History of the Ancient Greeks

The history ol the ancient Girceks is one of the most improbable success stories in the
history of the world. A small people inhabiting a country that is poor in resources and
divided into hundreds of many mini-states created one of the most remarkable cultures
of the world.

Seurcexofthe historyofthe Ancienm Grecks

They fall into two categories:

A) Physical remains:
This includes anything material from bones to buildings. Ancient Cireece
underground. Except for few stone buildings, mostly temples, which have survived
es
above
ground everything they have has been dug up from beneath, feet below the
present surface. Materials decay, and the soil of Greece is not good tor preservirng
things. Therefore, things made of wood, cloth, leather are rarely found. Metals are
better to be preserved (gold. silver, bronze), Another material which is indestructible
that is the (Terracotta) "Clay baked at a very high temperatures

B) Wriien Records
They include words writen by the ancient Giceks themselves or others who wrote
about them in antiquity,. Ancient writings were inscribed upon many different

materials including clay, stone, metal. papyrus, and parchment.

Written Sources by Periods:

IBefore 700 BC:

Our main source is a body of orally transmitted legends and myths, some of which
probablywent back to the millennium BC. The Ancient Greeks considered these
2
stories as their ancient history. The central evenl of their distant past was the Trojan

wars, which if really happened, would have tuken place in the 13" century BC. The
Trojan war and its immediate aftermath are the setting for the earliest texts that we
have, Homer's liad and Odyssey. The use of these two long epie poems as historical
sources has been debated and is a matter of controversy.
 2From7001n 490 BC(Archaic Period: Under his name, two
Hesiod (ca. 700 BC) stands at the beginning ot the Archaic Age.
texts have come down which are long poEns

and the creation of the universe.

a) The Theogony: It tells the origins of Greek gods
The Works and Days: It is our carliest source that directly addresses
b)
contemporary social concerms.

historical writings from this

The Archaic Age is still pre-history that is there are no
period. But historians of the 5" century BC such as Herodotus provide S with
important information about the early city-states especially Athens and Sparta.

From 490-I3 RC(Classical Period):

It begins with the victory of the Greeks over the Persians in the battle of Marathon
and ends with the death of Alexander the Great.
Our primary source for the Persian wars was Herodotus from the Greek perspective,
and provided valuable information about the relationships among the city-states of
ancient Grecks in the 6 and early 5h centuries BC, especially Athens and Sparta.

The principal source for the actions that led to the Peloponnesian war between Athens
and Sparta and their allies and for the war itselt is the history of Thueydides.

During this period, poetry, philosophy and arts flourished. Hundreds of dramas were

produced. The plays mostly do not attempt to mirror society and some tragedians use

plots and characters from ancient myths.

From 323 B.C-30B.C HellenisticPeriod:

This period begins with the death of the Alexander the Great ends with the battle of
Actium and the suicide of Cleopatra VIL.

Concerning the sources of the Hellenistic period: There is huge number of books
written about Alexander after his death, however they survived only in fragments.

Ample sources exist that show everyday life, administrative, military, and economic
aftairs of the various Hellenistie Kingdoms. For instance, Egypt has numerous
inseriptions and documents preserved on papyrus recording all aspects of life, such as

marriage contracts and private letters

 The formation of the city-states early in
Archaic Greece

area comprising a central city and its

A city-state is a defined geographical
the center ol the town to the surrounding
adjacent territory as could be seen from unit. The
hills or the sea. They together make up a single, self-governing political
Greeks called this arrangement a polis (from which is derived political, politics,
and policy).

located hill
part of the city (Acropolis) *"city on the edge"
was on a
The central
chose elevated ground,
top. For purposes of defense, early settlers naturally
the nuclei of
frequently a hill with precipitous sides. These early citadels became
large cities which grew up on the surrounding lower ground.

Within the city was an open space (Agora or the market) where citizens could
to trade and to discuss civic affairs. For more convenience and for the lack
meet
of space, this area could not be on the heights. It was near or at the foot of a high
place and in time it came to be surrounded by temples, theatre, and other public

buildings.

Government in the early city-states

The governmental structures of the early city-states followed a similar pattern:

The office of basileus (the king) was either completely abolished or

greatly reduced in power
The various leadership roles of the king were distributed among several
officials chosen from the elite of the society. The title basileus became
just the name of a number of officials who made up collective leadership
of a city-state.

There were two governmental organs in the Greek city-state:

A) Ecclesia: (Assemblyofmen)alloffighting age

It intended to bring together the male citizens. t is
responsible for
passing laws and decrees, declaring war, military strategy, electing srategoi
and other officials
 Religion
many gods. Everything
he
Greeks were polytheistic as they worshipped
These gods were pictured in human form. They
was
inhabited by a spirit. had super human
resembled human beings in every way except that they
powers and they were immortal

for creating a
According Herodotus, Homer & Hesiod were responsible
to
described ther
theogony for the Greeks. They gave names to gods,
appearance and specified their various skills.

In Hesiod's Theogony:
Gaia (the earth) the first to be created from chaos. Then she gave birth
was
to Uranus (the sky), the mountains and the sea without a mate. Then Uranus
mated Gaia who bore him many children but Uranus hated his children and
was pushing them into the womb of Gaia. Gaia wanted her sons to help her

against their father Uranus but her afraid of Uranus except for her
sons were
Son Kronos who helped her as he was waiting for Uranus to lay over Gaia
and he lopped off his genitals and threw them into the sea. This resulted in
and
the permanent separation between
ruled as a supreme god. He
the earth the sky. After that Kronos
married his sister (Rheia) but he didn't want
children as he thought that he is destined be
to by son so he was
defeated his
swallowing every child who was borm. But after she gave birth to Zeus she
took him and escaped. Then she gave Zeus to Gaia in order to hide him.
Gaia actually hid him in a cave where the nymphs took care of him and
Rheia deceived Kronos by giving him a piece of stone wrapped in infant's
covering to swallow.
One day Kronos went hunting and Zeus attacked his father by kicking him in
the stomach, so he vomited up the stone and the 5 children. The male
brothers divided up the cosmos:
Zeus: received the rule of the sky
Poseidon: was given all water, both fresh and salt
Hades: ruled the underworld

Earth is assigned to no particular god, but remained the charge of them all,
esp. of Demeter, the nourisher of the crops.
 Non-Citizens of expanding commerce and heir
raders came to take advantage
descendants often remained permanently
to another as opportunities
Skilled artisans moved from one place
for them their
developed to use
crafts. in foreign cities for the day when they
Ostracized exiles who were waiting
might returm to their homes.
reduced to slavery
Neighbouring tribes that had been conquered but not
but without the rights of citizens.
ived within the territories of the city-state in the city, could not claim
The children of non citizens, though born
citizenship through birth.

Slaves
-People captured in wars became slaves.
-Criminals, which were sentenced to death, might have had their sentence
commuted to slavery.
-Men, who refused to be drafted in the army, became slaves.
-The children of slaves are slaves too.
-Thieves, who were caught in the act, became slaves.
-Debtors in some city-states became slaves.
-In some city-states, the father of the family could sell his children or
grandchildren into slavery.

Slaves were farming the lands, working in the houses, producing goods
needed by the society. Educated slaves were clerks of the master's account
or tutors of the master's children while the female ones worked as
handmaidens of the master's wife.

The slaves' punishment:

-In the serious crimes: the punishment was crucifixions.

-In bad behaviors: the punishment was the whip or torture.
 most famous are
AIso there are other gods, the
Ares: the god of war
Aphrodite: the goddess of love & beauty and motherly virtue,
of wifely
Zeus): she is the embodiment
Hera (witfe
of
andis associated with the rites
of marriage
carries the messages of the god
Hermes:
Dionyses: the god of vwine******************************
B)Boule (Council of60Elders) old
were over years consisting of
about s00 men. They w e r e
ney studied the legal projects,
appointed to run daily affairs of the city. They
external affairs.
over the magistrates, and watched
the
ooKed in the city-state
were a
necessary
Ihe m o r e complex systems of organization
response to changing
The growth of population
conditions:
-Increasing productivity and trade
-More complicated relationships with neighbouring
states

People of thepolis
Citizens
The people of the polis believed that there is a vital unity binding each

city to its citizen and its deities. No individual could have any rights that
might weaken this unity.

The payment of taxes and service in the army were

regarded by the
citizens as precious rights. They were part of a total body of rights that
included the right to worship the local deities and thereby receive the
divine protection and the right to sue in the court and thereby receive the
protection of the city laws.
The citizens have the right of voting and election.

Women were not allowed to participate in public affairs. This was the
exclusive domain of adult male citizens.

The share of civic responsibilities and rights- to vote and

speak in the
assembly, hold office, serve as judges, fight in the army- was divided
unequallyaccording to economic and social issues. Only the rich and
wel-born received the full range of privileges. Non noble citizens of
moderate means were barred from holding office, and in
many cases the
poorest ciuzens had no vote in the assembly. The struggle for full
participation by all citizens would be achieved only by the end of the
Archaic Period.

If the peace of the city seemed to be

then he must be exiled for 10
destroyed by the actions of a citizen,
years.
 Rise of Macedon
Persians and Greeks:
1) Cyrus:

Cyrus appeared in 550 B.C. and since his appearance Persia became
very strong and powerful Kingdom that threatened its neighbours
for a continuous 70 years. Cyrus extended the borders of the Persian
Empire from Aegean Sea to the west to Hindukush Mountains to the
east, and from Caspian sea in the north to desert of the Arab
countries to the south.

2) Cambyses (530-522 BC):

He followed the same policy of his father, but his conquests were not
only in Asia but extended to Africa as he wanted to conquer Egypt
and Cyrenaica because of their importance as the main source of
grain for the Greeks.

