CDA 2010 Annual Conference

Congrès annuel 2010 de l’ACB

CANADIAN DAM ASSOCIATION Niagara Falls, ON, Canada

ASSOCIATION CANADIENNE DES BARRAGES 2010 Oct 2-7

RESEARCH ON THE EFFECTS OF DEFORMATION AND STRESS

IN EMBANKMENT DAMS ON DFOT MONITORING RESULTS

Matthias Goltz, Dipl.-Ing., University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Tyrol, Austria

Markus Aufleger, Univ. Prof., University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Tyrol, Austria
Sebastian Perzlmaier, Dr.-Ing. TIWAG-Tiroler Wasserkraft AG, Innsbruck, Tyrol, Austria

ABSTRACT:
Distributed fibre optic temperature (DFOT) measurements are employed to detect and localize leakage in
embankment dams. The method has been successfully used during the last 15 years, and has continuously
improved with regard to both monitoring and evaluation. The key feature of DFOT measurements is that the
fibre optic cable is the sensor and the temperature can be measured along the entire length of the cable. For
existing dams installations of the fibre optic cable in the dam toe, below a refurbished surface sealing or in
existent standpipes are the most common applications. During the construction of new dams the cable can be
installed at locations where monitoring will be most useful. So far the typical application has been the
monitoring of the perimetric joint of embankment dams with surface sealing. For these applications the fibre
optic cable is largely protected against mechanical loading due to deformation and stress in the dam. However,
actual monitoring concepts consider the installation of fibre optic cables in the D/S filter of dams with central
core to detect outflow areas. It is expected that the cables will be exposed to tensile forces and lateral pressure
due to the deformations and the stresses in the dam. To evaluate the influence of deformations and stresses on
the results of DFOT measurements, laboratory tests have been conducted in which realistic loads on the cable
have been simulated. The paper presents the fundamentals of DFOT monitoring as well as the conducted
laboratory tests and their results.

RÉSUMÉ:
Les mesures par fibre optique sont de plus en plus employées pour détecter et localiser les fuites dans les digues.
Cette méthode a été utilisée avec succès pendant ces quinze dernières années, à la fois pour la surveillance et la
détection des fuites. Le point clé des mesures DFOT est le fait que c’est le câble de la fibre optique qui est le
capteur, ainsi il peut mesurer la température sur toute sa longueur. Pour l’installation d’un câble optique au pied
d’un barrage déjà en place, celui-ci est le plus souvent placé sous un masque amont rénové ou dans des colonnes
d’alimentation préexistantes. Lors de la construction de nouveaux barrages, le câble peut être installé aux
endroits où la surveillance sera la plus utile. Jusqu’ici, l’installation habituelle a visé la surveillance du joint
périmétral des digues avec masque amont. Pour de telles installations le câble est bien protégé contre les efforts
mécaniques causés par les déformations et tensions dans le barrage. Cependant, le contrôle des barrages
demande l’installation des câbles optiques dans le filtre amont des barrages avec un cœur central pour détecter
les zones d’écoulement. Dans des telles situations le câble serait probablement exposé à des forces de tensions et
des pressions latérales causées par les déformations et les tensions dans le barrage. Pour évaluer l’influence de
ces déformations et tensions sur les mesures DFOT, des tests ont étés effectués en laboratoire, en simulant des
charges réalistes sur le câble. Ce rapport présente les bases de la surveillance par DFOT, ainsi que les tests
effectués en laboratoire et leurs résultats.
1 INTRODUCTION

Temperature measurement has a long tradition in dam engineering. For more than 50 years it is used to control
the hydration process of concrete during construction and to monitor concrete temperature during operation.
Another field of application for temperature measurement in dam engineering is leakage detection (Aufleger et.
al 1998). In this case, temperature is used as a tracer for identifying flow paths. This technique is applied in dam
foundations, below and behind sealing systems and inside the dam body of embankment dams. Typically
thermocouples and thermistors have been used for temperature measurements. In the 1980s distributed
temperature measurement in fibre optics (DFOT) was developed, allowing the measurement of the temperature
distribution every running meter along a fibre optic cable. During the last years this technique has constantly
been improved and offers nowadays a very high accuracy in temperature measurement and spatial resolution. In
the last decade DFOT has been installed in many dams and other hydraulic structures, offering new possibilities
in monitoring by providing distributed data.

