CHAPTER 1: Introduction About The Company

1.1 Introduction:

ARMbedded Electronics Pvt. Ltd. i s an embedded design house. It provides out-of-the-

box solution from concept to reality. It i s registered under company act. 1956 and ISO
9001:2008 Certified Company and it also has a TIN no 06542829827. The Company is one
of the innovations, dedication and diversification in the field of Embedded, Advanced
Embedded System Design, Embedded Wireless PLC SCADA & AUTOMATIONS, VLSI,
MATLAB.

1.1.2 Corporate overview:

We undertake various turnkey projects related to industrial automation, domestic

applications and higher end biomedical applications. We deal in following Technical
Domain: Embedded System Design , VLSI Design, Embedded Wireless Design, PLC
SADA & Automations, Basic digital Electronics Labs, Basic Analog Electronics Labs,
Fiber Optics Lab, Microprocessor Lab, Communication Lab, Linear Integrated circuit Lab
& other Basic labs.

1.1.2 Company’s Contour:

We design, manufacture and deliver technical goods as per customer requirements and
needs.

1.1.3 The ARMbedded Group

The ARMbedded Group has three subdivision departments which jointly works so as to
reach companies goal and as well as for the companies’ development. They are as followed:

ARMbedded
Group

ARMbedded ARMbedded
Electronics Pvt. Ltd. CADD Centre

Figure 1.1: The ARMbedded Group

1.1.3.1 ARMbedded Electronics

It’s the main sub-divisional part of the company which works for marketing and
works behind for companies’ growth. The company is dedicated for students training
& development programs where it is aimed how to train student so as they can know
the technology which are leading the world are where only knowledge & talent
speaks. ARMbedded labs organizes time to time workshop & seminar and also took
guest lectures.
The ARMbedded learning center is the place where all these are done. There are two
learning centers the one is in Jaipur (Rajasthan) and another one is situated in Rohtak
(Haryana).
In ARMbedded R&D cell a project is converted into a product. The soul of this
department is to make or work on a project that is attractive & innovative depending
on customer needs or a student’s thought. This department is also concerned with
marketing department.

1.1.4 Departments at ARMbedded Electronics

The ARMbedded Group has following departments:

 Application
 Marketing
 Production
 Industrial Training & Development
 R & D Centre

1.1.4.1 Application

In application department our various kits are tested at each level so that before delivering
our goods to the companies or educational institutions we test our kits at various levels and
make sure that it is error free and if there is any bug we fix at the moments. We are also
welcomed by companies to develop application for their technical goods.

1.1.4.2 Marketing:

This department has a team of marketing professionals who knows how and where our
products should be sold. As the production of technical goods is key part of the company
in a similar way the marketing department is quiet necessary to withstand a company in a
market where there is always many competitors.

1.1.4.3 Production:

We manufacture and deliver technical goods as per customer requirements and needs. We
develop industrial products various educational purpose lab equipment like embedded
system design la, advanced design lab, PLC & SCADA panels and protoboards in the
respective domains, which are used in educational institutes. These protoboards are so
designed that a student working on i t develops a complete knowledge from firmware
development to interfacing to various active and passive components.

1.1.4.4 Industrial Training & Development

Training is imparted in all the four domains. Training is such that it equip an
engineer/student to use the practical knowledge gained here, fully in the field. We also
undertake training for corporate in all the respective domains.

1.1.4.5 R & D Centre:

ARMbedded Electronics Pvt. Ltd. has state-of-the-art computerized design facilities and
a team of design engineers to develop any equipment as per the customer’s need. Al
arrangements are made right from start to end of project i.e. designing, manufacturing,
installation etc.

1.1.5 After Sales Service

Company has a team of professional service engineers equipped with latest

communication system for an effective after sales service. Periodical checks are also
carried out as preventive maintenance.

1.1.6 Infrastructure

In infrastructure, we are having two fully ac labs in Jaipur (Rajasthan) & as well as in
Rohtak (Haryana) with projector facility. The labs are equipped with pc & with complete
practical & development kits.

1.1.7 Manufacturing Process

We design circuit and pcb layout and after that we assemble components & its testing.
Apart from it we also design & develop industrial projects as per the requirements. We
have developed various kinds of embedded development kits and also dedicated to
develop more and more. In automation we are an emerging manufacturer for various PLC
& SCADA panels and motor driver circuits.

1.1.8 Faculty Design Engineer Profile

The personnel undertaking the training are actual design and application engineers. The
basic qualification i s masters or even higher in technology. They bear huge experience
in terms of practical experience in developing applications using these technologies. We
provide corporate as w e l l as Industrial Training.

1.2 Services Offered

We deals in various public sector, private institute & government sector/organizations.

Some of our regular customers or clients are as followed where we are always welcome
to deliver technical goods as well as seminar, workshop and guest lectures.
Some that clients are:
 Manipal University, Jaipur,
 Vanasthali University, Jaipur,
 Government College of Bikaner
 Rajasthan College of Engineering for Women, Jaipur
 R.P.S. College, Mohindergarh
 B.R.C.M., Bhiwani
 M.R.K.I.E.T., Rewari
 D.A.V.I.E.T., Kanina
 Shankara Institute Of Technology, Jaipur
CHAPTER 2: Introduction About Training Work

2.1 Introduction:

In the last two decades, we have witnessed an explosive growth of real-time and embedded
systems being used in our daily life. A real-time system is required to complete its work
and deliver its services on a timely basis. In other words, real-time systems have stringent
timing requirements that they must meet. Examples of real-time systems include digital
control, command and control, signal processing, and telecommunication systems. Every
day these systems provide us with important services. When we drive, they control the
engine and brakes of our car and regulate traffic lights. When we fly, they schedule and
monitor the take-off and landing of our plane, make it fly, maintain its flight path, and keep
it out of harm’s way. When we are sick, they monitor and regulate our blood pressure and
heartbeats. When we are well, they entertain us with electronic games and joy rides. When
we invest, they provide us with up-to-date stock quotes.
Real-time and embedded systems are gaining more and more importance in our society.
Recognizing the importance of these systems, the National Science Foundation has recently
established a research program dedicated to embedded systems. The European Union (EU),
European countries, and Asian countries have also established many research programs in
real-time and embedded systems. Therefore, we can anticipate many important and exciting
results being developed in this area.
The purpose of developing the digital control theory is to be able to understand, design and
build control systems where a computer is used as the controller in the system. In addition
to the normal control task, a computer can perform supervisory functions, such as reading
data from a keyboard, displaying data on a screen or liquid crystal display, turning a light
or a buzzer on or off and so on.

