Bread is the biggest contributor to salt intake; every 100 g supplies 1.85 g of salt
(95% CI: 1.62–2.08) to the population’s diet. Taking into account that the average
consumption of bread in the Republic of Moldova is 300 g per day (31),1 it is possible
to assess that bread provides more than the daily recommended amount of salt for
an adult diet (5.55 g as compared to the 5 g recommended by WHO). Sausages and
cheese each supply on average 1.88 g of salt per 100 g of product. Sweet pastry and
ice cream also contribute to the salt intake of the population. Salt content in various
food samples is presented in Table 4.28.
Table 4.28. Salt content in various food samples (grams of salt per 100 g of food)
Food group n Mean 95% CI
(g/100g)
Bread (white and brown) 15 1.85 1.62–2.08
Sausages (salami (boiled), liverwurst*) 65 1.88 1.81–1.95
Cheese (hard) 10 1.88 1.84–1.92
Savoury pastry (pizza, pie) 26 1.28 1.14–1.42
Sweet pastry 41 0.49 0.39–0.59
Salty snacks 18 2.63 1.95–3.31
Canned and semi-prepared meat products 20 1.37 1.18–1.56
Ready-to-eat foods** 8 1.23 1.04–1.42
Smoked fish 4 3.25 2.75–3.75
Butter 3 0.1 0.084–0.12
Ice cream 4 0.23 0.19–0.27
* Cooked sausages of the “doctor’s sausage” type. ** For example hamburger, kebab, McDonald’s Big
Mac, cheeseburger.
1 According to data from the NBS, consumption of bread and bakery products per capita in 2016 constituted 116.8 kg,
which is equal to 320 g per day (31).

4.16 Household consumption of iodized salt
More than half (57.2%) of the 856 households visited consumed salt containing
15 mg/kg of iodine or more, while 23% of them consumed salt that was not iodized
(Table 4.29).2 The consumption of iodized salt was significantly higher in urban
compared to rural areas (77.9% versus 44.5%, respectively (p<0.001)); it was associated
with a higher level of education (from 50.3% in those with lower-secondary school
qualifications to 72.9% in those with university-level education or higher (p<0.001))
and increasing wealth (from 50.6% in quintile 1 of the wealth index to 80.9% in
quintile 5 (p=0.001)) (Table 4.29).
Table 4.29. Consumption of iodized salt per household by area of residence, level of
education and wealth index
No. of Percentage of households with salt test results P-value
households Not iodized >0 and <15 mg/ ≥ 15 mg/kg
0 mg/kg kg
Total 856 196 (22.9) 170 (19.9) 490 (57.2)
Area
Urban 326 32 (9.8) 40 (12.3) 254 (77.9) <0.001
Rural 530 164 (30.9) 130 (24.5) 236 (44.5)
Level of education
Total 808 182 (22.5) 157 (19.4) 469 (58.0)
Lower-secondary <0.001
school/ 185 53 (28.6) 39 (21.1) 93 (50.3)
gymnasium
Upper-secondary
180 47 (26.1) 34 (18.9) 99 (55.0)
school/lyceum
College/
260 60 (23.1) 55 (21.2) 145 (55.8)
vocational school
University/
postgraduate 181 22 (12.2) 27 (14.9) 132 (72.9)
degree
Wealth index (per year)
Total 430 73 (17.0) 65 (15.1) 292 (67.9)
Quintile 1 77 19 (24.7) 19 (24.7) 39 (50.6) 0.001
Quintile 2 70 19 (27.1) 7 (10.0) 44 (62.9)
Quintile 3 95 11 (11.6) 14 (14.7) 70 (73.7)
Quintile 4 94 16 (17.0) 15 (16.0) 63 (67.0)
Quintile 5 94 8 (8.5) 10 (10.6) 76 (80.9)
2 Of the 858 households (matching individuals) included in the analysis, two did not have iodine measurements, so the final
sample for the iodine analysis was 856.

5. CONCLUSIONS
5. CONCLUSIONS
D
iseases of the circulatory system are the leading cause of morbidity, disability
and mortality in the Republic of Moldova, accounting for every second death
in recent years. Unhealthy diet and high blood pressure are two main risk
factors for CVD that account for most of the disease burden in the country. High salt
consumption is a significant determinant of high blood pressure.
Almost half of the adult population has raised blood pressure, with no difference
between the sexes. About two thirds of the population were not taking medication and
had raised blood pressure, with this being the case more among men than women.
A modest reduction in blood pressure would have important public health benefits.
Reducing salt intake at the population level would reduce the risk of heightened
blood pressure and CVD.
Salt intake in adults in the Republic of Moldova (especially in men) exceeds by more
than twofold the WHO recommended maximum population target of 5 g/day. Bread
is the biggest contributor of salt to the diet, providing more than the recommended
daily salt intake for the majority of the population. Adding salt to food always or
often when cooking, before eating or while eating, is a common practice among the
population of the Republic of Moldova. A comprehensive programme for reducing
salt intake among the population needs to be implemented at national level through
systematic efforts, including raising public awareness and changing behaviours
through communication (for example via health care professionals and education
in schools). Structured programmes should also be implemented to: reformulate
industrially processed food; set the framework for the food industry to reduce salt;
introduce labelling to highlight the salt content of foods; and monitor and evaluate
salt intake.
Based on international experience and using national dietary intake data, the
Government of the Republic of Moldova can set salt reduction targets by food category

for the foods that contribute most to increased salt intake among the population,
with the objective of achieving a 30% reduction in salt consumption by 2025.
Only one in two people consume sufficient potassium in the country. In response to
this, public policies should be directed towards encouraging an increase in intake
of fruit, vegetables, pulses and nuts to increase potassium consumption to at least
90 mmol/day. Increasing availability and affordability, along with health promotion
and health education activities, can contribute to achieving this.
About 6 out of 10 households in the Republic of Moldova consumed adequately iodized

salt, with a significantly higher proportion among the urban population, people with
higher levels of education, and those with a higher wealth index. Iodine consumption
was adequate in 40.9% of participants, while around 30% consumed excessive
amounts and 28.6% had insufficient consumption. A programme to encourage the
reduction of population salt intake is an opportunity to revise the criteria for iodine
fortification among the adult population, and to correct both the current deficiency
and the excess detected.

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26. Ohashi T, Yamaki M, Pandav CS, Karmarkar MG, Irie M. Simple microplate method for
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27. Jooste PL, Strydom E. Methods for determination of iodine in urine and salt. Best Pract Res Clin
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28. Cappuccio FP, Ji C, Donfrancesco C, Palmieri L, Ippolito R, Vanuzzo D, et al. Geographic and
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494b-9840-9cb85498f247).

7. ANNEX 1.
QUESTIONNAIRE
Questionnaire for determining sodium content in 24-hour urine samples,
7. ANNEX 1. QUESTIONNAIRE
Republic of Moldova, 2016

Part I
Survey information
Location and date Response Code

Locality ID
I1
└─┴─┴─┴─┴─┴─┘
Locality name I2
Rayon/Municipality I3
Interviewer ID
I4
└─┴─┴─┘
Date of completion of the question-
naire └─┴─┘ └─┴─┘ └─┴─┴─┴─┘ I5
dd mm year
Selection of survey participant (among all eligible household members – according
to the Android methodology for the STEPS survey)
Participant ID
16
└─┴─┴─┴─┘
Consent, interview language, name Response Code
Consent has been read and obtained Yes 1
I7
No 2 IF NO, END
Sex (Record Male / Female as Male 1 Go to I10
observed) I8
Female 2
For women: Are you pregnant or Yes 1 IF YES, END
breastfeeding or menstruating? I9
No 2
What is your date of birth?
Don’t Know 77 └─┴─┘ └─┴─┘ └─┴─┴─┴─┘ If known, Go to I12 I10
dd mm year
How old are you? Years └─┴─┘ I11
Have you ever had a heart or kidney Yes 1 IF YES, END
failure, stroke or liver disease? I12
No 2
In the past two weeks, have you taken Yes 1 IF YES, END
any diuretics prescribed by a doctor No 2 I13
or other health worker?
Interview language Romanian 1
I14
Russian 2
Time of interview
(24-hour clock) └─┴─┘ : └─┴─┘ I15
hrs mins
Family surname I16
First name I17
Additional Information that may be helpful
Contact phone number where
I18
possible

1. Demographic information
Demographic information
Question Response Code
In total, how many years have you
spent at school and in full-time Years C1
study (excluding preschool)? └─┴─┘
No formal schooling/less than primary school 1
Primary school completed (gr.1–4) 2
Gymnasium completed (gr.5–9) 3
What is the highest level of
education you have completed?
Lyceum/secondary school completed 4 C2
College/vocational school completed 5
University completed/ postgraduate degree 6
Refused 88
Romanian/Moldovan 1
Russian 2
Ukrainian 3
What is your ethnic group/
background?
Roma 4 C3
Gagauz 5
Other ethnic groups 6
Refused 88
Never married 1
Currently married 2
Separated 3
What is your marital status? Divorced 4 C4
Widowed 5
Cohabitating 6
Refused 88
Government employee 1
Non-government or private employee 2
Which of the following best
Self-employed 3
describes your main work status
over the past 12 months? Non-paid 4
Student 5
C5
Homemaker 6
Retired 7
Unemployed (able to work) 8
Unemployed (unable to work) 9
Refused 88
How many people older than 18
years, including yourself, live in Number of people C6
your household? └─┴─┘
Taking into account the past 12
months, can you tell me what the └─┴─┴─┴─┴─┴─┴─┘ Go to D1
average monthly earnings (MDL) of Refused 88
C7a
the household have been?
_ 2000 1
<
If you don’t know the amount, can More than 2000, <
_ 3500 2
you give an estimate of the monthly
household income during the last 12 More than 3500, <
_ 5000 3
month if I read some options to you? C8
Is it: More than 5000, <
_ 7500 4
More than 7500 5
Don’t know 77
Refused 88

2. Dietary behaviour
Diet: fruit and vegetable consumption
The next questions ask about the fruit and vegetable that you usually eat. I have a nutrition card here that
shows some examples of local fruits and vegetables. Each picture represents the size of a serving. As you
answer these questions please think of a typical week in the last year.
In a typical week, on how many days do you
Number of days
eat fruit? Don’t know 77 D1
(USE SHOW CARD)
└─┴─┘ If Zero days, go to D3
How many servings of fruit do you eat on Number of servings

D2
one of those days? (USE SHOW CARD) Don’t know 77
└─┴─┘
In a typical week, on how many days do you
Number of days
eat vegetables (excluding potatoes)? (USE Don’t know 77 D3
SHOW CARD) └─┴─┘ If Zero days, go to D5
How many servings of vegetables
Number of servings
(excluding potatoes) do you eat on one of Don’t know 77 D4
those days? (USE SHOW CARD) └─┴─┘
Diet: oils and fat consumption
Vegetable oil 1
Lard or suet 2
Butter or ghee 3
What type of oil or fat is most often used Margarine 4

D5
for meal preparation in your household? Other 5 If other, go to D5 other
None in particular 6
(SELECT ONLY ONE)
None used 7
Don’t know 77
D5
Other
└─┴─┴─┴─┴─┴─┴─┘
other
On average, how many meals per week do
you eat that were not prepared at a home? Number
Don’t know └─┴─┘ D6
By meal, I mean breakfast, lunch and dinner. 77
Diet: food consumption
Now I will ask you some questions about your diet during the last year.
For every food, a quantity is mentioned, a medium portion or a usually a unit used in the household,
such as a slice or a spoon. The interviewer will mark (+) in the box to specify how often, on average, the
participant eats the specified quantity of the following food during the last year (USE SHOW CARD).

