FUNDAMENTALS OF DRILLING FLUIDS TECHNOLOGY

IGWILO KEVIN CHINWUBA

DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY,
OWERRI.

i
EMHAI BOOKS
P. O. BOX 473
UNIPORT SHOPPING CENTRE
UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT

Copyright © 2000 Dr. Igwilo Kevin Chinwuba

All right reserved, No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner, by printing,
photocopying, microfilm or any other means without written permission from the copyright
owner except in the case of brief quotation embodied in critical articles and reviews.

ISBN 978-33527-5-X

EMHAI PRINTING AND PUBLISHING CO.

CHOBA PORT HARCOURT.

ii
 PREFACE

The main objectives of this text are:

1. To understand the different mud system to be run in the field;

2. To be able to know how to trouble-shoot the associated mud problems;

3. To be able to know how to apply the basic material balance equations in determine the
quantity of drilling chemicals, water or oil to be applied;

4. To be able to know the criteria to be considered in mud type selection;

5. To understand the applicable field mechanical solids control;

6. To know different field applicable drilling chemicals;

This book introduces the real field situation of the drilling fluids application. The materials
presented here are aimed primarily at students of Petroleum Engineering, Chemical Engineering,
Geologist, and Chemists, who will most likely have occasion to be Mud Engineers. The
fundamental concepts of the Drilling Fluids are presented here in a way that can easily be
understood.

After studying the text, from chapter 1 to the last chapter combined with 14 days of field trip,
you automatically become a fully trained Mud Engineer.

CONTENTS

iii
PREFACE
1. Introduction 1
1.1 Functions of Drilling Fluids 1

2. Mud Properties 5
2.1 Density 5
2.2 Rheology 5 – 15
2.3 Filtration 15 – 17
2.4 Solids 17
2.5 PH and Alkalinity 17 – 19

3. Classification and chemical analysis of drilling fluids 20

3.1 Muds Type 22
3.11 Spud/Bentonite Muds 23 – 25
3.12 Gypsum – Lignosulphonate 25– 30
3.13 KCL – Polymer Muds 30– 36
3.14 TAME Mud 36– 38
3.15 Saturated Muds 38– 40
3.20 Oil Base Muds 40 – 43
3.21 Invert Oil Emulsion / Psendo Ol Base Mud 44– 45
3.30 Treatment Terminology 45– 46

4. Drilling mud calculations 47

4.1 Basic Reasoning for Material Balance 47
4.11 Weight a Mud Up 48– 49
4.12 Weight a Mud Up and Maintain The Same Volume 49
4.13 Dilute a Mud with water 49– 50
4.14 Dilute a Mud and Maintain The same Volume 50
4.15 Make an Exact Volume of Water Mud 50
4.16 Average Specific Gravity LGA & HGS Calculations 50 – 51
4.17 Make an Exact Volume of Oil Mud 51
4.18 Change Oil/Water Ratio 52
4.19 Hydrostatic Head 52
4.20 Overburden, Matrix Stress and Pore Pressure 53
4.21 Drilling and Flow Patterns 53
4.22 Annular Flow of Drilling Mud 53 – 57
4.3 Pipe Capacity, Annular Capacity and Displacement of a Drillstring,
4.4 Abnormal Pressure Problems

5. MUD TYPE SELECTION 57 – 58

5.1 Formation Characteristics 58 – 61
5.2 Well Characteristics and Operational Aspects 61 – 63
5.3 Surface 64 – 65

iv
6. STUCK PIPE
6.1 Causes and Cures of Stock Pipe 66 – 67
6.2 The Mechanism of Differential Sticking 67 – 69
6.3 Preventive Measures 69
6.4 Freeing Differential Stuck Pipe 70 – 74

7. CHEMICAL SOLIDS CONTROL 74

7.1 Classification of Solids 74
7.2 Effects of Solids on Rheological Properties 75 – 76
7.3 Current solids control Techniques 76
7.4 Vibrating Screen Separators 76 – 79
7.21 Hydroclones 80
7.22 Mud Cleaners 81
7.23 Centrifuges 76 – 79
7.24 Degaser 83

8. Work over fluids, formation damage, and packer fluids 84

8.1 Workover fluids 84

8.11 Heavy Brines 85
8.12 Workover Products 85 – 86
8.13 Other Workover Fluids 86
8.20 Formation Damage 86 – 87
8.30 Packer Fluids 87 – 88

9. Drilling fluids chemicals 89

9.1 Clay 89
9.11 Bentonite 89 – 91
9.12 Salt Water Clay 90
9.2 Weighing Materials 91 – 92
9.21 Barites 92
9.22 Calcium Carbonate/Dolomite 92 – 93
9.23 Iron Compounds 93 – 94
9.3 Viscosifiers and Fluid Loss Reducers 94
9.31 Starch 94
9.32 CMC 94
9.33 PAC 94
9.34 HEC 96
9.35 Guar Gum 96
9.36 Xanthan Gum 96
9.37 Polyacrylamides 96
9.38 Others 97
9.4 Deflocculants (Thinners/ Dispersants)
9.41 Lignosulphonates 97

v
9.42 Lignites 97
9.43 Phosphates / Polyphosphate 98
9.44 Tannis 98
9.5 Oxygen and Hydrogen Sulphide Scavengers 98
9.6 Lost Circulation Materials 98
9.7 Commercial Chemicals 98
9.71 Potassium Chloride (KCL) 98 – 99
9.72 Sodium Chloride (Salt, NaCL) 99
9.73 Caustic Soda (NaOH) 99
9.74 Soda Ash (Na2CO3) 99
9.75 Sodium Chloride (Salt, NaCL) 99
9.76 Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) 99
9.8 Speciality Products 100
9.81 Lubricants 100
9.82 Detergents 100
9.83 Spotting Fluids 100
9.84 Defoamers (Alimunium etal) 100
9.85 Asphalt Derivative 100 – 101

10 Pilot testing and the instructions 102

10.1 Pilot Testing Conversion Factors 103

10.2 Pilot Testing Treating Solutions 103
10.3 Chemicals Required To Remove Ionic Contaminants 104
Glossary of Drilling Fluid and Associated Terms 105 – 135
References and Recommended Literature 136 – 138

vi
 CHAPTER 1

1.0 Introduction
A drilling fluid is a mixture consisting of solid, liquids and gases distributed throughout
the liquid or the gaseous phase.

A mud engineer is the Engineer that controls or maintains the properties of drilling fluids
within specified limit.

1.1 Function of Drilling Fluids

A major component in the success of drilling operation is the performance of the drilling
fluid. The search for hydrocarbon reserves has become significantly more expensive we
have moved offshore into deeper water, and more hostile environments. These
environments require the drilling fluid to excel in many performance categories,
measurement of performance is an all encompassing effort to evaluate all key parameters
of the drilling operation and their associated cost. Simply stated, a drilling fluid should be
judged by its influence on overall well cost. Drilling fluids have a variety of functions to
assure a safe and speedy drilling operation at minimum overall cost.

Functions:
Bore-Hole Stability: A stable bore-hole is due to the result of a chemical/ or mechanical
balance.

Mechanical Stability: The hydrostatic pressure exerted by the drilling fluid is normally designed
to exceed the existing formation pressure. The desired result would be that of a mechanically
stable bore-hole. In many cases, other factors must be considered:
1) The behavior of rocks under stress and their related deformation characteristics.
2) Steeply dipping formations
3) High tectonic activity
4) Formations with cohesive strength
5) High fluid velocity
6) Pipe tripping in hole and out of hole and corresponding transient pressures.

Any of these factors may contribute to bore-hole instability and a protective casing string or an
increase in hydrostatic pressure to values greater than anticipated formation pressure.
Chemical Stability: A compatible chemical interaction between the bore-hole and the drilling
fluid is a major factor in bore-hole stability. Bore-hole hydration can be the primary cause of
bore-hole instability, or a contributing factor.

Aqueous drilling fluids normally use some type of coating and charge satisfaction mechanism.
The present use of low solid/non-disperse fluids like KCL – Polymer incorporate these principle.
They rely on polymers and some salts to inhibit swelling and dispersion. Commonly used
polymers are polysaccharide derivatives, partially hydrolyzed polysaccharide and Xanthan gum.

1
Remove Drilling Cuttings from the Hole
A basic function of drilling fluid is to transport cuttings from the well – bore as drilling
progresses. Seven factors influence the removal of cuttings from the hole. One is the velocity of
speed at which fluid travels up the annulus. Annular velocity must be greater than a slip velocity
for the cutting to move up the well-bore. The size, shape and weight of a cutting determines the
velocity necessary to control settling through a moving fluid. Low shear rate viscosity controls
carrying capacity of the fluid and reflects the conditions most like those in the well-bore. The
drilling fluid must have sufficient carrying capacity to remove cuttings from the hole. The
density of the suspending fluid has associated buoyancy effect on the cuttings. An increase in
density will have an associate effect on carrying capacity.

Cool And Lubricate – The Bit and Drillstring

Considerable heat is generated by rotation of the bits and drillstring. The drilling fluid acts as a
conductor to carry the heat to the surface. Current trends towards deeper and hotter holes places
increased emphasis on the function. The filter cake deposited by the drilling fluid provides
lubricity as does various specialty products in water-base fluids. Oil muds are lubricity by nature.

Control Subsurface Pressure

As drilling progresses, oil, water, shale gas or gas may be encountered. Sufficient hydrostatic
pressure must be maintained, normally with weighting material like barite or hematite, to prevent
any influx of formation fluids into the bore-hole. The amount of hydrostatic pressure depends on
the density of the fluid and the height of the fluid column, i.e. well depth.
Hydrostatic pressure (psi) = 0.052 x Depth (ft) x Mud weight (1bm/gal)…….(1)

Suspend Cuttings and Weight Material When Circulation is Stopped

When the circulation is stopped, drilling fluids must be capable of suspending drilled cuttings
and barite. Several factors directly affect suspension ability. They are:
1) Density of the drilling fluid
2) Viscosity of the drilling fluid
3) Gelation or thixotropic properties of the drilling fluid
4) Density of cuttings.
This process should be easily reversible when it is desirable to establish circulation. The drilling
fluid should exhibit properties which promote efficient removal of solids by surface equipment.