2.2 Necessity:

Embedded systems design is a productive synergy between hardware and software design.
Essentially, it’s the art of choosing and designing the proper combination of hardware and
software components to achieve design goals like speed and efficiency. Although we may
not realize it, most of us use these embedded systems constantly in our daily lives.
The Myo armband is an example of a real-time embedded device. While running on a
battery, it performs computationally intensive gesture recognition algorithms to detect the
motion and gestures of the user’s hand. The hardware design must be efficient enough to
use the battery for a good length of time and fast enough to meet the real-time requirement
of gesture recognition algorithms.
In order to provide the desired user experience, we’ve had to overcome a number of tricky
design challenges. Real-time gesture recognition, limited power consumption, and
computationally intensive machine learning algorithms are just some of the challenges that
we’ve had to address.
To overcome these challenges, we’ve designed the Myo armband efficiently from both a
hardware and software perspective. On the embedded software side, the implementation is
designed to put the least possible computation load on the main processing unit, reducing
the power consumption as a result. The implementation is paralleled among different
input/output (I/O) and computation modules to achieve real-time responses for gesture
recognition algorithms. We also make use of techniques such as direct-memory-access
(DMA), which reduces the load on the CPU by directly handling the I/O module’s access
to main memory, thereby reducing power consumption.
On the hardware side, the design takes advantage of the latest power-efficient components
running with very low current draw. Different modes of operation for the Myo device result
in automatically shutting-off some sections of the electronics to further decrease power
consumption. Strategic selection of passive components’ values (including resistors and
capacitors) are also used to minimize power consumption. All of this is done while
balancing many additional competing factors such as efficiency cost, reliability, and noise
levels.
In short, embedded systems engineers often need to balance multiple competing parameters
to obtain the optimal blend of performance and power consumption. Much care needs to be
taken to carefully design the hardware alongside the software, as the two components are
integrally coupled together. For this reason, our embedded software teams and our
hardware development teams work side-by-side
The most visible use of computers and software is processing information for human
consumption. We use them to write books (like this one), search for information on the
web, communicate via email, and keep track of financial data. The vast majority of
computers in use, however, are much less visible. They run the engine, brakes, seatbelts,
airbag, and audio system in your car. They digitally encode your voice and construct a radio
signal to send it from your cell phone to a base station. They control your microwave oven,
refrigerator, and dishwasher. They run printers ranging from desktop inkjet printers to large
industrial high-volume printers. They command robots on a factory floor, power generation
in a power plant, processes in a chemical plant, and traffic lights in a city. They search for
microbes in biological samples, construct images of the inside of a human body, and
measure vital signs. They process radio signals from space looking for supernovae and for
extraterrestrial intelligence. They bring toys to life, enabling them to react to human touch
and to sounds. They control aircraft and trains. These less visible computers are called
embedded systems, and the software they run is called embedded software. Despite this
widespread prevalence of embedded systems, computer science has, throughout its
relatively short history, focused primarily on information processing. Only recently have
embedded systems received much attention from researchers. And only recently has xi
PREFACE the community recognized that the engineering techniques required to design
and analyze these systems are distinct. Although embedded systems have been in use since
the 1970s, for most of their history they were seen simply as small computers. The principal
engineering problem was understood to be one of coping with limited resources (limited
processing power, limited energy sources, small memories, etc.). As such, the engineering
challenge was to optimize the designs. Since all designs benefit from optimization, the
discipline was not distinct from anything else in computer science. It just had to be more
aggressive about applying the same optimization techniques.

2.3 Objectives

Necessity is the mother of invention and automation systems are inventions that were
fuelled by the idea of making pre-programs to perform a dedicated narrow range of
functions as part of large systems. Usually with minimal end user interactions, the 'giant
leap technology' in future embedded systems is based on instruction-oriented design but
not on design-oriented instructions. automation systems is fast achieving ubiquity, blurring
the lines between science fiction and hard reality.
In general an automation has the following futures:
 Multitaskin;
 Process threads that can be prioritized;
 A sufficient number of interrupt levels.
An automation system is any device controlled by instructions stored on a chip. These
devices are usually controlled by a microprocessor that executes the instructions stored on
a ROM chip. PLC based systems are used in industries like water bottle liquid filling
process, automated packaging machines, networking equipment, etc. We concern ourselves
with the development and implementation of model-based, real-time, automation, hybrid
control software. In particular, we target intelligent cruise control applications, including
Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC), in which a forward-looking range sensor (radar or Lidar,
usually) is used to follow a vehicle, and Cooperative ACC (CACC), a variation in which
wireless communications are used to supplement the forward looking sensor. We discuss
modeling on automated vehicles. Our approach emphasizes the maintenance of a single
model throughout the development process, with particular emphasis on "tight-loop."

2.4 Theme

Automation systems are usually high cost and are easily available off the shelf for most
industrial applications. They usually have critical design risks, since it is easy to verify the
design using tools fueling the growth of automation systems.
Automation systems have received a major shot in the arm as the result of three
developments:
 The first was the development of non-standard run-time platforms like ladder logic,
which enabled their use in myriad ways that were unimaginable in the past.
 The second was the coming together of automation systems and the
Internetnetworking PLC controlled machine, which made possible the networking
of several automation systems to operate as part of a large system across networks.
 The third was the emergence of several integrated software environments, which
simplified the implementations of these applications.
During operation, the design structure may be changed as per our tasks. For example,
consider two transistors; we can mould them using other passive elements as emitter
coupled circuit, Darlington pair, etc., as per instruction. Real Time Applications
Automobiles: Almost every car that rolls off the production line these days makes use of
embedded technology in one form or the other; most of the embedded systems in
automobiles are rugged in nature, as most of these systems are made up of a single chip.
No driver clashes or 'systems busy' conditions happen in these systems. Their compact
profiles enable them to fit easily under the cramped hood of a car. These systems can be
used to implement features ranging from adjustment of the suspension to suit road
conditions and the octane content in the fuel to antilock braking systems (ABS) and security
systems.
Another revolution is the way Internet services will be integrated into the car. So when you
drive past your mechanic's, you will be reminded that that your engine oil needs a refill,
and when you cross the city limits, the toll will automatically get deducted from your bank
account. In fact, the automatic to;l deduction concept is already in effect in several countries
around the globe.

Figure 2.2: Design Flow Chart

Hybrid verification of the controller and analysis of timing properties are conducted
through the use of third party tools. GPS AIR BAG WINDOWS DEEBOSTER
AUTOMATIC TRANSACTION CONTROL ABS The approach is applied to Adaptive
Cruise Control (ACC) and Cooperative ACC systems. While regular cruise control systems
track a desired vehicle speed, Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) systems adapt their behavior
if there is a vehicle ahead on the roadway, and follow the leader vehicle at a driver requested
time gap using line-of-sight sensors such as radar and/or Lidar. When there is no "leader"
vehicle present, ACC defaults to conventional cruise control and reverts to the driver-set
speed. ACC systems are now available on several production cars, including the Nissan
Q45 and FX45, the Mercedes S-class, the Lexus 330 and 430, the Audi A8, and select
Jaguar and Cadillac models. These production ACC systems obtain their distance and
closing rate information about the leading vehicle through the use of their forward-looking
sensor. These sensors are typically subject to noise, interference, false alarms and dropouts,
and their use requires heavy filtering. This in turn introduces delays into the system, and
limits the ability of the ACC-equipped vehicles to follow the leader vehicle closely or
respond quickly to change in its speed. A variant of this is Cooperative ACC (CACC),
where the forward-looking sensor is complemented by a wireless communication link that
provides hop-by-hop, leader-to-follower updates of critical information. Such a system can
be designed to follow vehicles with higher accuracy and faster response than traditional
ACC systems, and should allow for freeway throughput capacity increases. In addition, the
CACC system can be designed to have proven string stability, so it could contribute to
dampening shock waves in the freeway traffic stream.
CHAPTER 3: Training Work

3.1 What Is An Automation System

Automation is the use of control systems such as computers to control industrial machinery
and processes, reducing the need for human intervention. In the scope of industrialization,
automation is a step beyond mechanization. Whereas mechanization provided human
operators with machinery to assist them with the physical requirements of work, automation
greatly reduces the need for human sensory and mental requirements as well.

3.2 Block diagram of automation

Fig. 3.1 Block Diagram of Automation

3.3 APPLICATION
• Automated video surveillance
• Automated highway systems
• Automated manufacturing
• Home automation
• Industrial automation
• Agent-assisted Automation
3.4 ADVANTAGES
The main advantages of automation are
• Increased throughput or productivity.
• Improved quality or increased predictability of quality.
• Improved robustness (consistency), of processes or product.

3.5 LIMITATION OF AUTOMATION

• Current technology is unable to automate all the desired tasks.
• As a process becomes increasingly automated, there is less and less labour to be
saved or quality improvement to be gained. This is an example of both diminishing
returns and the logistic function.
• Similar to the above, as more and more processes become automated, there are
fewer remaining non-automated processes. This is an example of exhaustion of
opportunities.

