7.8.9 Framing General Typically, a frame is a system of connected beams that support stiffeners. Usually a frame is an interacting, closed unit. The functions of framing are purely that of load distribution. both in the support of stiffening and also in the transfer of local load to the connecting shell structure. Generally, frames are not participants in global strength. ‘The upper left of fig, 7.101 shows three-dimensionally, in-context, a frame and its various components, The individual elements of a frame are usually associated with adjoining panels. While frequently referred to as “beams” or “girders,” relating more to form than function, here they will be referred to as frame elements, When built-up, particularly with a deep web, they are referred to as web frames. The flange is often referred to as a face plate, The single-celled, closed web frame shown at the upper right is typical of columns and pontoon section of semi-submersibles and TLPs. They could be circular, partly curved, or rectangular as shown in fig. 7.101 The lower part of fig. 7.101 shows other typical frame arrangements. In the lower left the arrangement is such that the top and bottom frame span is excessive and is therefore supported at mid-span by an orthogonal girder. Sometimes mid-span support is achieved with a longitudinal bulkhead (tight or non-tight), itself with a frame element. The term girder usually refers to an element perpendicular to a frame in a mose complex framing system. In the lower right is a similar long span situation (but vertical) where the span is broken by a strut. This is a prevalent form from tankers found in FPSOs. In addition, the term stringer is used, usually referring to an isolated frame-like element, with similar elements of adjoining panels. Framing behaviour is primarily that of flexure, but in offshore structures, axial loading can be quite significant. Also, because trames and girders are often short and deep, shears shear stress, and shear deflection are important. Buckling is another important issue for framing and girder design. Shown previously in the upper parts of fig. 7.101, Web stiffeners are used to control web buckling and sripping brackets, to provide stability against lateral buckling of the flange. Although scantling rules are given for framing systems, these are largely based on the Ship Rules and, in the end, framing design requires a stress-based, analytic approach: The principal reason for this is that the given rules are largely flexure-based, whereas, in offsiure suuctures, the connectivity of interacting fiaming members (moment redistribution) and the transfer of high axial load from adjacent, perpendicular panels are just as important. Figure 7.102 shows some of the load patterns typical for a pontoon. In addition to the high external head for a deeply submerged, empty tank, there can alternatively be significant internal heads in a tank when not submerged. Even more complex is with one tank filled and the other empty. Nevertheless, the scantling rules are useful for initial sizing. The suggested design approach is to use the scantling rules for initial sizing, but to subsequently use allowable stress based, frame analysis for the final design.= ee etry Top Frame “| g i i ee ny opt n st Siete ‘Sei Pary Closed Web Frame Top Frame : 1: ¥ le a jl ik V1 : = ; Fat te a at a : 1 a Hi te soumrione | Bt cane TOLLE EELS ELL et ahs ‘Shell Plating Frame with Center Girder Stutted Web Frame Figure 7.101 Typical frame configurations External Hydrostatic Net Head Head (only) (toner cael) Internal Head (Tank) Exceeding External Pressure Figure 7.102 Common frame loading patterns in offshore hull structuresAlthough the scantling rules for framing are about as straightforward as the stiffener rules, they do not consider the axial load and moment redistribution. Frames, usually being two- dimensional, simple two-dimensional analysis can be used for refinement with respect to the latter. However, for more complex frames, a three-dimensional modeling is required, particularly if there are intersecting girders or the frames are not straight. In offshore structures, most frames are simple and orthogonal to the global section, In these cases stress is entirely from local loading because the global stress is orthogonal to the frame stress and virtually does not interact, There is interaction in the sense that the state of stress in the shell plating includes global which, in combination, may establish the limit state for plate buckling. Consequently the framing design can proceed reasonably well early in design process without addressing other aspects of the structure design, This is not true of girders oriented in the direction of global stress, however. While this discussion focuses almost entirely on the strength aspects, some comments are in order regarding the practical aspects of frame design. Although, es a component, the frames themselves are a small contribution to the total hull steel, they are nevertheless quite labour intensive. Much attention should be given to simplicity of the framing system with regard lo spacing so that joining pieces easily match. Assembly is a major cost factor. In addition, repetition in design is very beneficial to the reduction of fabrication labour. Because of the importance of efficiency in the assembly process, frame design is driven by fabrication related choices mote than material efficiency The Design Proces: Various design processes can be pursued to design framing, A three stage process is recommended as outlined below. The objective is to, in the Ist Stage, quickly establish the essential geometric character of the