3) Darius:

He was the son of Cambyses and he well organized the empire.

Herodotus said that he divided the Empire into a number of states,
and at the head of each state, he appointed a satrap (σατραπης) (a
governor of a province). Satrap is a Persian word.

Such organizations made Darius one of the greatest kings of the

Persian Empire.

There was a negative side growing during the reign of Darius which
was the increasing feeling of being grandeur, and that they are worth
being the masters of all the subjects of the Persian Empire. All the
subjects were considered by the king as his slaves.

1
This policy contrasts with the Greek ideas and the concepts of
freedom and political independence.

The Persians encouraged the tyrants of the Greek cities (the tyrants
were people who used to usurp the rule from the cities that infected
by a crisis).

Athens was one of the greatest city-states in Greece. They got rid of
their tyrant ruler and the ruling system became inclining towards
democracy. Then Athens began to urge the other Greek cities to
follow the same route. This resulted in the rebellion of the Ionian
cities against the Persians in 499 BC. The rebellions set fire in Sardis
(the capital of Lydia ‘Western Anatolia’). Then Darius sent military
campaign in 490 BC to punish the Athenians as they were responsible
for all what happened. This was the Battle of Marathon in which the
Athenians defeated the Persians. This year was taken as the
beginning of the Classical Period in Greece.

3) Xerxes:

After the death of Darius, his successor Xerxes was able to defeat a
Spartan army in 480 BC and take over a very important strategic
passageway. This paved the way for the Persians to conquer Athens.
The Athenians left their city empty, and the Persians set fire in
Athens. The Greeks became furious, and they were united under the
leadership of Sparta. Then they defeated the Persians at Salamis
Island 480 BC (near Athens). In the following year (479 BC), the
Greeks continued their victories over the Persians defeating them at
Plataea (south of Thebes).

This resulted in the withdrawal of the Persians from Greece.

2
Greece in the 5th century BC:
After the withdrawal of the Persians from Greece, the Greeks were
worried that the Persians may come again. So the Athenians began to
urge the Greek cities to unite in a military league so the cities of
Aegean Sea and the Ionian cities joined that league. Delos Island was
chosen as its residence.

Shortly, Athens started to make use of this league trying to have

control over all of its members. So Sparta began to invite other
Greek cities to make a military league and most of the Peloponnesian
cities joined that league.

Athens united with Aegean Sea + Ionian cities

Sparta united with Peloponnesian cities

So the two powers were engaged in a war against each other known
as The Peloponnesian war 431-404 BC. At the end, the Spartans
defeated Athenians.

So the Greek city-states started to lose their power in the 4th century
BC and another power started to appear that was Macedon.

Macedon
In Macedonia, there was almost two centuries of patient state-
building by the Argead rulers. The process began in the late 6th

3
century BC with the alliance between Amyntas Ι and the Persians.
The Macedonians was loyal to the Persians, even supporting the
Persian invasion of Greece. Persian rule brought Macedon great
advantages by shielding the kingdom against any attack from their
neighbours.

Because Macedon didn't take part in the Peloponnesian war either

positive or negative, it retained its power.

Growing in power, Macedon wanted to be politically independent. So

encouraging was the weakness of the Persian Empire in the 2 nd half
of the 5th century, so Macedon gave up the friendship with Persia.

And in the 4th century BC, there was a threat of a foreign conquest in
Greece. Yet the source of the threat that time was not the Persian
Empire but was the kingdom of Macedon.

4
Macedonian kings
Our knowledge about the early Macedonian kings is very limited.

1) Amyntas: (547 – 498 BC)

He made an alliance with Persia, he was succeeded by Alexander Ι

2) Alexander Ι (498 – 454 BC):

After him the line went on, but our main concern began from
Amyntas ш

3) Amyntas III (392 – 370 BC):

He had three sons Alexander П, Perdiccas III and Philip П. All of

them became kings of Macedon.

4) Alexander П (370- 368 BC) was followed by his younger

brother Perdiccas III.

5) Perdiccas III (368-359 BC):

He succeeded by his son Amyntas Ⅳ but as was so young and he was

placed under the regency of his Uncle Philip II but Philip II declared
himself as a sole ruler of Macedon.

5
 Philip II (359 – 336 BC)

He was the youngest son of Amyntas III and his Illyrian wife Eurydice. He
was born in (382 BC), his mother learned to read in order to educate her
children, but Philip’s education ended with his own exile as a hostage in
Thebes from 369 to 367 BC. His exile at Thebes was not all loss as he
gained valuable information about Greek politics and military tactics.

Following his brother (Perdiccas)’s death, Perdiccas’ child (Amyntas IV)

was appointed as a king and Philip became his regent. Soon Philip got rid of
Amyntas and declared himself king of Macedon in 359 BC.

PhilipII wanted to make Macedon, the leader of Hellas. He used several

methods to achieve his goal:
1. He used diplomacy to convince some of the Greek poleis
2. When it failed, he bribed his opponents to achieve his goal.
3. At last he used war to defeat anyone opposing him; success followed
success ending with the battle of Chaeronea

The battle of Chaeronea (338 BC):-

In this battle, Philip defeated an alliance of Thebans and Athenians. After
this battle, there couldn’t have been any resistance to Philip’s authority in
Greece.

There followed the Corinthian League (338-337 BC):

Representatives of all major Greek cities met at Corinth to learn the plans of
Philip II. This resulted in an alliance referred to by the historians as the
Corinthian league.

The goals of that alliance were:-

1. To maintain peace in Greece.
2. To avenge the Persian aggression against the Greeks as they
desecrated the sacred places of Greece

And Philip II was elected as the leader of the army in the war against Persia.

1
The most important innovation (reform) that was made by Philip II was
the introduction of an exceedingly long spear (Sarissa) with which the
phalanx infantry corps were armed.

Phalanx is a rectangular mass military formation in which soldiers would

line up in ranks in close order. They all were raising their shields together
so they were making a shield wall and they were projecting their spears
together, thus making a mass of spear points in order to make the frontal
attacks more difficult. The much longer spear called Sarissa introduced by
Philip II guaranteed keeping the enemy troops at a greater distance and was
intended mostly to counter cavalry.

The term Phalanx was firstly used by Homer to describe the Greek soldiers
fighting in an organized battle line so as to differentiate between this
formation and the duels so often found in his poem.
N.B. Duel is an engagement in combat between two individuals with
matched weapons.

The principal wife of Philip was Olympias from Epirus (now Albania), she
was the mother of Alexander the Great. The other marriages for Philip
served diplomatic affairs and there was no threat for the position of
Olympias in the court until Philip married Cleopatra from a powerful
Macedonian Noble family. Olympias and her son Alexander fell from favor
and fled into exile. It was said that Philip II was intending to replace
Alexander with a new Macedonian heir but the threat to Alexander ended
when Cleopatra gave birth to a daughter. A woman could not succeed to the
Macedonian throne. Also Philip II had another son called Philip Arrhidaeus
from a Thessalian dancer who was abnormal and epileptic. So Philip II had
to reconcile with Alexander who returned to Pella (capital of Macedonia)
and he resumed his place at court.

Philip II was killed in 336 BC during the ceremony of the wedding of one
of his daughters by one of his bodyguards called Pausanias.

2
 Ptolemy I (Soter)
After the death of Alexander the great, he left the throne for his son to be
and Philip Arrhidaeus under the regency of Perdiccas, and the vast empire
was divided between Alexander’s generals:
For instances:
1-Lyismachus Thrace
2-Antigonus The greater part of Asia Minor
3-Antipater City states of Greece
4-Ptolemy Egypt

Ptolemy had grown up with Alexander in the royal palace at Pella. Though
he was about 10 years older than Alexander, they were close friends. It was
said that his mother may have been related to the royal family. He was
banished from the court along with Alexander and they went to exile to
Epirus, also they returned together to Pella when Alexander reconciled with
his father. When Alexander started his campaigns against the Persians,
Ptolemy was with him. He went to Egypt with him and visited Siwa Oasis.
In 330 BC, Ptolemy was promoted to be one of the seven companion
bodyguards of Alexander. He was present during the conflict between
Alexander and Cleitos at Samarkand, and Ptolemy tried to interfere to save
the situation and he managed to take Cleitos out of the room but as Cleitos
was drunk, he entered the room again to face his destiny as he was killed by
Alexander.
Although Ptolemy and Alexander were close friends, Ptolemy was of a
different character. During the time that Alexander started to abandon the
Macedonian traditions in favour of the Persian traditions such as the
Proskynesis, Ptolemy remained clung to the Macedonian traditions.

Marriages of Ptolemy I:
1- During the lifetime of Alexander, he married Artecama, daughter of
Persian satrap, because Alexander asked Ptolemy to do so, but Ptolemy
divorced her after the death of Alexander.

2- In 320 BC, he married Eurydice, daughter of Antipater, for political

reasons and she gave birth to 2 sons and 2 daughters, the most important of
them is called Ptolemy Keraunos.

1
3- In 316 BC, he married Berenice, a widow with 3 children, one of them is
called Magas. She gave birth to 2 children from Ptolemy: Ptolemy II and
Arsinoe II.

There was an agreement between Ptolemy and Perdiccas that if Ptolemy

supported Perdiccas to be the regent of the throne, he would give him Egypt.
Ptolemy wanted to take only Egypt from the vast empire of Alexander as
during his stay in Egypt, he had taken full note of that land, and how easily
its borders can be defended and how its people held subject with a little
force. Also Egypt was well known to the Greeks for several centuries since
the time that Greek mercenaries were employed in the Egyptian army. Also
there was a Greek city in Egypt that was Naucratis in western Delta which
was founded by Amasis. Also Greek historians like Herodotus visited Egypt
and wrote about its civilization. So after Perdiccas became the regent, he
gave Ptolemy a little money and 2000 men to help him to a welcome in
Egypt.