Support a Portion gf the Drillstring or Casing

The Buoyancy effect of drilling fluids becomes increasingly important as drilling progress to
greater depth. Surface equipment would be over stressed if it had to support the entire weight of
the drillstring and casing in deeper holes. Since the drilling fluid will support a weight equal to
the weight of the volume of liquid displaced, a greater buoyancy effect occurs as drilling fluid
increases.

Minimize Adverse Effects on Productive Formations

Consideration must be given to how drilling fluid react when potential productive formations are
penetrated. Whenever permeable formations are drilled, a filter cake is deposited on the wall.
The properties of this cake can be altered to minimize fluid invasion into permeable zones. Also,

2
the characteristics of the water phase of the drilling fluid can be controlled to reduce the
formation damage. In some cases, specially prepared fluids such as oil muds are used to drill
particularly sensitive zones. Products employed in the fluid system should not irreversibly seal
the pore spaces of potentially productive zone.

Transmit Hydraulic Horsepower to the Bit to Clean the Bits and the Bottom of the Hole
Once the bit has created a drill cutting, this must be removed from under the bit. If the cutting
remains, it will be “re-drilled”into smaller particles adversely affecting penetration rate, bit life
and mud properties. The drilling fluid serves as the medium to remove these drilled cuttings. One
measure of cuttings remove force is hydraulic horsepower available at the bit. Factors that affect
bit hydraulic horsepower are mud density, viscosity, jet nozzle size, and flow rate. Bit hydraulic
horsepower can be improved by increasing jet nozzle size and bit viscosity and / or increasing
the flow rate.

Release Undesirable Cuttings at the Surface

When drilled cuttings reach the surface, it is desirable that as much of the solids as possible be
removed to prevent their re-circulation. Mechanical equipment such as shale shakers, de-sanders,
centrifuges, de-silters or mud cleaners remove large amount of cuttings from the drilling fluid.
Flow properties of the fluid, however, influence the efficiency of the removal equipment.
Settling pits also function well in removing undesirable cuttings, especially when viscosity and
gel strength are maintained fairly low.

Ensure Maximum Information from the Well

Obtaining the maximum amount of information about the formations being penetrated is
imperative. A fluid which will promote cutting integrity is highly desirable for evaluation
purposes. Technology advances have made logging and drilling synonymous activities, through
the use of electronic devices incorporated within the drillstring. Optimum drilling fluid
properties should be maintained at all times during, drilling, logging and completion phases.

Limit Corrosion of Drillstring, Casing, and Tubular Goods

Corrosion in drilling fluids is usually as a result of contamination by Carbon dioxide, Hydrogen
sulphide, Oxygen or, in the case of static bacterial action, low PH, salt-contaminated, and non-
dispersed drilling fluids are inherently more corrosive than organic treated freshwater systems.
Oil muds are considered non-corrosive. A proper drillstring fluid corrosion control program
should minimize contamination and render the contaminating source non-corrosive.
Environmental Harmony
Environmental concerns have led to increase legislative restrictions concerning the use of and
handling of drilling fluids. These laws cover a multitude of considerations ranging from the
allowable heavy metals to discharge of cuttings.

A number of products have been replaced with non-toxic additives. Other products may face
future extinction as government regulation becomes more stringent. Guidelines have established
for maximum levels admissible for drilling fluid and associated cutting discharge. A new
technology to the oilfield, spawned by discharge regulation, is de-watering. Introduction of new
technology, for our industry to exist in harmony with the environment, will be essential for
future growth and cost effectiveness.

3
 CHAPTER 2

2.0 Mud Properties (Physical and Chemical)

The fundamental characteristic of the drilling mud are:-
1) Weight (Density)
2) Rheological Properties
 Plastic Viscosity
 Yield Point
 Low Shear Rate Yield Port or Yield Stress
 Gel Strength
 Funnel Viscosity

3) Filtration Control Properties

 Quantity
 Quality
4) pH and Alkalinity
5) Solids
6) Other properties are: Total hardness and Chloride content

2.1 Density
The density of any mud is directly related to the amount and average specific gravity of the
solids in the system. The control of density is important in that the hydrostatic pressure exerted
by the column of the fluid is required to contain formation pressures and to aid in keeping the
hole open. The density of any fluid should be dictated by formation pressures. The pressure
exerted by the fluid column should be equal to or only slightly higher than that of the formation
to ensure penetration rate with minimal danger.

Fluid density in English units is commonly expressed in 1bm/gal (1bm/cuft in California and
Iran) and in specific gravity or g/cm3 in countries utilizing the metric system. The common
method for checking the density of any drilling fluid is the mud balance. The mud balance
consists of a supporting base, a cup, a lid, and a graduated beam carrying a sliding weight. A
knife edge on the arm rests on the supporting base.

2.2 Rheology
The rheology of drilling fluids and the associated annular hydraulics relate directly to how
effective the bore-hole is cleaned. An understanding of rheology is essential so that the well-site
engineering of the drilling fluid will cost effectively compliment the objective of drilling the
well. It must also be understood that the rheology and hydraulic of drilling fluids are not exact
sciences, but are based mathematical models that closely describe the rheology and hydraulics of
the fluid. Drilling fluids do not conform exactly to any of the models and as such there are
different methods in use to calculate rheology and hydraulic parameters.

We continue with the rheology models, let us define these rheological properties.
Plastic Viscosity (PV) – Mechanical: It is a measure of muds resistance to flow due to the
quantity, size, distribution and shape of solids in the mud and the viscosity of the liquid phase.

4
Yield Point (YP) – Chemical: It is a measure of the mud resistance to flow due to the type of
solids in the mud at high shear rates. It is carrying capacity of the mud.
Yield Stress ( YS ) – Chemical : It is also a measure of mud resistance to flow due to type of
solids in the mud at a low shear rates. It is the main property responsible for annular hole
cleaning.
Mash Funnel Viscosity: It measures resistance to the flow of a liquid. It also monitor the change
in mud without giving the cause of these changes.
Gel Strength: It is the measure of attractive forces between solids in the mud when it is
stationary. It keeps solid in the mud in suspension.
Fluid Deformation: Rheology is the study of the deformation of all forms of matter.

2.3 Rheological Properties

One of the fundamental aspects of fluid engineering is the evaluation of rheology in order to
predict behavior of fluids. To do so, it is necessary to select the parameters and utilize
instruments that effectively measure them. There are many situations where some of the mud
properties can be found to approximate the behavior of the actual fluid with accuracy which
reflects the image of the measured fluid data. The study of the deformation of drilling fluids is
not an exact standardized knowledge. They are based on mathematical models that closely
describe the behavior of the fluids.

Various physical properties of mud like plastic viscosity, yield point, low shear rate yield point,
and gel strength are used in determining partially the rheological behavior of drilling mud. These
physical properties influence the behavior of a drilling mud as it is circulated in the borehole.
The relationship of these physical properties of a drilling fluid in conjunction with shear stress
and shear rate are used to characterize the rheological behavior of fluid.
The relationship between shear stress and shear rate, defines the flow behavior of fluid. For some
fluids, the relationship is linear, such that if shear stress is doubled, then the shear rate is also
doubled, such fluids are called the Newtonian fluids. Examples of such fluids are; water,
alcohols, and light oils. Fluids which have flow characteristics such that the shear stress does not
increase in direct proportion to the shear rate is called non-Newtonian fluids. Most drilling fluids
fall into this category.
Non-Newtonian fluids are those fluids whose shear rate versus shear stress relationship is not
proportional (example Power law fluids), but where they are, it does not pass through the origin
(example Bingham plastic fluids). For most drilling fluids, the viscosity is relatively high at low
shear rate, and low at high shear rate. In other words, the effective viscosity decreases as shear
rate increase. When a fluid behaves in this manner, it is said to undergo “shear thinning”shear
thinning is a very desirable characteristics of drilling fluids. The effective viscosity of the fluid
will be relatively lower in the drill string and bit nozzles; likewise, the effective viscosity of the
fluid will be relatively higher in the annulus, the combination of a high effective viscosity and
laminar flow of fluid aid in hole cleaning.

5
2.4 Rheological Models
Rheological models are used to describe the shear stress versus shear rate relationship of viscous
fluids. The rheological plot of shear stress versus shear rate relationship is known as rheogram.
These models can be used to calculate the viscosity of the fluid but more importantly they are
applied in this study for the determination of pressure losses and transport efficiency of fluids for
hole cleaning.

Most drilling fluids are non-Newtonian, and the most common rheological models that are used
to characterize them are:-
1. Newtonian fluid
2. Bingham plastic fluid model,
3. Power law fluid model, and
4. Modified power fluid model (Herschel-Buckley fluid model).
Newtonian model

A rheological model is a description of the relationship between the shear stress (t) experienced
by the fluid and the shear rate (g). For a Newtonian fluid, the ratio of shear stress to shear rate is
a constant. This constant is the effective or true viscosity (meff) of the fluid. Thus the equation
describing the rheology of a Newtonian fluid can be written as

m = t/g …………(2.1)
Eqn.2.1 shows that shear rate is in direct proportion to shear stress at constant viscosity.

Where m = viscosity, poise (dyne- sec/cm2)

t= shear tress (force/area) (dynes/cm2)

g = Shear rate (secs-1)

6
 2.4.1 Bingham Plastic Fluid model
Bingham Plastic fluid model is one of the earliest fluid models used for describing and
characterizing drilling fluids. The model is characterized by a linear shear stress-shear rate plot,
which does not pass through the origin (fig 2.2). A finite stress known as yield stress must be
applied and once exceeded, the stress increases linearly with increasing shear rate. The slope of
the straight line plot of shear stress versus shear rate is known as plastic viscosity (mp).
Thixotropic
The constitutive equation for Bingham plastic fluid model is presented as:

yv t = ty + mpg …………………………………………………… 2.2

Where:

ty is initial shear stress to initiate flow otherwise known as yield point.

g is the shear rate, and

µp is the plastic viscosity.