3.6 AUTOMATION TOOL

• DCS - Distributed Control System
• HMI - Human Machine Interface
• SCADA - Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
• PLC - Programmable Logic Controller

3.7 HMI
A human machine interface (HMI) is an interface which permits interaction between a
human being and a machine.
Human machine interfaces vary widely, from control panels for nuclear power
plants to the screen and input buttons on a cell phone.
Two components are needed in a human machine interface. The first is an input. A
human user needs some way to tell the machine what to do, to make requests of the
machine, or to adjust the machine. Examples of input devices include keyboards, toggles,
switches, touch screens.
3.8 DCS
It was not until the mid1970’s that the first Distributed Control Systems (DCS) came into
existence as shown in figure1.2.
A DCS system distributes the functions of a control system into many different
microprocessors. The microprocessors form small subsystems which are physically
distributed throughout the facility and linked together via a communication or data
highway.

Fig3.2 Distributed Control Systems (DCS)

The operator interface is located in a central location such as a control room. The operator
interface includes colour graphics with dynamic process data, faceplate displays, trend data,
and alarm summary displays. For discrete processes, hardwired relays were used to perform
the sequential logic control functions.

3.9 PLC
PLC - programmable logic controller
A Programmable Logic Controller, or PLC for short, is simply a special computer device
used for industrial control systems. They are used in many industries such as oil refineries,
manufacturing lines, conveyor systems and so on.
PLC implements logic control functions by means of a program.
3.9.1 How does a PLC differ from a computer
• A computer is optimized for calculation and display tasks.
• A computer is programmed by specialists
• A PLC is designed for (logic) control and regulation tasks.
• A PLC is programmed by non-specialists
• A PLC is well adapted to industrial environment

3.10 SCADA
SCADA is “Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition” – real time industrial process
control systems used to centrally monitor and control remote or local industrial equipment
such as motors, valves, pumps, relays, etc.
A SCADA system gathers information (such as where a leak on a pipeline has
occurred), transfers the information back to a central site, then alerts the home station that
a leak has occurred, Carrying out necessary analysis and control, such as determining if the
leak is critical, and displaying the information in a logical and organized fashion.
CHAPTER 4: Programmable Logic Control

4.1 GENERAL CONCEPT OF PLC

In the 1960’s, most industrial process automation was done pneumatically. Air pressure,
typically in the range of 3-15 psi, was used for communication and control. The process
variable was measured and converted to an air pressure signal by a pneumatic transmitter,
the transmitter sends the air pressure signal through a tube to a receiver, and the receiver
serves as an indicator, controller, recorder, or relay. Pneumatic actuators were used to
control the final control elements. Pneumatic relays were used for logic functions, such as
high or low select, as well as simple arithmetic functions, such as addition, multiplication,
square root and tantalization. All working parts within pneumatic instruments were
mechanical.
Pneumatic control systems have been used for many years due to the fact that their
components are inexpensive, reliable, and intrinsically safe. This was critical for
applications that existed in explosive environments. Pneumatic instrumentation was also
more resistant to corrosive environments. However, one of the main disadvantages of
pneumatic signal transmission is the problem of transmitting the signal over significant
distances. A time lag is associated with the transmission of the pressure signal through the
instrument tubing. As the distance that the signal must travel increases, the speed of the
response of the pneumatic transmission systems increasingly becomes a problem for fast
loops such as flow. With the introduction of the transistor, many pneumatic devices were
replaced by electronic counterparts. Electronic signals convert the process or control
variable to an analog electric signal, usually a voltage (1 to 5 volts) or a current (4 to 20
mA).
Electronic signal transmission has a virtually instantaneous time response and
hence nearly unlimited distances were achievable by wire, radio linkage, or microwave
signals. However, electronic control systems had the disadvantage of becoming very
complex for large applications. Therefore, it was not recommended to use electronic
instruments except for simple control loops or logic functions.
The advent of the microprocessor in the late 1960's has revolutionized the process
control industry. Digital signals were used to approximate analog signals over time. The
electronic analog signal is sampled at a predetermined frequency with the value of the last
sample held until the next sample is taken. Analog measurements are converted to digital
signals through an analog/digital (A/D) converter, and control outputs are converted back
from digital to analog (D/A) before being used by the field devices.
Digital controllers have tremendous control flexibility compared to its pneumatic
or electronic counterparts. They can be used for stand-alone single-loop control, or they
can be linked together on a common data highway to provide distributed control
capabilities. Although microprocessor-based control systems started in the late 1960’s, they
were used merely to supervise the classical pneumatic or electronic systems. It was not
until the mid1970’s that the first Distributed Control Systems (DCS) came into existence
as shown in figure2.1.

Fig 4.1 DCS

A DCS system distributes the functions of a control system into many different
microprocessors. The microprocessors form small subsystems which are physically
distributed throughout the facility and linked together via a communication or data
highway. The operator interface is located in a central location such as a control room. The
operator interface includes colour graphics with dynamic process data, faceplate displays,
trend data, and alarm summary displays. For discrete processes, hardwired relays were used
to perform the sequential logic control functions.
Electromechanical relays were wired in series or parallel with field input signals to
turn equipment on and off. Input devices such as pushbuttons, switches, or contacts were
used to allow current to flow through the circuit or cause a break in the current flow, thereby
switching an instrument on or off. Instruments that were controlled by relay logic outputs
were coils, timers, lights, valves, horns, and control relays. The main disadvantage of these
hardwired relays is that expansion was not possible without disabling the system, the
control logic could not be changed without adding or deleting relays or disabling the system
and it was difficult to implement and troubleshoot a complex logic system. Due to the
difficulties of hardwired relay systems, a new type of microprocessor-based control system,
known as the Programmable Logic Controller (PLC), appeared in the early 1970’s in the
automotive industry. The PLC systems replaced the hardwired relay panels and provided
the flexibility of changing the logic program whenever the application at hand changed.

Fig4.2 Programmable Logic Controllers

PLCs also demonstrated a high degree of reliability at a fairly low cost. That is why they
became more and more popular in the process control industry, and they have grown in the
market to perform virtually any control application ranging from simple on-off control to
relatively complex control applications.

4.2 RELAY LOGIC

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to
operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used.
It is a switch that opens and closes under the control of another electrical circuit. It was
invented by Joseph Henry in 1835.
 Fig 4.3 Relay Logic

4.2.1 Basic design and operation:

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron core,
an iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable
iron armature, and one or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured). The
armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving
contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air
gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay
pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of
contacts depending on their function. The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting
the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts
on the armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which
is soldered to the PCB.

When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that
activates the armature and the consequent movement of the movable contact either makes
or breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of
contacts was closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the
contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the
current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half
as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a
spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are
manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces noise; in a high
voltage or current application it reduces arcing.

When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the
coil to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would
otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit components. Some
automotive relays include a diode inside the relay case. Alternatively, a contact protection
network consisting of a capacitor and resistor in series (snubber circuit) may absorb the
surge. If the coil is designed to be energized with alternating current (AC), a small copper
"shading ring" can be crimped to the end of the solenoid, creating a small out-of-phase
current which increases the minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle

4.3 INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMABLE

A PLC is an industrial computer or control system that continuously monitors the state of
input devices and makes decisions based upon a custom program to control the state of
output devices. PLCs are used in many industries and machines. Unlike general-purpose
computers, the PLC is designed for multiple inputs and output arrangements, extended
temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to vibration and impact.

Fig 4.4 PLC

Programs to control machine operation are typically stored in battery-backed-up or non-

volatile memory. A PLC is an example of a hard real time system since output results must
be produced in response to input conditions within a limited time, otherwise unintended
operation will result.
4.3.1 What is a PLC?
A Programmable Logic Controller, PLC is a digital computer used for automation of
industrial processes, such as control of machinery on factory assembly lines. Unlike
general-purpose computers, the PLC is designed for multiple inputs and output
arrangements, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to
vibration and impact. Programs to control machine operation are typically stored in battery-
backed or non-volatile memory. A PLC is an example of a real time system since output
results must be produced in response to input conditions within a bounded time, otherwise
unintended operation will result.
Programmable logic controllers (PLC) were originally developed to replace
electro-magnetic relay circuits. It is widely used for implementing various systems based
on logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic. PLCs are the backbone of most
automation projects of the process control and instrumentation sector.