How often have you eaten Average consumption during last year
the following foods and in Never 1-3 Once 2-4 5-6 Once 2-3 4-5 6+ per Re- Don’t
what quantity? or less times per times times per times times day fused know
than per week per per day per per
once month week week day day 88 77
per
month
Bread (one slice)
White bread F1
Black bread F2
Whole cereals bread F3
Cereals/rice porridge (a portion F4
= 5 spoons = 80 g)
Breakfast cereals (muesli, F5
cornflakes, oats) (a portion = 5
spoons = 80 g)
Potatoes and pasta (medium portion = 80 g)
Chips F6
Pizza (slice) F7
Pies F8
Pasta, macaroni (medium F9
portion)
Salty snacks (salty nuts, F10
biscuits, crackers)
Processed meat products (medium portion = 80 g)
Sausages, salami (boiled), F11
liver sausage
Pastrami, smoked ham, cured/ F12
smoked salami
Canned meat F13
Semi-prepared meat products F14
(mici, pârjoale)
Fish products (medium portion = 80 g)
Salty/smoked/marinated fish F15
Canned fish F16
Dairy products (medium portion = 80 g)
Hard and soft cheese F17
Sheep’s cheese F18
Other foods
Pickled vegetables (medium F19
portion = 80 g), (USE SHOW
CARD)
Marinated vegetables (medium F20
portion) (USE SHOW CARD)
Sauces (ketchup, mayonnaise, F21
adjica, other sauces) (medium
portion = one spoon)

Dietary salt: knowledge, attitudes and practices
With the next questions, we would like to learn more about salt in your diet. Dietary salt includes ordinary table salt, unrefined
salt such as see salt, iodized salt, salty powder (extra), salty cubes, coarse and rock salt and salty sauces, such as ketchup,
adjika, and soya sauce (USE SHOW CARD). The following questions are on adding salt to the food right before you eat it, on
how food is prepared in your home, on eating processed foods that are high in salt, such as pickles, marinated foods, salty
herbs and seasonings, sheep’s and dairy salty cheese, sausages, pastrami, bacon, and other salty meat products, salty fish,
and questions on controlling your salt intake. Please answer the questions even if you consider yourself to eat a diet low in
salt.
Questions Response Code
How often is salt or a salty sauce such as Always 1

ketchup, adjica, and soya sauce added to Often 2
your meal right before or during eating? Sometimes 3
S1
Rarely 4
(SELECT ONLY ONE)
Never 5
(USE SHOW CARD) Don’t know 77
Always 1
Often 2
How often is salt, salty seasoning or a salty Sometimes 3
sauce added in cooking or preparing foods S2
Rarely 4
in your household?
Never 5
Don’t know 77
Iodized 1
What kind of salt do you use for cooking or
Non-iodized 2 S3
meal preparation in your household?
Don’t know 3
How often do you eat processed foods high Always 1
in salt? Processed food that are high in salt Often 2
are foods that were modified, from their
Sometimes 3
natural status, such as packaged salty snacks,
canned salty foods, other processed foods Rarely 4
that are high in salt [ i.e: pickles , marinades, Never 5
S4
sheep’s and dairy salty cheese, salami,
sausages, bacon, pastrami, and other salty
Don’t know 77
meat products, salty fish, salty nuts/biscuits].
(USE SHOW CARD)
Far too much 1
Too much 2
How much salt or salty sauce do you think Just the right amount 3
you consume?
S5
Too little 4
Far too little 5
Don`t know 77
Yes 1
No 2
Do you think that too much salt or salty
sauce in your diet could cause a serious Don`t know 77 S6
Refused 88
health problem?
If NO, DON`T KNOW or
REFUSED, go to S8

High blood pressure 1
Osteoporosis 2
What sort of serious health problem do Stomach cancer 3

you think a high-salt diet could cause? Kidney stones 4
[mention all possible options]
S7
None of the above 5
All of the above 6
Don`t know 77
Refused 88
Very important 1
How important to you is lowering the salt Somewhat important 2
in your diet?
S8
Not at all important 3
Don`t know 77
Yes 1
No 2
Do you do anything of the following on a
Don`t know 77
regular basis to control your salt or sodium S9
intake? Refused 88
If NO, DON`T KNOW OR
REFUSED, go to H1
Limit consumption of
processed foods
1
Look at the salt or sodium
content on food labels
2
Do not add salt at table 3
What do you do on a regular basis to control Buy low salt alternatives 4
your salt or sodium intake? Buy low sodium
5 S10
[mention all possible options] alternatives
Do not add salt when
cooking
6
Use spices other than salt
when cooking
7
Avoid eating out 8
Other (specify) 9

3. Personal medical history
Personal medical history

Have you ever been told by a medical doctor or Yes 1
other health worker that you have, or have had, H1
heart failure? No 2
other health worker that you have, or have had, a H2
heart attack? No 2
other heart trouble? No 2
stroke? No 2
kidney trouble? No 2
peptic ulcer? No 2
liver disease? No 2
cancer or a malignant tumour? No 2
History of raised blood pressure
Have you ever had your blood pressure measured Yes 1

T1
by a doctor or other health worker? No 2 If NO, go to B1
other health worker that you have raised blood T2
pressure or hypertension? No 2 If NO, go to B1
Have you been told (the above) in the past 12 Yes 1
T3
months? No 2
Are you currently receiving any of the following Yes 1
treatments/advice for high blood pressure T4
prescribed by a doctor or other health worker? No 2
Drugs (medication) that you have taken in the past Yes 1

T4a
2 weeks? No 2
Yes 1
Advice to reduce salt intake? T4b
No 2
Yes 1
Advice or treatment to lose weight? T4c
No 2
Yes 1
Advice or treatment to stop smoking? T4d
No 2
Yes 1
Advice to start or do more exercise? T4e
No 2
Have you ever seen a traditional healer for raised Yes 1
T5
blood pressure or hypertension? No 2
Are you currently taking any herbal or traditional Yes 1
T6
remedy for raised blood pressure? No 2

History of diabetes
Have you ever had your blood sugar measured by Yes 1

B1
a doctor or other health worker? No 2 If NO, go to G1
Have you ever been told by a doctor or other Yes 1
health worker that you have raised blood sugar or B2
diabetes? No 2 If NO, go to G1
Have you been told (the above) in the past 12 Yes 1

B3
months? No 2
Are you currently receiving any of the following Yes 1
treatments/advice for diabetes prescribed by a B4
doctor or other health worker? No 2
Yes 1
Insulin? B4a
No 2
Drugs (medication) that you have taken in the past Yes 1

B4b
2 weeks? No 2
Yes 1
Special prescribed diet? B4c
No 2
Yes 1
Advice or treatment to lose weight? B4d
No 2
Yes 1
Advice or treatment to stop smoking? B4e
No 2
Yes 1
Advice to start or do more exercise? B4f
No 2
Have you ever seen a traditional healer for raised Yes 1

B5
blood glucose or diabetes? No 2
Are you currently taking any herbal or traditional Yes 1

B6
remedy for raised blood glucose or diabetes? No 2
History of cardiovascular disease
Have you ever had a heart attack or chest Yes 1

pain from heart disease (angina) or a stroke G1
(cerebrovascular accident or incident)? No 2
Are you currently taking aspirin regularly to Yes 1

G2
prevent or treat heart disease? No 2
Are you currently taking statins (Lovastatin/ Yes 1
Simvastatin/Atorvastatin or any other statins) G3
regularly to prevent or treat heart disease? No 2

Lifestyle advice
During the past 3 years, has a doctor or other health worker advised you to do any of the following?
(Register for every one)
Yes 1
Stop smoking tobacco or don’t start K1
No 2
Yes 1
Reduce salt in your diet K2
No 2
Eat at least 5 servings of fruit and/or vegetables Yes 1

K3
each day No 2
Yes 1
Reduce fat in your diet K4
No 2
Yes 1
Start to do more physical activity K5
No 2
Yes 1
Maintain a healthy body weight or lose weight K6
No 2
4. Physical measurements
Blood pressure
Device ID for blood pressure L1
Reading 1 Systolic (mmHg) _________ _________ _________ L2a
Diastolic (mmHg) _________ _________ _________ L3a
Reading 2 Systolic (mmHg) _________ _________ _________ L2b
Diastolic (mmHg) _________ _________ _________ L3b
Reading 3 Systolic (mmHg) _________ _________ _________ L2c
Diastolic (mmHg) _________ _________ _________ L3c
Heart Rate
Reading 1 Beats per minute _________ _________ _________ L5a
Reading 2 Beats per minute _________ _________ _________ L5b
Reading 3 Beats per minute _________ _________ _________ L5c
Height and Weight
Device ID for height and weight M1
Height in centimetres (cm) _______ ________ _______, ______ M2
Weight
in kilograms (kg) _______ ________ _______, ______ M3
If too heavy for scale 666.6
Waist
Device ID for waist O1
Waist circumference in centimetres (cm) _______ ________ _______, ______ O2
Hip circumference in centimetres (cm) _______ ________ _______, ______ O3

5. 24-hour urine sample
24-hour urine sample collection
[At this point, the participant will be given the “Participant`s guide for the 24-hour urine sample collection”. The
participant will be guided through the guide and the interviewer will answer any questions that might arise.
After this, the participant will be given the “Urine collection sheet”, will be requested to void the bladder and
to discard the urine. At this moment the interviewer will enter into the urine collection sheet the date and time
of starting the urine collection and provide an explanation on how to fill it in. The interviewer will inform the
participant about the second visit (to take the urine sample and a household salt sample)].
Now I would like to review a few of your log sheets and go over any comments or concerns you might have.
Part II
6. Collection of 24-hour urine sample
Location and date/Question Response Code
Date of the second visit (to those who

agreed to participate in the survey, for the └─┴─┘ └─┴─┘ └─┴─┴─┴─┘ E1
second part of the survey) dd mm year
Time of interview
(24-hour clock) └─┴─┘: └─┴─┘ E2
hrs mins
Participant ID └─┴─┴─┴─┴
Yes 1
Urine sample collection No 2 If NO, END
E3
In millilitres (ml)/ grams (g) _____________________

Total volume of urine collected 1 ml = 1g E4
Number of missed urine collections E5
7. Household salt
Household salt sample collection (50–100 g)
The survey participant is asked to present the salt usually used for cooking and as the table salt
Yes 1 P1
Household sample collection
No 2

Part III
8. Laboratory test results

(data will be recorded at the National Public Health Agency, for all participants)
Participant ID
└─┴─┴─┴─┘
Urinary sodium content In milligrams (mg) / 24 hrs _____________________ U1
Urinary potassium content In mg / 24 hrs _____________________ U2
Urinary creatinine content In mg / 24 hrs _____________________ U3
Urinary iodine content In micrograms / 24 hrs _____________________ U4
Salt iodine content In mg / kg _____________________ U5

8. ANNEX 2. DATA TABLES
8. Annex 2. Data tables
8.1 DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS
Table A1. Mean number of years of education
Men Women Both sexes

Age
(years) Mean no. of Mean no. of Mean no. of
n n n
years years years
18–29 43 13.6 62 12.5 105 13.0
30–44 89 12.3 126 12.4 215 12.4
45–59 109 11.1 169 11.2 278 11.2
60–69 71 10.8 140 10.9 211 10.9
18–69 312 11.8 497 11.6 809 11.7
Table A2. Highest level of education in men
Men
Without formal College/
Age Primary Lower- Secondary University/
schooling/not vocational
(years) school secondary/ school/ postgraduate
n completed school
completed gymnasium lyceum degree
primary school completed
(%) completed (%) completed (%) completed (%)
(%) (%)
18–29 43 – – 18.6 20.9 20.9 39.5
30–44 89 – – 15.7 18.0 38.2 28.1
45–59 109 – – 21.1 23.9 45.0 10.1
60–69 71 – – 23.9 19.7 38.0 18.3
18–69 312 – – 19.9 20.8 38.1 21.2
Table A3. Highest level of education in women
Women
Without formal Secondary College/
Age Primary Lower- University/
schooling/ school/ vocational
(years) school secondary/ postgraduate
n not completed lyceum school
completed gymnasium degree
primary school completed completed
(%) completed (%) completed (%)
(%) (%) (%)
18–29 62 1.6 0.0 25.8 24.2 11.3 37.1
30–44 126 0.0 0.0 22.2 19.0 25.4 33.3
45–59 169 0.0 0.6 19.5 28.4 34.3 17.2
60–69 140 0.0 0.0 32.9 20.0 31.4 15.7
18–69 497 0.2 0.2 24.7 23.1 28.4 23.3

Table A4. Highest level of education, both sexes
Both sexes
Without formal Secondary College/
Age Primary Lower- University/
schooling/ school/ vocational
(years) school secondary/ postgraduate
n not completed lyceum school
completed gymnasium degree
primary school completed completed
(%) completed (%) completed (%)
(%) (%) (%)
18–29 105 1.0 0.0 22.9 22.9 15.2 38.1
30–44 215 0.0 0.0 19.5 18.6 30.7 31.2
45–59 278 0.0 0.4 20.1 26.6 38.5 14.4
60–69 211 0.0 0.0 29.9 19.9 33.6 16.6
18–69 809 0.1 0.1 22.9 22.2 32.1 22.5
Table A5. Ethnic group of respondents
Both sexes
Age (years) Ethnic
Ethnic Ethnic Ethnic Ethnic Other ethnic
n Romanian/
Russian (%) Ukrainian (%) (Roma) (%) (Gagauz) (%) group (%)
Moldovan (%)
18–29 105 89.5 2.9 0.0 0.0 6.7 1.0
30–44 215 85.6 6.0 5.1 0.5 2.3 0.5
45–59 278 82.7 2.9 6.5 0.0 7.6 0.4
60–69 211 82.5 6.2 5.2 0.5 5.2 0.5
18–69 809 84.3 4.6 4.9 0.2 5.4 0.5
Table A6. Distribution of population, by ethnicity and area of residence
Rural Urban Total

Ethnicity
n Ethnicity (%) Area (%) n Ethnicity (%) Area (%) n Ethnicity (%) Area (%)
Romanian/
436 63.9 89.0 246 36.1 77.1 682 84.3 84.3
Moldovan
Russian 3 8.1 0.6 34 91.9 10.7 37 4.6 4.6
Ukrainian 25 62.5 5.1 15 37.5 4.7 40 4.9 4.9
Roma 0 0.0 0.0 2 100.0 0.6 2 0.2 0.2
Gagauz 25 56.8 5.1 19 43.2 6.0 44 5.4 5.4
Other ethnic
1 25.0 0.2 3 75.0 0.9 4 0.5 0.5
group
Total 490 60.6 100.0 319 39.4 100 809 100 100
Table A7. Marital status in men
Men
Age (years) Never Currently
n Separated (%) Divorced (%) Widowed (%) Cohabitating (%)
married (%) married (%)
18–29 43 62.8 34.9 0.0 2.3 0.0 0.0
30–44 89 9.0 78.7 0.0 11.2 1.1 0.0
45–59 109 2.8 79.8 3.7 10.1 2.8 0.9
60–69 70 1.4 62.9 11.4 4.3 18.6 1.4
18–69 311 12.5 69.5 3.9 8.0 5.5 0.6