7
2.4.2 Power Law model
Many drilling fluids, particularly polymer-based fluids are better characterized by the Power law
model. This model more closely approximates actual fluid properties even when calculated form
viscometric data. Though this model can be applied using data from annular shear rate range, it
provides much greater accuracy in predicting the performance of a drilling fluid in the annulus.
This is especially true for the low-solids, high shear-thinning fluid systems being used in the
past.
This model describes the rheological behavior of the drilling fluids that do not exhibit yield
stress. The Power law model has two parameters used to describe the flow, namely: n, the power
law flow behavior index factor also known as power law exponent, and k, the consistency index
factor which is synonymous to the true viscosity of Newtonian fluid. The power law flow index
factor, which is dimensionless, describes the departure of the fluid from Newtonian behavior as
shown in fig.2.1. If n = 1.0, the fluid is defined as Newtonian. For n< 1, the fluid is characterized
as pseudo-plastic power law fluid. For n>1, the fluid is characterized as dilatant power law fluid.
The fluid becomes more shear thinning as the values of n decreases from unity. The rheogram of
these fluid classifications is shown in fig. 2.2. High values of the consistency factor, k may
indicate a high viscosity, and fluids with such viscosity under near – zero shear rate conditions
offer significant improvements in hole cleaning efficiency.
The constitutive equation representing power law fluids is given by equation 2.2.
τ = kγn ………………………………………………….……. 2.3
2.4.3 Herschel Buckley model (Modified Power law model)
Herschel – Buckley is a three parameter model that describes the behavior of yield –pseudo
plastic fluids (Mewis et al, 1989). This model combines the behavior of the Newtonian, Bingham
plastic, and Power law models. The mathematical equation that is used to describe the model is:-
τ= τy + k γn ………………………………………….2.4

8
The model perfectly describes the behavior of drilling mud. This is shown in fig 2.3.

Shear stress Modified power law fluid

Yield stress

Shear rate

Fig 2.3 Herchel- Buckdy fluid Rheogram

It has a yield stress at low shear rates responsible for hole cleaning in the annulus.
2.5 Pipe flow
To obtain the power law constant corresponding to fluid flow inside the drill pipe,

np= 3.32log ( θθ6003 )…………………………………………………….2.5

θ 600
kp =5.11 x …………………………………………………..2.6
1022np

2.6 Annular flow

To obtain the power law constant corresponding to fluid flow in annulus, the 300 rpm and 3 rpm
readings are used. Annular hole is the major area of interest in the research.

na = 0.5 log( θθ3003 )……………………………………….2.7

9
 5.11 x θ 300
ka = …………………………………………………2.8
511na
Where na= flow behavior index, dimensionless.
ka = consistency factor, Eq-Centipoise.
2.7 Gel Strength
Gel strength measurement are made with the V-G meter and describe the time-dependent flow
behavior of a drilling fluid. Gel strength values must be recorded at 10 second (initial gel) and
10-minutes interval. One additional gel strength value should be recorded at 30 minutes. Gel
strength indicate the thixotropic properties of a drilling fluid and are the measurements of
attractive forces under static conditions in relationship to time. Plastic viscosity and yield point,
conversely, are dynamic properties and should not be confused with static measurements.
However, gel strength and yield point are somewhat related in that gel strength will typically
decrease as the yield point decreases.
Gel strength occurs in drilling fluids due to the presence of electrically charged molecules and
clay particles when circulation is stopped. Two types of gel strength occurs in drilling fluids,
“progressive” and “fragile”. A progressive gel strength increases substantially with time. This
type of gel strength requires increased pressure to break circulation after shutdown. A fragile gel
strength increases only slightly with time, but may be higher initially than a progressive gel. If
gel strength measurements are taken after a 30 minutes time period, the strength can be easily
determined. Progressive and fragile gels strength are illustrated in figure 2.4.

Fragile

Progressive
Gel
Strength

Time

Fig.2.4 : Progressive gel and fragile gel

Gel strength in a drilling fluid are dependent on chemical treatment, solids concentration, time,
and temperature. There is no well-established means of mathematically predicting gel strengths
in any mud system. Generally, gel strengths will increase with time, temperature, and increase in
solids. If the mud system is not successfully treated for temperature stability, the gel strength
developed after a bit trip becomes a major factor in the pressure required to beak circulation and

10
in the magnitude of swab and surge pressures. Additionally, initial gel strength in a weighted
mud system must be sufficient to prevent settling of weight materials. Therefore, the Drilling
Mud Engineer must be concerned with having sufficient initial gel strength yet not having
excessive long-time gel strength
Note: for best hole cleaning yp/pv will be between 1-2, when pv and yp are equal, we have
maximum hole cleaning. This is only applicable for unweighted water base mud. But for oil base
mud, this does not hold because PV is always higher than YP.

2.8 Filtration
Two types of filtration are considered: Static and dynamic. Static filtration occurs when the fluid
is not in motion in the hole. Dynamic filtration occurs when the drilling fluid is being circulated.
Dynamic filtration differs from static filtration in that drilling fluid velocity tends to erode the
wall cake even as it is being deposited on permeable formations.
Testing equipment
The testing equipment is the filter press.

Test type
LP-LP Test and HP-HT Test.

LP-LT Test HP-HT Test

Differential pressure 100 psi 500 psi
Temperature ambient 250 - 300oF
Duration 30mins 30mins

The test is carried out according to the API procedures. The filtrate volume measured in
milliliters collected after 30mins for HP-HT is doubled to correct it to the filter area of API
filtration test. The filter cake should also checked for thickness and consistency after the filtrate
loss has been tested and is expressed as 1/32 of an inch.
2.8.1 Correlation
Correlation between API standard fluid loss at 100psi and ambient temperature and high
temperature – high pressure test 500 psi and 250 - 300 oF depends on several factors. Cake
compressibility and thermal stability of additives contained in a fluid, are primary factors.
Generally speaking, a well treated lignosulfonate, lignite, bentonite system may have a ratio

11
between HT – HP and standard API filtrate test in the range of 2:1 to 4:1. On the other hand, a
system comprised a high concentration of drilled solids may have a ratio of 10:1 or higher.
Obviously, a drilling fluid could exhibit a low API filtrate value at 100psi and ambient
temperature and extremely high filtrate (thick wall cake) on the HT-HP test. For this reason,
more emphasis is placed on HT-HP data on deeper wells encountering high bottom-hole
temperature.
2.8.2 Permeability of Filter Cake
The permeability of the filter cake is one of the most important factors in controlling filtration.
The size, shape and concentration of the solids which constitutes the filter care determine the
permeability. If the filter cake is composed primarily of coarse particle, the pores will be larger,
therefore, the filtration rate greater. For this reason bentonite with its small irregular shape
platelets as well as many polymers compact under pressure to lower permeability, hence the
term, cake compressibility.
2.8.3 Pressure
If the filter cake did not compress under pressure, the fluid loss would vary with the square root
of the pressure. This does not normally apply to drilling fluids because the porosity and
permeability of the filter cake is usually affected by pressure. A useful field check for
determining cake compressibility to measure HT-HP filtrate in the normal manner then test again
with 100psi differential pressure. The lower the compressibility ratio,
cc at 500psi
cc at 100psi

the more compressible the filter cake becomes. If the compressibility ratio is 1.5 or greater, it
could indicate that colloidal fraction is inadequate and that remedial measure are necessary.

2.8.4 Temperature
An increase in temperature will usually result in an increase in filtration rate because of adverse
temperature effects on filtration control agents and decreased fluid phase viscosity. Higher
temperature may also increase the solubility of contaminants and, therefore, decrease the
effective of filtrate loss control chemicals. In addition, the colloidal fraction tends to flocculate
and increase filtration at elevated temperature.

The theoretical change in filtrate due to reduction of the viscosity of the filtrate as temperature is
increased can be expressed by the following equation:

f 1=f x √u ……………………. 2.9

√ u1
where
f = filtrate at a known temperature

12
f1 = filtrate at an elevated temperature
u = viscosity of water at known temperature
u1 = viscosity of water at elevated temperature
Temperature changes of water-base mud in the 80 to 140 range will result in change of filtrate of
approximately 10% for each 17 change. Filtrate increases as temperature increases.
Table 2-1 Viscosity of water Vs Temperature

Temperature Viscosity of Water Temperature Viscosity of water

0 0 0 0
C F cP C F cP
0 32 1.792 40 104 0.656
10 50 1.308 60 104 0.469
20 68 1.005 80 176 0.356
30 86 0.801 100 212 0.284

2.8.5 Time
The calculation of filtrate loss at variable time intervals relative to know filtrate loss and time
intervals relative to unknown filtrate loss and time interval can be predicted by the following
equation.