Ptolemy in Egypt:

1- When Ptolemy entered Egypt, he found the country in a bad state as

Cleomenes was running the whole country for his own benefit.
Cleomenes was appointed as the first assistant of Ptolemy, probably
with instructions to report privately to Perdiccas. Ptolemy waited until
he received complaints from the Egyptians and a trial was held for
Cleomenes, and he was executed for his betrayals of trust.

2- In Cyrene, there was a civil war after the death of Alexander which
gave a chance to one of the Spartan generals called Thibron to take
over the throne there. A conflict took place between Thibron and one
of his commanders from Crete called Mnasicles. Mnasicles urged
people of Cyrene to revolt against Thibron. So Thibron brought Greek
mercenaries to besiege the city. So a famine took place in Cyrene and
the poor people force the rich people to leave Cyrene. Some of them
went to Ptolemy to complain. Ptolemy sent a campaign to Cyrene with
Ophellas at its head. Ophellas defeated Thibron and Mnasicles who
had unified together against Ophellas and Ptolemy appointed Ophellas
a governor there.

3- The body of Alexander: In the Babylonian conference it was decided

that the body of Alexander should be embalmed and buried in
2
 Macedonia though this was against Alexander’s wish who wanted to
be buried in Egypt beside his father Amun. Ptolemy had an agreement
with the officer Arrhidaeus who was at the head of the funeral
procession. Ptolemy went to Syria at the head of a force and he met
the procession and he took the body of Alexander and brought the
corpse to Egypt.

Perdiccas sent a campaign to Egypt to punish Ptolemy for all what he did.
But the soldiers of Perdiccas failed to cross the Nile River. A considerable
number of his force died in this incident. His soldiers were furious and they
killed Perdiccas in his tent in 321BC; at the head of the soldiers who killed
Perdiccas was Seleucus.

After the death of Perdiccas:

The empire became without regent. So a conference was held for the second
time but at Paradeisos in Syria in which Antipater was chosen to be the
regent. Antigonus became the general commander in Asia and Seleucus was
given Babylon as a reward for killing Perdiccas.

Antipater was a regent for a short time (2 years). Before he died, he had
chosen the new regent who is Polyperchon (one of Alexander’s generals).
But Cassander (Antipater’s son) refused this; he felt that it is his right to
become the regent in place of his father. So there was a conflict between
Polyperchon and Cassander. Olymypias (mother of Alexander the great) was
to the side of Polyperchon and Cassander had other partisans who were
Philip Arrhidaeus and his wife Eurydice. Olympias conspired against Philip
Arrhidaeus who was killed and his wife was forced to commit a suicide in
317 BC. Then Cassander handed Olympias over to the military force who
had her killed in 316 BC. Polyperchon fled away and Cassander took over
the throne of Macedon and the greater part of Greece, also he had Roxana
and Alexander IV in his hand.

After the death of Antipater, Ptolemy took over Coele Syria so as to be able
to get the raw materials needed to build a strong fleet for Egypt. Also
Antigonus went to Seleucus in Babylon and asked him to give him an
account for the five years satrapy. Seleucus refused and he became worried
from Antigonus’ actions, so he escaped to Egypt and Ptolemy welcomed
him and appointed him as the commander of the Egyptian navy in the
Mediterranean. Antigonus became very angry and he decided to take over
Coele Syria from Ptolemy. Ptolemy had to withdraw from Coele Syria and
3
Antigonus penetrated along the coast of Syria till he reached Gaza. On the
other hand, Ptolemy took Cyprus to use it as a base from which he can fight
Antigonus in Syria.

The generals (Cassander, Ptolemy, Lysimachus) became to be worried from

Antigonus’ actions. So they sent him a warning to withdraw from the lands
which he taken over recently including Coele Syria. And Seleucus should be
back in Babylon and to assure Cassander’s mastership over Macedon and
Greece. But Antigonus refused their requests.

The Battle of Gaza in 312 BC:

- This battle was between Ptolemy and Demetrius (Antigonus’ son) because
Ptolemy wanted to take over Coele Syria once again. Demetrius was
defeated. Seleucus played an important role in this battle, so Ptolemy
rewarded Seleucus by giving him expeditionary corps to help him to
recapture Babylon.

-In 311 BC Antigonus and Demetrius took again Coele Syria from
Ptolemy, also Ophellas declared Cyrenaica’s independence from Egypt.

After the wars and problems the generals needed a period of peace so they
decided to make an agreement with Antigonus and Demetrius. Antigonus
and Demetrius admitted that Cassander is the master of Macedon and Greece
on the condition that Alexander IV would take the throne when his age
allows him to rule the empire, but Cassnader killed Alexander IV in less
than a year from this agreement.

- In 309 BC Ptolemy managed to take over some islands in the

Aegean Sea (Cos and Cyclades) and Lycia in Asia Minor. Also Magas (son
of Berenice) managed to recapture Cyrenaica from Ophellas.

- The Battle of Salamis in 306 BC:

This battle took place in Cyprus where Menelaus (brother of Ptolemy) was
as a governor. Demetrius attacked the island, so Ptolemy went to Cyprus to
save his brother, but Ptolemy was severely defeated from Demetrius.

Before Ptolemy recovers from this defeat, Antigonus asked Rhodes to cut
the commercial contacts with Ptolemy but Rhodes refused. So Demetrius
besieged Rhodes which managed to put up a successful resistance to the

4
siege of the city due to the military aid and food supply offered by Ptolemy.
So the Rhodians called Ptolemy Soter (the saviour).

Immediately after the victory of Antigonus’ son at Salamis, Antigonus

assumed the title king in 306 BC.

-In 305 BC, the other generals (Cassander, Lysimachus, Ptolemy, Seleucus)
declared themselves kings following the same example of Antigonus. So this
year is called the year of the kings.

In 303 BC, the generals made an alliance against Antigonus and his son. In
301 BC, the battle of Ipsus (in Asia Minor) took place in which the alliance
defeated Antigonus and his son, and Antigonus was killed while Demetrius
fled away. But Ptolemy was not present at Ipsus as he went to take over
Coele Syria once again.

After the victory the empire was divided again:

- Lysimachus: took Thrace and the greater part of Asia Minor.
-Seleucus: took Babylon and all Syria including Ptolemaic Syria.
Seleucus and Ptolemy were friends so didn’t conflict as regards Syria.

-In 295-294 BC Ptolemy took over Cyprus once again, and also
Tyre and Sidon on the Mediterranean.

-297 BC Cassander died and Demetrius took over the throne of

Macedon in 294 BC but the kings were united against Demetrius and
Lysimachus attacked Macedon and Demetrius escaped, and he controlled a
number of Greek city states. Then Demetrius attacked Seleucus but Seleucus
captured him in 285 BC till he died in 283BC.

In Egypt, from 285 BC Ptolemy I appointed his son from Berenice who is
called Ptolemy as a co-ruler and Ptolemy I died in 283 BC.

5
Internal Achievements of Ptolemy I :

1- The tax system was overhauled and its burdens were lightened.

2- He established a Museion in Alexandria (a centre for teaching and

research following Aristotle’s school in Athens). The library of the
Museion became an institution of greater importance since it housed
hundreds of thousands of papyrus rolls.

3- Ptolemy succeeded in forming a direct territorial protective boundary

for Egypt by means of Cyrenaica, Cyprus, Coele Syria, and several
Phoenician harbour cities.

4- He created in the later years of his reign a unified monetary system for
Egypt, Cyrenaica, Cyprus, and Coele Syria based on the weight.

5- He encouraged the Greeks to come and settle in Egypt. So there

existed two communities in Egypt, each worshipping its own deities
and speaking its own language. So Ptolemy needed a unifying force
between the Egyptians and Greeks, thus he introduced the cult of
Serapis.

6-He started the establishment of the lighthouse and also the temple of
Serapis in Alexandria.

7-He divided the country into three governorates: Lower Egypt, Central
Egypt and the Thebaid; each was again divided into nomes.

Best Wishes
Dr. Noha Shalaby

6
 Ptolemy II - Philadelphus
He was the son of Ptolemy I and Berenice, born in 309 BC in the island of Cos
during one of Ptolemy I’s campaigns. After two years of joint rule with his father,
Ptolemy II became a sole ruler and was crowned as pharaoh in 282 BC when he
was about 25 years old.

Though his father was a military man, Ptolemy II was far away from military life
and all the wars during his reign were headed by his commanders rather than the
king himself. Also it is said that he was thoroughly spoiled, but as he grew older,
Ptolemy I found him suitable tutors among the great scholars of that time such as
the philosopher “Straton”, and the poet “Philates”.

He was especially interested in philosophy and zoology. He was surrounded by a

large number of mistresses. Ptolemy II enjoyed public entertainment and festivals
and spent a large amount of money on such events. For instance, he held a big
festival for the celebration of the 5th year of his reign in which he honoured the
memory of his parents and considered them as deities.