Fig 4.5: Typical of PLC

Automation of production lines and manufacturing processes will lead to the development
of the mangles factory where there is no longer any significant requirement for production
workers or operators. Such levels of automation will not be achievable without
development of control systems, particularly PLCs.
The PLC works by looking at its inputs and depending upon their state, turning
on/off its outputs. The user enters a program, usually via software, that gives the desired
results. PLC are used in many “real world” applications. If there is industry present, chances
are good that there is a PLC present. Almost any application that needs some type of
electrical control has a need for a PLC Sufficient equipment-sequencing and control
functions have been implemented with PLC’s to indicate they offered many benefits that
were not yet fully recognized. Installation flexibility,

4.4 HISTORY AND ORIGIN

• Developed to replace relays in the late 1960s
• PLC began in the 1970s, and has become the most common choice for
manufacturing controls.
• The first PLC, model 084, was invented by Dick Morley.
• The PLC was invented in response to the needs of the American automotive
manufacturing industry (primarily General motors).
• Costs dropped and became popular by 1980s
 • Now used in many industrial designs.

4.5 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PLC

Fig 4.6 Block Diagram Of PLC

4.6 Major Component Of A Common PLC

POWER SUPPLY
Provides the voltage needed to run the primary PLC components.
I/O MODULES
 Provides signal conversion and isolation between the internal logic level signals
inside the PLC and the field’s high level signal. The I/O interface section of a PLC connects
it to external field devices. The main purpose of the I/O interface is to condition the various
signals received from or sent to the external input and output devices. Input modules
convert’s signals from discrete or analog input devices to logic levels acceptable to PLC’s
processor. Output modules converts signal from the processor to levels capable of driving
the connected discrete or analog output devices.
PROCESSOR
Provides intelligence to command and govern the activities of the entire PLC
systems.
PROGRAMMING DEVICE
Used to enter the desired program that will determine the sequence of operation and
control of process equipment or driven machine.

4.7 APPLICATION
• Manufacturing / Machining
• Food / Beverage
• Metals
• Power
• Mining

4.8 ADVANTAGES
• Reliability in Operation
• Large quantity of contacts
• Online/offline modifications
• Cost effective for controlling complex systems
• Small physical size, shorter project time
• Speed in operation
• In house simulation & testing of project
• Consume less energy
• Easy Maintenance
• Economical
• Security
 • Minimum space requirements,

• Flexible local control functions,

• Flexible local displays,

• Technician maintenance assistance,

• Complex sequence control functions,

• Proportional integral derivative (PID) capability,

• Digital communications input and output,

• Enhanced alarm systems,

• SCADA functions for remote control.

4.9 Disadvantages
• Too much work required in connecting wires.

• Difficulty with changes or replacements.

• Difficulty in finding errors; requiring skilful work force.

4.10 Classification Of PLC

2.10.1 Based on physical assembly-

1. Compact - In these types of PLC the number of input and output is fixed and these are
very purpose specified.

2. Modular - In this type of PLC the input and output modules are used and thus the number
of the I/O ports is variable n depend upon the number of slots available and modules used.
 Fig 4.7 Different Type of PLC

4.10.2 Based on number of I/O ports-

1. Small-It covers units with up to 128 I/O’s and memories up to 2 Kbytes.
These PLC’s are capable of providing simple to advance levels or machine
controls.
2. Medium- has up to 2048 I/O’s and memories up to 32 Kbytes.
3. Large- the most sophisticated units of the PLC family. They have up to 8192 I/O’s and
memories up to 750 Kbytes can control individual production processes or entire plant.
4.10.3 Leading Brands of PLC
Allen Bradley, Siemens, ABB (Asia Brown Boveri ), Schneider Electric , Omron , Delta ,
Mitsubishi , Honeywell , fujiS.
4.11 HARDWARE OVERVIEW
 Fig 4.8 Hardware Feature Of PLC

4.12 PLC OPERATION

Basic Function of a Typical PLC
Read all field input devices via the input interfaces, execute the user program stored
in application memory, then, based on whatever control scheme has been programmed by
the user, turn the field output devices on or off, or perform whatever control is necessary
for the process application.
This process of sequentially reading the inputs, executing the program in memory,
and updating the outputs is known as scanning.
4.12.1 Scan Cycle
While the PLC is running, the scanning process includes the following three phases, which
are repeated continuously as individual cycles of operation
PHASE 1 – Input Status scan
A PLC scan cycle begins with the CPU reading the status of its inputs.
PHASE 2– Logic Solve/Program Execution
The application program is executed using the status of the inputs.
PHASE 3– Output Status Scan
An output status scan is then performed, whereby the stored output values are sent
to field output devices. The cycle ends by updating the outputs. As soon as Phase 3 are
completed, the entire cycle begins again with Phase 1 input scan. The time it takes to
implement a scan cycle is called SCAN TIME. The scan time composed of the program
scan time, which is the time required for solving the control program, and the I/O update
time, or time required to read inputs and update outputs. The program scan time generally
depends on the amount of memory taken by the control program and type of instructions
used in the program. The time to make a single scan can vary from 1 ms to 100 ms.

Fig 4.9 Scan Cycle

4.13 Sinking And Sourcing Concept

• Sinking Concept (NPN) - When the current direction of any signal is inwards to the
PLC input or output port it is known as the Sinking.

• Sourcing Concept (PNP) - When the current direction of any signal is outwards to
the PLC input or output port it is known as the Sourcing.

.
Fig 4.10 Sink Source Concept
4.14 Programming
Programming software Proficy machine Edition 5.7 has been utilized in this project.
Proficy machine is a PLC programming tool for the creation, testing and
maintenance of programs associated with Gee-Fanuc PLC series. It provides
facilities for the support of PLC devices and address information and for
communications with Ge-Fanuc PLCs and their supported network types. An
example of ladder logic can be seen in Figure 2.5. To interpret this diagram
imagines that the power is on the vertical line on the left hand side, we call this the
hot rail. On the right hand side is the neutral rail. In
The figure there are two rungs, and on each rung there are combinations of inputs
(two vertical lines) and outputs (circles). If the inputs are opened or closed in the
right combination the power can flow from the hot rail, through the inputs, to power
the outputs, and finally to the neutral rail. An input can come from a sensor, switch,
or any other type of sensor. An output will be some device outside the PLC that is
switched on or off, such as lights or Motors. In the top rung the contacts are
normally open and normally closed. This means if input A is on and input B is off,
then power will flow through the output and activate it. Any other combination of
input values will result in the output X being off.

Fig 4.11: Ladder Logic Diagram

4.15 Programming Language
• Ladder Diagram (LD)
• Functional block Diagram (FBD)
• Sequential Functional Chart (SFC)
• Structured Text (ST)
• Instruction List (IL)

Ladder Diagram- It is a graphical programming language. Initially programmed with

simple contacts that simulated the opening and closing of relays, Ladder Logic
Programming has been expanded to include such functions as counters, timers, shift
registers, and math operations.

Function Block Diagram – A graphical language for depicting signal and data flows
through re-usable function blocks. FBD is useful for expressing the interconnection of
control system algorithms and logic.

Sequential Function Chart – A method of programming complex control systems at a

more highly structured level. A SFC program is an overview of the control system, in
which the basic building blocks are entire program files. Each program file is created using
one of the other types of programming languages. The SFC approach coordinates large,
complicated programming tasks into smaller, more manageable tasks.