Table A8. Marital status in women
Women
18–29 62 38.7 46.8 6.5 4.8 1.6 1.6
30–44 124 9.7 70.2 7.3 8.1 1.6 3.2
45–59 169 1.2 66.9 5.3 5.9 18.9 1.8
60–69 140 2.1 33.6 5.0 7.9 50.7 0.7
18–69 495 8.3 55.8 5.9 6.9 21.4 1.8
Table A9. Marital status, both sexes
Both sexes
18–29 105 48.6 41.9 3.8 3.8 1.0 1.0
30–44 213 9.4 73.7 4.2 9.4 1.4 1.9
45–59 278 1.8 71.9 4.7 7.6 12.6 1.4
60–69 210 1.9 43.3 7.1 6.7 40.0 1.0
18–69 806 9.9 61.0 5.1 7.3 15.% 1.4
Table A10. Employment status in men
Men
Age (years) Government Non-government
n Self-employed (%) Unpaid (%)
employee (%) employee (%)
18–29 43 16.3 41.9 14.0 27.9
30–44 89 12.4 32.6 32.6 22.5
45–49 109 22.0 24.8 33.0 20.2
60–69 71 9.9 7.0 8.5 74.6
18–69 312 15.7 25.3 24.7 34.3
Table A11. Employment status in women
Women
Age (years) Government Non-government
18–29 62 22.6 16.1 8.1 53.2
30–44 126 29.4 23.8 9.5 37.3
45–49 169 29.0 13.6 12.4 45.0
60–69 140 8.6 2.1 1.4 87.9
18–69 497 22.5 13.3 8.0 56.1
Table A12. Employment status, both sexes
Both sexes
Age
(years) Government Non-government
18–29 105 20.0 26.7 10.5 42.9
30–44 215 22.3 27.4 19.1 31.2
45–49 278 26.3 18.0 20.5 35.3
60–69 211 9.0 3.8 3.8 83.4
18–69 809 19.9 17.9 14.5 47.7

Table A13. Unpaid work and unemployment in men
Men
Unemployed
Age (years) Home-
n Unpaid (%) Student (%) Retired (%) Not able to
maker (%) Able to work (%)
work (%)
18–29 12 0.0 66.7 8.3 0.0 25.0 0.0
30–44 20 5.0 0.0 35.0 0.0 55.0 5.0
45–59 22 0.0 0.0 50.0 9.1 36.4 4.5
60–69 53 0.0 0.0 7.5 90.6 1.9 0.0
18–69 107 0.9 7.5 21.5 46.7 21.5 1.9
Table A14. Unpaid work and unemployment in women
Women
Unemployed
Age (years) Home-
work (%)
18–29 33 3.0 30.3 36.4 0.0 30.3 0.0
30–44 47 2.1 0.0 80.9 2.1 12.8 0.0
45–59 76 0.0 0.0 51.3 39.5 5.3 2.6
60–69 123 0.0 0.0 0.8 99.2 0.0 0.0
18–69 279 0.7 3.6 32.3 54.8 7.2 0.7
Table A15. Unpaid work and unemployment, both sexes
Both sexes
Unemployed
Age (years) Home-
work (%)
18–29 45 2.2 40.0 28.9 0.0 28.9 0.0
30–44 67 3.0 0.0 67.2 1.5 25.4 1.5
45–59 98 0.0 0.0 51.0 32.7 12.2 3.1
60–69 176 0.0 0.0 2.8 96.6 0.6 0.0
18–69 386 0.8 4.7 29.3 52.6 11.1 1.0
Table A16. Mean annual per capita income
n Mean (Moldovan lei; MDL) Median (Moldovan lei; MDL)

431 108 478.36 90 000
Table A17. Estimated household earnings per month, by quintile
Quintile 2 Quintile 3 Quintile 4

Quintile 1 Quintile 5
n (2000 – 3500 (3501 – 5000 (5001 – 7500
(<2000 MDL) (%) (>7500 MDL) (%)
MDL) (%) MDL) (%) MDL) (%)
178 41.6 35.4 14.0 5.6 3.4

8.2 ANTHROPOMETRY AND PHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS
Table A18. Body mass index (BMI) by sex and area of residence

Area Mean Mean Mean
n BMI (kg/ 95% CI n BMI (kg/ 95% CI n BMI (kg/ 95% CI
m2) m2) m2)
Rural 189 28.2 27.5 28.9 335 29.6 29.0 30.2 524 29.1 28.6 29.6
Urban 134 26.3 25.6 27.1 189 26.8 26.1 27.5 323 26.6 26.1 27.1
Total 323 27.4 26.9 28.0 524 28.6 28.1 29.1 847 28.2 27.8 28.5
Table A19. Prevalence of BMI categories in men, by age group
Men
Age Normal weight Overweight
Under-weight 18.5–24.9 kg/m2 Obese
(years) n 25.0–29.9
< 18.5 kg/m2 (%) ≥ 30.0 kg/m2 (%)
(%) kg/m2 (%)
18–29 44 6.8 61.4 29.5 2.3
30–44 92 0.0 35.9 45.7 18.5
45–59 115 0.9 26.1 36.5 36.5
60–69 72 0.0 23.6 41.7 34.7
18–69 323 1.2 33.1 39.3 26.3
Table A20. Prevalence of BMI categories in women, by age group
Women
Age Normal weight Overweight
(years) Under-weight Obese
n 18.5–24.9 kg/m2 25.0–29.9
< 18.5 kg/m2 (%) ≥ 30.0 kg/m2 (%)
(%) kg/m2 (%)
18–29 63 4.8 65.1 19.0 11.1
30–44 130 3.8 34.6% 36.2 25.4
45–59 180 0.0 16.7 38.9 44.4
60–69 151 0.7 11.3 45.0 43.0
18–69 524 1.7 25.4 37.6 35.3
Table A21. Prevalence of BMI categories in both sexes, by age group
Both sexes
Age
(years) Under-weight Normal weight Overweight 25.0– Obese ≥ 30.0 kg/
n
< 18.5 kg/m2 (%) 18.5–24.9 kg/m2 (%) 29.9 kg/m2 (%) m2 (%)
18–29 107 5.6 63.6 23.4 7.5
30–44 222 2.3 35.1 40.1 22.5
45–59 295 0.3 20.3 38.0 41.4
60–69 223 0.4 15.2 43.9 40.4
18–69 847 1.5 28.3 38.3 31.9

Table A22. Prevalence of overweight, by age group and sex

Age
BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2 BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2 BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2
(years) n n n
(%) (%) (%)
18–29 44 31.8 63 30.2 107 30.8
30–44 92 64.1 130 61.5 222 62.6
45–59 115 73.0 180 83.3 295 79.3
60–69 72 76.4 151 88.1 223 84.3
18–69 323 65.6 524 72.9 847 70.1
Table A23. Prevalence of overweight, by area of residence and sex

Area BMI ≥ 25 kg/ BMI ≥ 25 kg/ BMI ≥ 25 kg/
n n n
m2 (%) m2 (%) m2 (%)
Rural 189 70.4 335 80.0 524 76.5
Urban 134 59.0 189 60.3 323 59.8
Total 323 65.6 524 72.9 847 70.1
Table A24. Prevalence of hypertension (SBP ≥ 140 and/or DBP ≥ 90 mmHg), excluding
those taking medication for raised blood pressure, by sex and age group

(years) n % n % n %
18 – 29 44 20.5 63 14.3 107 16.8
30 – 44 90 24.4 127 22.8 217 23.5
45 – 59 102 54.9 156 42.3 258 47.3
60 – 69 61 57.4 105 57.1 166 57.2
18 – 69 297 41.1 451 36.4 748 38.2
Table A25. Prevalence of hypertension (SBP ≥ 140 and/or DBP ≥ 90 mmHg,

or currently taking medication for raised blood pressure), by sex and age group

(years) n % n % n %
18 – 29 44 20.5 63 14.3 107 16.8
30 – 44 92 26.1 130 24.6 222 25.2
45 – 59 115 60.0 180 50.0 295 53.9
60 – 69 72 63.9 151 70.2 223 68.2
18 – 69 323 45.8 524 45.2 847 45.5

Table A26. Prevalence of hypertension (SBP ≥ 160 and/or DBP ≥ 100 mmHg), excluding
those taking medication for raised blood pressure, by sex and age group

(years) n % n % n %
18–29 44 0.0 63 1.6 107 0.9
30–44 90 5.6 127 6.3 217 6.0
45–59 102 11.8 156 13.5 258 12.8
60–69 61 27.9 105 25.7 166 26.5
18–69 297 11.4 451 12.6 748 12.2
Table A27. Prevalence of hypertension (SBP ≥ 160 and/or DBP ≥ 100 mmHg, or currently
taking medication for raised blood pressure), by sex and age group
Age group Men Women Both sexes

(years) n % n % n %
18–29 44 0.0 63 1.6 107 0.9
30–44 92 7.6 130 8.5 222 8.1
45–59 115 21.7 180 25.0 295 23.7
60–69 72 38.9 151 48.3 223 45.3
18–69 323 18.6 524 24.8 847 22.4
Table A28. Male respondents with treated and/or controlled raised blood pressure,
by age group
Men
Age Taking medication and Taking medication and Not taking medication
(years) n SBP < 140 and DBP < SBP ≥ 140 and DBP ≥ and SBP ≥ 140 and DBP
90 (%) 90 (%) ≥ 90 (%)
18–29 9 0.0 0.0 100.0
30–44 24 4.2 4.2 91.7
45–59 69 2.9 15.9 81.2
60–69 46 0.0 23.9 76.1
18–69 148 2.0 15.5 82.4
Table A29. Male respondents with treated and/or controlled raised blood pressure,
by area of residence
Men
Area Taking medication and Taking medication and Not taking medication
n SBP < 140 and DBP < SBP ≥ 140 and DBP ≥ and SBP ≥ 140 and DBP
90 (%) 90 (%) ≥ 90 (%)
Rural 94 2.1 14.9 83.0
Urban 54 1.9 16.7 81.5
Total 148 2.0 15.5 82.4

Table A30. Female respondents with treated and/or controlled raised blood
pressure, by age group
Women
90 (%) 90 (%) ≥ 90 (%)
18–29 9 0.0 0.0 100.0
30–44 32 0.0 9.4 90.6
45–59 90 6.7 20.0 73.3
60–69 106 7.5 35.8 56.6
18–69 237 5.9 24.9 69.2
Table A31. Female respondents with treated and/or controlled raised blood pressure,
Women
90 (%) 90 (%) ≥ 90 (%)
Rural 158 7.0 24.1 69.0
Urban 79 3.8 26.6 69.6
Total 237 5.9 24.9 69.2
Table A32. Respondents (both sexes) with treated and/or controlled raised blood
pressure, by age group
Both sexes
90 (%) 90 (%) ≥ 90 (%)
18–29 18 0.0 0.0 100.0
30–44 56 1.8 7.1 91.1
45–59 159 5.0 18.2 76.7
60–69 152 5.3 32.2 62.5
18–69 385 4.4 21.3 74.3
Table A33. Respondents (both sexes) with treated and/or controlled raised blood
pressure, by area of residence
Both sexes
90 (%) 90 (%) ≥ 90 (%)
Rural 252 5.2 20.6 74.2
Urban 133 3.0 22.6 74.4
Total 385 4.4 21.3 74.3

Table A34. Urinary iodine (UI) excretion (mcg/24h), by area of residence and sex
Area n Mean* Median SD 95% CI

Men
Rural 191 229.8 200.3 163.6 206.5–253.2
Urban 135 234.7 201.9 141.2 210.6–258.7
Women
Rural 338 222.9 175.2 165.5 205.2–240.6
Urban 192 216.8 202.5 118.4 199.9–233.7
Both sexes
Rural 529 225 186 164 211–239
Urban 327 224 202 128 210–238
*Men: p=0.8; women: p=0.7 (rural versus urban).
Table A35. UI excretion (mcg/24h), by age group
Age n Mean Median SD 95% CI

(years)
18-29 108 220.5 201.7 140.6 193.7-247.3
30-44 225 217.6 192.0 140.3 199.2-236.0
45-59 296* 226.3 189.0 167.5 207.2-245.5
60-69 227 232.4 204.2 146.8 213.2-251.6
18-69 856 225 196 152 215-235
*p=0.7, by ANOVA
Table A36. UI excretion (mcg/24h), by age group and sex
Age
(years)
Men
18–29 44 222.4 199.3 136.7 180.8–263.9
30–44 92 242.8 206.6 154.8 210.8–274.9
45–59 117 211.2 182.8 163.7 181.2–241.1
60–69 73 256.9 216.3 146.9 222.6–291.1
Women
18–29 64 219.2 203.6 144.3 183.1–255.2
30–44 133 200.2 179.7 127.0 178.4–222.0
45–59 179* 236.2 190.7 169.6 211.2–261.3
60–69 154 220.9 194.5 145.8 197.7–244.1
*Men: p=0.2; Women: p=0.2, by ANOVA.
8.3 DIET
Table A37. Mean number of days consuming fruit in a typical week, by age group
and sex