His Wives:
1- Arsinoe I: She who was the daughter of Lysimachus. This marriage was
undoubtedly arranged by Ptolemy I when Lysimachus was the most
powerful of all monarchs. He had three children from this wife called
(Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Berenice).
2- Arsinoe II: Ptolemy II had a sister called Arsinoe who was married to
Lysimachus. Lysimachus was 60 years old at the time of this marriage while
Arsinoe was only 17. She bore Lysimachus 3 children deciding that one of
them should succeed to the throne. She plotted against Agathocles (the
eldest son of Lysimachus from his first wife) who was the legal heir and
Agathocles was executed as he had been accused of planning a conspiracy
against his father. Widow and children of Agathocles fled to Seleucus who
declared war against Lysimachus. Lysimachus was killed in the battle in 281
BC. In the meantime, Brother of Ptolemy II (Ptolemy Keraunos “the
thunderbolt”) had joined forces with Seleucus; 6 months later he
assassinated Seleucus and became king of Macedon and Thrace. He

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 convinced his half-sister Arsinoe to marry him but soon he realized that
Arsinoe and her sons were a threat to him since they are all legitimate heirs
to the throne. So he killed the two younger sons while the eldest escaped to
the north. Arsinoe, on the other hand, managed to escape to the court of her
brother in Alexandria. At that time, Arsinoe was 40 years old; and soon she
decided to take the place of Arsinoe I. Arsinoe I was accused of conspiring
against her husband and was exiled in Koptos. Arsinoe married her brother
and became Arsinoe II and she adopted the children of Arsinoe I. Ptolemy II
was totally devoted to her; she did not live for a long time and died during
the lifetime of Ptolemy II (circa 270 BC) who was consumed with grief.

 Internal achievements and policy:

- While Ptolemy I made the nucleus of the library of Alexandria at the Royal
Quarter with the rare manuscripts that he had collected, Ptolemy II was the
one who organized the library giving it its real image. And it seems that he
also established the small library in the Temple of Serapis since the
collection of the main library was growing so much that he had to build
another smaller one.
- He also completed the lighthouse of Alexandria known as Pharos. It stood
on the island of Pharos. It is not certain whether it was a part of Alexander’s
scheme for the capital, but the work had begun under Ptolemy I and was not
finished until the reign of Ptolemy II.
- It was attributed to Ptolemy II the introduction of the Jewish Bible into the
Hellenistic culture. It was said that he was persuaded by Demetrius (the
founder of the Library of Alexandria) to authorize a translation of the Jewish
law for the archives of the library.
- Monopolies were a marked feature of the Ptolemaic economic policy. For
instance, mines, textiles and oils were a royal monopoly. And for any other
kind of production, tax was assessed first.
- Since Egypt was mainly an agricultural country with the wheat being the
most valuable crop, irrigation was improved so as to acquire the grain to be
exported for the Mediterranean lands as far as Rome.

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- For the army and navy, only Macedonians and Greek mercenaries were
employed; the native Egyptians were seen as being not good enough to join
them.

 External Policy:
- He sent an expedition to Ethiopia to secure the southern borders of Egypt.
This expedition was also for trading purposes and to acquire rare kinds of
animals.
- During the reign of that king, there occurred the first contact between Egypt
and Rome. Ptolemy II sent a delegation to Rome to exchange assurances of
friendship. In the meantime, the other Hellenistic kings paid no attention to
such matter. The intelligence of the Ptolemaic rulers kept Rome as a friend
during the time when Rome spread its power eastward in the 2 nd cent. BC.
Also Egypt enjoyed the protection of Rome when needed.

- He followed the same policy of his father as regards the confirmation of the
political or military authority of Egypt in three main areas: Coele Syria in
the east, Cyrenaica in the west, and the Aegean Sea in the north.

 Coele Syria
It remained a point of continuous conflict between the Ptolemaic and
Seleucid dynasties. The reign of Ptolemy II witnessed two Syrian wars:
The first Syrian war:
Very little is known about this war. Ptolemy II is the one who initiated this
war (276-271 BC) with the Egyptian forces marching northward to occupy
Damascus but it seems that the Syrian king Antiochus I could regain
Damascus and the Egyptian forces retreated.

 Aegean Sea:
West of the Aegean Sea
The Chremonidean War (267-261 BC):
It was called so after the Athenian politician Chremonides who suggested
announcing war against Antigonus Gonatas (king of Macedon). The

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Hellenic cities were united under the leadership of Athens and Sparta and
decided to declare war against Antigonus to free the Hellenic world from the
fist of the successors of Alexander III. They believed that Ptolemy II who
encouraged this step was going to join them in the war against Antigonus but
he only supported them financially and provided them with their need of
grain. At the end of the war, Antigonus managed to defeat the Hellenic
league killing the Spartan king in 264 BC, and two years later Athens
surrenderd. Thus Antigonus’ authority was assured in Macedon and Greece.

East of the Aegean Sea

Ptolemy II played a diplomatic role in the east of the Aegean sea which was
more successful than that of Greece. He made an alliance with the city of
Pergama (northwest of Asia Minor). He supported the city in its struggle
with Antiochus I making the latter busy in order not to attack Coele Syria
during the Chremondian war. Also there was a commercial purpose for such
friendship that Pergama was one of the most important sources of wood for
Egypt to build its navy. In this war, Pergama defeated Antiochus in the battle
of Sardis in 262 BC.

Also during that time, Egypt took over Ephesus and Miletus on the western
coast of Asia Minor.

The Second Syrian War:

After being defeated in Sardis, Antiochus I died in 261 BC. He was
succeeded by his son Antiochus II who was determined to take revenge from
Ptolemy II for his support to Pergama during the war with his father.
Antiochus began a war against Philadelphos in western Asia Minor in which
Macedon and Rhodes allied with Antiochus II. Also Ephesus and Miletus
revolted against the Egyptian control. For that Egypt was defeated in several
battles and lost its empire in the Aegean Sea. Worthy of note is that
afterwards he was able to make a strong fleet and regain his authority in the
Aegean Sea in 250 BC.

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Then there was a quick reconciliation between Antiochus II and Ptolemy II
who both agreed that Antiochus will marry Berenice (daughter of Ptolemy
II) in 252 BC.

 Cyrenaica
Since the reign of Ptolemy I, the king’s deputy in Cyrenaica was Magas
(half-brother of Philadephus). As soon as Philadelphus became the king,
Magas declared himself as king of Cyrenaica.
Magas was able to gain the support of the Seleucid house through his
marriage to Apama (daughter of Antiochus I).
For a while, Magas threatened to invade Egypt, but this attempt failed and
reconciliation took place between Magas and Ptolemy II through the
marriage of Berenice (daughter of Magas) and Ptolemy III (son of Ptolemy
II).

Ptolemy II died in 246 BC when he was about 60 years old after ruling
Egypt for about 38 years.

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 PTOLEMY IV
PHILOPATOR
(221-205 BC)
He ascended the throne when he was twenty four years old in the year
221 BC, Philopater, who was both idle and self-indulgent, surrounded
himself by some notorious friends and he lead a promiscuous life. He
took Agatlhocaliis who was known for his bad manners as his best friend
and his sister Agathocaliaas his mistress. Agathocalia was able to take
total control over the king. Sisobins was the finance minister during the
life time of his father and continued in the same post during the reign of
Plolemy Philopater.
Philopator's mother, Queen Berenice did not like what was going on and
she wanted to replace him by his younger brother Magas. Sosibius knew
about the Queen's wish and informed Ptolemy. The Queen was poisoned
while his brother Magas was killed. Moreover, Philopator's uncle,
Lysimachus was also killed.
The fourth Syrian War took place during Philopator's reign, as King
Antiochus III knew what was going on at the royal palace in Alexandria
and decided to take advantage of the situation. So he invaded Coele-Syria
and almost reached the Egyptian borders. Sosibus tried to stop the
invasion of Egypt because it has no army to defend it, so he sent an
embassy to Antiochus III to negotiate a peace treaty concerning Coele-
Syria. In the mean time, he sent some people to Macedonia and Greece to
bring back some mercenaries to join the Ptolemic army. He trained the
Egyptians in a camp outside Alexandria, and they served in the Phalanx,
under the command of some Greek and Macedonian officers.
When Antiochus found out that the aim of negotiation was to gain time,
and not to achieve peace, he marched with his army until he reached the
city of Raphia where he met the Egyptian army in the year 217 BC. The
number of Antiochus army was sixty thousand soldiers, while the number
of the Egyptian army was about fifty thousand soldiers including twenty
thousand Egyptian soldiers. The battle was started between the two
armies and the Ptolemic army won the battle, a victory due mainly to the
Egyptian Phalanx. As a result of this battle the Egyptians were permitted
to reach high position both in the army and the administration. The battle
of Raphia can also be considered the line between the time in which the
country reached its highest glory and expansion and the beginning of
decline.
After the return of the Egyptians to Egypt, they revolted against the
Ptolemic king and the Centre of this revolt was Thebes. The king
succeeded in suppressing the revolt and he was very ruthless against the
Egyptians. However, it was not the end of such revolts in Egypt and they
continued to revolt until the end of the Ptolemic period. In 217 BC
Sisobius convinced Philopator to marry his sister, Qucen Arsinoe III, and
they were defied as the gods Philopatores. She was kept in the shadow,
and seven years after their marriage, Qucen Arisnoe lll gave birth to a
son; Ptolemy V, Epiphanes.At the age of forty one, Philopator died and
even though the exact reason of his death is unknown, it was probably
because of his debauchery. He left his son at the age of six or seven year
old under the regency on his sister; Quecn Arisnoe III.
 Ptolemy V (Epiphanes) 204-180 BC
He was the son of Ptolemy IV and Arsinoe III. He was placed under the regency of
Agathocles and Sosibius after killing Arsinoe III and forging Philopator’s will.
Ptolemy V was about 6 years old when his father died and was entrusted to the
care of Agathocleia and her mother.

Sosibius did not live long after the regency leaving Ptolemy V under the regency
of Agathocles, who surrounded himself with bad elements giving them high posts
in the government. People of Alexandria hated them and there was a growing
opposition to Agathocles and his company. So at the end of 203 BC, Agathocles
and his entire family were delivered to the people of Alexandria and were torn into
pieces.