T1
f1 = f x
√ T
…………..2.10

Where
f = known filtrate at a time interval of T
f1 = Unknown filtrate at a time interval of T1
2.9 Solids
Quality, type, and size of suspended solids in a drilling fluid is in the control of rheological
properties. Solids in a drilling fluid comprised of varying quantities of weighting materials called
high gravity solids example is barite and low gravity solids examples calcium carbonate,
commercial bentonite, drilled solids (sand and shale) and, in some cases, loss circulation
additives.
2.10 P H and alkalinity
The PH of drilling fluid may be defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion (H)
content. At any particular hydrogen ion (H) content, there is a corresponding hydroxyl ion (OH)
concentration which will result in an equilibrium. The hydrogen ion represents the acidic
proportion and the hydroxyl ion the alkaline or basic portion of the solution. Fresh water
normally has an equal concentration of hydroxyl and hydrogen ions and PH near 7, which
indicates a neutral condition. Addition of a basic material such as caustic or lime would increase

13
(OH) concentration and PH, whereas an acid would increase (H) concentration and reduce the PH.
The maximum concentration of hydroxyl ions would result in a pH of 14 whereas the maximum
concentration of hydrogen ions would result in a PH of 0.
The PH of a drilling fluid is determined either by the colorimetric method utilizes chemically –
treated PHydrion paper which is placed on the mud’s surface until a colour change is noted. The
colour observed is matched with a colour chart on the side of the dispenser. If the salt
concentration is greater than 10,000, PH paper is not recommended. The electrometric procedure
employs a PH meter with a glass electrode. Although more accurate than PHydrion paper it is
quite sensitive to shock and difficult to maintain under fields conditions.
The PH of most water base drilling fluid systems is maintain in the 9.5 to 10.5 range for the
following reason.
1. Organic dispersants and filtration control agents generally achieve maximum
effectiveness in an alkaline environment.
2. Adverse effects of contaminating electrolytes are usually minimized at higher PH levels.
3. Corrosion rates can be reduced at higher P H levels and bacterial action on organic
materials is retarded at elevated alkalinity levels.
4. Thermal stability of lignosulfonate systems may be improved at a PH of 10 or above
The alkalinity of a solution is related to PH since alkalinity is the measure of the quantity of an
acid to reduce the PH of a filtrate to a particular value. The filtrate alkalinities utilized in mud
analysis are Pf and Mf. Pf alkalinity is the volume of N/50 (0.02 normal solution) Sulphuric acid
required to reduced the PH of 1cm3 of filtrate to 8.3. The end point is noted when the
phenolphalein indicator solutions changes from pink to colourless. Mf is the quantity of N/50
Sulphuric acid required to reduce the P H of 1.0cc of filtrate to 4.3. The end point is obtained with
a methyl orange indicator solution which will change to salmon pink or red.
If there were no interfering ions present, the Pf and mf alkalinities could be used to calculate the
amount of OH, CO3 and HCO3 ions present in the filtrate. However, the presence of organic
acids or buffering ions cause the Mf determination to indicate more CO3 and HCO3 ions than
actually present. This is the usual case in mud filtrate, and the M f determination is only a very
rough indicator of the CO3 and HCO3 ions present. As a general guide, M f values above 5ml
indicate that excessive amounts of CO3 and HCO3 ions are probably present in the mud.
Excessive concentrations of CO3 and HCO3 are suspected, another titration procedure, as shown
in the “Drilling Fluid Testing Procedures” can be used to determine their concentrations.
Another alkalinity measurement (Pm) is made with the mud rather than filtrate. This test also
refer to “Drilling Fluid Testing Procedures” is made in a manner similar to the P f test and is used
primarily to determine concentrations of lime and cement being carried as solids which tends to
replenish calcium and hydroxyl ions as they are used up. This can be a problem when it is
necessary to calculate the quantity of treating agent to neutralize the cement.
2.13 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
Commercial bentonite, other clays, and many chemicals exhibit a capacity to exchange cations
with a methyl blue solution (C16 H18 N3 SCL3 H2O). The testing procedure is described in

14
“Drilling Fluid Testing Procedure”. If the cation exchange effects of all treatment chemicals are
destroyed by oxidation with Hydrogen peroxide according to the test procedure, that the test
results given the cation exchange capacity of only the commercial bentonite and other clays in
the drilling fluid.
CHAPTER 3
3.0 Classifications Of Drilling Fluids
Drilling fluids is classified into two:

 Water Base Mud ( WBM )

 Oil Base Mud ( OBM )
3.1 Water Base Mud
Water Base Mud classification has been kept in a simplified format and they reflect industry
practice and terminology consistent with descriptions obtained from American Petroleum
Institute (API,1969). This is shown in fig. 3.1.
There are two major types of water based drilling fluids(Amoco Production Company,2000):
Non-Inhibitive Fluids
- Clear water
- Native
- Bentonite-water muds
- Lignite/Lignosulfonates muds

Inhibitive Fluids
- Calcium-based muds
- Salted-based muds
- Potassium based muds
- Glycol muds

3.1.1 Non- Inhibitive Fluids

Non-inhibitive fluids are simple in formulation and inexpensive. Their composition will vary
depending on the requirements of the local lithology, type of makeup water, hole size, and
anticipated contaminants. These muds have definite drilling application limitations which
become evident when drilling dispersive formations, encountering contaminants and high
temperatures, or increasing fluid density. Each of these limitations may require converting to
another type of fluid which is more adaptable to these conditions.
3.1.1.1 Clear Water
Clear water is a nearly ideal drilling fluid. However, when drilled solids are encountered, they
remain in suspension and thus, reduce the drilling efficiency. An effective means of removing

15
solids from clear water is settling. The settling area should be large enough to allow sufficient
time for small particles to settle. Treatment with polymers designed to flocculate drill solids or
lime treatments may be used to accelerate settling.
Clear water varies in salinity from fresh to saturated brines. Water selection and salinity will
depend upon available makeup water or salinity required to drill specific formations. Clear water
fluids are Newtonian and thus, require high annular velocities for hole cleaning. Occasional
viscous sweeps (small batches of high viscosity mud) are pumped around to clear the hole of
cuttings as needed. Caustic soda or lime is usually added for corrosion control.
3.1.1.2 Native Muds
In some areas, drilled formations contain mud-making clay stones or shales. When water is
pumped down the hole during drilling, it returns with the native solids dispersed in it. Viscosity
builds with continued drilling and circulation. The result is a viscous native mud. Dilution may
be needed to keep the mud from becoming excessively viscous. On the other hand, small
quantities of bentonite may be added to increase viscosity and improve filtration control. Caustic
soda or lime is usually added for corrosion control.
3.1.1.3 Bentonite-Water Muds
Bentonite dispersed in fresh water produces a mud with good cutting lifting capacity, good
drilling rate, and usually adequate filtration control. These bentonite-water muds are commonly
used as spud muds for drilling surface hole; however, they are sometimes used for drilling deeper
in the hole.
Water quality is important in formulating a bentonite-water mud. Chlorides and hardness in the
makeup water affect the hydration of the bentonite. Calcium ions concentration should not
exceed 150 mg/l (Baker Hughes Inteq, 1991). if greater than 150 mg/l ,it should be treated out
with soda ash. Treatment with 0.25lb of soda ash per barrel of water will remove approximately
100 mg/l of calcium ions. Magnesium hardness, on the other hand, is treated out with sodium
hydroxide. At pH of 9.7, magnesium ions would have all been reacted with sodium hydroxide to
precipitate Mg(OH)2. Chlorides, however, cannot be treated out of the makeup water. Less than
5000 mg/l chlorides will not seriously hamper hydration of commercial bentonite. When there is
more than 20,000 mg/l chlorides, bentonite hydration is essentially prevented. Adding fresh
water to reduce the chloride concentration becomes necessary to allow hydration.
In bentonite-water muds, viscosity can be increased by adding more bentonite or adding a
bentonite-extender polymer, or lime or soda ash. The pH is usually maintained in the 8.0 to 9.5
range with caustic soda. Caustic soda flocculates hydrated bentonite, but, this effect can be
minimized by slowly adding the caustic soda to the mud while it is being vigorously agitated.
3.1.1.4 Lignite-Lignosulphonate (Deflocculated) Muds
Lignite-Lignosulphonate muds can be used to drill a variety of formations. They can be weighted
up to 18 or 19 lb/gal, provided low-gravity solids (bentonite and drill solids) are in the proper
range. As mud density is increased, the bentonite content should be decreased.

16
The pH range for controlling lignite-lignosulphonate muds is between 9.5 and 10.5. In this range,
the magnesium ion is precipitated. Calcium ion should be kept below 200 mg/l less than 10,000
mg/l chlorides should not hamper fluid performance, but if chlorides exceed 25,000 mg/l, the
mud should be diluted with fresh water. Lignite-lignosulphonate muds are thermally stable to
approximately 3250F ( Baker Hughes Inteq, 1991) this temperature limit is not well defined and
it is dependent upon the mud pH, on the type of lignosulphonate used, the length of time
exposed to high temperature and the solids content of the mud. Generally, chrome
lignosulphonates perform at temperatures higher than non- lignosulphonates. It is significant to
note that when lignite-lignosulfonate fluids thermally degrade, carbon dioxide is produced and
carbonate ions accumulate in the filtrate.
3.1.2 Inhibitive Fluids
Inhibitive fluids are those that stabilize the formation. These fluids are primarily used for drilling
shale and clay. However, they are also used in areas where contamination is a problem. Even in
large quantities salt, anhydrite, and cement can be handled successfully with the proper inhibitive
fluid. Inhibitive salt-based muds use sodium chloride (NaCl) to achieve inhibition. Calcium-
based muds use lime (Ca(OH)2) or gyp (Ca SO4-2H2O), and Potassium-based muds use Caustic
potash (KOH), Potassium chloride (KCl), Potassium Carbonate (K2CO3), and other Potassium-
based additives to achieve inhibition.
3.1.2.1 Calcium- Based Muds
Calcium –based muds are primarily used to drill intervals of highly reactive shales. They exhibit
greater inhibition than sodium-based muds by reducing hydration of clays. Calcium-based muds
are highly resistant to contamination. They tolerate solids well, but a high concentration of low-
gravity solids will cause unstable rheological properties. In a calcium-based mud, calcium ions
and magnesium ions contamination do not have adverse effects on fluid performance. Chloride
ions, however, do appreciably affect performance. Chloride ions concentrations above 100,000
mg/l are considered to be the upper limit in which these muds will operate effectively. When
bottom hole temperatures exceed 3000F calcium-base muds, particularly lime muds, are not
normally considered due to the possibility of high-temperature gelation. However, a gyp mud
with an acceptable range of low-gravity solids can withstand bottom hole temperature to 3500F.
3.1.2.2 Saturated Salt Muds
Saturated Salt muds are used to prevent excessive hole enlargement while drilling massive salt
beds. They can also be used to reduce dispersion and hydration of shale and clays. High viscosity
problems in Saturated salt muds are unusual, however, solids content (percent by volume) should
be maintained within a desired range by mechanical removal or dilution with saturated salt water
to prevent unacceptable increase in gel strength and viscosity.
Saturated saltwater contains approximately 13volume % dissolved solids; therefore, to obtain
“true” brine content of Saturated Salt muds, multiply the “retort liquid” volume percent of the
mud by 1.13 and subtract that from 100 to obtain actual volume percent suspended solids
content. Volume increase due to lower concentration of salt can also be calculated.
The chloride content of saturated salt muds is 192,000 mg/l (315,000) mg/l NaCl) at saturation.
As the temperature of the mud increases, more salt is able to go into solution. This means that a