Age Mean Mean Mean
(years) n no. of 95% CI n no. of 95% CI n no. of 95% CI
days days days
18–29 44 5.7 5.1 6.2 63 5.7 5.2 6.1 107 5.7 5.3 6.0
30–44 92 5.6 5.2 5.9 130 5.5 5.1 5.8 222 5.5 5.3 5.8
45–59 115 5.0 4.6 5.3 180 5.0 4.8 5.3 295 5.0 4.8 5.2
60–69 73 5.0 4.6 5.5 151 4.8 4.5 5.1 224 4.9 4.6 5.1
18–69 324 5.2 5.0 5.4 524 5.2 5.0 5.3 848 5.2 5.1 5.3

Table A38. Mean number of days consuming fruit in a typical week, by area of
residence and sex

Area Mean Mean Mean
n no. of 95% CI n no. of 95% CI n no. of 95% CI
days days days
Rural 189 4.8 4.6 5.1 335 4.6 4.4 4.8 524 4.7 4.5 4.8
Urban 135 5.8 5.5 6.1 189 6.2 6.0 6.4 324 6.0 5.9 6.2
Total 324 5.2 5.0 5.4 524 5.2 5.0 5.3 848 5.2 5.1 5.3
Table A39. Mean number of days consuming vegetables in a typical week, by age
group and sex

Age Mean Mean Mean
days days days
18–29 44 6.3 6.0 6.7 63 6.2 5.8 6.5 107 6.2 6.0 6.5
30–44 92 6.1 5.8 6.4 130 5.9 5.6 6.2 222 6.0 5.8 6.2
45–59 115 5.7 5.4 5.9 180 5.8 5.5 6.0 295 5.7 5.6 5.9
60–69 73 5.7 5.4 6.1 151 5.6 5.3 5.8 224 5.6 5.4 5.8
18–69 324 5.9 5.7 6.1 524 5.8 5.7 5.9 848 5.8 5.7 5.9
Table A40. Mean number of days consuming vegetables in a typical week, by area of
residence and sex

Area Mean Mean Mean
days days days
Rural 189 5.6 5.4 5.8 335 5.4 5.2 5.6 524 5.5 5.3 5.6
Urban 135 6.3 6.1 6.5 189 6.5 6.3 6.7 324 6.4 6.3 6.5
Total 324 5.9 5.7 6.1 524 5.8 5.7 5.9 848 5.8 5.7 5.9
Table A41. Mean number of servings of fruit on average per day, by age group and sex

Age (years) Mean Mean Mean
servings servings servings
18–29 44 2.4 2.1 2.8 63 2.4 2.1 2.7 107 2.4 2.1 2.7
30–44 92 2.7 2.4 3.0 130 2.3 2.1 2.6 222 2.5 2.3 2.7
45–59 115 2.0 1.8 2.1 180 2.1 1.9 2.3 295 2.1 1.9 2.2
60–69 73 1.9 1.7 2.1 151 2.0 1.8 2.2 224 2.0 1.8 2.1
18–69 324 2.23 2.11 2.34 524 2.18 2.08 2.27 848 2.19 2.12 2.27

Table A42. Mean number of servings of fruit on average per day, by area of
residence and sex

Area Mean Mean Mean
Rural 189 2.0 1.9 2.1 335 1.9 1.8 2.0 524 1.9 1.8 2.0
Urban 135 2.5 2.3 2.7 189 2.7 2.6 2.9 324 2.6 2.5 2.8
Total 324 2.2 2.1 2.3 524 2.2 2.1 2.3 848 2.2 2.1 2.3
Table A43. Mean number of servings of vegetables on average per day, by age group
and sex

Age (years) Mean Mean Mean
18–29 44 2.3 2.0 2.5 63 2.1 1.8 2.3 107 2.1 2.0 2.3
30–44 92 2.7 2.5 2.9 130 2.4 2.2 2.5 222 2.5 2.4 2.6
45–59 115 2.3 2.1 2.5 180 2.2 2.0 2.3 295 2.2 2.1 2.3
60–69 73 2.1 1.9 2.3 151 2.1 1.9 2.2 224 2.1 2.0 2.2
18–69 324 2.4 2.3 2.5 524 2.2 2.1 2.3 848 2.2 2.2 2.3
Table A44. Mean number of servings of vegetables on average per day, by area of
residence and sex

Area Mean Mean Mean
Rural 189 2.3 2.1 2.4 335 2.0 1.9 2.2 524 2.1 2.0 2.2
Urban 135 2.5 2.4 2.7 189 2.4 2.3 2.5 324 2.4 2.4 2.5
Total 324 2.4 2.3 2.5 524 2.2 2.1 2.3 848 2.2 2.2 2.3
Table A45. Mean number of servings of fruit and/or vegetables on average per day,
by age group and sex

Age Mean Mean Mean
18–29 44 4.7 4.2 5.2 63 4.5 4.0 4.9 107 4.6 4.2 4.9
30–44 92 5.4 5.0 5.8 130 4.7 4.3 5.1 222 5.0 4.7 5.3
45–59 115 4.3 4.0 4.6 180 4.3 4.0 4.5 295 4.3 4.1 4.5
60–69 73 4.0 3.6 4.4 151 4.1 3.8 4.3 224 4.0 3.8 4.3
18–69 324 4.6 4.4 4.8 524 4.3 4.2 4.5 848 4.4 4.3 4.6

Table A46. Mean number of servings of fruit and/or vegetables on average per day, by
area of residence and sex

Area Mean Mean Mean
Rural 189 4.3 4.0 4.5 335 3.9 3.7 4.1 524 4.0 3.9 4.2
Urban 135 5.0 4.7 5.3 189 5.1 4.9 5.4 324 5.1 4.9 5.3
Total 324 4.6 4.4 4.8 524 4.3 4.2 4.5 848 4.4 4.3 4.6
Table A47. Number of servings of fruit and/or vegetables on average per day among
men, by age group
Age 1–2 servings 3–4 servings ≥ 5 servings

n 95% CI 95% CI 95% CI
(years) (%) (%) (%)
18–29 44 9.1 2.5–21.7 40.9 26.3–56.7 50.0 34.6–65.4

30–44 92 3.3 0.7–9.3 26.1 17.5–36.3 70.7 60.3–79.7
45–59 115 11.3 6.1–18.5 47.8 38.4–57.3 40.9 31.8–50.5
60–69 73 17.8 9.8–28.5 57.5 45.4–69.0 24.7 15.3–36.2
18–69 324 10.2 7.1–14.0 42.9 37.4–48.5 46.9 41.4–52.5
women, by age group
1–2 3–4 ≥ 5

Age
n servings 95% CI servings 95% CI servings 95% CI
(years)
(%) (%) (%)
18–29 63 15.9 7.9–27.3 46.0 33.4–59.0 38.1 26.1–51.2
30–44 130 19.2 12.8–27.0 28.5 20.9–37.1 52.3 43.4–61.1
45–59 180 15.6 10.6–21.7 44.4 37.0–52.0 40.0 32.8–47.5
60–69 151 17.9 12.1–25.0 46.4 38.3–54.7 35.8 28.1–44.0
18–69 524 17.2 14.1–20.7 41.2 36.9–45.5 41.6 37.3–45.9
both sexes, by age group
Age 1–2 servings 3–4 servings ≥ 5 servings

n 95% CI 95% CI 95% CI
(years) (%) (%) (%)
18–29 107 13.1 7.3–21.0 43.9 34.3–53.8 43.0 33.5–52.9
30–44 222 12.6 8.5–17.7 27.5 21.7–33.9 59.9 53.1–66.4
45–59 295 13.9 10.1–18.4 45.8 40.0–51.7 40.3 34.6–46.1
60–69 224 17.9 13.1–23.6 50.0 43.3–56.7 32.1 26.0–38.6
18–69 848 14.5 12.2–17.0 41.9 38.5–45.3 43.6 40.2–47.0

Table A50. Fewer than 5 servings of fruit and/or vegetables on average per day, by
age group and sex

< 5
Age (years) < 5
servings < 5 servings
n servings 95% CI n 95% CI n 95% CI
per day per day (%)
per day (%)
(%)
18–29 22 50.0 34.6–65.4 39 61.9 48.8–73.8 61 57.0 47.1–66.5
30–44 27 29.3 20.3–39.7 62 47.7 38.9–56.6 89 40.1 33.6–46.9
45–59 68 59.1 49.5–68.2 108 60.0 52.4–67.2 176 59.7 53.9–65.3
60–69 55 75.3 63.8–84.6 97 64.2 56.0–71.8 152 67.9 61.4–74.0
18–69 172 53.1 47.5–58.6 306 58.4 54.0–62.7 478 56.4 53.0–59.8
Table A51. Average consumption of bread among men, by age group
FC1 White bread

Age Once per week or 2–4 days per 5–6 days per 2–3 times per 4–6 times per
Once per day
(years) less week week day day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 7 15.9 3 6.8 0 0.0 6 13.6 27 61.4 1 2.3
30–44 8 8.7 4 4.3 1 1.1 13 14.1 57 62.0 9 9.8
45–59 12 10.4 7 6.1 2 1.7 15 13.0 77 67.0 2 1.7
60–69 17 23.3 8 11.0 1 1.4 3 4.1 42 57.5 2 2.7
18–69 44 13.6 22 6.8 4 1.2 37 11.4 203 62.7 14 4.3
FC2 Black bread

Once per week or 2–4 days per 5–6 days per 2–3 times per 4–6 times per
Age (years) Once per day
less week week day day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 27 61.4 2 4.5 3 6.8 8 18.2 4 9.1 0 0.0
30–44 54 59.3 7 7.7 1 1.1 19 20.9 10 11.0 0 0.0
45–59 54 47.4 12 10.5 0 0.0 20 17.5 28 24.6 0 0.0
60–69 40 54.8 5 6.8 1 1.4 5 6.8 21 28.8 1 1.4
18–69 175 54.3 26 8.1 5 1.6 52 16.1 63 19.6 1 0.3
FC3 Whole-grain bread

Once per week 2–4 days per 5–6 days per 2–3 times per 4–6 times per
or less week week day day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 41 95.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 2.3 1 2.3
30–44 80 87.9 3 3.3 1 1.1 5 5.5 2 2.2 0 0.0
45–59 107 93.0 1 0.9 0 0.0 6 5.2 1 0.9 0 0.0
60–69 67 91.8 1 1.4 0 0.0 2 2.7 2 2.7 1 1.4
18–69 295 91.6 5 1.6 1 0.3 13 4.0 6 1.9 2 0.6

Table A52. Average consumption of bread among women, by age group
FC1 White bread
Once per week 2–4 days per 5–6 days per 4–6 times per
Age (years) Once per day 2–3 times per day
or less week week day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 15 23.8 4 6.3 4 6.3 10 15.9 30 47.6 0 0.0
30–44 34 26.2 6 4.6 1 0.8 28 21.5 55 42.3 6 4.6
45–59 42 23.3 9 5.0 5 2.8 27 15.0 93 51.7 4 2.2
60–69 39 25.8 5 3.3 0 0.0 15 9.9 89 58.9 3 2.0
18–69 130 24.8 24 4.6 10 1.9 80 15.3 267 51.0 13 2.5
FC2 Black bread
Once per week 2–4 days per 5–6 days per 4–6 times per
or less week week day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 31 49.2 8 12.7 1 1.6 15 23.8 8 12.7 0 0.0
30–44 60 46.5 8 6.2 3 2.3 29 22.5 29 22.5 0 0.0
45–59 89 49.4 14 7.8 4 2.2 36 20.0 36 20.0 1 0.6
60–69 77 51.0 11 7.3 3 2.0 23 15.2 36 23.8 1 0.7
18–69 257 49.1 41 7.8 11 2.1 103 19.7 109 20.8 2 0.4
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 54 85.7 4 6.3 0 0.0 3 4.8 1 1.6 1 1.6
30–44 109 83.8 6 4.6 1 0.8 13 10.0 1 0.8 0 0.0
45–59 165 91.7 6 3.3 1 0.6 6 3.3 2 1.1 0 0.0
60–69 135 90.6 5 3.4 1 0.7 6 4.0 1 0.7 1 0.7
18–69 463 88.7 21 4.0 3 0.6 28 5.4 5 1.0 2 0.4
Table A53. Average consumption of bread among both sexes, by age group
FC1 White bread
Age Once per week 2–4 days per 5–6 days per 2–3 times per 4–6 times per
Once per day
(years) or less week week day day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 22 20.6 7 6.5 4 3.7 16 15.0 57 53.3 1 0.9
30–44 42 18.9 10 4.5 2 0.9 41 18.5 112 50.5 15 6.8
45–59 54 18.3 16 5.4 7 2.4 42 14.2 170 57.6 6 2.0
60–69 56 25.0 13 5.8 1 0.4 18 8.0 131 58.5 5 2.2
18–69 174 20.5 46 5.4 14 1.7 117 13.8 470 55.4 27 3.2
FC2 Black bread
Once per week 2–4 days per 5–6 days per 4–6 times
or less week week per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 58 54.2 10 9.3 4 3.7 23 21.5 12 11.2 0 0.0
30–44 114 51.8 15 6.8 4 1.8 48 21.8 39 17.7 0 0.0
45–59 143 48.6 26 8.8 4 1.4 56 19.0 64 21.8 1 0.3
60–69 117 52.2 16 7.1 4 1.8 28 12.5 57 25.4 2 0.9
18–69 432 51.1 67 7.9 16 1.9 155 18.3 172 20.4 3 0.4
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 95 89.6 4 3.8 0 0.0 3 2.8 2 1.9 2 1.9
30–44 189 85.5 9 4.1 2 0.9 18 8.1 3 1.4 0 0.0
45–59 272 92.2 7 2.4 1 0.3 12 4.1 3 1.0 0 0.0
60–69 202 91.0 6 2.7 1 0.5 8 3.6 3 1.4 2 0.9
18–69 758 89.8 26 3.1 4 0.5 41 4.9 11 1.3 4 0.5