2 DISTRIBUTED FIBRE OPTIC TEMPERATURE (DFOT) MEASUREMENTS

2.1 Measuring principle
Optical fibres are made from doped quartz glass which is a form of silicon dioxide (SiO2) with amorphous solid
structure. Physical quantities, such as temperature or pressure and tensile forces induce lattice oscillations within
the solid. The measuring principle of DFOT measurements is based on the fact that after sending a light pulse by
a powerful light source (laser) into a glass fibre, a very small proportion of this light is backscattered at each
point along a fibre (Figure 1). Unlike incident light, this scattered light undergoes a spectral shift by an amount
equivalent to the resonance frequency of the lattice oscillation. The light scattered back from the fibre optic
therefore contains three different spectral shares which are the Rayleigh scattering, the Stokes component and
the anti-Stokes component (Figure 2). The intensity of the so-called anti-Stokes component is temperature
dependent, while the so-called Stokes component is practically independent of temperature. The local
temperature of the optical fibre is derived from the ratio of the anti-Stokes and Stokes light intensities and from
the time the backscattered light takes to return to the detection unit.

Figure 1: Scattering of light inside a glass fibre Figure 2: Spectral components in the backscattered light

2.2 Measuring system

Distributed temperature sensing systems (DTS) are optoelectronic devices which measure temperatures by
means of optical fibres functioning as linear sensors. The devices comprise all necessary components, such as
the laser, the optical evaluation unit and the computer for control and data acquisition. Temperatures are
recorded along the optical sensor cable, thus not at points, but as a continuous profile. A high accuracy of
temperature determination is achieved over great distances. Typically the DTS systems can locate the
temperature to a spatial resolution of 1 m with accuracy to within ±1°C at a resolution of 0.01°C. Measurement
distances of up to 30 km can be monitored. However, temperature accuracy can be improved considerably
dependent upon calibration at installation and some specialised systems can provide even tighter spatial
resolutions.
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CDA 2010 Annual Conference, Niagara Falls, ON, Canada – October 2 to 7, 2010
2.3 Quality of results

Since the ratio of the intensities of the Stokes and anti-Stokes component of the Raman scattering is used to
calculate the temperature at a point of the fibre, the equality of the results of distributed fibre optic temperature
measurements depends highly on the signal attenuation due to optical losses. The light pulse which is coupled
into the optical fibre is attenuated on its way through the medium of the fibre. Regarding the attenuation a
differentiation can be made between intrinsic attenuation and extrinsic attenuation. Intrinsic attenuation due to
absorption and scattering occur when the light is travelling through the core of the optical fibre. Extrinsic
attenuation is caused by non-ideal modifications of the core cladding interface (CCI). In particular, extrinsic
attenuation is critical regarding the quality of distributed fibre optical temperature measurements. A distinction
is generally made between microbending and macrobending. Macrobending causes locally increased optical
losses in highly curved areas of the optical fibre. Due to sharp bends of the fibre axis, the incident light meets the
CCI at an angle  larger than the critical anglec and significant part of the light will be lost into the cladding
(Figure 3). Macrobending is generally caused by to small curvature radii or by crushing the cable during
installation. Microbending (Figure 4) is normally seen where the CCI is not a smooth cylindrical surface. Rather,
due to processing or environmental factors (temperature, tensile forces) it becomes modified or damaged as is
shown in Figure 4. The uneven form of the CCI results in exceeding of the critical angle c, and light is emitted
from the core.