17
fluid which is saturated under surface conditions may not be saturated at down hole temperatures
and can cause substantial washout in a salt zone due to increased salt solubility.
Control of the pH of saturated salt muds varies widely. These muds do not require pH to
function. Many low-solids, attapugite/starch muds are used without adding caustic soda. In other
areas, it is a common practice to maintain the pH of the mud from 11-11.5 with additions of
caustic soda. Saturated salt muds require larger additions of caustic soda to maintain a higher pH
than do freshwater muds. Maintaining 11 to 11.5 pH offers several advantages:

 Defloculants are more effective

 Corrosion is reduced
 Lower concentration of filtration control additives are required when Calcium and
Magnesium ions solubility is reduced.
 Foaming tendency is lessened
 Mud is generally more stable.
Saturated salt muds will normally contain soluble calcium due to the formation penetrated and
the type of makeup water used. Also, the sodium ions from the salt will undergo a base exchange
and release calcium ions from the clay platelets, thereby contributing to the free calcium.
Generally, the presence of calcium does not produce detrimental effects on the mud, except when
the pH is increased beyond 12.0 which makes the fluid loss difficult to control. Saturated salt
muds are characterized by foaming. Foaming is generally restricted to surface foam and it is not
troublesome unless aggravated by mechanical agitation. The degree of foaming may sometimes
be decreased by increasing the alkalinity of the mud (Pm). Also, the addition of bentonite can be
successful in reducing the foaming. A defoaming agent may be necessary. Unless Magnesium
ion sensitive additives are used, a saturated salt mud is less prone to foam and air cut with a 9.0-
9.5 pH.
The temperature limitation of saturated salt muds is around 250 0F and it is normally dictated by
the filtration control additive used. Calcium and Magnesium ions hardness do not adversely
affect filtration control in saturated salt muds when using starch. However, when PAC is used
hardness should be below 400 mg/l.
3.123 KCL-Polymer Muds
KCL-Polymer muds were developed to provide wellbore stability and minimize cuttings
dispersion when properly formulated. Benefits such as low formation damage and high return
permeability encourage their use for drilling water- sensitive formations. Potassium chloride
(KCl) muds not only use a wide variety of potassium chloride concentrations from 3 to 15 wt%,
but also a wide variety of types and concentrations of polymers. For KCl muds to be economical,
drilled solids concentrations should be lower than 6% and efficient solids control practices must
be used.
3.1.2.4 Glycol Muds
The glycol system is an enhanced-polymer, water-base system that uses poly-glycol technology
to provide a high degree of shale inhibition, wellbore stability, HTHP fluid-loss control and
lubricity. This system also is ideal for drilling depleted sands where differential pressure-sticking
is a major concern in deepwater operations, and drilling high-angle wells in reactive formations

18
where well bore stability and torque and drag are major concerns. Other benefits include
enhanced cutting integrity, improved filter-cake quality, lower dilution rates, less hole
enlargement, greater solids tolerance, better performance of polycrystalline diamond compact
(PDC) bits, reduced bit-balling and increased rate of penetration(ROP). The glycol system also is
environmentally acceptable due to its low toxicity and reduced disposal rates. Although the
glycol enhanced polymer system achieves some inhibition by chemical adsorption, the cloud-
point phenomenon is the primary mechanism for inhibition and stabilization. The cloud- point is
the temperature at which glycol changes from being totally soluble to insoluble. At temperatures
above the cloud point, glycols form colloidal droplets, or micelles, which result in a micro-
emulsion. This phenomenon is often referred to as a “Thermally Activated Mud Emulsion”
(TAME). This TAME effect provides wellbore stability in three distinct ways:
. Through chemical adsorption.
. Through micro emulsion and precipitate pore-plugging
. By providing a thinner, less-porous filter/wall cake.

These glycol polymer systems are more effective when used with an inhibitive salt, such as
Potassium chloride ( KCl), for ionic inhibition and an encapsulating polymer such as Poly
anionic cellulose (PAC). So it is recommended to maintain sodium chloride or potassium
chloride salt in the system. Maximum benefits are obtained by matching the cloud point of the
glycols with the bottom-hole temperature or the temperature of the formation being drilled. This
results in the adsorption of the insoluble glycols onto clay/shale formation forming a protective
barrier against water and its damaging effects. Adsorption of insoluble glycols into the filter/wall
cake on permeable formation reduces the thickness of the filter/ wall cake and the filtration loss
rates. Since the insoluble glycol has an affinity to surfaces, it can coat solids and exposed
surfaces. It provide lubrication and reduces balling. Most glycol polymer systems are designed
for glycol to become totally soluble as it cools while being pumped up the annulus to the surface.
However, some glycol polymer systems are designed to keep the glycol insoluble at all times.
Several glycols are available with a wide range of cloud points to achieve the desired
temperature. However, glycol polymer systems usually are designed prior to drilling.
3.1.3 Polymer Fluids
Polymer fluids contain polymers which greatly diversify their applications. These fluids contain
polymers to viscosify, polymers to filtration; polymers to deflocculate, polymers to provide high-
temperature stabilization, etc. Polymer fluid generally contain only minor amounts of bentonite
to build viscosity. Primary viscosification is provided by high molecular weight polymers such
as PHPA, PAC, XC polymer among others, because these fluids contain only small quantities of
bentonite or clay solids. They are less prone to rheological and filtration property fluctuations
resulting from the effects of contaminants on the clay structure. Polymers fluids also reduce
cuttings dispersion and stabilize the wellbore through encapsulation. Usually these fluids contain
less than 5% by volume total-gravity solids and can be divided into two general polymer mud
categories.

 Non-Dispersed Polymer Muds

19
  High-Temperature Deflocculated Polymer Muds

3.1.3.1 Non- Dispersed Polymer Muds

In many areas, clear water cannot be used as drilling fluid because of its effect on formation and
the lack of sufficient viscosity to properly clean the hole. In these circumstances Non-Dispersed
Polymer muds may be used to closely simulate the drilling characteristics of clear water. Non-
dispersed Polymer muds have found their application in areas where formations are hard and
penetration rates are slows. These polymer muds contain fewer than 5% low-gravity solids and
hence are sometimes referred to as low-solids non-dispersed (LSND) muds. LSND muds do not
perform well in areas with long intervals of reactive shale because of their intolerance to solids
contamination. Also, salt, saltwater flow, gyp/anhydrite, and cement contamination will severely
limit the use of these muds. Most Non- dispersed polymer muds are composed of water with
varying quantities of bentonite and polymers. Polymers are added to the system to build viscosity
either through flocculation of the solids or by viscosifying the water phase. They are also added
to provide filtration control. Some of the more commonly used Non- dispersed Polymer muds
are:

 BEN-EX Muds
 Low-Solids PAC/CMC Muds
 Low -Solids PHPA Muds.

3.1.3.2 High- Temperature Deflocculated Polymer Muds
High- Temperature Deflocculated polymer muds were developed to extend the temperature
stability of conventional polymer muds. They are designed to tolerate, in addition to
contaminants, the inclusion of inhibiting ions such as KCl or Nacl. These muds are required to
provide stability along the same lines as an oil mud yet still be economical. If the high-
temperature deflocculated polymer mud can be used in place of an oil-based mud, then it
becomes very attractive for reasons of environmental and safety considerations. The major
drawback to the high-temperature deflocculated polymer mud is that they become difficult to
control at densities above about 14.0lb/gal (Baker Hughes Inteq, 1991). Viscosity can become
difficult to control when the solid loading is high and when the mud contains polymeric fluid
loss additives. This is especially true of freshwater muds. However, sodium chloride can inhibit
the viscosity increase contributed by the fluid loss additives. An important consideration,
however, is that the consumption rate of the fluid loss additives will increase as a result of adding
sodium chloride. It should also be noted that consumption of fluid loss additives is higher for
muds formulated with KCI.
At temperatures above 3750F synthetically-manufactured deflocculants is preferred since most
deflocculants such as lignosulfonate and lignite rapidly degrade. Synthetic deflocculants are
more expensive, but offer overall economical benefits.
For mud densities in excess of 16lb/gal, bentonite levels should be maintained at less than 10 lb/
bbl. This concentration should be decreased as mud density increases above 16 lb/gal. The pH
should be controlled in the range of 9-11 with KOH or NaOH. Drill solids must be kept to a
minimum and controlled with high-speed shakers, centrifuges, and dilution. Excessive solids will
cause gelation of the mud or even solidification in high-temperature environments.