overall hull structural design, this being the principal dimensions and formulatis n of the framing system. The objective is also to determine the initial, basic minimum scantlings. The methods of the /sr Stage are simple and allow an interactive approach where multiple priorities may be harmonised to achieve a balanced structure design. The objective of the 2nd Stage is to address complexities, refinement, and validation of the primary framing decisions of the Ist Stage. It is the sort of activity, when complete, supports the development of scantling drawings and initiation of detailed FEM modeling, The 3rd Stage is the FEM modeling. Its objective is to verify the design and to identify deficiencies that may need correction. This stage depends upon how evident adequacy may be demonstrated in the 2nd Stage and may not be necessary Ist Stage Determine the controlling hydrostatic ioads on a panel-by-panel basis. Consider the implications of internal subdivision and identify viable framing strategi Determine for each frame and girder, one or more loading diagrams for the frame for potentially controlling loads. 4. Determine preliminary configuration of the frames with particular attention to connections, repeated frame element designs, and to a practical range of element depths 5. Dismember the frame and loads to examine loading of individual members; estimate shears and axial loads.6. Establish the range of section depth needed for shear strength and total area required for axial load. 7. Determine the section modulus requirement for individual frame elements according to the rules. 8, Size section considering the minimum modulus, shear area, and axial requirements, 9. Complete simple, stress-based verification. 10, Adjust scantlings and revise connection geometry accordingly. 2nd Stage: (The Ist stage has established the essential geometry) Develop a plane frame analysis model (beam clements); include shear deflections. 2. Develop section properties considering shear lag for effective plating. 3. Adapt loading system to model. 4, Prepare moment and shear diagrams for frame; 5. Shears will be accurate; make final determination of web depth and thickness according to allowable stress criteria, including buckling checks. 6. Mid-span moments will be accurate; finalise flange; verify adequacy of web-depth for flexure. 7. Refine corner connections to adequately transfer loads between the connected frame elements. 3rd Stage: An FEM analysis of selected frames, The 2nd stage design may require verification. The 3rd stage is only for critical frames or prototype of highly repeated frames, 1. Replicate scantlings and geometry from mid frame to mid frame: Include web stiffeners; Higher detail at end connections; —Presentation quality model; Include shell plating; stiffeners can be ignored or simplified. BCs: should be appropriate and realistic, Loading: can ignore self-weight and global stress. Criteria The minimum requirements for Girders and Webs (includes frames) are given in the ABS MODU Rules, Paragraph 3/2.7.9 for Watertight Bulkheads and Watertight Flats and Paragraph 3/2.9.9 for Tank Bulkheads and Tank Flats. The latter also applies Yor shell plating by reference from Subsection 4/5.3 (Scantlings of Framed Shells). Strength requirements for girders, individual frames, and the elements forming web frames are given in terms as a minimum required section modulus, SM as follows: SM=fehsPQ; in? f= 0.0025 — (em’; in4) (7.68) where [metric (Englis 4,74 (0.0025), s=frame spacing or mean breadth of space supported (m, f0), /= effective span (m, ft); (see discussion below), =the specified designhead (discussed earlier) taken at stiffener mid span (m, ft), and Q=material constant as discussed previously. For shell plating and tank boundaries, the factor ¢= 1.5. For watertight subdivision only, c=10. As plating and stiffeners, for a combined loading criteria including the éynamic pressure, 0.75 hg can be used for f The effective span, depends upon the end connections, Without brackets, / is taken as the flange-to-flange span (or clear span), but there must be effective moment resisting end connections, However. if the frames employ substantial brackets that effectively reduce the span, the rules provide @ span reduction. As with stiffening, / may be reduced by 75% of the bracket length provided that the bracket is at least 45°. In Section 2, table 2, the rule: specify bracket sizes for medium to small frames (plain: without flanges and flanged brackets). In the ABS Ship Rules, however, effective span is considered in much more specificity and detail with attention to actual detailing practice, particularly regarding radiused brackets. These guidelines are applicable to similar framing forms in offshore structures. Figure 7.103 illustrates the effective spans of frames and girders with respect to effectiveness of brackets and different bracket forms. At the top is the radiused comer connection, a type of fully continuous face plate end connection. The terms “face plate” and “flange” refer to the same thing and are interchangeable, Flange is more commonly used in the flexural function sense. Face plate is more related to physical form and fabrication and more often applies to brackets. The span of the girder is taken where the horizontal, at 1.25% the depth of the frames/girder web (d,,), intersects the web on the radius, The radiuses should be checked In the middle of the figure are two variations of straight brackets where the face plates of the bracket functionally continue the flange. This is the fully continuous, bracketed face plate, Provided that the slope of the brackets ia 45° or