Figure 3: Losses due to macrobending Figure 4: Losses due to microbending

Generally the intrinsic losses due to absorption and scattering lead to a continuous rise in temperature over the
entire measuring distance. This influence on the measurement can be eliminated in the configuration of the
measurement system. The significantly higher optical losses due to microbending and macrobending lead to
local temperature anomaly and depending on the size of the loss to a more or less pronounced deviation of the
measured temperature in the subsequent measuring section compared to the actual temperature. In addition any
optical loss reduces the intensity of the backscattered light and produces increased signal noise.

2.2 Measuring cable

Generally a type of optical fibre designed for data communication purposes is used for DFOT measurements.
This optical fibre is referred to as 50/125 multimode optical fibre. In a fibre optic cable usually several optical
fibres are combined on a plastic or metal tube, called buffer tube. Depending on the type of the cable and the
material of the buffer tube, the tube is arranged centrically or twisted around a central support element. For
leakage detection using the heat-up method (Aufleger et.al 2005) or for distributed filter velocity measurements
(Perzlmaier et. al 2007) hybrid fibre optic cables (Figure 5) are used. They include in addition to the buffer tube
with optical fibres electrical conductors, which allow the heating by applying electrical voltage. The structure of
fibre optic cables aims to protect the optical fibres against external influences during manufacturing, laying and
operation. In particular, it is necessary to protect the fibre from water ingress, transverse compression, bending
and elongation. Figure 5 shows the cross section of a typical hybrid fibre optic cable.

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CDA 2010 Annual Conference, Niagara Falls, ON, Canada – October 2 to 7, 2010
 Figure 5: Sketch of standard hybrid cable

3 LABORATORY TESTS
3.1 General

DFOT measurements provide a wide range of application for monitoring technical structures. In particular, the
possibility of distributed monitoring of sealing elements and joints is of importance for hydraulic structures.
Depending on the application and type of structure, the conditions to which the cable is exposed vary
considerably. For example, a fibre optic cable which is placed in the central part of a dam (Figure 6, left) to
monitor the sealing core is exposed to greater load caused by deformation of the dam and overburden pressure,
than a cable placed underneath a surface sealing (Figure 6, right).

Figure 6: Application of DFOT measurements in embankment dams ECRD (left), CFRD (right)

In general ordinary fibre optic cables as used for telecommunication purposes are used for DFOT measurements.
However, the specifications of these cables, which are based on standardized testing methods, give only limited
information regarding applicability of the cables for installation in embankment dams. Therefore, the laboratory
tests described below were carried out at the University of Innsbruck. In several test series possible installation
conditions and expected loads due to overburden pressure (lateral pressure) and elongation (tensile forces) were
simulated to investigate if they affect the results of the temperature measurements.

3.2 Laboratory tests for investigation of influence of lateral pressure

3.2.1 Description of tests

The laboratory tests for determination of the effects of pressure perpendicular to the cable axis on the results of
DFOT measurements were carried out using the testing facility shown in Figure 7. The cable is installed in a
3.78 m long, 0.6 m wide and 0.6 m high reinforced steel box using different bedding materials. The load was
applied using a fatigue testing machine with a capacity of 1,600 kN. The machine can be operated in force-
controlled or displacement-controlled modes. Different plungers were available for indirect loading. To avoid
exceeding the allowable deformations of the steel box the maximum applied load as a function of the stamp
surface was limited.

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 Figure 7: Test setup for determination the effects of pressure perpendicular to the cable axis on the results of DFOT
measurements

In addition to the DFOT measurements, conventional temperature sensors (PT 100) were used. With the sensors
the temperature in the steel box and the air temperature were recorded for the duration of the tests. Thus it was
possible to check if the thermal boundary conditions remained constant. If changes in the ambient temperature
occurred it was possible to consider their influence for the evaluation of the DFOT measurement data. Taking
into account the used spatial resolution and the necessary timely resolution and measuring accuracy, the
measurement time of DFOT measurements was set to 90 seconds.