Table A54. Average consumption of bread among both sexes, by area of residence
FC1 White bread
Once per week or 2–4 days per 5–6 days per 4–6 times per
Area Once per day 2–3 times per day
less week week day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
Rural 72 13.7 31 5.9 6 1.1 74 14.1 323 61.6 18 3.4
Urban 102 31.5 15 4.6 8 2.5 43 13.3 147 45.4 9 2.8
Total 174 20.5 46 5.4 14 1.7 117 13.8 470 55.4 27 3.2
FC2 Black bread

Once per week or 2–4 days per 5–6 days per 4–6 times
Area Once per day 2–3 times per day
less week week per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
Rural 297 56.9 38 7.3 6 1.1 75 14.4 104 19.9 2 0.4
Urban 135 41.8 29 9.0 10 3.1 80 24.8 68 21.1 1 0.3
Total 432 51.1 67 7.9 16 1.9 155 18.3 172 20.4 3 0.4

Area Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
Rural 478 91.7 9 1.7% 1 0.2 23 4.4 9 1.7 1 0.2
Urban 280 86.7 17 5.3 3 0.9 18 5.6 2 0.6 3 0.9
Total 758 89.8 26 3.1 4 0.5 41 4.9 11 1.3 4 0.5
Table A55. Average consumption of cereals among men, by age group

FC4 Cereals/rice porridge
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 18 40.9 13 29.5 0 0.0 12 27.3 1 2.3 0 0.0
30–44 51 55.4 24 26.1 4 4.3 13 14.1 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 41 35.7 52 45.2 1 0.9 21 18.3 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 34 46.6 24 32.9 1 1.4 13 17.8 1 1.4 0 0.0
18–69 144 44.4 113 34.9 6 1.9 59 18.2 2 0.6 0 0.0
FC5 Breakfast cereals (muesli, cornflakes, oats)

n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 39 88.6 2 4.5 0 0.0 3 6.8 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 84 91.3 7 7.6 0 0.0 1 1.1 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 100 87.0 8 7.0 1 0.9 6 5.2 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 68 93.2 1 1.4 0 0.0 4 5.5 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 291 89.8 18 5.6 1 0.3 14 4.3 0 0.0 0 0.0
Table A56. Average consumption of cereals among women, by age group

n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 29 46.0 17 27.0 1 1.6 14 22.2 2 3.2 0 0.0
30–44 48 36.9 39 30.0 5 3.8 37 28.5 1 0.8 0 0.0
45–59 47 26.1 80 44.4 4 2.2 47 26.1 1 0.6 1 0.6
60–69 40 26.7 67 44.7 4 2.7 39 26.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 164 31.4 203 38.8 14 2.7 137 26.2 4 0.8 1 0.2

n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 57 90.5 3 4.8 0 0.0 3 4.8 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 112 86.2 6 4.6 5 3.8 7 5.4 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 137 76.1 21 11.7 4 2.2 17 9.4 1 0.6 0 0.0
60–69 120 80.0 15 10.0 5 3.3 10 6.7 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 426 81.5 45 8.6 14 2.7 37 7.1 1 0.2 0 0.0
Table A57. Average consumption of cereals among both sexes, by age group
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 47 43.9 30 28.0 1 0.9 26 24.3 3 2.8 0 0.0
30–44 99 44.6 63 28.4 9 4.1 50 22.5 1 0.5 0 0.0
45–59 88 29.8 132 44.7 5 1.7 68 23.1 1 0.3 1 0.3
60–69 74 33.2 91 40.8 5 2.2 52 23.3 1 0.4 0 0.0
18–69 308 36.4 316 37.3 20 2.4 196 23.1 6 0.7 1 0.1

n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 96 89.7 5 4.7 0 0.0 6 5.6 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 196 88.3 13 5.9 5 2.3 8 3.6 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 237 80.3 29 9.8 5 1.7 23 7.8 1 0.3 0 0.0
60–69 188 84.3 16 7.2 5 2.2 14 6.3 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 717 84.7 63 7.4 15 1.8 51 6.0 1 0.1 0 0.0
Table A58. Average consumption of cereals among both sexes, by area of residence
Once per week or 2–4 days per 5–6 days per 2–3 times per 4–6 times
Area Once per day
less week week day per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
Rural 188 35.9 216 41.3 13 2.5 100 19.1 5 1.0 1 0.2
Urban 120 37.0 100 30.9 7 2.2 96 29.6 1 0.3 0 0.0
Total 308 36.4 316 37.3 20 2.4 196 23.1 6 0.7 1 0.1

Area Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
Rural 422 80.7 52 9.9 11 2.1 37 7.1 1 0.2 0 0.0
Urban 295 91.0 11 3.4 4 1.2 14 4.3 0 0.0 0 0.0
Total 717 84.7 63 7.4 15 1.8 51 6.0 1 0.1 0 0.0

Table A59. Average consumption of pizza, pie and pasta among men, by age group
FC7 Pizza (slice)
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 40 93.0 1 2.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 4.7
30–44 89 96.7 3 3.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 112 97.4 2 1.7 1 0.9 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 73 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 314 97.2 6 1.9 1 0.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 0.6
FC8 Pies
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 21 47.7 21 47.7 1 2.3 1 2.3 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 58 63.0 32 34.8 0 0.0 2 2.2 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 89 77.4 22 19.1 2 1.7 1 0.9 0 0.0 1 0.9
60–69 58 79.5 12 16.4 1 1.4 2 2.7 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 226 69.8 87 26.9 4 1.2 6 1.9 0 0.0 1 0.3
FC9 Pasta (macaroni; medium portion)
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 35 81.4 7 16.3 1 2.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 56 60.9 30 32.6 1 1.1 5 5.4 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 64 55.7 42 36.5 0 0.0 7 6.1 1 0.9 1 0.9
60–69 49 67.1 22 30.1 1 1.4 1 1.4 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 204 63.2 101 31.3 3 0.9 13 4.0 1 0.3 1 0.3
Table A60. Average consumption of pizza, pie and pasta among women, by age group
FC7 Pizza (slice)
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 61 96.8 2 3.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 127 98.4 2 1.6 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 180 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 151 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 519 99.2 4 0.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
FC8 Pies
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 42 66.7 19 30.2 1 1.6 1 1.6 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 107 82.3 21 16.2 1 0.8 1 0.8 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 146 81.1 30 16.7 1 0.6 2 1.1 1 0.6 0 0.0
60–69 135 90.0 13 8.7 0 0.0 2 1.3 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 430 82.2 83 15.9 3 0.6 6 1.1 1 0.2 0 0.0
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 44 69.8 15 23.8 0 0.0 3 4.8 1 1.6 0 0.0
30–44 92 70.8 33 25.4 0 0.0 4 3.1 1 0.8 0 0.0
45–59 118 65.6 55 30.6 2 1.1 4 2.2 1 0.6 0 0.0
60–69 107 70.9 34 22.5 3 2.0 6 4.0 1 0.7 0 0.0
18–69 361 68.9 137 26.1 5 1.0 17 3.2 4 0.8 0 0.0

Table A61. Average consumption of pizza, pie and pasta among both sexes, by age group
FC7 Pizza (slice)
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 101 95.3 3 2.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 1.9
30–44 216 97.7 5 2.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 292 99.0 2 0.7 1 0.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 224 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 833 98.5 10 1.2 1 0.1 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 0.2
FC8 Pies
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 63 58.9 40 37.4 2 1.9 2 1.9 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 165 74.3 53 23.9 1 0.5 3 1.4 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 235 79.7 52 17.6 3 1.0 3 1.0 1 0.3 1 0.3
60–69 193 86.5 25 11.2 1 0.4 4 1.8 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 656 77.4 170 20.1 7 0.8 12 1.4 1 0.1 1 0.1

n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 79 74.5 22 20.8 1 0.9 3 2.8 1 0.9 0 0.0
30–44 148 66.7 63 28.4 1 0.5 9 4.1 1 0.5 0 0.0
45–59 182 61.7 97 32.9 2 0.7 11 3.7 2 0.7 1 0.3
60–69 156 69.6 56 25.0 4 1.8 7 3.1 1 0.4 0 0.0
18–69 565 66.7 238 28.1 8 0.9 30 3.5 5 0.6 1 0.1
Table A62. Average consumption of pizza, pie and pasta among both sexes,
FC7 Pizza (slice)

Once per week or 2–4 days per 5–6 days per Once per 2–3 times per 4–6 times per
Area
less week week day day day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
Rural 520 99.6 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 0.4
Urban 313 96.6 10 3.1 1 0.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Total 833 98.5 10 1.2 1 0.1 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 0.2
FC8 Pies
Area Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
Rural 438 83.6 73 13.9 3 0.6 8 1.5 1 0.2 1 0.2
Urban 218 67.5 97 30.0 4 1.2 4 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0
Total 656 77.4 170 20.1 7 0.8 12 1.4 1 0.1 1 0.1

Area Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
Rural 324 62.0 165 31.5 6 1.1 24 4.6 3 0.6 1 0.2
Urban 241 74.4 73 22.5 2 0.6 6 1.9 2 0.6 0 0.0
Total 565 66.7 238 28.1 8 0.9 30 3.5 5 0.6 1 0.1

Table A63. Average consumption of chips and salty snacks among men, by age group
FC6 Chips
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 43 97.7 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 2.3 0 0.0
30–44 91 98.9 1 1.1 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 113 99.1 1 0.9 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 73 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 320 99.1 2 0.6 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.3 0 0.0
FC10 Salty snacks (salty nuts, biscuits, crackers)

n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 43 97.7 1 2.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 90 97.8 2 2.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 114 99.1 1 0.9 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 73 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 320 98.8 4 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Table A64. Average consumption of chips and salty snacks among women, by age group
FC6 Chips
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 62 98.4 1 1.6 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 130 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 179 99.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.6 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 151 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 522 99.6 1 0.2 0 0.0 1 0.2 0 0.0 0 0.0

n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 61 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 130 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 179 99.4 1 0.6 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 150 99.3 1 0.7 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 520 99.6 2 0.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0

Table A65. Average consumption of chips and salty snacks among both sexes, by age
group
FC6 Chips
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 105 98.1 1 0.9 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.9 0 0.0
30–44 221 99.5 1 0.5 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 292 99.3 1 0.3 0 0.0 1 0.3 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 224 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 842 99.4 3 0.4 0 0.0 1 0.1 1 0.1 0 0.0

n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 104 99.0 1 1.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 220 99.1 2 0.9 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 293 99.3 2 0.7 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 223 99.6 1 0.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 840 99.3 6 0.7 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Table A66. Average consumption of chips and salty snacks among both sexes, by area
of residence
FC6 Chips
Area Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
Rural 521 99.6 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.2 1 0.2 0 0.0
Urban 321 99.1 3 0.9 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Total 842 99.4 3 0.4 0 0.0 1 0.1 1 0.1 0 0.0

Area Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
Rural 522 99.8 1 0.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Urban 318 98.5 5 1.5 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Total 840 99.3 6 0.7 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0

Table A67. Average consumption of processed meat products among men, by age
group
FC11 Sausages (salami (boiled), liver sausage)

Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 29 65.9 11 25.0 2 4.5 2 4.5 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 56 60.9 18 19.6 3 3.3 15 16.3 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 89 78.1 22 19.3 3 2.6 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 57 78.1 13 17.8 0 0.0 3 4.1 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 231 71.5 64 19.8 8 2.5 20 6.2 0 0.0 0 0.0
FC12 Pastrami, smoked ham, cured/smoked salami

Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 26 60.5 13 30.2 1 2.3 3 7.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 58 63.0 23 25.0 5 5.4 6 6.5 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 92 80.7 20 17.5 0 0.0 2 1.8 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 61 83.6 11 15.1 1 1.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 237 73.6 67 20.8 7 2.2 11 3.4 0 0.0 0 0.0
FC13 Canned meat

Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 43 97.7 1 2.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 81 89.0 9 9.9 0 0.0 1 1.1 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 104 91.2 10 8.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 68 93.2 5 6.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 296 91.9 25 7.8 0 0.0 1 0.3 0 0.0 0 0.0
FC14 Semi-prepared meat products

Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 41 93.2 3 6.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 91 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 112 97.4 3 2.6 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 72 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 316 98.1 6 1.9 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0

Table A68. Average consumption of processed meat products among women,
by age group

Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 34 54.0 23 36.5 2 3.2 4 6.3 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 86 66.2 35 26.9 2 1.5 5 3.8 1 0.8 1 0.8
45–59 142 78.9 26 14.4 2 1.1 10 5.6 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 131 86.8 19 12.6 0 0.0 1 0.7 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 393 75.0 103 19.7 6 1.1 20 3.8 1 0.2 1 0.2

n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 48 76.2 12 19.0 3 4.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 98 75.4 23 17.7 6 4.6 2 1.5 0 0.0 1 0.8
45–59 151 84.4 22 12.3 4 2.2 2 1.1 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 137 90.7 12 7.9 0 0.0 2 1.3 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 434 83.0 69 13.2 13 2.5 6 1.1 0 0.0 1 0.2
FC13 Canned meat

n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 62 98.4 1 1.6 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 126 96.9 4 3.1 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 163 91.1 14 7.8 0 0.0 1 0.6 0 0.0 1 0.6
60–69 148 98.0 3 2.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 499 95.4 22 4.2 0 0.0 1 0.2 0 0.0 1 0.2

n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 62 98.4 1 1.6 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 129 99.2 1 0.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 179 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 151 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 521 99.6 2 0.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0

Table A69. Average consumption of processed meat products among both sexes,
by age group

n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 63 58.9 34 31.8 4 3.7 6 5.6 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 142 64.0 53 23.9 5 2.3 20 9.0 1 0.5 1 0.5
45–59 231 78.6 48 16.3 5 1.7 10 3.4 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 188 83.9 32 14.3 0 0.0 4 1.8 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 624 73.7 167 19.7 14 1.7 40 4.7 1 0.1 1 0.1

n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 74 69.8 25 23.6 4 3.8 3 2.8 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 156 70.3 46 20.7 11 5.0 8 3.6 0 0.0 1 0.5
45–59 243 82.9 42 14.3 4 1.4 4 1.4 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 198 88.4 23 10.3 1 0.4 2 0.9 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 671 79.4 136 16.1 20 2.4 17 2.0 0 0.0 1 0.1
FC13 Canned meat

n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 105 98.1 2 1.9 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 207 93.7 13 5.9 0 0.0 1 0.5 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 267 91.1 24 8.2 0 0.0 1 0.3 0 0.0 1 0.3
60–69 216 96.4 8 3.6 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 795 94.1 47 5.6 0 0.0 2 0.2 0 0.0 1 0.1

n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 103 96.3 4 3.7 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 220 99.5 1 0.5 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 291 99.0 3 1.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 223 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 837 99.1 8 0.9 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0

Table A70. Average consumption of processed meat products among both sexes,

Area Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
Rural 451 86.2 52 9.9 5 1.0 15 2.9 0 0.0 0 0.0
Urban 173 53.4 115 35.5 9 2.8 25 7.7 1 0.3 1 0.3
Total 624 73.7 167 19.7 14 1.7 40 4.7 1 0.1 1 0.1

Area Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
Rural 478 91.6 36 6.9 2 0.4 5 1.0 0 0.0 1 0.2
Urban 193 59.8 100 31.0 18 5.6 12 3.7 0 0.0 0 0.0
Total 671 79.4 136 16.1 20 2.4 17 2.0 0 0.0 1 0.1
FC13 Canned meat

Area Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
Rural 478 91.7 41 7.9 0 0.0 1 0.2 0 0.0 1 0.2
Urban 317 97.8 6 1.9 0 0.0 1 0.3 0 0.0 0 0.0
Total 795 94.1 47 5.6 0 0.0 2 0.2 0 0.0 1 0.1

Area Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
Rural 520 99.8 1 0.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Urban 317 97.8 7 2.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Total 837 99.1 8 0.9 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Table A71. Average consumption of processed fish products among men, by age group
FC15 Salty/smoked/marinated fish

Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 44 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 84 91.3 8 8.7 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 112 98.2 1 0.9 0 0.0 1 0.9 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 71 97.3 2 2.7 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 311 96.3 11 3.4 0 0.0 1 0.3 0 0.0 0 0.0
FC16 Canned fish

Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 42 97.7 1 2.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 91 98.9 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.1
45–59 114 99.1 1 0.9 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 71 98.6 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.4 0 0.0
18–69 318 98.8 2 0.6 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.3 1 0.3

Table A72. Average consumption of processed fish products among women,
by age group

Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 62 98.4 1 1.6 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 125 96.2 4 3.1 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.8
45–59 175 97.2 5 2.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 149 98.7 1 0.7 0 0.0 1 0.7 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 511 97.5 11 2.1 0 0.0 1 0.2 0 0.0 1 0.2
FC16 Canned fish

Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 60 98.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.6
30–44 127 99.2 1 0.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 177 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 150 100.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 514 99.6 1 0.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.2
Table A73. Average consumption of processed fish products among both sexes,
by age group

Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 106 99.1 1 0.9 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 209 94.1 12 5.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.5
45–59 287 97.6 6 2.0 0 0.0 1 0.3 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 220 98.2 3 1.3 0 0.0 1 0.4 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 822 97.0 22 2.6 0 0.0 2 0.2 0 0.0 1 0.1
FC16 Canned fish

Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 102 98.1 1 1.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.0
30–44 218 99.1 1 0.5 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.5
45–59 291 99.7 1 0.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 221 99.5 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.5 0 0.0
18–69 832 99.3 3 0.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.1 2 0.2

Table A74. Average consumption of processed fish products among both sexes, by
area of residence

Area Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
Rural 513 98.1 8 1.5 0 0.0 1 0.2 0 0.0 1 0.2
Urban 309 95.4 14 4.3 0 0.0 1 0.3 0 0.0 0 0.0
Total 822 97.0 22 2.6 0 0.0 2 0.2 0 0.0 1 0.1
FC16 Canned fish

Once per week or 2–4 days per 5–6 days per Once per 2–3 times per 4–6 times per
Area
less week week day day day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
Rural 511 99.0 2 0.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.2 2 0.4
Urban 321 99.7 1 0.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Total 832 99.3 3 0.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.1 2 0.2
Table A75. Average consumption of dairy products among men, by age group
FC17 Hard and soft cheese

Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 22 50.0 19 43.2 1 2.3 2 4.5 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 50 54.3 33 35.9 4 4.3 5 5.4 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 91 79.8 17 14.9 4 3.5 2 1.8 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 59 80.8 13 17.8 0 0.0 1 1.4 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 222 68.7 82 25.4 9 2.8 10 3.1 0 0.0 0 0.0
FC18 Sheep’s cheese

Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 27 62.8 12 27.9 1 2.3 3 7.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 56 60.9 27 29.3 4 4.3 5 5.4 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 50 43.5 40 34.8 11 9.6 13 11.3 0 0.0 1 0.9
60–69 45 61.6 14 19.2 6 8.2 7 9.6 1 1.4 0 0.0
18–69 178 55.1 93 28.8 22 6.8 28 8.7 1 0.3 1 0.3

Table A76. Average consumption of dairy products among women, by age group

Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 35 55.6 23 36.5 1 1.6 4 6.3 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 82 63.1 38 29.2 1 0.8 9 6.9 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 141 78.3 30 16.7 3 1.7 6 3.3 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 123 82.0 24 16.0 0 0.0 3 2.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 381 72.8 115 22.0 5 1.0 22 4.2 0 0.0 0 0.0

Age Once per week 2–4 days per 5–6 days per 2–3 times per 4–6 times
Once per day
(years) or less week week day per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 48 77.4 6 9.7 2 3.2 6 9.7 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 74 57.4 31 24.0 6 4.7 16 12.4 1 0.8 1 0.8
45–59 98 54.4 49 27.2 6 3.3 25 13.9 1 0.6 1 0.6
60–69 105 70.0 28 18.% 6 4.0 7 4.7 4 2.7 0 0.0
18–69 325 62.4 114 21.% 20 3.8 54 10.4 6 1.2 2 0.4
Table A77. Average consumption of dairy products among both sexes, by age group

Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 57 53.3 42 39.3 2 1.9 6 5.6 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 132 59.5 71 32.0 5 2.3 14 6.3 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 232 78.9 47 16.0 7 2.4 8 2.7 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 182 81.6 37 16.6 0 0.0 4 1.8 0 0. 0 0.0
18–69 603 71.3 197 23.3 14 1.7 32 3.8 0 0.0 0 0.0

Age Once per week 2–4 days per 5–6 days per 2–3 times per 4–6 times
Once per day
(years) or less week week day per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 75 71.4 18 17.% 3 2.9 9 8.6 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 130 58.8 58 26.% 10 4.5 21 9.5 1 0.5 1 0.5
45–59 148 50.2 89 30.% 17 5.8 38 12.9 1 0.3 2 0.7
60–69 150 67.3 42 18.% 12 5.4 14 6.3 5 2.2 0 0.0
18–69 503 59.6 207 24.% 42 5.0 82 9.7 7 0.8 3 0.4

Table A78. Average consumption of dairy products among both sexes,

Area Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
Rural 462 88.5 41 7.9 3 0.6 16 3.1 0 0.0 0 0.0
Urban 141 43.5 156 48.1 11 3.4 16 4.9 0 0.0 0 0.0
Total 603 71.3 197 23.3 14 1.7 32 3.8 0 0.0 0 0.0

Area Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
Rural 258 49.6 157 30.2 35 6.7 61 11.7 6 1.2 3 0.6
Urban 245 75.6 50 15.4 7 2.2 21 6.5 1 0.3 0 0.0
Total 503 59.6 207 24.5 42 5.0 82 9.7 7 0.8 3 0.4
Table A79. Average consumption of other foodstuffs among men, by age group
FC19 Pickled vegetables (medium portion)

Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 36 81.8 7 15.9 0 0.0 1 2.3 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 75 81.5 15 16.3 2 2.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 76 66.1 26 22.6 10 8.7 2 1.7 1 0.9 0 0.0
60–69 57 78.1 11 15.1 3 4.1 2 2.7 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 244 75.3 59 18.2 15 4.6 5 1.5 1 0.3 0 0.0
FC20 Marinated vegetables (medium portion)

Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 42 95.5 1 2.3 0 0.0 1 2.3 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 88 95.7 4 4.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 106 93.0 5 4.4 1 0.9 2 1.8 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 72 98.6 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.4 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 308 95.4 10 3.1 1 0.3 4 1.2 0 0.0 0 0.0
FC21 Sauces (ketchup, mayonnaise, other sauces)

Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 27 61.4 13 29.5 1 2.3 3 6.8 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 59 64.1 19 20.7 5 5.4 9 9.8 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 95 82.6 18 15.7 2 1.7 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 64 87.7 9 12.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 245 75.6 59 18.2 8 2.5 12 3.7 0 0.0 0 0.0

Table A80. Average consumption of other foodstuffs among women, by age group
Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 61 96.8 2 3.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 117 90.0 7 5.4 5 3.8 1 0.8 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 139 77.2 37 20.6 2 1.1 1 0.6 1 0.6 0 0.0
60–69 136 90.1 15 9.9 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 453 86.5 61 11.6 7 1.3 2 0.4 1 0.2 0 0.0

Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 57 90.5 2 3.2 0 0.0 3 4.8 1 1.6 0 0.0
30–44 128 98.5 2 1.5 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 163 90.6 10 5.6 1 0.6 5 2.8 1 0.6 0 0.0
60–69 146 97.3 3 2.0 0 0.0 1 0.7 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 494 94.5 17 3.3 1 0.2 9 1.7 2 0.4 0 0.0

Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 51 81.0 8 12.7 0 0.0 4 6.3 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 119 91.5 10 7.7 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.8
45–59 160 88.9 18 10.0 2 1.1 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 142 94.0 8 5.3 0 0.0 1 0.7 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 472 90.1 44 8.4 2 0.4 5 1.0 0 0.0 1 0.2
Table A81. Average consumption of other foodstuffs among both sexes, by age group

Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 97 90.7 9 8.4 0 0.0 1 0.9 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 192 86.5 22 9.9 7 3.2 1 0.5 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 215 72.9 63 21.4 12 4.1 3 1.0 2 0.7 0 0.0
60–69 193 86.2 26 11.6 3 1.3 2 0.9 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 697 82.2 120 14.2 22 2.6 7 0.8 2 0.2 0 0.0

Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 99 92.5 3 2.8 0 0.0 4 3.7 1 0.9 0 0.0
30–44 216 97.3 6 2.7 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
45–59 269 91.5 15 5.1 2 0.7 7 2.4 1 0.3 0 0.0
60–69 218 97.8 3 1.3 0 0.0 2 0.9 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 802 94.8 27 3.2 2 0.2 13 1.5 2 0.2 0 0.0

Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
18–29 78 72.9 21 19.6 1 0.9 7 6.5 0 0.0 0 0.0
30–44 178 80.2 29 13.1 5 2.3 9 4.1 0 0.0 1 0.5
45–59 255 86.4 36 12.2 4 1.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
60–69 206 92.0 17 7.6 0 0.0 1 0.4 0 0.0 0 0.0
18–69 717 84.6 103 12.1 10 1.2 17 2.0 0 0.0 1 0.1

Table A82. Average consumption of other foodstuffs among both sexes, by area of
residence
Area Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
Rural 401 76.5 99 18.9 17 3.2 5 1.0 2 0.4 0 0.0
Urban 296 91.4 21 6.5 5 1.5 2 0.6 0 0.0 0 0.0
Total 697 82.2 120 14.2 22 2.6 7 0.8 2 0.2 0 0.0

Area Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
Rural 495 94.8 13 2.5 1 0.2 11 2.1 2 0.4 0 0.0
Urban 307 94.8 14 4.3 1 0.3 2 0.6 0 0.0 0 0.0
Total 802 94.8 27 3.2 2 0.2 13 1.5 2 0.2 0 0.0

Area Once per day
n % n % n % n % n % n %
Rural 474 90.5 40 7.6 5 1.0 5 1.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Urban 243 75.0 63 19.4 5 1.5 12 3.7 0 0.0 1 0.3
Total 717 84.6 103 12.1 10 1.2 17 2.0 0 0.0 1 0.1
8.4 DIETARY SALT
Table A83. Add salt always or often before eating or while eating, by age group and sex