Structured Text – A high level text language that encourages structured programming. It
has a language structure (syntax) that strongly resembles PASCAL and supports a wide
range of standard functions and operators.

Instruction List – A low level ‘assembler like’ language that is based on similar
instructions list languages found in a wide range of today’s PLC.

The language which we used in the PLC for writing any logic is Ladder language.

4.16 Ladder Logic

Ladder logic is the main programming method used for PLC. As mention before, ladder
logic has been developed to mimic relay logic.
The decision to use the relay logic diagrams was strategic one. By selecting ladder
logic as the main programming method, the amount of retraining needed for engineers and
trades people was greatly reduce.
Modern control systems still include relay, but these are rarely used for logic. A relay
is a simple device that uses a magnetic field to control a switch. Relay are used to let one
power source close a switch for another power source, while keeping isolated. An example
of a relay in a simple control application is shown in Figure2.2. In this system the first relay
on the left is used as normally closed, and will allow current to flow until a voltage is
applied to the input A. The second relay is normally open and will not allow current to flow
until the voltage is applied to the input B. If current is flowing through the first two relay
then current will flow though the coil in the third relay, and closed the switch for output C.
This circuit would normally be drawn in the ladder logic form. This can be read logically
as C will be on if A is off and B is on.

Fig 4.12: Relay Controller

It is easy to design logic programs for small systems but as the length of the program grows
it becomes accordingly more complicated to design and verify the PLC code.
The functional operation of any manufacturing unit is needed to be smooth, without
down-times. Inefficiency in generating the controlling code in the manufacturing plant may
cause huge down time and ramp-up times. Hence, auto generation of PLC program using
rapid modelling and compiling tools to generate IEC standard PLC program is an efficient
method to reduce the PLC development time.
Works that the PLC carries out become more complex. To treat them efficiently, it
has retained more than a hundred kinds of instructions. Of the instructions, the proportion
of special instructions such as PID and floating-point operations has been increased with
extension of its adaptable range.
These instructions need much time to execute. The execution time of the PLC
program is important as a measure of its performance. Thus increase of instructions puts a
burden to performance of the PLC.
Ladder logic is a method of drawing electrical logic schematics. It is now a
graphical language very popular for programming Programmable Logic Controllers
(PLCs). It was originally invented to describe logic made from relays. The name is based
on the observation that programs in this language resemble ladders, with two vertical "rails"
and a series of horizontal "rungs" between them.

Generally Used Instructions & symbol For PLC Programming

Input Instruction

This Instruction is Called XIC or Examine If Closed. i.e.; If a NO switch is actuated then
only this instruction will be true. If a NC switch is actuated then this instruction will not be
true and hence output will not be generated.

This Instruction is Called XIO or Examine If Open i.e.; If a NC switch is actuated then only
this instruction will be true. If a NC switch is actuated then this instruction will not be true
and hence output will not be generated.

Output Instruction

This Instruction is called OTE and shows the States of O/P. i.e.; if any instruction either
XIO or XIC is true then output will be high. Due to high output a 24 volt signal is generated
from PLC processor.
Retentive output instruction

OTL (output latch):

If the rung is true, turns ON a bit and it remains ON even the rung gets false. The bit stays
ON until the rung containing an OUT with same address goes true.

OTU (output unlatch): If the rung is true, turns OFF a bit. The bit stays OFF until the
rung containing an OTL with same address goes true and the rung containing OUT with
same address remains false.

Timers:

1. TON-

This is an ON timer, in this we set the time base and can give the time delay.

2. TOF

This is an OFF timer, here we need to enable as well as disable the timer.

3. RTO
This is called Retentive Timer On, here the timer is not reset once we disable it, so we need
to use the RES (reset) function. This timer can be paused easily.

Compare instructions:

1. LIM (limit test):

The Rung goes true when test value in between lower and higher limit.

2. EQU (Equal):

The rung goes true, when source A equal to source B.

3. NEQ (Not Equal):

4. LES (Less Than):

5. GRT (Greater Than):

6. LEQ (Less Than or Equal):

7. GEQ (Greater Than or Equal):

Counters:-

1. CTU-

This is Counter Up, here we set the pre-set and whenever the signal is given the accumulator
is increased, to reset the counter we have to use RES.

2. CTD-

This is Counter down, here DN bit is on initially and as the accumulator decreases and
becomes less than pre-set it becomes off.

RESET Function-

This function is used to reset the counters and the timers.

Compute / Math:

1. ADD (Addition):

When the rung goes true, value stored in source A is added with value stored in Source B
and the resulted value is stored in Destination.

2. SUB (Subtraction):

3. MUL (Multiplication):

4. DIV (Division):

5. SQR (Square Root):

Move/Logical:

1. MOV (Move):

When rung goes true the value stored in source move to destination.

2. AND (Bitwise Logical AND):

When the rung goes true, value stored in source A is Logically ANDed with value stored
in Source B and the resulted value is stored in destination.

3. OR (Bitwise Logical OR):

4. XOR (Bitwise Logical NOR):

5. NOT (Bitwise Logical NOT):

6. CLR (Clear):

When rung goes true, then destination becomes empty.

4.17 Software Of PLC

For Allen Bradley (Micro):-

 Simulator: - Logix Pro

 Communication software: - Rslinx classic
 Programming software: - Rslogix500 OR Rslogix Micro starter Lite

4.18 COMMUNICATION
Serial Communications
There are several methods to communicate between a PLC and a programmer or even
between two PLCs. PLC communications facilities normally provides serial transmission
of information.
Common Standards
RS 232
Used in short-distance computer communications, with the majority of computer hardware
and peripherals. Has a maximum effective distance of approx. 30 m at 9600 baud.
Local Area Network (LAN)
Local Area Network provides a physical link between all devices plus providing overall
data exchange management or protocol, ensuring that each device can “talk” to other
machines and understand data received from them .LANs provide the common, high-speed
data communications bus which interconnects any or all devices within the local area.
LANs are commonly used in business applications to allow several users to share costly
software packages and peripheral equipment such as printers and hard disk storage.
RS 422 / RS 485
Used for longer-distance links, often between several PCs in a distributed system. RS 485
can have a maximum distance of about 1000 meters.
CHAPTER 5: SCADA

5.1 SCADA
SCADA stands for supervisory control and data acquisition. It generally refers to an
industrial control system: a computer system monitoring and controlling a process. The
process can be industrial, infrastructure or facility based as described below:
Industrial processes include those of manufacturing, production, power generation,
fabrication, and refining, and may run in continuous, batch, repetitive, or discrete modes.
Infrastructure processes may be public or private, and include water treatment and
distribution, wastewater collection and treatment, oil and gas pipelines, electrical power
transmission and distribution, and large communication systems.
Facility processes occur both in public facilities and private ones, including
buildings, airports, ships, and space stations. They monitor and control HVAC, access, and
energy consumption.
SCADA is “Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition”. Real-time industrial
process control Systems used to centrally monitor and control remote or local industrial
equipment such as Motors, valves, pumps, relays, sensors, etc. SCADA is Combination of
telemetry and Data Acquisition. Previously without SCADA software, an industrial process
was entirely controlled by PLC, CNC, PID & micro controllers having programmed in
certain languages or codes

Fig 5.1 History of SCADA

These codes were either written in assembly language or relay logic without any true
animation that would explain the process running. It is always easy to understand the status
of the process if it is Shown with some animations rather than written codes. Hence
SCADA software came to existence and with some exclusive features it became internal
part of automation system. SCADA is not just hardware but also software. It’s a concept.
It’s a system as a combination of special hardware, software and protocols. SCADA is used
to control chemical plant processes, oil and gas pipelines, electrical generation and
transmission equipment, manufacturing facilities, water purification and distribution
infrastructure, etc. For example, in a SCADA system a PLC can be used to control the flow
of cooling water as part of an industrial process. At the same time the supervisor can use
the Host control function to set the temperature for the flow of Water.
It can also have alarms and can record the flow of water temperature and report
back to The RTUs and PLCs are responsible for data collection such as meter readings,
equipment status etc. and communicate back to the SCADA system. This data can be stored
in a database for later Analysis or monitored by a supervisor to take appropriate actions if
required. SCADA systems typically implement a distributed database, commonly referred
to as a tag Database, which contains data elements called tags or points. A point represents
a single input or output value monitored or controlled by the system. Points can be either
"hard" or "soft".
A hard point is representative of an actual input or output connected to the system,
while a soft point represents the result of logic and math operations applied to other hard
and soft points. Most implementations conceptually remove this distinction by making
every property a "soft" point (Expression) that can equal a single "hard" point in the
simplest case. Point values are normally stored as value-timestamp combinations; the value
and the timestamp when the value was recorded or calculated. A series of value timestamp
combinations is the history of that point. It's also common to store additional metadata with
tags such as: path to field device and PLC register, design time comments, and even
alarming information.