The young king was placed under the regency of an army officer who proved not
to be good enough and for that was replaced by another army officer called
Aristomenes in 201 BC.

Making use of the situation in Egypt, Antiochus III and Philip V came to a secret
agreement in 203/2 BC that is dividing the foreign territories of the Ptolemaic
Kingdom:

 Antiochus III began what is known as the 5th Syrian war early in 202 BC.
He occupied southern Syria including Phoenicia and marched south taking
Gaza as well in the course of 202/1 BC. But Ptolemaic leadership on the
borders had been changed and the Ptolemaic house succeeded to take back a
number of places in southern Palestine including Jerusalem. Then came the
decisive battle near Jordan’s River ending with Antiochus III’s victory and
he completed the annexation of Coele-Syria in 198 BC. Since that date,
Egypt’s control over Coele-Syria had come to an end forever.
 Philip V conquered Egyptian territories in Cyclades islands, in modern
Turkey, and in Thrace.

Thus by 200 BC, Egypt lost all of its foreign territories except for Cyrenaica
and Cyprus.
In 197 BC, Ptolemy V became 13 years old and was crowned as a pharaoh in
Memphis by the high priest of Ptah. Another man called Polykrates supplanted
Aristomenes; not as a regent but as the leading figure in the court.

Internally, the revolts of the Egyptians continued but eventually the king
succeeded in putting them down in 185 BC in Upper Egypt, then in 183 BC in
the Delta.

Such revolts resulted in some benefits for the Egyptians:

-Some taxes were abolished and others were lightened.

-Some debts that private individuals owe to the royal treasury were remitted.

-Egyptian soldiers, who had joined the revolts gained amnesty.

-Egyptians began to hold high posts in the government and army, and they also
received a lot of privileges.

All the above mentioned events including the king’s coronation were recorded
on the famous Rosetta stone found in 1799 during the French occupation of
Egypt. On the stone is inscribed a trilingual decree issued by a group of
Egyptian priests from the whole kingdom assembled at Memphis in 196 BC.

Ptolemy V married the daughter of Antiochus III for political reasons. This
princess called Cleopatra -who became known as Cleopatra I- was given by her
father the revenue of Coele-Syria as her wedding present. Ptolemy V was about
16 years old when this marriage took place in 193/2 BC.

During the reign of Ptolemy V, three innovations in the system of the kingdom
took place. The first was the appearance of a new office in priesthood that is
“the priestess of Arsinoe Philopator”, the king’s unhappy mother. The second is
a development of court hierarchy that is honorary titles given to a number of
persons creating a series of classes or orders, of which the highest was
(kinsman) whom the king addressed as father or brother, and the lowest was
(successors), probably who are going to succeed to a place in a higher order as
soon as there was a vacancy. The third innovation was that the governor of the
Theban nome had from that time onwards the position of viceroy “Epistrategos”
whose authority extended over all Upper Egypt.
Ptolemy V died in 180 BC leaving behind him his wife Cleopatra I, his two
sons Ptolemy VI and VIII, and his daughter Cleopatra II. He was followed by
his eldest son Ptolemy VI (Philomator).

Best wishes
Dr. Noha Shalaby
 Ptolemy VI, Philomator
(180-145 B.C.)
The elder of the two sons of Ptolemy V was about six years old when he
became the king of Egypt under the regency of his mother „Queen
Cleopatra I‟. So long as Cleopatra lived as queen-regent, she managed to
rule Egypt successfully and to keep good relations between Egypt and its
neighbours. Cleopatra did not live long and the king was placed under the
regency of two men working in the palace.

Then Ptolemy reached the age, at which he became king of Egypt. He got
the surname “Philomator” "the Mother-loving one". He married his sister
(Cleopatra II).

Antiochus IV (brother of Cleopatra I) refused to give to Egypt the

revenue of Coele-Syria after his sister‟s death. Moreover, he prepared an
army and decided to invade Egypt. He managed to invade Egypt, entering
Memphis and capturing Ptolemy VI. Capturing Ptolemy VI made the
Alexandrian people to call for his younger brother (Ptolemy VIII) to be
their king. But Antiochus IV was obliged to leave Egypt and return to his
kingdom since a trouble occurred there. Before leaving, Antiochus
released Ptolemy VI leaving the country being divided against itself —
Ptolemy Philomator king in Memphis, and Ptolemy the Brother king in
Alexandria. Soon negotiations led to the result that the two should be
joint-kings.

After restoring order in the Seleucid Kingdom, Antiochus IV invaded

Egypt for the second time after taking over Cyprus as well.

The two brothers asked Rome‟s intervention. A Roman embassy, headed

by Popillius Laenas was sent to Antiochus asking him to evacuate Egypt
and Cyprus; when he asked for a short time to consult his advisors, the
celebrated scene took place — Popillius drawing with his staff the circle
in the sand round the Seleucid king, and telling him that he must give a
definite answer before stepping outside it. Accordingly, Antiochus and
his army withdrew from Egypt and Cyprus.

For the next five years there were two kings in Egypt. Then Ptolemy the
younger brother (Pt. VIII) planned to get rid of his elder brother by
claiming that Ptolemy VI wanted to kill him. So Ptolemy VI fled to Rome
asking for help.

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The Roman Senate decided to divide the Ptolemaic domain into two.
Philomator was to have Egypt and Cyprus, and Ptolemy the younger
Brother was to have the Cyrenaica. Ptolemy the younger brother tried to
take over Cyprus as well but he was defeated by his elder brother.
Ptolemy VI forgave him and re-appointed him as king of Cyrenaica and
promised him to marry one of his daughters, Cleopatra III.

In 153-152 BC, Philomator‟s eldest son Ptolemy Eupator, was associated

with his father on the throne from but he apparently died after 3 years. A
younger brother of Eupator survived as an heir to the throne.

Towards the end of his life, he tried to take an advantage of the conflict of
the Seleucid family to get back Coele-Syria. He allied with one side of
the fighting powers called Demetrius II- who married one of Ptolemy
VI‟s daughters called Cleopatra Thea- in return for taking Coele-Syria.
Unfortunately, Ptolemy VI lost his life in this battle and Demetrius II
considered his promise to give Egypt Coele- Syria as nothing. And
Cleopatra II and Ptolemy VI‟s child „Neos Philopator‟ were left facing
Ptolemy VIII the Brother who was in Cyrenaica.

Dr. Noha Shalaby

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 Ptolemy VIII, Euergetes II (145-116 B.C.)
When Philomator died, Cleopatra II was left as queen in Egypt with her
son, the young Ptolemy (Ptolemy VII), who had been associated with his
father as joint-king. It was agreed that Cleopatra II would become her
younger brother's wife (Euergetes II) who had his nephew (Ptolemy VII)
killed in the arms of his mother at the wedding-feast. Cleopatra bore
Euergetes II a son called Memphites.

Cleopatra II had, beside her murdered son, two daughters by Philomator,

both called Cleopatra. One was the queen of the Seleucid Kingdom
(Cleopatra Thea) and the other (Cleopatra III) was still living in the
palace. Euergetes married her. The three were officially regarded as the
sovereigns of Egypt.

In 131 BC, a serious revolt took place in Alexandria against Ptolemy VIII
who wanted to quash it at the very beginning, so he ordered his soldiers
to besiege the gymnasium and to set fire to it. The Alexandrian people
decided to set fire to the king's palace, and the king fled to Cyprus, taking
with him Cleopatra III, his children by her, and Memphites, his son by
Cleopatra II. Cleopatra II was left in Egypt for the moment as sole
sovereign.

There was a movement at Alexandria to put an illegitimate son of the

king upon the throne (as the husband of Cleopatra II). But Euergetes
induced the young man to join him in Cyprus, and killed him. This
enraged the Alexandrian people, and they destroyed the statues of
Euergetes. Believing that the attack on his statues had been initiated by
Cleopatra II, he killed his own son by her, Memphites.

In 129 BC Euergetes had succeeded in regaining Alexandria by a military

victory. And Cleopatra II left Egypt and sought shelter with her son-
in-law, Demetrius II.

Cleopatra II induced Demetrius to attack Egypt, but this attempt failed.

After five years, a reconciliation took place between Cleopatra II and
Ptolemy VIII, and she returned to Alexandria, to resume her place as one
of the three sovereigns.

Ptolemy VIII sent one of his daughters by Cleopatra III, Cleopatra

Tryphaena, to Syria, to marry Antiochus VIII (son of Demetrius II and
Cleopatra Thea).

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The official reconciliation between Cleopatra II and Euergetes did not
mean that the country immediately returned to peace. The fights, which
had been going on in many places between the two fractions, had brought
a state of violence and confusion. In 118 BC, a decree to regulate
conditions throughout the kingdom was issued in the name of all three
sovereigns. As the existing confusion was largely due to grants having
been made by each of the rival governments to its own partisans, which
were naturally not recognized by the other, the decree aimed to draw a
sponge over the past and recognize actual possessions as legally valid.

The decree of 118 B.C. contains provisions, which would protect the
natives against the royal officials, and would secure the Egyptian
priesthood in the possession of privileges they had won. This was done to
re-established order, not to any systematic policy of favouring the
Egyptians.

Euergetes II died in 116 BC at the age of about sixty-five and Cleopatra II

died in the same year leaving Cleopatra III on the throne of the Ptolemaic
Kingdom.

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Ptolemy IX Soter II and Ptolemy X Alexander I
(116-80 B.C.)
Ptolemy VIII left two sons, Ptolemy IX and Ptolemy X, and three
daughters, Cleopatra Tryphaena, Cleopatra IV who was married to her
brother Ptolemy IX, and Cleopatra V Selene. He also left an illegitimate
son called Ptolemy Apion. On his death, Ptolemy VIII bequeathed
Cyrenaica to Ptolemy Apion.