The load was applied force-controlled. The control software monitored the force and load path automatically and
recorded both parameters every two seconds. The use of force controlled mode guaranteed constant loading
during the different load steps.

After installation of the cable in the soil material it took a certain time until stationary thermal conditions were
reached which were necessary to start the tests. Before applying the load, reference measurements were
conducted for about 10 minutes. The load was applied in load steps of 125 kN. Each load step took 6 minutes.
After completion of the final load step the sample was unloaded. For some tests it was necessary to unload the
sample and to place some spacers, because the settlements were larger than the maximum cylinder stroke of the
testing equipment. After placing the spacers, the sample was reloaded in steps up to the previous load stage
reached and then the load was further increased according to the test program.

3.2.2 Performed test runs

For the tests sand, gravel and sand-gravel mixes were used as bedding materials. To investigate the influence of
particle shape both natural and processed material were used. The grading curves of the soils used as bedding
material are shown in Figure 8.

The tests were carried out with a hybrid fibre optic cable with a central loose tube and optimized in diameter (see
Figure 9) and a standard hybrid cable as shown in Figure 5. In the following the cable with the central loose tube
is referred to as Cable A and the standard hybrid cable as Cable B. Cable B is also tested with a mechanically
applied non-woven geotextile wrapping (Figure 10).

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CDA 2010 Annual Conference, Niagara Falls, ON, Canada – October 2 to 7, 2010
 Figure 8: Grading curves of the soils used as bedding material

Figure 9: Hybrid FO cable optimised in diameter Figure 10: Hybrid FO cable with geotextile wrapping

3.2.3 Results

The evaluation of the results mainly focused on the measuring points just below the stamp. Since the DFOT
measurement data showed little noise smoothing of the data was not necessary. To determine the influence of
pressure perpendicular to the cable axis on the DFOT measurement data, the temperature difference between the
reference temperature measured in the unloaded state and temperature measured state in the loaded was
calculated and plotted against the applied load. Changes of the thermal boundary conditions during the tests
were considered by means of the temperature data obtained from the conventional temperature sensors.

Figure 11 exemplarily shows the results of the DFOT measurement depending on the applied load perpendicular
to the cable axis. Because of the used bedding material in test P-7-B, which is a processed sand gravel mix 0/16,
the temperature results are not affected by the applied load. In contrast, the results of the DFOT measurements
for test P-10-B, which uses a uniform natural gravel 8/16, are affected by the applied load significantly.

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CDA 2010 Annual Conference, Niagara Falls, ON, Canada – October 2 to 7, 2010
 Figure 11: Results of laboratory tests for investigation of influence of lateral pressure

Primarily the experiments provide knowledge of the maximum admissible load for a specific cable depending on
the bedding material used. However, the test results show no direct correlation between the cable diameter and
the maximum allowable load. Compared to Cable A, Cable B is more robust due to the support element and a
thicker cable sheath and consequently has a larger diameter. But contrary to expectations, for some tests the
allowable maximum load which is not affecting the DFOT measurement results is less than for Cable A. Almost
certainly this can be ascribed to the stranded loose tube containing the fibres in Cable B compared to the
centrically arranged and therefore better protected loose tube in Cable A. For stranded loose tubes, damages of
the cable sheath can directly affect the fibre. The mechanically applied non-woven geotextile has a favourable
effect and leads to increased allowable maximum loads. As presented in Figure 12 for all test series the
maximum allowable load without affecting the temperature results was higher for the cable with geotextile
wrapping than for the cables without wrapping.

For the different test series bedding materials with a maximum particle size between 3 mm (S 0/3) and 64 mm
(G5 0/64) were used. The test results show the influence of the maximum particle size of the bedding material.
The decrease of the maximum permissible load without causing temperature anomalies for bedding materials
with larger particle sizes can be recognised. In Figure 13 the maximum loads without influencing the results of
the temperature measurement are plotted against the maximum particle size of the bedding material.