5.2what Scada Can Do For You?

SCADA is not a specific technology, but a type of application. SCADA stands for
Supervisory
Control and Data Acquisition — any application that gets data about a system in order to
control that system is a SCADA application.
A SCADA application has two elements:
1. The process/system/machinery you want to monitor a control — this can be a power
Plant, a water system, a network, a system of traffic lights, or anything else.
2. A network of intelligent devices that interfaces with the first system through sensors and
Control outputs. This network, which is the SCADA system, gives you the ability to
Measure and control specific elements of the first system.

5.3 Where Is SCADA Used?

You can use SCADA to manage any kind of equipment. Typically, SCADA systems are
used to automate complex industrial processes where human control is impractical —
systems where there are more control factors, and more fast-moving control factors, than
human beings can comfortably manage.
Around the world, SCADA systems control:

• Electric power generation, transmission and distribution: Electric utilities use

SCADA systems to detect current flow and line voltage, to monitor the operation of circuit
breakers, and to take sections of the power grid online or offline.
• Water and sewage: State and municipal water utilities use SCADA to monitor and
Regulate water flow, reservoir levels, pipe pressure and other factors.
• Buildings, facilities and environments: Facility managers use SCADA to control
HVAC, refrigeration units, lighting and entry systems.
• Manufacturing: SCADA systems manage parts inventories for just-in-time
manufacturing, regulate industrial automation and robots, and monitor process and
quality control.
• Mass transit: Transit authorities use SCADA to regulate electricity to subways, trams and
trolley buses; to automate traffic signals for rail systems; to track and locate trains and
buses; and to control railroad crossing gates.
• Traffic signals: SCADA regulates traffic lights, controls traffic flow and detects out-of
order signals.
A SCADA system usually consists of the following subsystems:
1. Human-machine interface or HMI is the apparatus which presents process data to a
human operator, and through this, the human operator, monitors and controls the process.
A supervisory (compute) system, gathering (acquiring) data on the process and sending
commands (control) to the process.
2. Remote terminal units(RTUs) connecting to sensors in the process, converting sensor
signals to digital data and sending digital data to the supervisory system.
3. Programmable logic controller (PLCs) used as field devices because they are more
economical, versatile, flexible, and configurable than special-purpose RTUS.
Communication infrastructure connecting the supervisory system to the remote terminal
units.
5.4 System Concept
The term SCADA usually refers to centralized systems which monitor and control entire
sites, or complexes of systems spread out over large areas (anything between and industrial
plant and a country).most control actions are performed automatically by remote terminal
units or by programmable logic controllers. Host control functions are usually restricted to
basic overriding or supervisory level intervention.
For example, a PLC may control the flow of cooling water through part of an
industrial process, but the SCADA system may allow operators to change the set points for
the flow, and enable alarm conditions, such as loss of flow and high temperature, to be
displayed and recorded. The feedback control loop passes through the RTU or PLC, while
the SCADA system monitors the overall performance of the loop.
Data acquisition begins at the RTU or PLC level and includes meter readings and
equipment status reports that are communicated to SCADA as required. Data is then
compiled and formatted in such a way that a control room operator using the HMI can make
supervisory decisions to adjust or override normal RTU (PLC) controls. Data may also be
fed to a historian, often built on a commodity database management system, to allow
trending and other analytical auditing.
5.5 SCADA Architecture
SCADA systems have evolved through three generations as follows:

First generation: "Monolithic"

In the first generation, computing was done by mainframe computers. Networks did
not exist at the time SCADA was developed. Thus SCADA systems were independent
systems with no connectivity to other systems. Wide Area Networks were later designed
by RTU vendors to communicate with the RTU. The communication protocols used were
often proprietary at that time. The first-generation SCADA system was redundant since a
back-up mainframe system was connected at the bus level and was used in the event of
failure of the primary mainframe system.

Second generation: "Distributed"

The processing was distributed across multiple stations which were connected
through a LAN and they shared information in real time. Each station was responsible for
a particular task thus making the size and cost of each station less than the one used in First
Generation. The network protocols used were still mostly proprietary, which led to
significant security problems for any SCADA system that received attention from a hacker.
Since the protocols were proprietary, very few people beyond the developers and hackers
knew enough to determine how secure a SCADA installation was. Since both parties had
vested interests in keeping security issues quiet, the security of a SCADA installation was
often badly overestimated, if it was considered at all.

Third generation: "Networked"

These are the current generation SCADA systems which use open system
architecture rather than a vendor-controlled proprietary environment. The SCADA system
utilizes open standards and protocols, thus distributing functionality across a WAN rather
than a LAN. It is easier to connect third party peripheral devices like printers, disk drives,
and tape drives due to the use of open architecture. WAN protocols such as Internet
Protocol (IP) are used for communication between the master station and communications
equipment. Due to the usage of standard protocols and the fact that many networked
SCADA systems are accessible from the Internet; the systems are potentially vulnerable to
remote cyber-attacks. On the other hand, the usage of standard protocols and security
techniques means that standard security improvements are applicable to the SCADA
systems, assuming they receive timely maintenance and updates.

5.6 SCADA SOFTWARE

 Allen Bradley – RSView 32
 Wonder ware – InTouch
 Siemens – Win CC
 Fig 5.2 SCADA Automation

5.7 Features Of SCADA Software

1. Dynamic Process Graphic mimics developed in SCADA software should resemble the
process mimic. SCADA should have good library of symbols so that you can develop the
mimic as per requirement. Once the operator sees the screen he should know what is going
on in plant.

2. Real Time and Historical Trend the trends play very important role in process
operation. If the batch fails or the plant trips, we can simply go to the historical trend data
and do the analysis. One can have better look of the parameters through the trends.

3. Alarms indicate to the operator when something goes wrong. An alarm can signal that
a device or process has stopped operating within acceptable limits or it can indicate
breakdown, wear or process malfunction.

4. Recipe Management is an additional feature. Some SCADA support it, some don’t.
Most of the plants are manufacturing multi products. When you have different product to
manufacture, you just have to load the recipe of that particular product.

5. Security is one facility people generally look for. You can allocate certain facilities or
features to the operator, process people, engineering debt & maintenance debt. For e.g.
operators should only operate the system, he should not be able to change the application.

6. Device Connectivity as we know there are hundreds of automation hardware

manufacturer like MODICON, SIEMENS, ALLEN BRADLEY and everybody has their
own communication protocol. SCADA should have connectivity with different hardware
used in automation.

7. Networking can connect to the PLC and other control systems through internet and the
system can be controlled remotely.

8. Database Connectivity now a day information lays a very important role in any
business. Most manufacturing units go for ENTERPRISE RESOURCE PLANNING (ERP)
or MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (MIS).

9. Script for Logic Development is also a great feature available with the SCADA. Here
one can simply write the logic using simple IF-ELSE commands and the process stars
running accordingly.