The elder son Ptolemy IX Soter II ascended the throne. People of

Alexandria called him Lathyrus, "Chick-Pea" as he liked to eat it. The
younger son, Ptolemy X was installed as viceroy in Cyprus.

Ptolemy Soter II was forced by his mother to divorce his sister-wife,

Cleopatra IV whom he married during the lifetime of his father, and he
was very much attached to her. His mother also compelled him to marry
instead his younger sister Cleopatra Selene.

Cleopatra III continued to make trouble for her son Ptolemy IX, whom
she did not like accusing him to try to kill her. So Ptolemy IX was forced
to flee from Egypt to Cyprus. Then Cleopatra III summoned Ptolemy X
from Cyprus to take his place in Egypt.

But the war between mother and son found a field of contact in Syria
taking opposite sides with the Seleucid kings there.

In view of incidents Cleopatra III deposited a quantity of treasure and

"her grandchildren" (one is son of Ptolemy X and two were sons of
Ptolemy IX) in the island of Cos.

Cleopatra III died after returning from the war. Ptolemy X’s name is now
coupled with Berenice III, the daughter of his brother, Ptolemy IX.

In 96 Ptolemy Apion, king of Cyrenaica, died and bequeathed his

kingdom to the Rome.

Ptolemy X had become exceedingly unpopular in Alexandria. The army

turned against him. He fled to Syria to raise an army and re-entered
Alexandria. In order to pay these new troops he replaced the golden
sarcophagus of Alexander III with a glass one. This enraged people of
Alexandria who revolted against him, while fleeing, Ptolemy X was
drowned or killed.

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For the second time Ptolemy IX came back from Cyprus to be king in
Egypt, and Egypt and Cyprus were once more united. Berenice III was
associated with her father on the throne.

Abroad was conflict between Rome and king Mithridates of Pontus. In

the course of his operations, Mithridates occupied Cos, and there seized
the Egyptian treasure deposited by Cleopatra III, and, together with the
treasure, her grandchildren; thus the heirs of the Egyptian throne were in
the hands of the Pontic king.

Ptolemy Soter II died in 80 B.C., about sixty-two years old.

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 Berenice III, Ptolemy XI Alexander II,
Ptolemy XII (Auletes) (80-51 B.C.)
Queen Berenice III was left by her father's death sole sovereign in Egypt.
She was much beloved by the Alexandrian People. She was forced to
marry her cousin, Ptolemy Alexander II, son of Ptolemy X. He was a
prisoner in the hands of Mithridates, then he escaped to a Roman camp
and went to Rome. He returned to Egypt upon the death of Ptolemy IX.
Berenice III was not likely, as the wife of a boy, to give up the power to
which she had become accustomed after twenty years. Within three
weeks, the young man killed Berenice III. This aroused the anger of the
Alexandrian people who killed Ptolemy XI.

But then they were faced by a difficult situation. There were no legitimate
descendants of the Ptolemaic house. However, the Alexandrians thought
of two young men, probably illegitimate sons of Ptolemy IX since it was
important to fill the throne before Rome intervenes. One of them became
king of Egypt, and the other, king of Cyprus.

Ptolemy XII got the title "the Father-loving Sister-loving God" (Theos
Philopator Philadelphus). Then a surname was added, "Neos Dionysos".
His popular nickname was "the Flute-Player" (Auletes).

Ptolemy XII is shown to have been already married to Cleopatra

(Cleopatra VI) in 79 BC. She could have been his sister that is a daughter
of Ptolemy IX, or a daughter of Ptolemy X.

Rome refused to recognize the new king. And it was said that Ptolemy XI
left a will, in which he bequeathed his kingdom to Rome. Ptolemy XII
spent a great deal of his reign and a great deal of money seeking the
recognition of Rome.

At Rome the annexation of Egypt was an idea of the democratic party.

The party of the Roman nobles resisted any measure, which would make
the riches of Egypt a prize of the opposite party. Pompey, who belonged
to the party of Roman nobles, was making victories for Rome in Asia.
Ptolemy XII sent him a military force to subjugate Palestine for Rome.

In 59 BC, Julius Caesar, the leader of the democratic party, became one
of the consuls and the annexation of Egypt was part of his own political
programme. Yet Ptolemy made an enormous payment to Caesar to buy
his support. Caesar carried a law, by which Ptolemy XII was recognized

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at last as king of Egypt, and as an ally and friend of the Roman People.
But the treaty said nothing about Cyprus, where the brother of Auletes is
king. Very shortly, Rome annexed Cyprus and Ptolemy’s brother
committed suicide.

The loss of Cyprus aroused the anger of the Alexandrians against Auletes,
who did nothing to save his brother. In 58 BC Auletes went to Rome to
complain that the Alexandrians were practically in revolt and to beg that
his position there might be secured by Roman military power.

Ptolemy XII’s eldest daughter Berenice IV was left with her mother, then
on her own on the throne of Egypt. Berenice was married to a man called
Seleucus, who claimed to be connected with the royal house. Berenice
married him but he was hated. He had been killed by the palace guards
within a week of his marriage. Then She married another man called
Archelaus whose father was a Pontic general but he claimed to be son of
Mithridates.

From 58 till the end of 57 BC Ptolemy Auletes resided in Rome bribing

the senators there. Finished from the revenues of his kingdom, Ptolemy
had to borrow largely from the Roman financier Rabirius. Finally, it was
decided that Ptolemy XII should be restored by Rome on his throne, but
the question who should be given the command became an issue of
struggle of the parties in Rome.

In 55 BC, Ptolemy XII made a deal with Gabinius, the Roman governor
in Syria, to return him on the Egyptian throne in return for money.
Ptolemy Auletes was installed once more as king in Alexandria and
Archelaus was killed in the battle and his daughter Berenice was killed
for usurping the throne. He had four children left: Cleopatra (eldest
daughter), Arsinoe, and two sons known only by the name Ptolemy.

Rabirius, the Roman financier, was placed at the head of the whole
financial administration of the kingdom as a way for repaying him.
Before a year was out, Rabirius was driven by a popular rising from
Alexandria, though not before he had extracted substantial sums and
placed them securely abroad. And Gabinius was punished by the Roman
senate for the military intervention in Egypt and paid a huge sum of
money and went into exile.

In 51 BC, Ptolemy XII died leaving a will that Ptolemy XIII and his
daughter Cleopatra VII would marry and rule Egypt together and that
Rome would agree. He might have elevated Cleopatra to be co-ruler with
him before his death to ensure her a peaceful accession.
2
Dr. Noha Shalaby
 Cleopatra VII,

Ptolemy XIII, Ptolemy XIV, Ptolemy XV (51-30 B.C.)

On the death of Ptolemy XII in 51 B.C. his eldest surviving daughter,
Cleopatra VII, began her reign as queen of Egypt together with her
younger brother Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra had an intelligence captivating
the minds and she also spoke several languages. The chief power at court
was held by three men.

In Rome, there occurred a civil war between Pompey and Julius Caesar,
in which Pompey was defeated. Cleopatra VII behaved unwisely by
supporting Pompey, and the palace group picked up this chance and
accused her of wishing to oust her brother, so people rose against her. She
fled from the city, and began collecting an army. The palace group
gathered a force and went with ‘Ptolemy XIII’ to bar her way near
Pelusium.

Pompey fled to Egypt to take a refuge there. Upon his arrival he was
killed by the order of the palace-group. Caesar, arrived at Alexandria a
few days after Pompey had been murdered. Pompey’s head and his signet
ring were presented to Caesar and this saddened him very much. Instead
of leaving Alexandria, he entered and stayed in the palace of the
Ptolemies as the master of the city. And he summoned the king and the
queen. Cleopatra was conveyed by boat to Alexandria and then to the
palace, concealed in a roll of carpet. It was said that as soon as the carpet
was unwrapped before Caesar, his heart was instantly captivated.

He brought about in public a reconciliation between Ptolemy and his

sister; but the palace group moved upon the city with the royal army
under their hands against the Roman invader. This was the "Alexandrian
War". Caesar set fire to the Alexandrian fleet in order not to be used by
the enemies. It was said that the fire spread quickly burning most of the
library which lay in the palace district near the coast. Caesar was
expecting reinforcements to reach Egypt from Syria. When they came,
the battle was fought and Caesar was victorious. The young king Ptolemy
XIII drowned while trying to escape.

Caesar returned to Alexandria, master of the situation in 47 B.C. And

instead of annexing Egypt to Rome, Caesar retained Cleopatra on the
throne of Egypt and associated with her, her brother Ptolemy XIV. Caesar
made an expedition up the Nile with Cleopatra, in the magnificent royal
pleasure-boat, as far as the Ethiopian frontier.

1
Cleopatra bore a son — her son and Caesar's called Caesarion (Ptolemy
XV Caesar).

When Caesar returned to Rome in 46 BC, Cleopatra took up her

residence there, taking Ptolemy XIV, with her from Egypt, and a great
retinue. Caesar recognized the infant Caesar as his son.

Among the most important events of the period was the Julian calendar
reform introduced in Rome in 45 BC that was inspired by the Egyptian
calendar. The Roman year was replaced by a year of 365 ¼ days.

In 44 BC, Caesar was assassinated. Cleopatra left Rome immediately

with her brother ‘Ptolemy XIV’ and son. But her brother died shortly
after her return. He might have been killed by Cleopatra who wanted no
one to share her the throne and no rival to the boy Caesar. Cleopatra, soon
after her return to Egypt, associated her son with herself upon the throne.