20
 Bentonite addition in high temperature muds is not recommended because it can cause severe
gelation and difficulty in initiating circulation; however, cellulosic polymers can be used as they
will not cause high-temperature gelation. It should be noted that adequate mixing such as that
from auxiliary mixing devices will be required to fully disperse and mix the cellulosic
viscosifiers. Sodium carboxyl methyl cellulose provide viscosity and suspension and are not
affected by contaminants such as chlorides and carbon dioxide.
3.2 Oil Base Muds
The technology of mud systems based on oil as the continuous phase has evolved greatly since
their development starting in the 1950’s. This is not to minimize the fact that crude oil was used
as a drilling fluid many years before that. The selection of the types of oil to use can be the most
important factor in the economic success of the well. Based on this fact. Number 2 diesel is
usually used for the oil phase because of its viscosity characteristics, low flammability and low
solvency to rubber.
Water present in the oil base mud is in form of an emulsion and contain additives that may cause
formation contamination. For this reason No 1 diesel or mineral oil is therefore more desirable.
A few years ago. there was a perceived different between “oil based mud “ and “Inverted oil
Emulsion mud”.Traditionally, an oil based mud is one with 5% or less emulsified into the
internal phase. An inverted oil emulsion muds contain more than 5% water. Examples of invert
oil emulsion muds are synthetic base mud and mineral oil base mud.
Applications
1. Drilling water-sensitive, productive sands
2. Alleviating differently stuck pipe
3. Drilling water soluble. hydratable or gumbo (plastic flowing shale) formations
4. Drilling° deviated holes
5. Coring
6. Drilling high temperature formations
7 Drilling in areas in which building of drilled solids is a problem.
8 Drilling corrosive environments
9 Parker fluids
10. Casing packs for corrosion prevention
11. Drilling salt or anhvdrite formation
12. Maximizing casing recovery
13. Drilling low pressure formation

21
14. In special cases, drilling under balance.

Advantages
a. Shale stability and Inhibition
Oil base muds have the ability to stabilize troublesome shales. A properly treated mud can drill
pressured shale at a 0.2 to 0.1ppg lower mud weight than would be required with a water-base
mud. The emulsifier film around each droplet of water in an oil-base mud serves as a semi-
permeable membrane across which osmotic pressure may be generated. Since most of the rocks
that are drilled contain water, and because of the dehydrating effect caused by this osmotic
pressure, it is possible to control water-wetting of the rocks by use of an oil base mud. Because
of shales are prevented from becoming water wet and dispersing into the mud caving into the
hole, a closer-to-gauge hole may be drilled and hole problems are reduced.
b. Protection of Producing sands
i. Bentonitic sand- The oil - filtrate does not allow clay formations swell and therefore does
not reduce permeability due to clay swelling.
ii Clean sand - The oil base mud prevents water blockage caused by the water filtrate of
water - base muds.
c. Drilling deep hot holes
Oil base mud has a natural resistance to high temperature gellation. Property treated with
emulsifier, viscosifier, suspension agent and oil mud stabilizer, a stable mud system can be
maintained, that is, unaffected by the high temperature encountered in deep wells.
d. Drilling soluble formation
With the external phase being oil, an oil-base mud system is unaffected when drilling water
soluble formation such as salt, potash and gypsum.
e. Prevention of stuck pipe
The low oil filtrate,thin filter cake, and excellent lubricity coefficient of oil-base muds aids
highly permeable formations and in badly deviated holes. Also the use of oil-base mud will
reduce drill pipe torque and drag.
f. Corrosion Protection
Since the external phase of the oil-base mud is oil, maximum drill pipe corrosion protection
permitted in the presence of contaminants such as oxygen, hydrogen sulphide. carbon dioxide,
formation fluids and organic acids. Many of the oil-base mud products contain amine (ammo
derivatives which form a protective oil film on all metal surface in the circulating system.
Properly prepared oil-base muds are recommended for as parker fluids (tubing/casing annulus)
and casing packs (outside casing). The non-conductive external oil phase provides maximum
protection from corrosive agents.
22
g. Fire Resistance
Typical oil-base mud (with 10% water) offer good fire resistance, with a flash point in the range
l70-2000C.
Disadvantages
a. High Initial cost per barrel
Initial make-up costs will be high. A barrel of OBM may cost U.S. $200 to $250 per barrel and
will fluctuate with the price of the oil. This is considerably higher cost than most water-base
muds at any density.
b. Mechanical Shear Required
To achieve the emulsion and rheology required before drill-out, mechanical shearing is required
to form a tight emulsion and separate the organoclay platelets to provide sufficient rheology.
This can be accomplished by using a high pressure pump (shearing device) or shearing through
the bit.
c. Reduced Kick Detection Ability
H2S, CO2. and methane are all soluble in oil muds. If gas enters the well bore, it can go into
solution under pressure and, as the gas moves up the hole, it can break out of solution. If this
occurs at a shallow depth. it may be too late to prevent a blow out. All kicks in oil muds must be
treated as a gas kick and circulated through the choke.
d Pollution Control Required
Most areas where oil mud is used have environmental restrictions. Rig modifications may be
necessary to contain possible spills, collect or clean oil mud cuttings, and handle whole mud
without dumping.
e. High Cost of Lost Circulation
Lost circulation with oil muds is very expensive due to cost per barrel.
f. Rig Cleanliness
Extra effort is required to keep a rig clean when Oil muds are used.
g. Hazardous Vapor
As hot mud flows across high speed shaker screens and circulates in mud pits, toxic
hydrocarbons may be released. Therefore, shaker and mud pits must be adequately ventilated.
h. Effect on Rubber

23
Oil muds can cause either shrinkage or swelling of normal rubber parts. Therefore, it may be
necessary to change out BOP rubber parts of the hydril. etc. to nitrile rubbers.
i. Fire Hazard
Since the oil used in Oil mud can burn, extra precautions are required to prevent fire. Additional
smoke, and fire detectors and protection devices may be necessary.
3.3 Treatment Terminology
Treatment of a drilling muds system requires that certain operations be referred to specific
terminology.
Familiarity with these terms is important to the successful performance of your job as a Drilling
Mud Sales Engineer. In this section some of the most common terms and phrases relating to
drilling mud treatment are defined
I. Mud-Up
This means to add solid materials, such as bentonite premium clays or attapulgite clays,
to a drilling fluid composed mainly of clear water to obtain certain desirable properties
(increase viscosity and gel strength. or lower filtrate loss).
2. Weight - UP
This means to add weighting material to increase density. or specific gravity of the
drilling mud.
3. Thin
This means to add a substance such as a chemical or water to reduce the viscosity of the
mud. Adding water to thin the mud is also called dilution.
4. Water Back
This term can mean either of the following: (1) to reduce the weight or density of a
drilling mud by adding water; or (2) to reduce the solids content of a mud by adding
water.
5. Emulsify
An emulsion is a mixture in which one liquid (the dispersed phase) is uniformly
distributed usually in tiny globules, in another liquid (the continuous phase). In an Oil-
water emulsion, oil is the dispersed phase and water the continuous phase. In a water-in-
oil ( invert emulsion), the reverse is true, oil may be emulsified in water-base mud to aid
in lubrication, filtration control, and reduced bit- balling, which lowers pump pressures
and increases drilling rates. Water-in-oil emulsions are commonly used as drilling muds.
6. Pilot Test

24
 This is a method of predicting the behavior of mud systems by mixing small quantities of
mud and mud additives, and then testing the results.
7 Break Over
Generally speaking, the term “Break over” means to convert from an existing mud
system to completely new mud system. The decision to convert should be based on
considerations of comparative cost, how long the problem with the existing mud system
can be coped with. When the situation appears to justify a change from one system to
another (rather than treating the current system) a decision must be made as to whether it
is more economical to mix completely new mud and change systems (as when going
from a water-base to an oil-base system or vice versa), or to break over to a new system.

25
 CHAPTER 4
4.0 Typical Muds System
4.1 Spud / Bentonite Muds
Characteristics, Composition And Preparation
Characteristics
The most concentrated drilling chemical is bentonite, the suspension provide the primary
viscosity and wall building properties. The base fluid is fresh or brackish water. Hydration of
bentonite becomes less effective at increasing salinity and hardness of the base water. In practice
this means that when the salinity of the base water exceed 5000 mg/l chloride, bentonite must be
‘prehydrated’ in a batch of soft water, prior to addition to the mud.
Bentonite spud muds are cheap to run, because part of the viscosity and fluid loss properties is
provided by entrained formation shales and clays.
Viscosity is controlled wth dispersants; bentonite muds are, therefore, dispersed, non-inhibitive
muds. Muds treatment is relatively simply, using the ‘dispersed and dilute’ technique. Polymeric
additives (CMCS) are normally used to provide additional viscosity and fluid loss control.
The upper limit of the mud salinity at which prehydrated bentonite still provides sufficient
viscosity and plastering properties is approximately 20,000 – 25,000 mg/l chloride (i.e. sea water
salinity). Above this level these mud properties are more economically provided by polymers
(CMCS). Treatment with dispersants to deflocculate drilled clays remains, however, important
for control of viscosity and fluid loss.
The demerits of bentonite mud are mainly its sensitivity to contaminants (evaporates, hard and
/or saline formation water) and the rapid entrainment of solids when drilled sections of dispersive
shales and clays. Bentonite muds are used for drilling sand or sandstone, not too reactive shales
and carbonates.
Spud muds are used for drilling the first hole section before pressure control equipment is
installed. The hole diameters are large and weak friable formations, often consisting of sand
layers are encountered. The pressures are, however, normal, a zone of high washouts and lost
circulation. As during drilling, mud densities naturally increase, spud muds require the lowest
possible density when initially prepared. The viscosity of spud mud is a compromise between the
requirement for adequate hole cleaning at relatively viscosity). Plastering, that is, the build-up of
a filter cake on permeable formations supports the bore hole wall.
Composition