Age (years)
n % n % n %
18–29 44 34.1 63 27.0 107 29.9
30–44 92 52.2 130 30.0 222 39.2
45–59 115 52.2 180 26.7 295 36.6
60–69 73 43.8 151 27.2 224 32.6
18–69 324 47.8 524 27.7 848 35.4
Table A84. Add salt always or often before eating or while eating, by area of
residence and sex

Area
n % n % n %
Rural 189 45.5 335 30.1 524 35.7
Urban 135 51.1 189 23.3 324 34.9
Total 324 47.8 524 27.7 848 35.4

Table A85. Add salt always or often when cooking or preparing food at home, by age
group and sex

Age (years)
n % n % n %
18–29 44 52.3 63 54.0 107 53.3
30–44 92 63.0 130 57.7 222 59.9
45–59 115 71.3 180 66.7 295 68.5
60–69 73 65.8 151 53.0 224 57.1
18–69 324 65.1 524 59.0 848 61.3
Table A86. Add salt always or often when cooking or preparing food at home, by
area of residence and sex

Area
n % n % n %
Rural 189 68.3 335 70.7 524 69.8
Urban 135 60.7 189 38.1 324 47.5
Total 324 65.1 524 59.0 848 61.3
Table A87. Use iodized salt when cooking or preparing food at home, by age group
and sex

Age (years)
n % n % n %
18–29 44 81.8 63 76.2 107 78.5
30–44 92 73.9 130 66.9 222 69.8
45–59 115 58.3 180 65.0 295 62.4
60–69 73 56.2 151 54.3 224 54.9
18–69 324 65.4 524 63.7 848 64.4
Table A88. Use iodized salt when cooking or preparing food at home, by area of
residence and sex

Age (years)
n % n % n %
Rural 189 52.9 335 49.9 524 51.0
Urban 135 83.0 189 88.4 324 86.1
Total 324 65.4 524 63.7 848 64.4
Table A89. Always or often consume processed food which is high in salt, by age
group and sex

Age (years)
n % n % n %
18–29 44 47.7 63 34.9 107 40.2
30–44 92 41.3 130 26.9 222 32.9
45–59 115 30.4 180 25.6 295 27.5
60–69 73 26.0 151 13.2 224 17.4
18–69 324 34.9 524 23.5 848 27.8

Table A90. Always or often consume processed food which is high in salt, by area of
residence and sex

Age (years)
n % n % n %
Rural 189 23.8 335 19.1 524 20.8
Urban 135 50.4 189 31.2 324 39.2
Total 324 34.9 524 23.5 848 27.8
Table A91. Think they consume far too much or too much salt, by age group and sex

Age (years)
n % n % n %
18–29 44 18.2 63 20.6 107 19.6
30–44 92 34.8 130 28.5 222 31.1
45–59 115 33.0 180 26.7 295 29.2
60–69 73 35.6 151 15.9 224 22.3
18–69 324 32.1 524 23.3 848 26.7
Table A92. Self-reported quantity of salt consumed among men, by age group
Men
Age group
Far too much Just the right
(years) n Too much (%) Too little (%) Far too little (%)
(%) amount (%)
18–29 44 2.3 15.9 79.5 0.0 0.0
30–44 92 3.3 31.5 60.9 1.1 1.1
45–59 115 5.2 27.8 60.9 0.9 0.0
60–69 73 8.2 27.4 57.5 5.5 0.0
18–69 324 4.9 27.2 62.7 1.9 0.3
Table A93. Self-reported quantity of salt consumed among women, by age group
Women
Age
(years) Far too much Just the right
n Too much (%) Too little (%) Far too little (%)
(%) amount (%)
18–29 63 4.8 15.9 76.2 0.0 1.6
30–44 130 8.5 20.0 61.5 3.8 1.5
45–59 180 5.6 21.1 65.6 3.3 0.6
60–69 151 2.6 13.2 74.2 6.6 0.7
18–69 524 5.3 17.9 68.3 4.0 1.0
Table A94. Self-reported quantity of salt consumed among both sexes, by age group
Both sexes
Age group
(years) Far too much Just the right
n Too much (%) Too little (%) Far too little (%)
(%) amount (%)
18–29 107 3.7 15.9 77.6 0.0 0.9
30–44 222 6.3 24.8 61.3 2.7 1.4
45–59 295 5.4 23.7 63.7 2.4 0.3
60–69 224 4.5 17.9 68.8 6.2 0.4
18–69 848 5.2 21.5 66.2 3.2 0.7

Table A95. Think consuming too much salt could cause a serious health problem, by
age group and sex

Age (years)
n % n % n %
18–29 44 81.8 63 57.1 107 67.3
30–44 92 69.6 130 73.8 222 72.1
45–59 115 56.5 180 68.3 295 63.7
60–69 73 60.3 151 70.2 224 67.0
18–69 324 64.5 524 68.9 848 67.2
Table A96. The type of serious health problem male respondents think a high-salt
diet could cause, by age group
Men
Age
(years) High blood Osteoporosis Stomach Kidney stones None of the All of the
n
pressure (%) (%) cancer (%) (%) above (%) above (%)
18–29 36 55.6 30.6 16.7 44.4 0.0 25.0
30–44 64 54.7 23.4 6.2 37.5 0.0 35.9
45–59 65 64.6 16.9 3.1 43.1 1.5 23.1
60–69 44 52.3 15.9 6.8 27.3 0.0 29.5
18–69 209 57.4 21.1 7.2 38.3 0.5 28.7
Table A97. The type of serious health problem female respondents think a high-salt
diet could cause, by age group
Women
Age
(years) High blood Osteoporosis Stomach Kidney stones None of the All of the
n
18–29 36 36.1 19.4 5.6 38.9 2.8 44.4
30–44 96 52.1 25.0 3.1 41.7 1.0 33.3
45–59 123 49.6 20.3 6.5 31.7 0.0 40.7
60–69 106 65.1 29.2 9.4 43.4 0.0 27.4
18–69 361 53.5 24.1 6.4 38.5 0.6 35.2
Table A98. The type of serious health problem respondents of both sexes think a
high-salt diet could cause, by age group
Both sexes
Age
High blood Osteoporosis Stomach Kidney stones None of the All of the
(years) n
18–29 72 45.8 25.0 11.1 41.7 1.4 34.7
30–44 160 53.1 24.4 4.4 40.0 0.6 34.4
45–59 188 54.8 19.1 5.3 35.6 0.5 34.6
60–69 150 61.3 25.3 8.7 38.7 0.0 28.0
18–69 570 54.9 23.0 6.7 38.4 0.5 32.8
Table A99. The importance attributed by men to lowering salt in diet, by age group
Age Men
(years) n Very important (%) Somewhat important (%) Not-at-all important (%)
18–29 44 25.0 47.7 15.9
30–44 92 25.0 42.4 16.3
45–59 115 22.6 51.3 13.9
60–69 73 15.1 50.7 19.2
18–69 324 21.9 48.1 16.0

Table A100. The importance attributed by women to lowering salt in diet, by age group
Age Women
18–29 63 25.4 34.9 14.3
30–44 130 37.7 40.8 7.7
45–59 180 30.6 49.4 9.4
60–69 151 31.8 43.0 11.9
18–69 524 32.1 43.7 10.3
Table A101. The importance attributed by both sexes to lowering salt in diet, by age group
Age Both sexes

18–29 107 25.2 40.2 15.0
30–44 222 32.4 41.4 11.3
45–59 295 27.5 50.2 11.2
60–69 224 26.3 45.5 14.3
18–69 848 28.2 45.4 12.5
Table A102. Respondents that limit consumption of processed food, by age group
and sex

Age (years)
n % n % n %
18–29 8 75.0 15 73.3 23 73.9
30–44 18 83.3 46 91.3 64 89.1
45–59 27 74.1 59 78.0 86 76.7
60–69 16 87.5 62 82.3 78 83.3
18–69 69 79.7 182 82.4 251 81.7
Table A103. Respondents that look at the salt or sodium content on food labels, by age
group and sex

Age (years)
n % n % n %
18-29 8 12.5 15 13.3 23 13.0
30-44 18 22.2 46 10.9 64 14.1
45-59 27 7.4 59 8.5 86 8.1
60-69 16 0.0 62 4.8 78 3.8
18-69 69 10.1 182 8.2 251 8.8
Table A104. Respondents that buy low salt/sodium alternatives, by age group and sex

Age (years)
n % n % n %
18–29 8 50.0 15 13.3 23 26.1
30–44 18 22.2 46 19.6 64 20.3
45–59 27 7.4 59 10.2 86 9.3
60–69 16 12.5 62 11.3 78 11.5
18–69 69 17.4 182 13.2 251 14.3

Table A105. Do not add salt when cooking, by age group and sex

Age(years)
n % n % n %
18–29 8 50.0 15 40.0 23 43.5
30–44 18 22.2 46 34.8 64 31.2
45–59 27 14.8 59 27.1 86 23.3
60–69 16 31.2 62 37.1 78 35.9
18–69 69 24.6 182 33.5 251 31.1
Table A106. Use spices other than salt when cooking, by age group and sex

Age (years)
n % n % n %
18–29 8 0.0 15 33.3 23 21.7
30–44 18 16.7 46 37.0 64 31.2
45–59 27 18.5 59 13.6 86 15.1
60–69 16 18.8 62 24.2 78 23.1
18–69 69 15.9 182 24.7 251 22.3
Table A107. Avoid eating food prepared outside of home, by age group and sex

Age (years)
n % n % n %
18–29 8 0.0 15 33.3 23 21.7
30–44 18 16.7 46 37.0 64 31.2
45–59 27 33.3 59 30.5 86 31.4
60–69 16 43.8 62 38.7 78 39.7
18–69 69 27.5 182 35.2 251 33.1
Table A108. Take other measures specifically to control salt intake, by age group
and sex

Age (years)
n % n % n %
18–29 8 12.5 15 0.0 23 4.3
30–44 18 0.0 46 0.0 64 0.0
45–59 27 0.0 59 1.7 86 1.2
60–69 16 0.0 62 0.0 78 0.0
18–69 69 1.4 182 0.5 251 0.8

8.5 PERSONAL MEDICAL HISTORY
Table A109. Blood pressure measurements and diagnosis in men, by age group
Men
Age (years) Diagnosed, but
Never measured Measured, but not Diagnosed within
n not within past 12
(%) diagnosed (%) past 12 months (%)
months (%)
18–29 44 9.1 88.6 2.3 0.0
30–44 92 4.3 87.0 3.3 5.4
45–59 115 3.5 76.5 5.2 14.8
60–69 73 4.1 63.0 11.0 21.9
18–69 324 4.6 78.1 5.6 11.7
Table A110. Blood pressure measurements and diagnosis in women, by age group
Women
months (%)
18–29 63 12.7 82.5 3.2 1.6
30–44 130 10.0 83.1 3.8 3.1
45–59 180 3.3 72.8 11.1 12.8
60–69 151 4.6 55.0 9.9 30.5
18–69 524 6.5 71.4 8.0 14.1
Table A111. Blood pressure measurements and diagnosis in both sexes, by age group
Both sexes
months (%)
18–29 107 11.2 85.0 2.8 0.9
30–44 222 7.7 84.7 3.6 4.1
45–59 295 3.4 74.2 8.8 13.6
60–69 224 4.5 57.6 10.3 27.7
18–69 848 5.8 73.9 7.1 13.2
Table A112. Currently taking medication for raised blood pressure prescribed by a
doctor or health worker among those diagnosed, by age group and sex

Age (years) Taking Taking Taking
n n n
medication (%) medication (%) medication (%)
18–29 1 0.0 3 0.0 4 0.0
30–44 8 12.5 9 33.3 17 23.5
45–59 23 56.5 43 51.2 66 53.0
60–69 24 41.7 61 72.1 85 63.5
18–69 56 42.9 116 59.5 172 54.1

Table 113. Currently receiving advice to reduce salt intake for raised blood pressure
prescribed by a doctor or health worker among those diagnosed, by age group and sex

Age (years) Advice to Advice to Advice to
n n n
reduce salt (%) reduce salt (%) reduce salt (%)
18–29 1 0.0 3 0.0 4 0.0
30–44 8 25.0 9 33.3 17 29.4
45–59 23 56.5 43 55.8 66 56.1
60–69 24 45.8 61 75.4 85 67.1
18–69 56 46.4 116 62.9 172 57.6
Table 114. Currently receiving advice or treatment to lose weight for raised blood
pressure prescribed by a doctor or health worker among those diagnosed,

Age (years) Advice to lose Advice to lose Advice to lose
n n n
weight (%) weight (%) weight (%)
18–29 1 0.0 3 0.0 4 0.0
30–44 8 12.5 9 11.1 17 11.8
45–59 23 39.1 43 46.5 66 43.9
60–69 24 37.5 61 60.7 85 54.1
18–69 56 33.9 116 50.0 172 44.8
Table 115. Currently receiving advice or treatment to stop smoking for raised blood
pressure prescribed by a doctor or health worker among those diagnosed, by age
group and sex