Mark Antony became ruler of the eastern part of the Roman world.
Antony summoned her to meet him. She went to him and captured him as
she did with Caesar. She asked him to kill her sister Arsinoe in order for
the throne to be safe for her son Caesarion.

Antony and Cleopatra returned to Egypt and spent together the winter
season of 41-40 BC in Egypt. Then Antony went to Rome where he
married Octavia, sister of Octavius for diplomatic reasons.

After Antony left Egypt in 40 BC, Cleopatra was delivered of twins, a

boy and a girl, given the names of Alexander Helios and Cleopatra
Selene. In 36 BC, when Antony came to Syria, without Octavia, he
summoned Cleopatra, and their old relation was resumed. Another son
was born to them, Ptolemy Philadelphus.

In 34 BC Antony set out an attack against Armenia. He was successful,

and returned to Alexandria to celebrate his victory there and he divided
the eastern part of the Roman Empire among the children of Cleopatra.
Probably as a part of the festivities of 34 BC, Antony and Cleopatra had
their union made legal by marriage.

In 32 BC, Antony sent to Octavia in Italy a letter of divorcement.

Octavius accused Antony of deserting his sister Octavia and acting
contrary to the interests of Rome. He formally declared war against
Antony and the queen of Egypt in the name of Rome.

2
The decisive shock came in September 31 B.C. — the naval battle of
Actium. Cleopatra, thinking that the battle was going against Antony,
retreated with her fleet to Egypt. Antony, seeing her retreat, left the
battlefield and followed her. Octavius advanced and took over Syria and
marched towards Egypt.

In 30 B.C. Octavius entered Egypt with his army from Syria. Meantime
rumours reached Antony of Cleopatra’s death, so he committed a suicide.

Octavius had an interview with the queen in the palace of the Ptolemies.
It was afterwards said that Cleopatra, in her fortieth year, tried to repeat a
third time her success in captivating the ruler of the Roman world, but she
failed as he desired to exhibit the Queen to the Roman crowd, led a
captive behind his triumphal chariot. So she killed herself by the sting of
a cobra.

Ptolemy XV, son of Cleopatra VII and Julius Caesar, a boy of seventeen,
was still alive. He was then put to death.

Egypt, after Ptolemy Caesar had been killed by Octavius in 30 B.C.,

became a province of the Roman Empire. After being for about 300 years
an independent kingdom with its monarchs residing in it, Egypt was taken
by the Roman Emperors, usually far away in Italy, though the natives
continued for another three hundred years to portray upon their temple-
walls their foreign rulers in the image of Egyptian kings.

3
 Introduction

History of Rome
The Roman Era is that period when the Eastern Countries became under the
Roman Rule as part of the Empire. But the question is how a small city like Rome
in the middle of the Italian Peninsula had been able to spread its authority all over
Italy and then subjugated many countries to build a Great Empire.

People of the Italian Peninsula were classified into two main groups:

-The Italian peoples: The most important of them are the Latini who lived in
Latium Region in the western part of Italy.

-The non-Italian peoples: The most important of them are the Etruscans and the
Greeks- The Etruscans lived in Etruria Region (now called Tuscany after them) in
central Italy while the Greeks were in the South. Southern Italy was called Magna
Graecia (Great Greece) due to the number of Greek cities which during the
Hellenic Supremacy were established in this area. The Etruscans were of uncertain
race and origin. It was said that they came from Lydia in Asia Minor (however it
should be mentioned that there is a difference in language and many other things
between Lydians and Etruscans); this was rejected by some scholars who believed
that Etruscans were originally Italians.

The Etruscans and the Greeks affected greatly the Romans in both Civilization and
politics. And it is enough to say that the Etruscan and Greek writings were mixed
to create a new language that is the Latin.

At the head of the early Roman State stood a king. He was elected and was holding
office for life. He was the ruler of the nation, the commander of the army, the
judge, and high priest, that is, his power was absolute. Next to the king was the
senate (Council of Old Men) composed of the heads of the tribes of the
community. The senators were appointed by the king and held their position for
life. The Popular Assembly comprised all freemen of Rome. This was not a
legislative body, but assembly called together to hear announcements as to festival,
or to ratify the nomination of a new king, or to give approval to certain proposals...
etc. This Assembly had the power to change the existing laws; and of declaring
war or peace; and of confirming the election of the king made by the senate.
1
It was said that there were 6 kings ruled ancient Rome, of which the last three were
Etruscans. The last king Tarquinius was overthrown by the Roman people in 509
BC (towards the end of the 6th century BC) and a Republic was established which
lasted until the death of Julius Caesar.

The regal form of government was abolished and instead of one king who held
office for life, two consuls were elected annually from the Patricians (the Noble
Class), each of whom possessed a supreme power and acted as a salutary check
upon the other; so that neither was likely to abuse his power. In times of great
emergency, a person called Dictator, might be appointed by one of the consuls,
who should have supreme authority and his office never exceeded 6 months.

The first authentic history of Rome began about 400 BC. In 391 BC, there was a
great danger coming from the north, that is, the Celtic Tribes. A disastrous battle
took place in 390 BC in which the Romans were thoroughly defeated by the Celts.
The Celts however delayed 3 days before marching upon Rome. That gave a
chance to the people of Rome to prepare themselves for a siege. The siege lasted
for 7 months. Finally, the Celts were induced to withdraw by a large sum of
money. The city was quickly rebuilt and soon recovered from the blow. This defeat
caused numerous enemies to spring up all around Rome, but Rome showed herself
superior to them all. And before year 350 BC, Rome had controlled vast areas of
Italy.

Afterwards, there was a long dispute between Rome and the Samnites (Tribes
controlling the middle of Italy). Thus began the Samnite Wars (three wars) which
lasted for over half a century, which ended by a reconciliation in 290 BC and the
Samnites became allies of the Romans. And Rome had authority over middle Italy
after they had authority over the north. Also the Romans subdued the south that
was inhabited by the Greeks after several battles with them.

2
Foreign Conquest: Rome and Carthage1 (Punic2 Wars):

While Rome was enlarging her territory, opposite Italy sprang up another power
that is Carthage through commerce. There were two treaties between the two
powers in 500 and 340 BC. By these treaties, commerce was allowed between
Rome and its dependencies and Carthage and her possessions in Sicily, Sardinia,
and Corsica. But the Romans were not allowed to trade in Spain.

The First Punic War (263-241 BC):

It started in 263 BC when the Romans sent an army to Sicily to besiege the city of
Syracuse and this army was able to force king of Syracuse to become no more
allied to Carthage but to Rome. This war ended in 241 BC with a peace treaty in
which Carthage was forced to give up all her dependencies in Sicily and to pay a
financial compensation to Rome.

The Second Punic War (218-201 BC):

The Second Punic War was Carthage's attempt at revenge because they lost the
First Punic War to Rome. The result was yet another loss for Carthage.

When Hannibal –a young man in his third decade- became the leader of Carthage
in 220 BC, he decided to begin the inevitable struggle with Rome at once by
besieging a Spanish town allied to Rome. The Romans sent an army to Spain. But
Hannibal launched one of the bravest attacks in history. His plan was to march the
largest army he could muster through northern Spain, along the south coast of
France, through the Alps, and into northern Italy, where he hoped to raise new
allies from amongst the Gallic tribes recently subjugated by Rome. He defeated the
Roman troops that were under the command of two consuls, which encouraged the
Gauls to join him and forced the Romans to evacuate North Italy. Hannibal did not
proceed to besiege Rome, as he lacked siege equipment and he had no supply base
in central Italia. Instead, he proceeded to the south.

1
Carthage was founded by the Phoenicians from the city of Tyre in the 9 th century BC.

2
The Punic Wars were named because of the Roman name for Carthaginians: Punici, or Poenici. The Punics (from
Latin pūnicus meaning Phoenician) were a group of western Semitic-speaking peoples from Carthage in North
Africa who traced their origins to a group of Phoenician and Cypriot settlers, but also to North African Berbers.

3
The Romans appointed Fabius Maximus as a dictator in hopes that he could defeat
Hannibal. He was known as "The Delayer" because Maximus' strategy was not to
engage with Hannibal directly and to avoid any further field battles. But these
tactics were hated at Rome. And Maximus was replaced by two consuls who
promised to end the war quickly. These jointly fielded the largest Roman army
ever, which met Hannibal at Cannae (216 BC). The Romans outnumbered the
Carthaginians 50,000 to at most 40,000, but by allowing his center to retreat,
Hannibal was able to encircle their forces, and completely defeated them. The
battle of Cannae led to some of the support Hannibal had hoped for. Philip V of
Macedonia also allied with Hannibal in 217 BC, starting the First Macedonian War
against Rome, but his fleet was not able to stand up to Rome's and he was never
able to give any useful help. Meanwhile the Romans had re-elected Fabius
Maximus as dictator and returned to his delaying tactics, dividing their army into
small forces at vital locations, and avoiding Carthaginian attempts to draw them
into field battles.

This plan eventually worked. In 211 BC The Romans were able to control south
Italy and cut the communication between Hannibal and his allies in the North.
Hannibal did not have the military strength to siege cities or villages and he was
waiting for support from Spain. When his brother marched at the head of an army
to save Hannibal’s situation, the army was defeated by the Romans and Hannibal’s
brother was killed. After this, Hannibal3 thought seriously to withdraw from Italy,
esp. after he was ordered to be back to Carthage in 203 BC. The Second Punic War
ended at the battle of Zama in 202 BC when Cornelious Scipio (a young man
whose father was killed while battling with the Carthaginians) borrowed a move
from Hannibal's play book and invaded Carthage. Carthage surrendered under
Scipio's terms in which Carthage had to hand over all their war elephants and war
ships (except for ten), and to pay a huge war compensation, and to confine their
reign to Africa. Also Carthage was not allowed to be engaged in any war without
Rome’s permission and to give up all the dependencies of the ancestors of the
Numidian King (Numidia is now Algeria).