steeper, the span may be taken as the clear span plus 1/4 of the bracket lengths. If less steep, it is treated and a non-prismatic section and the face plate must be terminated by and effective moment resisting connection, For the bracket shown at the left, the girder flange runs level and through and is cut short at the end (sniped). If suificiently steep, the face plate may also be sniped at the end. The bracket face plate must be at least 50% of the area of the girder flange and connected to the flange and chocked with full penetration welds. The alternative is to simply continue the girder flange, through a small radius, as a face plate to the bracket, as shown at the right. The radius must be chocked The bottom of the figure shows a less robust detail, drackets with non-continuous face plates. These are more common in ships, but are suitable for offshore structures where there is minimal cyclic loading. In this arrangement, the frame/girder and flange are straight and continuous, bulkhead to bulkhead, with the flanges sniped at the ends. The brackets are fitted atop the flange and do nor have connected face plates, these being sniped at both ends. The face plate function here is mainly buckling control. The inclination must be at least 45° Additionally, the Rules include various requirements for proportions, tripping brackets, and detailing (Paragraphs 2/9.9.2 and 2/9.9.3 for shell plating and tank boundaries andEffective Span, 1 Max Cutout: 1/2 Continuous Radiused Face Plate Welded Flange Radius Flange Bracket Detail Bracket Detail (full pen fg) (chock at radius) Le Effective Span, / ak 29% of wot 1/7] 17“ bracket length beacketiongih fs ee E77! Length Bracket ofBracket™” Full Continuous Bracketed Fa er a Flange area of bracket must be atleast hat of der ange area Welded Flange Radius Flange Bracket Detail Bracket Detall — Etecive Span, 1 | fk ofBracket™ _” Brackets witn non-Continuous Face Plates ~ Figure 7.103 Effective spans for frames and girders Paragraphs 2/7.7.2 and 2/7.7.3 for watertight subdivision). For depth of web, dy. < 1/8 (watertight subdivision: d,, > 1/12). For web thickness, r,, > 0.001 d,+0.12 in., but not more than 0,44 in., unless required for shear strength or buckling. In addition, if there are to be cutouts (e.g. openings for piping or accesses), d, must be twice the depth of thecutout. This is not the same as cutouts for through stiffening. These may not be more than 20% of d,. Noting that cutouts exceed the stiffener depth, d,. by | in., using d,, > 3x dis also a generally used design practice. Tripping brackets are perpendicular, triangular attachments between the frame/girder web and the stiffeners. They provide lateral stability to the frame or girder. They are required to have intervals of about 10ft, but do need to match the spacing of stiffeners. An attachment to the frame/girder flange is required, if more than 8 in. of the flange are unsupported Shear Lag ‘As with stiffening, the required section modulus, $M is to be taken to the Mange and to is include the effective attached plating. Unlike stiffeners, the effective breadth of plating (as flange to the frame section) is often much Jess than the full width. This must be considered in as much as the frame spacing (3) and the spans between inflections (cL) can produce low values of effective breadth, p. Also, because frames and girders produce a more balanced section, accurate representation of the plate is more important than for stiffeners The previous discussion of shear lag and effective breadth of plating with stiffeners particularly fig. 7.99, is relevant here. Corresponding to fig. 7.98 for stiffeners, fig. 7.104 is given for frame elements, showing stress patterns in the plate. However, only the solid, upper curve of fig. 7.99 (mid-span) is truly relevant. As with stiffeners, application of this curve relies on determination (or estimation) of the inflection points. Unlike stiffener ends. the ends of frames and girders are complicated by end connection (brackets, radiuses, etc.) and interaction with connecting structure. Some simple frames will fit this model, however Figure 7.105 is given showing a typical frame/girder section and notation. Buckling Where the stiffeners are orthogonal, typical of girder, and the loading is external (plate side compression), the buckling strength of the plating is reduced and post buckling considerations may be required. This reduction is similar in effect to shear lag, but not n nature. In both cases, however, effectiveness of the plate, as a flange, is reduced. Additionally, girder webs are particularly deep and thin and subject to buckling. As noted in the beginning of the discussion of framing, web stiffeners are employed to alleviate this problem. Similarly, the flanges are narrow and can buckle laterally. A particularly thorough guide on girder-buckling is contained within the DaV Class Notes 30.1 As a final brief note on framing, some columas use ring frames to support vertical stiffening. A circular frame is only a ring frame if itis totally without radial support and, in such a case it is subject to buckling. DnV Class Notes 30.1 also provide guidance in this case. However, if the frame is at all radially supported, it is a collection of curved beams subject to flexure, as well as compression, and treated as any straight frame.Figure 7.104 Effective breadth of plate for frames and girders Flange Area % yoo Mic Surface: Y of Finge A YW Wi Sutace t eee ee Neutral Axis Effective Plate Area: A 4 Ap=2b.X Etective Breadth: 2p ae < . > % Frame Spacing. i* (Game as /in the stiffener context) | Figure 7.105 Notation for frame/girder properties