Figure 12: Influence of cable design Figure 13: Influence of particle size of bedding material

Furthermore the influence of the uniformity of the bedding material was investigated. The results confirm the
assumption that for the same maximum aggregate size, a well graded bedding material is more favourable
regarding the maximum allowable load than a uniform bedding material. Due to the fines, punching of the cable
by larger particles is reduced. For example, there were significant damages to the cable sheath when using the
uniform gravel G7 8/16, both for Cable A (Figure 14, left) and Cable B (Figure 14, centre), while no damages to
the cable sheath were observed for the bedding material G1 0/16 (Figure 14, right). Figure 15 presents the
relation between the maximum admissible load and the coefficient of uniformity of the bedding material for the
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CDA 2010 Annual Conference, Niagara Falls, ON, Canada – October 2 to 7, 2010
tested cables. In contrast, a significant influence of the particle shape (i.e. processed or natural bedding material)
was not observed.

Figure 14: Damages to the cable sheath

The results of the laboratory tests show that pressure perpendicular to the cable axis can have significant
influence on the measuring results of DFOT monitoring. In Figure 16 the maximum load without affecting the
measurement results is plotted against the maximum particle size of the bedding material for the tested cables.
The maximum permissible loads depend both on the bedding material used and the design of the fibre optic
cable. The geotextile wrapping increases the permissible load. Additionally a centrically arranged loose tube is
beneficial. Based on the results it is recommended to limit the maximum particle size of the bedding material to
16 mm and to use well graded material. Whilst bearing these recommendations in mind installation of fibre optic
cable in dams with a height of up to 75 m should not cause problems regarding the reliability and accuracy of the
measurements. As a result of the applied loads damages to the cable sheath occurred and high optical losses led
to distortion of the measurement data. However, the applied loads did not cause the rupture of the optical fibre in
any of the tests. By analysing both, the raw data (optical losses) and the temperature data, temperature anomalies
caused by mechanical loading can be detected.

Figure 15: Influence of degree of uniformity of the bedding Figure 16: Maximum load without influencing the
material measurement results

3.3 Laboratory tests for investigation of influence of strain

3.3.1 Description of tests

The laboratory tests for determination of the effects of strain in the cable on the results of DFOT measurements
were carried out using the test set up shown in Figure 17. The tensile forces were applied using the fatigue
testing machine. For these tests the load was applied path controlled. Due to the test setup and the operational
range of the machine the movement of the cylinder was limited to 100 mm. The cylinder stroke was monitored
continuously and recorded every two seconds. The applied force was recorded by an intermediate load cell and
the strain of the cable was determined using an inductive displacement transducer. The ambient temperature was
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CDA 2010 Annual Conference, Niagara Falls, ON, Canada – October 2 to 7, 2010
additionally monitored using conventional temperature sensors. The measurement time for DFOT measurements
was again set to 90 seconds.

Once stationary ambient temperature conditions were guaranteed, the strain tests were started. For reference the
first measurements were carried out on the unloaded cable. Subsequently strain was applied to the cable at a
constant velocity of 0.02 mm/s. The strain was increased until a sudden decrease of the applied force was
monitored, which was either due to exceeding the tensile strength of the cable (Cable A) or due to slip of the
cable at the lower pulley (Cable B).

The tests were carried out using Cable A and Cable B.

Figure 17: Test setup for determination the effects of strain in the cable on the results of DFOT measurements

3.3.2 Results

Figure 18 shows the force-deflection diagram of the test for cable A. The maximum observed pulling force was
about 3.0 kN (1.5 kN per strand) before the pulling force decreases to 2.0 kN due to yielding of the cable. Until
the operation range of the hydraulic cylinder was exhausted the strain in the cable was increased up to 9.0 %
without causing the rupture of the fibre. The temperature distributions along the cable for different strain states
are presented in Figure 19. The section of the cable under tension is highlighted green and shows significant
temperature fluctuations. It can be observed that the temperature anomalies in this section are mainly caused by
optical losses due to the applied bending diameters at the pulleys and are only little influenced by the strain of
the cable. However, the temperature anomalies caused by strain, even for large strain in the cable, are small
compared to the temperature anomalies caused by compressive stress perpendicular to the cable axis.