26
 Base fluid: Fresh or low saline water. Heavy losses are quite common during spudding. Water
which is readily available is, therefore, the preferred base fluid, e.g sea-water offshore,
river/pond for swamp, well water for onshore.
Chemicals: Rheology ad filtrate control in fresh water muds is most efficiently provided by
bentonite for maximum effect, bentonite should be fully hydrated.
In saline water, that is, with a chloride content in excess of 5000 mg/l, bentonite yielding is less
complete and a polymeric viscosifier (e.g Hi-vis CMS) should, therefore, be used to provide
viscosity.
The addition of prehydrated bentonite (that is, prepared in a batch of fresh water) is effective in
providing fluid loss control and aiding the development of rheological properties.
Caustic soda is added to maintain the P H at a level of 9 – 10.5. soda ash is added in case the
source water is hard, that is, containing Ca and Mg – ions.
A typical specification of spud mud is:
Density: as low as possible but cannot be > 9.5 ppg.
MF viscosity: 60 – 80
YP/PV ratio: 2
API fluid loss: < 15cm3.
The required concentrations of the various chemicals mentioned is / governed by the required
properties, but the following compositions are typical for spud muds.
(i) Fresh Water Base
Caustic soda : 0.1 – 2 1bs/bb1
Soda ash: 0.5 – 2 1bs/bb1; 0.1 1b/bb1 for every 100mg/1 reduction of dissolved Ca.
Allow some (<100mg/1) remaining dissolved Ca.
Bentonite : 20 – 50 1bs/bb1

(ii) Seawater Base

Bentonite: 101bs/bb1 (prehydrate, that is, so much of concentrated slurry of
pregydrate bentonite corresponding to 10 1bs bentonite per bb1 of mud)
CMC HV: 3 lbs/bb1
Caustic soda: 0.1 – 2 1bs/bb1

27
In offshore operations wells drilled from semi-submersibles are spudded with returns to sea bed.
Normally one or two hole sections are drilled in that way before pressure control equipment and
a riser are installed, enable the use of a circulation system. In order to aid in hole cleaning, slugs
of viscosified seawater are pumped regularly (e.g. 30bb1s slugs after equipment the viscosity of
these slugs cab e maintained high (typical values are 100 - 120s MF). The recommended
composition of these slugs is seawater containing 0.25 – 1.50 1bs/bb1 XC – polymer. No other
chemicals are required.
XC-polymer is biodegradable and its solution will start degrading 24 – 28 hours after
preparation, indicated by a loss of viscosity. Although this process can be delayed by adding
biocide and this should not be done routinely. Proper planning of slug preparation and utilization
should make the used of these potentially hazardous chemical unnecessary.
Top hole sections drilled with seawater are often rather unstable, resulting in washouts and hole
fill. In order to support the hole during trips and to enable running casing, a viscous mud with
thin impermeable wall building properties is spotted oven the open hole section.
4.2 Gypsum – lignosulphonate
Characteristics, composition and preparation
Gypsum – lignosulphonate mud is a further sophistication of a bentonite mud. The presence of
slightly soluble gypsum (CaSO4. 2H20) in the mud provides a level of dissolved calcium ions
which gives some inhibition against clay and shale hydration.
There is practical no limitation to the choice of make-up water, any natural water source will do.
Normally, prehydrated bentonite is used during the initial preparation of the mud. Additional
fluid loss control is provided by CMC-LV and lignosulphonates which are added in the course of
the treatment. CMC-HV is normally used in conjunction with bentonite to provide viscosity (or
replace bentonite in case no prehydration can be established).
Caustic soda is used to contort the PH at 10-10.5. The solubility of gypsum is dependent on the
salinity of the base water: fresh water is saturated with 600mg/l Calcium. To ensure replacement
of calcium ions which are exchanged for excess gypsum of 3 to 5 1bs/bb1 is maintained in the
mud.
When adding gypsum to bentonite containing mud, a viscosity “hump” may occur, which
disappears after continued agitation. The reason is that cations of bentonite, sodium ions are
(partly) exchanged for calcium ions. The attractive forces exerted by sodium ions on the clay
sheets in the presence of
The typical composition of such mud is:
Seawater as base fluid
Caustic soda : 0.1 – 2 1bs/bb1
Bentonite : 101bs/bb1 (prehydrated)
CMC – HV : 5 1bs/bb1

28
Barite : as required
Giving the following properties
Density: As required (or higher depending on barite content)
Viscosity (MF): 100-120s
API fluid loss: <10cm3

Treatment While Drilling Clays and Shales

Typical requirements for spud muds are:
- Mud density must be as low as possible, to keep the chance of formation breakdown as
low as possible.
- Viscosity must be sufficiently high, that is, typically in the range of 60-70s MF in order
to ensure proper hole cleaning but at the same time allowing for efficient separation of
cuttings in the solids reducing equipment (SRE).
Note: To avoid flocculation, bentonite is often added to the water before the caustic soda water
are low, allowing a high degree of hydration of the individual clay platelets. The attractive forces
in calcium – bentonite are larger, resulting in less hydration than for sodium – bentonite. When
hydrated sodium – bentoite is converted to the calcium form, hydration layers are broken up. The
bentonite is going through a flocculated ‘Card-house’ structure of semi-broken bonds.
After the conversion is completed, the resulting mud will be quite thin, however, in view of the
reduced hydration of calcium – bentonite.
This ‘Over the hump’ effect is dependent on the initial concentration and degree of hydration
(Quality of make-up water) of the bentonite. It is less pronounced when preparing fresh water
mud. If required, addition of lignosulphonate (1-2ppb) can be used to reduce the viscosity and
speed up the conversion.
A typical make-up of a gypsum – lignosulphonate mud is:
Seawater
Caustic soda : 0.1 – 2 lbs/bb1
Benroniote : 5 1bs/bb1
CMC LV : 4 1bs/bb1
CMC HV : 2 1bs/bb1
Gypsum : 5 1bs/bb1
Barite : as required

29
To give the following properties
Density : as required
PV : Approximately 20cP
YP : 15 – 20 1bs/100ft2
API fluid loss : < 10cm3
PH : 10.5
Excess gypsum : 3 1bs/bb1

Effective of Clay And Shales

The composition of a gypsum – lignosulphonate mud is very similar to that of a bentonite mud,
hence the effect of contaminants are broadly the same. As a result of the presence of dissolved
calcium ions some exchange with cations (mainly sodium and hydrogen ions) attached to the
clay platelets will results in a clay modification which swell less in water. The increase of
viscosity and gel values due to entrainment of clay solids in the mud, will therefore, be less in a
gyp-lignosulphonate mud than in a bentonite mud. In addition, operational problems related to
hydration of shale and clay cuttings, like bit balling and formation of clay balls are less
compared to a bentonite mud. In practice, however, gyp-lignosulphonates muds are often used
for shales which are potentially more hydratable. A rapidly responding viscosity (YP, gels, MF)
is, therefore, typically experienced also when drilling with this more ‘inhibitive’ mud.
The effects on other mud properties (density, solids content, MBT – value, P H) is similar to those
observed for a bentonite mud. The MBT – value is, like for bentonite or dispersion should be the
method for reducing the viscosity. As in bentonite muds, MBT – value of 30-35 1bs/bb1 is
normally considered the range above which mud dilution becomes the most efficient method to
reduce viscosity.
As a result of ion change - out the excess of gypsum will reduce and become ultimately depleted
while drilling shales.
Treatment While Drilling Clays and Shales
Gyp-lignosulphonate muds are treated similarly to bentonite muds. The additives are the same;
the only difference is that gypsum is the active source of dissolved calcium. Although clays in
gyp-lignosulphonate mud contributes less to the mud viscosity and fluid loss properties than in
bentonite muds, the use of relatively cheap treatment chemicals and the insensitivity towards
contaminants (cement, anhydrite) makes this mud an economically attractive, versatile system,
suitable for nearly all drilling conditions.
The key of gyp-lignosulphonate mud treatment is to maintain an adequate level of undissolved
gypsum of 3-51bs/bb1. As soon as the excess gypsum content drop below this level, gypsum

30
should be added. This can be done direct into the circulating system through a hopper. The
material should be added gradually to ensure uniform distribution through the mud.
Treatment to control viscosity and density of gyp-lignosulphonate mud is the same as for
bentonite muds, that is, by deflocculation with lignosulphonate/caustic pill and dilution.
In general gyp-lignosulphonate muds have slightly higher fluid loss than the bentonite muds.
This is because bentonite and formation clays, in which sodium has been replaced by calcium,
hydrate less which results in a less impermeable filtered cake, even when fully deflocculation
with lignosulphonate.
In case low fluid loss control is prescribed (e.g below 10ml API) addition of low viscosity CMC
could be required. The dosage can be estimated through pilot testing, but in general 1-2 1bs/bb1
will be effective to restore the fluid loss to within the set limits.
There is one aspect which requires attention when using gyp-lignosulphonate muds. When
drilling has continue using mud and once gypsum has been depleted, mud problems may occur
when restoring gypsum level. Such situations may example occur in offshore operations during a
prolonged period of bad weather when supply of chemicals is impossible. Addition of gypsum
may then result in the development of excessive viscosity and simultaneously increase in fluid
loss. Hydrated clay solids react with added calcium to form random structures of flocculated
lumps of particles. Such ‘card – house’ structure absorbs a lot of the water, which depend on the
active clay content in the mud, may result in more or less severe gellation of the mud. Although
the viscosity may eventually decrease to normal level after the calcium level is re-established,
this process of “getting over the viscosity hump” is slow. Pilot testing should be carried out to
identify the best approach of treating the mud. Following procedures aid to a quick “break-over”.
- Exert high shear, ie. circulate at high rate, use a paddle mixers and mud guns in pits to
promote mechanical breakdown of flocculated lumps of clay.
- Lignosulphonate / caustic pills will rapidly defflocculate lumps of clay or may even
prevent flocculation when added together with gypsum. It is therefore most convenient
and effective to add the chemicals as a gypsum/lingo/caustic cocktail via a pre-mixed pill.
To prevent gypsum from settling in the mixture, CMC LV may be added to provide
suspending properties (CMC LV may be required any way to restore the deteriorated
plastering properties resulting from the conversion).
- When clay solids content in the mud is rather high (MBT 20-251bs/bb1) dilution or
change-out of part of the circulating mud for fresh mud may be required prior to the
break-over to speed up the conversion. There are several techniques of implementing this.
The preferred techniques depends on the availability of spare pits and mixing facilities.
Whichever method is chosen, it is important that, especially in open hole, the mud
properties always remain within the define range. A preferred method, therefore, is to
prepare a volume of fresh mud in the spare pits (using CMC high viscosity instead of
prehydrated bentonite as viscosifier) and add this to the circulating mud while dumping
returns.
Depletion of the gypsum in gyp-ligno muds may also be done on purpose. This is common in
situations where the lithology of formations to be drilled do not require the presence of calcium
anymore (i.e. absence of reactive shales or anhydrite). By simply discontinuing the addition of

31
gypsum, the mud is converted into a bentonite – type mud. The advantages are mainly in the
reduced chemical cost. Apart from the savings on gypsum, it is likely that less fluid loss reducing
polymers are required, in view of the better filter cake building properties of sodium clays.