Third Punic War (149-146 BC)

All the period between the 2nd and 3rd Punic wars, Carthage was keen not to
3
Hannibal was one of the few survivors of the battle of Zama and escaped to the east, ending up at Antiochus' court
in Syria. Whilst residing there, Hannibal again met Scipio, who asked him who he believed to be the greatest general
of all time. Hannibal replied "Alexander the Macedonian". Scipio then asked him who was the second greatest
general of all time; "Myself" replied Hannibal. Scipio then asked what would have happened if Hannibal had beaten
him at the battle of Zama, to which he replied "Then I would be the greatest general of all time". Rome feared him
until the day he died.

4
provoke the Romans by any action. That is why Carthage enjoyed a long period of
peace and stability which made the Romans so worried.

The war was a much smaller engagement than the two previous Punic Wars and
primarily consisted of a single main action, the Battle of Carthage, but resulted in
the complete destruction of the city of Carthage, the annexation of all remaining
Carthaginian territory by Rome, and the death or enslavement of the entire
Carthaginian population. The Third Punic War ended Carthage's independent
existence.

The course of war:

In 151 BC Numidia launched another border raid on Carthaginian soil, besieging a

town, and Carthage launched a large military expedition (25,000 soldiers) to repel
the Numidian invaders. As a result, Carthage suffered a humiliating military
defeat. Immediately thereafter, however, Rome showed displeasure with
Carthage’s decision to wage war against its neighbour without Roman consent, and
told Carthage that in order to avoid a war it had to satisfy the Roman People.

In 149 BC, Rome declared war against Carthage. The Carthaginians made a series
of attempts to appease Rome, and received a promise that if three hundred children
of well-born Carthaginians were sent as hostages to Rome, the Carthaginians
would keep the rights to their land and self-government. The consuls then
demanded that Carthage hand over all weapons and armour. After those had been
handed over, Rome additionally demanded that the Carthaginians move at least ten
miles inland, while the city itself was to be burned. When the Carthaginians
learned of this, they abandoned negotiations and the city was immediately
besieged, beginning the Third Punic War.

The Carthaginians endured the siege starting c.149 BC to the spring of 146 BC,
when Scipio Aemilianus took the city by storm. Though the Punic citizens fought
valiantly, they were inevitably gradually pushed back by the overwhelming Roman
military force and destroyed.

5
The First Century of Roman Rule in Egypt (30BC-68AD)

Augustus (30BC-14AD)

The death of Antony and Cleopatra secured the immediate recognition of Octavius4
as their successor. Then he was able to return back to Rome leaving to the prefect5
the greater part of work for the settlement of the country. But before his departure,
he made a number of steps.

In addition to depriving the Greeks of Alexandria of their Boule (senate), and thus
destroying the most characteristically Hellenic part of the local government, he
granted to the Jews of the city a renewal of all the rights and privileges which they
had enjoyed under the Ptolemies, thus placing them on a position of equality with
the Greeks, or even of superiority; for on the other hand, they were allowed to
choose a council of elders to regulate their own affairs. But the Jews were liable to
pay the poll tax, from which the Greeks were free. That was done in order for the
Greeks not to look for special privileges and not to consider themselves in the
position of a sovereign class. He also put Roman garrisons near Alexandria, near
Memphis, near Thebes as well as other troops by the borders in Pelusium and
Paratonium.

Octavius (now Augustus) arrived in Rome and celebrated a great triumph, and he
was granted the title “Imperator” (The victorious Commander). He also realized
that the Republic regime is no more effective. He established a new regime that
appears to be Republic but in its essence, it was monarchal.

Upon his return to Rome, Augustus was given every high office by the senate and
was essentially head of all the political and religious affairs of the Empire. After he
retired from the Consulship he was given the rights that consuls usually only
enjoyed. Also he was made proconsul over certain provinces and had authority
over all provincial governors. Furthermore, the consuls were always in command
of the Roman army so the proconsul had command of the provincial army. This
meant that Augustus was the head of all the armies in the empire. With all these
powers, Augustus was actually in total control of the empire but he did not want to

4
The August month was not called so; instead it was called the sixth month according to the Roman calendar in
which the year was beginning with March. It began to be called so as an honour to Octavius who was given that title
since he entered Alexandria on the first day of August in 30 BC. Augustus means venerable (El Galil in Arabic).
5
Prefect is a person appointed to any of various positions of command, authority, or superintendence, as a chief
magistrate in ancient Rome or the chief administrative official in part of the empire.

6
make the same mistake Caesar did. To secure his power, he made it look like he
was the "representative" of the senate as he had not gained these powers by force
but had them given to him by the senate.

As for Egypt, he made a declaration prohibiting any of the Senators to go to Egypt

without his permission. It is possible that he was afraid that the many visits, which
the High ranked-Romans would make to Egypt, may embarrass the prefect of
Egypt since his rank is lower than them.

1st Prefect (Cornelius Gallus)

The first duties, which fell to the new prefect, consisted in suppressing
disturbances up the country. The more widely spread revolt was caused in the
Thebaid by the arrival of the Roman tax-collectors. The prefect crushed the rebels
and marched till beyond the first cataract. That region had been for over a century
entirely independent of Egypt. Gallus came to terms with the ambassadors from
this region that it is considered a Roman protectorate but left in the hands of the
Ethiopians. This conquest was celebrated by Gallus with an extravagant praise of
himself which aroused the displeasure of his master. He caused statues to be set up
in his honour and inscriptions to be carved on buildings. So the emperor recalled
him from his province and to be brought to trial for treason. When Gallus learnt
that decision, he committed a suicide.

2nd Prefect (Aelius Gallus) 26-24 BC

In 26 BC Aelius Gallus under Augustus's order led a military expedition to Arabia

Felix6 which ended in the utter defeat of Roman troops.

Part of what led to Arabia Felix's wealth and importance to the ancient world was
its near monopoly of the trade in cinnamon and spices, both its native products and
imports from India and the Horn of Africa.

6
Arabia Felix (lit. Happy Arabia; also Greek: Eudaimon Arabia) was the Latin name previously used by
geographers to describe the southern parts of the Arabian Peninsula, including modern Yemen, a country with an
extensive history.

7
3rd Prefect (Gaius Petronius) 24-21 BC

During the absence of Aelius Gallus in Arabia, the Ethiopians had taken the
opportunity to break off the friendly relations which Cornelius Gallus had
established with them, so they attacked the southern areas of Egypt under the
leadership of their queen Kandake. Petronius defeated them chasing their troops till
their capital Napata. He left a garrison there and returned back to Alexandria. But
shortly the garrison was besieged. It was however speedily relieved and Candace
sent ambassadors to Rome to sue for peace, which was granted. For many years
after the expedition of Petronius, nothing was heard of the Ethiopians.

8
 Tiberius
14 - 37 AD
The prefect he appointed tried to appease Tiberius by collecting more tribute than
usual, but this made the emperor so angry because of this bad action. Egypt was
settled and prosperous under this emperor.

His nephew and adopted son Germanicus visited Egypt without taking permission
and he was so much beloved by the Egyptians because of his good deeds. For
examples he gave his orders to open the grain stores distributing them among the
people trying to solve the famine which had taken place there. People honoured
him and gave him many titles which should have been given only to emperors.
This made Tiberius furious and Germanicus died after leaving Egypt; it was said
that the emperor was involved in that.

Gaius Caligula
37 - 41 AD
The tension between the Greeks and the Jews reached serious proportions. Jews
were accused of not honoring the emperor as they refused to put his statues in their
temples. The Alexandrians broke into the Jewish temples and erected the emperor's
statues. This embarrassed the Prefect who started to punish the Jews arresting
members of their boule and had them whipped. Also the Jews in Palestine
destroyed a temple established for the worship of the emperor, thus the latter gave
order to erect a statue for himself in the Jewish Temple at Jerusalem. The emperor
was so furious from their actions; what saved the Jews was his assassination.

Claudius
41-54 BC
In the A.D. 41 the Jews and the Greeks of Alexandria began to clash again as they
had for decades as the Jews sought more privileges and to be allowed into Greek-
only institutions such as the gymnasia.

9
Claudius asked the Alexandrians to stop bothering the Jews and violating their
cultic rites.

He also asked the Jews to stop asking for more privileges for themselves beyond
what was normal for citizens of the Roman Empire and to stop seeking access into
Greek educational establishments.

Trajan
98-117 AD
The Jews launched violent attacks against the Greeks destroying their temples and
the Romans managed to stop such riots.

Septemius Severus
193-211 AD
He made reorganization in the administrative systems in Egypt including returning
the boule for the Alexandrians.

Diocletian
284-305 AD

During his reign, the partition of the Roman Empire into eastern and western
segments began. Diocletian inaugurated drastic political and fiscal reforms and
sought to simplify imperial administration. Under Diocletian, the administrative
unity of Egypt was destroyed by transforming Egypt from one province into three.
Seeing Christianity as a threat to Roman state religion and thus to the unity of the
empire, Diocletian launched a violent persecution of Christians.

The Egyptian church was particularly affected by the Roman persecutions,

beginning with Septimius Severus's edict of 202 dissolving the influential Christian

10
School of Alexandria and forbidding future conversions to Christianity. In 303
Emperor Diocletian issued a decree ordering all churches demolished, all sacred
books burned, and all Christians who were not officials made slaves. The decree
was carried out for three years, a period known as the "Era of Martyrs."

11
12