Compared to Cable A, the tensile strength of Cable B is significantly higher due to the central strength member.
The corresponding force – deflection diagram of the test is shown in Figure 19. For Cable B the maximum
applied strain was about 1.6% and the applied tensile force 30.0 kN (15 kN per cable strand). A further increase
of strain or tensile force was not possible due to slip of the cable at the lower pulley. Yielding of the cable was
not observed during the test. Also in this test it turned out, that the temperature anomalies were mainly caused by
bending the cable around the pulleys.

Vertical settlement of a dam can cause strain in a fibre optic cable which is placed in the D/S filter for leakage
detection. However, for normal foundation conditions even a settlement of two percent of the height of the dam
should not cause strain in the cable larger than 0.5 ‰. Due to an over length of the fibre and the fact that the
fibre is floating the loose tube the strain in the cable is not transferred into the fibre, and therefore normally does
not affect the results of DFOT measurements.

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CDA 2010 Annual Conference, Niagara Falls, ON, Canada – October 2 to 7, 2010
 Figure 18: Force – deflection diagram for Cable A Figure 19: Temperature distribution along Cable A for
different strain states

Figure 19: Force – deflection diagram for Cable B Figure 19: Temperature distribution along Cable B for
different strain states

4 Conclusions

In the paper information on the effect of deformation and stress in embankment dams on DFOT monitoring
results are given. Laboratory tests were carried out at the University of Innsbruck, where possible installation
conditions and expected loads due to overburden pressure and settlement were simulated. Based on the results of
these tests the following conclusions can be drawn:
- loads due to overburden pressure can have a significant influence on the monitoring results;
- the maximum permissible pressure perpendicular to the cable axis depends both on the bedding material
used and the design of the cable;
- it is recommended to use well graded bedding material and to limit the maximum particle size to 16 mm;
- a centrically arranged loose tube containing the fibres is more beneficial regarding the maximum
permissible load than a stranded loose tube containing the fibres;
- following the recommendations for the bedding material, installation of fibre optic cables behind a
central sealing element for leakage detection in dams with a height of up to 75 m will not cause
problems regarding reliability and accuracy of DFOT measurements;
- for normal foundation conditions, the influence of strain in the cable on the DFOT measurement results
due to settlement of the dam is not significant.

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CDA 2010 Annual Conference, Niagara Falls, ON, Canada – October 2 to 7, 2010
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was supported by the TIWAG-Tiroler Wasserkraft AG.

6. REFERENCES

Aufleger, M., Dornstädter, J., Fabritius, A. and Strobl, T., 1998. “Fibre optic temperature measurements for leakage
detection – applications in the reconstruction of dams,” Proceedings of ICOLD-Symposium Rehabilitation of
Dams, New Dehli, India, November 4, 1998.
Aufleger, M. Conrad, M., Perzlmaier, S. and Porras, P., 2005 “Improving a fibre optics tool for monitoring leakage,” HRW,
Vol.13: pp 18-23.
Perzlmaier, S. Aufleger, M. and Dornstädter, J., 2007. “Detection of internal erosion by means of the active temperature
method,” Assessment of the Risk of Internal Erosion of Water Retaining Structures: Dams, Dykes and Levees,
Berichte des Lehrstuhls und der Vesuchsanstalt für Wasserbau und Wasserwirtschaft, Technische Universität
München, Heft 114.

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CDA 2010 Annual Conference, Niagara Falls, ON, Canada – October 2 to 7, 2010