Fig 5.3 SCADA System

5.8 Tages Or Points

SCADA systems typically implement a distributed database, commonly referred to as a tag
database, which contains data elements called tags or points. A point represents a single
input or output value monitored or controlled by the system. Points can be either “hard” or
“soft” .A hard point represents an actual input or output within the system, while a soft
point results from logic and math operations applied to other points.(most implementations
conceptually remove the distinction by making every property a “soft” points expression,
which may, in the simplest case, equal a single hard point. Points are normally stored as
value timestamp pairs: a value and the timestamp when it was recorded or calculated. A
series of value-timestamp pairs gives the history of that point. It’s also common to store
additional metadata with tags, such as the path to a field device or PLC register, design
time comments, and alarm information.
5.9 Security Issues
The move from proprietary technologies to more standardized and open solutions together
with the increased number of connections between SCADA systems and office networks
and the Internet has made them more Vulnerable to attacks - see references. Consequently,
the security of SCADA-based systems has come into question as they are increasingly seen
as extremely vulnerable to cyber warfare/cyber terrorism attacks.

In particular, security researchers are concerned about:

●The lack of concern about security and authentication in the design, deployment and
operation of existing SCADA networks.

●The mistaken belief that SCADA systems have the benefit of security through
obscurity through the use of specialized protocols and proprietary interfaces.

●The mistaken belief that SCADA networks are secure because they are purportedly
physically secured.

The mistaken belief that SCADA networks are secure because they are supposedly
disconnected from the Internet.

SCADA systems are used to control and monitor physical processes, examples of
which are transmission of electricity, transportation of gas and oil in pipelines, water
distribution, traffic lights, and other systems used as the basis of modern society. The
security of these SCADA systems is important because compromise or destruction of these
systems would impact multiple areas of society far removed from the original compromise.
For example, a blackout caused by a compromised electrical SCADA system would cause
financial losses to all the customers that received electricity from that source. How security
will affect legacy SCADA and new deployments remains to be seen.

There are two distinct threats to a modern SCADA system. First is the threat of
unauthorized access to the control software, whether it be human access or changes induced
intentionally or accidentally by virus infections and other software threats residing on the
control host machine. Second is the threat of packet access to the network segments hosting
SCADA device. In many cases, there is rudimentary or no security on the actual packet
control protocol, so anyone who can send packets to the SCADA device can control it. In
many cases SCADA users assume that a VPN is sufficient protection and are unaware that
physical access to SCADA-related network jacks and switches provides the ability to
totally bypass all security on the control software and fully control those SCADA networks.
These kinds of physical access attacks bypass firewall and VPN security and are best
addressed by endpoint-to-endpoint authentication and authorization such as are commonly
provided in the non-SCADA world by in-device SSL or other cryptographic techniques.

5.10 Potential Benefits Of SCADA

The benefits one can expect from adopting a SCADA system for the control of
experimental physics facilities can be summarized as follows:

A rich functionality and extensive development facilities. The amount of effort

invested in SCADA product amounts to 50 to 100 p-years!

The amount of specific development that needs to be performed by the end-user is limited,
especially with suitable engineering.

Reliability and robustness. These systems are used for mission critical industrial
processes where reliability and performance are paramount. In addition, specific
development is performed within a well-established framework that enhances reliability
and robustness. Technical support and maintenance by the vendor.

5.11 Advantages Of SCADA

● Provides animated or the graphical view of the complete process.
● Enables operator to supervise and control the plant even from a remote location.
● Show the process in the real time.
● Can be easily linked with the controllers and the PC.
● Easy to develop & Cost Effective.

5.12 Human Machine Interface

HMI is the apparatus which presents process data to a human operator, and through which
the human operator controls the process.

HMI is usually linked to the SCADA system's databases and software programs, to
provide trending, diagnostic data, and management information such as scheduled
maintenance procedures, logistic information, detailed schematics for a particular sensor or
machine, and expert-system troubleshooting guides.

The HMI system usually presents the information to the operating personnel
graphically, in the form of a mimic diagram. This means that the operator can see a
schematic representation of the plant being controlled. For example, a picture of a pump
connected to a pipe can show the operator that the pump is running and how much fluid it
is pumping through the pipe at the moment. The operator can then switch the pump off.
The HMI software will show the flow rate of the fluid in the pipe decrease in real time.
Mimic diagrams may consist of line graphics and schematic symbols to represent process
elements, or may consist of digital photographs of the process equipment overlain with
animated symbols.

The HMI package for the SCADA system typically includes a drawing program
that the operators or system maintenance personnel use to change the way these points are
represented in the interface. These representations can be as simple as an on-screen traffic
light, which represents the state of an actual traffic light in the field, or as complex as a
multi-projector display representing the position of all of the elevators in a skyscraper or
all of the trains on a railway.

An important part of most SCADA implementations is alarm handling. The system

monitors whether certain alarm conditions are satisfied, to determine when an alarm event
has occurred. Once an alarm event has been detected, one or more actions are taken (such
as the activation of one or more alarm indicators, and perhaps the generation of email or
text messages so that management or remote SCADA operators are informed). In many
cases, a SCADA operator may have to acknowledge the alarm event; this may deactivate
some alarm indicators, whereas other indicators remain active until the alarm conditions
are cleared. Alarm conditions can be explicit—for example, an alarm point is a digital status
point that has either the value NORMAL or ALARM that is calculated by a formula based
on the values in other analogue and digital points or implicit: the SCADA system might
automatically monitor whether the value in an analogue point lies outside high and low
limit values associated with that point. Examples of alarm indicators include a siren, a pop-
up box on a screen, or a coloured or flashing area on a screen (that might act in a similar
way to the "fuel tank empty" light in a car); in each case, the role of the alarm indicator is
to draw the operator's attention to the part of the system 'in alarm' so that appropriate action
can be taken. In designing SCADA systems, care must be taken when a cascade of alarm
events occurs in a short time, otherwise the underlying cause (which might not be the
earliest event detected) may get lost in the noise. Unfortunately, when used as a noun, the
word 'alarm' is used rather loosely in the industry; thus, depending on context it might mean
an alarm point, an alarm indicator, or an alarm event.

5.13 Configuration Of Different Drivers

Driver:-A driver acts like a translator between the device and programs that use the device.
Each device has its own set of specialized commands that only its driver knows. In contrast,
most programs access devices by using generic commands. The driver, therefore, accepts
generic commands from a program and then translates them into specialized commands for
the device. A Software which allows a computer to access the devices using com ports or
communication cards.
There are three drivers for SCADA
1. Direct driver
2. DDE (Dynamic data exchange)
3. OPC (OLE for Process control)

The primary function of DDE is to allow Windows applications to share data. For
example, a cell in Microsoft Excel could be linked to a value in another application and
when the value changed, it would be automatically updated in the Excel spreadsheet. The
data communication was established by a simple, three-segment model. Each program was
known to DDE by its "application" name. Each application could further organize
information by groups known as "topic" and each topic could serve up individual pieces of
data as an "item".

A common use of DDE is for custom-developed applications to control off-the-

shelf software. For example, a custom in-house application might use DDE to open
a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet and fill it with data, by opening a DDE conversation with
Excel and sending it DDE commands. Today, however, one could also use the Excel object
model with OLE Automation (part of COM). The technique is, however, still in use,
particularly for distribution of financial data.

While newer technologies like COM offer features DDE doesn't have, there are also
issues with regard to configuration that can make COM more difficult to use than DDE.
Also, DDE is a generic protocol that allows any application to monitor changing data
provided by any other application, while to achieve similar results in COM one would
generally need to know details of the application that is either to produce or consume the
data. For example, a single DDE financial data distribution application can provide live
prices to either Excel or a financial charting application without needing to know which it
is doing, while to achieve the same results with COM would usually require the distribution
application's authors to write custom code for each use scenario.