Age (years) Advice to stop Advice to stop Advice to stop
n n n
smoking (%) smoking (%) smoking (%)
18–29 1 0.0 3 0.0 4 0.0
30–44 8 12.5 9 0.0 17 5.9
45–59 23 34.8 43 11.6 66 19.7
60–69 24 20.8 61 24.6 85 23.5
18–69 56 25.0 116 17.2 172 19.8
Table 116. Currently receiving advice to start or do more physical activity for raised
blood pressure prescribed by a doctor or health worker among those diagnosed, by
age group and sex

Advice to do Advice to do Advice to do
Age (years)
n more physical n more physical n more physical
activity (%) activity (%) activity (%)
18–29 1 0.0 3 0.0 4 0.0
30–44 8 25.0 9 11.1 17 17.6
45–59 23 47.8 43 41.9 66 43.9
60–69 24 25.0 61 55.7 85 47.1
18–69 56 33.9 116 45.7 172 41.9

Table 117. Seen a traditional healer, for raised blood pressure by age group and sex

Age (years) Seen traditional Seen traditional Seen traditional
n n n
healer (%) healer (%) healer (%)
18–29 1 0.0 3 0.0 4 0.0
30–44 8 12.5 9 0.0 17 5.9
45–59 23 17.4 43 30.2 66 25.8
60–69 24 16.7 61 13.1 85 14.1
18–69 56 16.1 116 18.1 172 17.4
Table 118. Currently taking herbal or traditional remedy for raised blood pressure, by
age group and sex

Taking Taking Taking
Age (years)
n traditional n traditional n traditional
18–29 1 0.0 3 0.0 4 0.0
30–44 8 0.0 9 0.0 17 0.0
45–59 23 13.0 43 25.6 66 21.2
60–69 24 12.5 61 27.9 85 23.5
18–69 56 10.7 116 24.1 172 19.8
Table A119. Blood sugar measurement and diagnosis in men, by age group
Men
Age (years) Diagnosed but
Never measured Measured but not Diagnosed within
months (%)
18–29 44 20.5 79.5 0.0 0.0
30–44 92 13.0 85.9 1.1 0.0
45–59 115 12.2 86.1 0.0 1.7
60–69 73 15.1 76.7 2.7 5.5
18–69 324 14.2 83.0 0.9 1.9
Table A120. Blood sugar measurement and diagnosis in women, by age group
Women
Age (years) Diagnosed but
Never measured Measured but not Diagnosed within
months (%)
18–29 63 30.2 68.3 0.0 1.6
30–44 130 20.8 78.5 0.0 0.8
45–59 180 13.9 79.4 2.2 4.4
60–69 151 15.2 80.1 2.0 2.6
18–69 524 17.9 78.1 1.3 2.7

Table A121. Blood sugar measurement and diagnosis, by age group, both sexes
Both sexes
Age (years) Diagnosed but Diagnosed within
Never measured Measured but not
n not within past 12 past 12 months
(%) diagnosed (%)
months (%) (%)
18–29 107 26.2 72.9 0.0 0.9
30–44 222 17.6 81.5 0.5 0.5
45–59 295 13.2 82.0 1.4 3.4
60–69 224 15.2 79.0 2.2 3.6
18–69 848 16.5 80.0 1.2 2.4
Table A122. Currently taking insulin prescribed for diabetes among those previously
diagnosed, by age group and sex

Age (years) Taking insulin Taking insulin Taking insulin
n n n
(%) (%) (%)
18–29 0 0.0 1 0.0 1 0.0
30–44 1 0.0 1 0.0 2 0.0
45–59 2 0.0 12 0.0 14 0.0
60–69 6 0.0 7 57.1 13 30.8
18–69 9 0.0 21 19.0 30 13.3
Table A123. Currently taking medication prescribed for diabetes among those
previously diagnosed, by age group and sex

n n n
18–29 0 0.0 1 0.0 1 0.0
30–44 1 0.0 1 100.0 2 50.0
45–59 2 50.0 12 66.7 14 64.3
60–69 6 50.0 7 71.4 13 61.5
18–69 9 44.4 21 66.7 30 60.0
Table A124. Currently receiving a special diet prescribed for diabetes among those
previously diagnosed, by age group and sex

Age (years) Receiving Receiving Receiving
n n n
special diet (%) special diet (%) special diet (%)
18–29 0 0.0 1 0.0 1 0.0
30–44 1 0.0 1 100.0 2 50.0
45–59 2 0.0 12 41.7 14 35.7
60–69 6 33.3 7 71.4 13 53.8
18–69 9 22.2 21 52.4 30 43.3

Table A125. Currently receiving advice or treatment to lose weight for diabetes
prescribed by a doctor or health worker among those diagnosed, by age group and
sex

Age (years) Advice to lose Advice to lose Advice to lose
n n n
weight (%) weight (%) weight (%)
18–29 0 0.0 1 0.0 1 0.0
30–44 1 0.0 1 0.0 2 0.0
45–59 2 50.0 12 66.7 14 64.3
60–69 6 50.0 7 42.9 13 46.2
18–69 9 44.4 21 52.4 30 50.0
Table A126. Currently receiving advice or treatment to stop smoking for diabetes
prescribed by a doctor or health worker among those diagnosed, by age group and
sex

Age (years) Advice to stop Advice to stop Advice to stop
n n n
smoking (%) smoking (%) smoking (%)
18–29 0 0.0 1 0.0 1 0.0
30–44 1 0.0 1 0.0 2 0.0
45–59 2 50.0 12 0.0 14 7.1
60–69 6 33.3 7 42.9 13 38.5
18–69 9 33.3 21 14.3 30 20.0
Table A127. Currently receiving advice to start or do more physical activity for
diabetes prescribed by a doctor or health worker among those diagnosed, by age
group and sex

Age (years) Advice to do Advice to do Advice to do
n more physical n more physical n more physical
activity (%) activity (%) activity (%)
18–29 0 0.0 1 100.0 1 100.0
30–44 1 100.0 1 100.0 2 100.0
45–59 2 100.0 12 91.7 14 92.9
60–69 6 66.7 7 85.7 13 76.9
18–69 9 77.8 21 90.5 30 86.7
Table A128. Seen a traditional healer for diabetes, by age group and sex

Age (years) Seen traditional Seen traditional Seen traditional
n n n
healer (%) healer (%) healer (%)
18–29 0 0.0 1 0.0 1 0.0
30–44 1 0.0 1 0.0 2 0.0
45–59 2 0.0 12 16.7 14 14.3
60–69 6 16.7 7 0.0 13 7.7
18–69 9 11.1 21 9.5 30 10.0

Table A129. Currently taking herbal or traditional remedy for diabetes, by age group
and sex

n traditional n traditional n traditional
18–29 0 0.0 1 0.0 1 0.0
30–44 1 0.0 1 0.0 2 0.0
45–59 2 0.0 12 16.7 14 14.3
60–69 6 50.0 7 57.1 13 53.8
18–69 9 33.3 21 28.6 30 30.0
8.6 CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE (CVD) HISTORY
Table A130. Having ever had a heart attack, or chest pain from heart disease, or a
stroke, by age group and sex

(years) n CVD history (%) n CVD history (%) n CVD history (%)
18–29 44 0.0 63 0.0 107 0.0
30–44 92 1.1 130 0.8 222 0.9
45–59 115 4.3 180 5.6 295 5.1
60–69 73 4.1 151 6.6 224 5.8
18–69 324 2.8 524 4.0 848 3.5
Table A131. Currently taking aspirin regularly to prevent or treat heart disease, by
age group and sex

Age
(years) Taking aspirin Taking aspirin Taking aspirin
n n n
(%) (%) (%)
18–29 44 0.0 63 0.0 107 0.0
30–44 92 1.1 130 1.5 222 1.4
45–59 115 10.4 180 17.2 295 14.6
60–69 73 19.2 151 29.8 224 26.3
18–69 324 8.3 524 14.9 848 12.4
Table A132. Currently taking statins regularly to prevent or treat heart disease, by
age group and sex

Age
(years) Taking statins Taking statins Taking statins
n n n
(%) (%) (%)
18–29 44 0.0 63 0.0 107 0.0
30–44 92 0.0 130 0.0 222 0.0
45–59 115 2.6 180 5.0 295 4.1
60–69 73 1.4 151 11.3 224 8.0
18–69 324 1.2 524 5.0 848 3.5

8.7 LIFESTYLE ADVICE
Table A133. Advised by a doctor or health worker to stop smoking / using tobacco
products or not to start, by age group and sex

(years) n (%) n (%) n (%)
18–29 44 81.8 63 54.0 107 65.4
30–44 92 81.5 130 47.7 222 61.7
45–59 115 67.8 180 36.7 295 48.8
60–69 73 60.3 151 36.4 224 44.2
18–69 324 71.9 524 41.4 848 53.1
Table A134. Advised by a doctor or health worker to reduce salt in diet, by age group
and sex

(years) n (%) n (%) n (%)
18–29 44 86.4 63 73.0 107 78.5
30–44 92 88.0 130 77.7 222 82.0
45–59 115 82.6 180 86.7 295 85.1
60–69 73 83.6 151 80.8 224 81.7
18–69 324 84.9 524 81.1 848 82.5
Table A135. Advised by a doctor or health worker to eat at least 5 servings of fruit
and/or vegetable each day, by age group and sex

(years) n (%) n (%) n (%)
18–29 44 86.4 63 76.2 107 80.4
30–44 92 90.2 130 79.2 222 83.8
45–59 115 82.6 180 86.1 295 84.7
60–69 73 82.2 151 81.5 224 81.7
18–69 324 85.2 524 81.9 848 83.1
Table A136. Advised by a doctor or health worker to reduce fat in diet, by age group
and sex

(years) n (%) n (%) n (%)
18–29 44 84.1 63 76.2 107 79.4
30–44 92 88.0 130 80.0 222 83.3
45–59 115 87.0 180 88.3 295 87.8
60–69 73 86.3 151 81.5 224 83.0
18–69 324 86.7 524 82.8 848 84.3

Table A137. Advised by a doctor or health worker to start or do more physical activity,

(years) n (%) n (%) n (%)
18–29 44 84.1 63 79.4 107 81.3
30–44 92 90.2 130 76.9 222 82.4
45–59 115 73.9 180 78.9 295 76.9
60–69 73 74.0 151 70.2 224 71.4
18–69 324 79.9 524 76.0 848 77.5
Table A138. Advised by a doctor or health worker to maintain a healthy body weight
or to lose weight, by age group and sex

(years) n (%) n (%) n (%)
18–29 44 81.8 63 77.8 107 79.4
30–44 92 85.9 130 76.9 222 80.6
45–59 115 71.3 180 80.6 295 76.9
60–69 73 76.7 151 72.8 224 74.1
18–69 324 78.1 524 77.1 848 77.5

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DIETARY SALT

© World Health Organization 2018

List of abbreviations................................................................................................... VIII

2. Survey goal and objectives.....................................................................................3

3.1 Survey design....................................................................................................4

3.9.1 Assessing diet.........................................................................................8

3.10 STEP 2 Physical measurements.......................................................................9

3.11.1 Analytical methods.............................................................................. 10

3.12 Survey data collection.................................................................................... 10

3.12.1 24-hour urine sample collections....................................................... 10

3.13 Monitoring of data collection.........................................................................11

3.15.1 Data cleaning........................................................................................ 12

3.16 Data analysis................................................................................................... 13

Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016 V

4.4.1 History of CVD....................................................................................... 16

4.15 Salt content in food samples.........................................................................30

8. Annex 2. Data tables.............................................................................................. 47

8.1 Demographic indicators ................................................................................ 47

VI Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016

Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016 VII

VIII Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016

The Government of the Republic of Moldova is committed to reducing population salt

Svetlana CEBOTARI, Haris HAJRULAHOVIC,

Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016 IX

Editorial group: FP Cappuccio, L D’Elia, G Obreja, A Ciobanu, Jo Jewell, Technical

Principal investigator, site coordinator: G Obreja.

Data preparation and analysis: FP Cappuccio, L D’Elia and G Obreja.

X Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016

From the Preventorium of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova: Anastasia Mandric,

Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016 XI

High salt consumption is a significant determinant of high blood pressure and

There is no reliable measure of salt consumption in the Republic of Moldova.

Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016 XIII

XIV Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016

There is compelling evidence from experimental epidemiological, migration and

In contrast to sodium, evidence from epidemiological studies and randomized

2 Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016

Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016 3

STEP 1 comprised a questionnaire survey – an adapted version of the WHO STEPwise

STEP 2 comprised a series of physical measurements of overweight and obesity using

3.2 Survey population and sampling

4 Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016

Formula 1. Sample size calculation

Table 3.1. Survey sample calculation by age and sex

Table 3.2. Sample distribution by area of residence

Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016 5

Each PSU represents one administrative-territorial unit (level 1: commune) in

3.5 Ethical considerations

3.6 Training of field data collectors in survey methodology

6 Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016

3.7 Pilot testing

3.8 Data collection process

Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016 7

3.9 STEP 1 Questionnaire survey

The questionnaire was used to collect data on respondent’s demographic and

3.9.1 Assessing diet

Consumption of foods which contribute significantly to salt intake was assessed

3.9.2 History of NCDs and their risk factors

8 Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016

3.10 STEP 2 Physical measurements

Formula 2. Calculation of BMI

Body weight (kg)

A BMI of ≥ 25 kg/m 2 indicates that a person is overweight, while a BMI of

Dietary Salt Intake Survey in the Republic of Moldova, 2016 9