5.13.3 Net DDE

California-based company Wonder ware developed an extension for DDE called NetDDE
that could be used to initiate and maintain the network connections needed for DDE
conversations between DDE-aware applications running on different computers in a
network and transparently exchange data. A DDE conversation is an interaction between
client and server applications. Net DDE could be used along with DDE and the DDE
management library (DDEML) in applications.

It used to communicate same as well as different vendors of SCADA and PLC.

DDE has three important settings
Application/ Server name, T opic name and Item Name
EXAMLPE: Intouch and Micrologix 11oo, vendor- Wonderware and Allen-Bradley
5.13.4 OPC (OLE for Process Control):

OLE for Process Control which stands for Object linking and Embedding (OLE) for
Process control, is the original name for a standards specification developed in 1996 by an
industrial automation industry task force. The standard specified the communication of
real-time plant data between control devices from different manufactures. After the initial
release, the OPC foundation was created to maintain the standard. Since then, standards
have been added and names have been changed. As of June. 2006, “OPC is a series of
standards specifications”. OPC was designed to provide a common bridge for Windows
based software applications and process control hardware. Standards define consistent
methods of accessing field data from plant floor devices.

This method remains the same regardless of the type and source of data. An OPC
Server for one hardware device provides the same methods for an OPC Client to access its
data as any and every other OPC Server for that same and any other hardware device. The
aim was to reduce the amount of duplicated effort required from hardware manufacturers
and their software partners, and from the SCADA and other HMI producers in order to
interface the two. Once a hardware manufacturer had developed their OPC Server for the
new hardware device their work was done to allow any 'top end' to access their device, and
once the SCADA producer had developed their OPC Client their work was done to allow
access to any hardware, existing or yet to be created, with an OPC compliant server.

OPC servers provide a method for many different software packages (so long as it
is an OPC Client) to access data from a process control device, such as a PLC or DCS.
Traditionally, any time a package needed access to data from a device, a custom interface,
or driver, had to be written. The purpose of OPC is to define a common interface that is
written once and then reused by any business, SCADA, HMI, or custom software packages.

There is nothing in the OPC specifications to restrict the server to providing access
to a process control device. OPC Servers can be written for anything from getting the
internal temperature of a microprocessor to the current temperature in Monument Valley.

Once an OPC server is written for a particular device, it can be reused by any
application that is able to act as an OPC client. OPC servers use Microsoft’s OLE
technology (also known as the Component Object Model, or COM) to communicate with
clients. COM technology permits a standard for real-time information exchange between
software applications and process hardware to be defined.

It is important to note that some OPC specifications are published, others are
available only to member of the OPC Foundation. So whilst no company "owns" OPC and
anyone can develop an OPC server, whether or not they are a member of the OPC
Foundation, non-members will not necessarily be using the latest specifications. Anyone
can integrate OPC products, and there is no pre-requisite for the system integrator to belong
to any organization. It is therefore up to each company that requires OPC products to ensure
that their products are certified and that their system integrators have the necessary training.

5.14 Communication
Between Rsview32 and Micrologix:-
Communication between Review 32 SCADA and Micrologix PLC done with Direct
Driver. For this First of all communicate PC with PLC and then go to Rsview32 and make
channel, after this go to node and make a node with Direct Driver.
Between Rsview32 and EXCEL:-Communication between Rsview 32 SCADA and
EXCEL done with DDE.
Between Intouch and Micrologix: - Communication between Intouch SCADA and
Micrologix PLC done with DDE.
Between Intouch and EXCEL:-Communication between Intouch SCADA and EXCEL
also done with DDE

Fig 5.4 PLC & SCADA Communication

5.15 Sensor

A sensor (also called detector) is a converter that measures a physical quantity and converts
it into a signal which can be read by an observer or by an (today mostly electronic)
instrument. For example, a mercury-in-glass thermometer converts the measured
temperature into expansion and contraction of a liquid which can be read on a calibrated
glass tube. A thermocouple converts temperature to an output voltage which can be read
by a voltmeter. For accuracy, most sensors are calibrated against known standards.

Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons

(tactile sensor) and lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base. There are also
innumerable applications for sensors of which most people are never aware. Applications
include cars, machines, aerospace, medicine, manufacturing and robotics.
 A sensor is a device which receives and responds to a signal when touched. A
sensor's sensitivity indicates how much the sensor's output changes when the measured
quantity changes.

5.15.1 Criteria to choose a Sensor:

There are certain features which have to be considered when we choose a sensor. They are
as given below:
1. Accuracy
2. Environmental condition - usually has limits for temperature/ humidity
3. Range - Measurement limit of sensor
4. Calibration - Essential for most of the measuring devices as the readings changes with
time
5. Resolution - Smallest increment detected by the sensor
6. Cost
7. Repeatability - The reading that varies is repeatedly measured under the same
environment
Transduction principle is the fundamental criteria which are followed for an efficient
approach. Usually, material and technology criteria are chosen by the development
engineering group.

5.15.2 Types of Sensors:

Some commonly used sensors along with their principle and applications are explained as
follows:
1. Temperature Sensors:
This device collects information about temperature from a source and converts into a
form that is understandable by other device or person. The best illustration of a
temperature sensor is mercury in glass thermometer. The mercury in the glass expands
and contracts depending on the alterations in temperature. The outside temperature is
the source element for the temperature measurement. The position of the mercury is
observed by the viewer to measure the temperature. There are two basic types of
temperature sensors:
2. IR Sensor:

Fig 3.5 IR Sensor

This device emits and/or detects infrared radiation to sense a particular phase in the
environment. Generally, thermal radiation is emitted by all the objects in the infrared
spectrum. The infrared sensor detects this type of radiation which is not visible to human
eye.
2. UV Sensor:
These sensors measure the intensity or power of the incident ultraviolet radiation. This
form of electromagnetic radiation has wavelengths longer than x-rays but is still shorter
than visible radiation. An active material known as polycrystalline diamond is being
used for reliable ultraviolet sensing.
CHAPTER 6: Result & Discussion

6.1 Result And Discussion

Fig 6.1 Automatic bottle filling

The various output devices used in the bottling process are gear motors, pumps and LED’s.
These are connected to the output module. The gear motor is used to run the conveyor in
forward direction. There is totally one pump used for the filling process. The pump is
connected to the water tank. These are the various output devices used in the bottling
process.

6.2 Conclusion
Automation plays an increasingly important role in the global economy and in daily
experience. Engineers strive to combine automated devices with mathematical and
organizational tools to create complex system for a rapidly expending range of application
and human activities.
Automation provides 100% accuracy all-time. So the failures and mis-
match in production completely eliminates. It makes the system’s efficiency higher than
manuals well as it controls wastages. So the overall savings increases. It provides safety to
human being. By that industry can achieves the safety majors and ISO and OHSAS
reputation. It makes the operation faster than manual which causes higher production and
proper utilization of utilities. It increases the production by which the cost of each product
decreases and industry profit increases. It provides smooth control on system response. It
provides repeatability, so that the same kinds of products are easier to manufacture at
different stages without wasting time. It provides quality control, so that the
products become reliable which improves industrial reputation in market. It provides
integration with business systems. It can reduce labour costs, so the final profit increases.
There are thousands of SCADA systems installed and they can be completely
different from each other, in terms of their structures but they all have common elements
and a common purpose – to supervise control and collect data. There are three types of
SCADA systems that describe all of the SCADA systems. Communication is the most
significant part of SCADA Power and communication systems are most likely to get
attacked by terrorists.

6.3 Bibliography
http://www.slideshare.net/ebees-automation-faq
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automation
http://www.plcs.net/chapters/whatis1.htm
http://www.plcs.net/chapters/history2.htm
http://www.plcs.net/chapters/rs232lad.htm
http://www.engineersgarage.com/articles/scada-systems
http://www.slideshare.net/orlandomoreno/scada-1964031