Treatment against Cement Contamination

This mud type is rather insensitive to cement contamination, all clays present (bentonite and
drilled clays) are already converted to the calcium – form. Cement contamination will generally
only show as an increase in PH, and mud alkalinity (P.m,. pf). An increase in dissolved calcium
level would be suppressed because of the existence of calcium sulphate ionization equilibrium.
Only in case of severe contamination (i.e. calcium levels in excess 2000mg/1) viscosity and fluid
loss would be affected due to CMC degradation.
Normally, gyp-lignosulphonate mud does not require treatment to neutralize the effect of cement
contamination. Treatment with sodium bicarbonate is useless as the bicarbonate ions would be
consumed directly upon addition by the abundance of (temporary) increased P H is normally not
detrimental to the mud.
In case of severe contamination (e.g. drilling soft unset cement) dumping of contaminated return
is preferred option.
Treatment against Contamination
Gypsum based muds have a higher tolerance towards salt contamination than fresh water clay
muds. The clays in gypsum muds have been converted into a modification which is less sensitive
to salt contamination. Most gypsum based muds can tolerate a salt content in excess of 50g/1
before viscosity and fluid loss values require treatment. Above, aimed at reducing the effect of
salt contamination on rheology and filtration properties.
As in the case with all other water based muds which are not salt saturated, the mud should be
converted to a saturated system prior to drilling ahead if the salt contamination is due to drilling
into a salt layer.

4.3 KCl – Polymer Muds

Characteristics / Composition and Preparation
Of the water based drilling fluids, KCI – Polymer mud is ranked second to the best inhibitive
against clay – fluid interaction. The main application is, therefore, in drilling massive layers of
hydratable shales. Its beneficial effects is based on the inhibitive properties of potassium ions
towards shale hydration and on encapsulation and coating of both cuttings and borehole wall by
selected polymers.
KCI-polymer muds are often referred to as ‘Low solids’ muds, which mean that:

32
 - No colloidal or suspended solids are used in the initial make-up;
- Treatment is geared to prevent the dispersion of drilled solids to enable solids removal
(no thinners added)
The base fluid of KCI – polymer mud is a KCI brine. The concentration of KCI may vary,
depending on degree of inhibition required. However, a typical concentration is 10% (v/v) or 35
1bs/bb1.
The base water for preparation of the brine many be fresh or slightly saline (e.g. seawater). The
water should be checked for hardness, and , if necessary be treated with soda ash to reduce the
dissolved calcium level to 100mg/L (the polyacrylamide polymer used in KCI – polymer is
calcium sensitive).
KCI can be added to the base water at the required concentration or, alternatively, be supplied as
concentrated brine (80-90 1bs/bb1 KCI). The latter option is attractive when logistics allow
doing so, as preparing brine is rather time consuming. Table 4.2 shows weight and volume
implication of preparing KCI brines. Caustic soda is added to bring the p H at a level between 9
and 10, to provide non-corrosive conditions.
Viscosity and fluid loss control are provided by polymers. For viscosity, Polyanionic celluloses
(PAC) and/or biopolymers (XC-polymer) are used. They are different from technical grade CMC
in that the molecules have more anionic sites (promoting adsorption onto clay particles), are
longer (higher viscosity) and the material contains less impurities.
For fluid loss control, low viscosity PACs, or alternatively ‘modified starch’ are used. A special
polymer, polyacrylamide, is added to encapsulate clay cuttings. This additive is supplied as a
liquid concentrate (as a dispersion in oil) to facilitate rapid addition to the mud.
Composition of a typical KCI-polymer muds is the following:
Fresh or seawater (max ca-level 400mg/1)
KCI : 35 1bs/bb1
Caustic soda : 0.5 – 1.01b/bb1
PAC, Low viscosity : 31bs/bb1
PAC, high viscosity : 21bs/bb1 or XC-polymer at 0.5-11b/bb1
Polyacryklamide : 11b/bb1 (optional)
Barite : as required
Above formulation would yield the following properties:
Density: >9.01bs/gal
Mf viscosity: 45 – 50s
PV: 15 – 20 cp

33
YP: 20 – 25 lbs/100ft
PH: 9.5 – 10.5
API fluid loss: < 10cm3
K+ content: 52,000mg/1
If few or no barite are required for the initial make-up the mud will contain only a small amount
of suspended solids. If the drilling programme calls for a low fluid loss mud directly from the
start (e.g. permeable formation closely below the last casing shoe) addition of fine particulate
matter could be required to aid in filter cake buildup. Use of prehydrated bentonite
(approximately 51bs/bb1) or finely graded calcium carbonate, e.g. with a median particle size of
25 micons, is then recommended.
Table 3.2 Properties Of KCL Solutions

%KCI wt Density 1b/gal KCI bm/bb1 K+ mgL CL-mg/L

1. 8.17 3.5 5,250 4,750
2. 8.42 7.1 10,500 9,500
3. 8.47 10.7 15,750 14,300
4. 8.53 14.4 21,000 19,000
5. 8.59 18.1 26,250 23,800
6. 8.64 21.8 31,450 28,550
8 8.75 29.4 41,950 38,050
10. 8.86 37.3 52,450 47,550
12 8.97 45.3 62,950 57,050
14. 9.08 53.5 73,450 66,600
16 9.20 61.9 83,900 76,100
18 9.32 70.5 94.400 85,600
20 9.44 79.3 104,900 95,100
22 9.56 88.4 115,350 104,600
24 9.68 97.7 125,900 114,150

Effects of Clays and Shales

The inhibition mechanisms K+ is not fully understood. The polymer (polyacrylamide) in KCI -
polymer mud is to aid in shale stabilization. Again this mechanism is not exactly known but it is
generally perceived at the edges of clay crystal lattices. It seems likely that the adsorption occurs
at multiple points along the chain of elongated polymer molecules, thus linking particles together
and form a jelly coating at the surfaces of drilled shale and clay particles, bore-hole wall and so
slow down the rate of transport of water into the shale.
Not all anionic polymers seem to be equally effective encapsulators, although most of them are
absorbed onto clay surfaces. Laboratory experiments (example, cuttings dispersion tests)

34
indicates that of the polymers used in drilling operation, only polyacrylamide and biopolymers
posses encapsulating properties.
Notwithstanding, its inhibiting properties, mud-shale interaction cannot be prevented completely.
As in bentonite and gypsum based muds the mud properties which are affected by shales are
viscosity, density. plastering properties and PH. As a result of ion - exchange with drilled clays
the potassium content of the mud will decrease.
In KCI muds, drilled clays are maintained in a flocculated state and therefore, exhibit poor
filtration characteristics. Contrary to a dispersed mud, fluid loss control in these muds is mainly
provided by a polymer. Depletion of the polymer, which is adsorbed onto drilled shale particles
may result in an increased value of the fluid loss and a thicker mud cake.
It can be expected that many operational problems related to mud - shale interaction are reduced
by using KCI - polymer mud. In particular balling problems will be less than during drilling with
bentonite or gypsum muds. If bit balling and clay balling still occur this may be indicative for
insufficient inhibition and should he treated by increasing the KCI level.
It is considered paradoxical perhaps, that certain type of problems can be related to the very
inhibition properties of the mud, that is:
1. Tight hole and overpulls are often experienced when drilling gumbo shales. Because
shale hydration is reduced as well. As a result the well bore will be in - gauge, which is
easily experienced as a tight hole. In dispersed system rapid hole erosion would avoid
this.
2. In more brittle shales, sloughing resulting in caving and hole enlargement is often as a
result of hydration along microfractures, permeable bedding, degree of further
disintegration of cavings depends on the shale strength and hydration potential and may
therefore be limited in a KCI - polymer mud. Cavings circulated out of the hole are
often hard and dry with a surface which is clearly not affected by hydration. Operational
problems are overpulls and difficulties in hole cleaning. When using less inhibitive
muds. dispersion of caving may be the reason that sloughing remains unnoticed during
drilling, because cavings circulated output are of cuttings size. An excessive hole size
over the unstable zone is often the only indication of shale sloughing in these mud.
To avoid these problems it is often necessary to adopt certain operational procedures such
as more frequent check - tripping to restore the hole gauge and to thoroughly clean the
hole prior to making trips.

Treatment while Drilling Shale and Clays

(I) Treatment Procedures
Treatment and maintenance of KCI - polymer mud differs from that of bentonite and gypsum
muds. In the latter types, bentonite and hydrated drilled clays are utilised to provide viscosity and
fluid loss properties. The numerical values of these parameters are controlled by deflocculation

35
using dispersants. In KCl - Polymer mud, intrusion of clay and shale is avoided. Hydration is
minimized and particles are protected from disintegration by encapsulation. KCI - Polymer mud
is called low solids muds.. Treatment of KCL-Polymer mud reflects this principle.
Viscosity and fluid loss control are provided by polymer (XC - polymer, PAC for viscosity and
modihied starch or low viscosity PAC for fluid loss control). Bentonite should not be used for
this purpose as it contributes to the clay content of the mud. Chemical treatment with thinners to
control rheology should not be done, because clay particles would then be dispersed to
unremovable sizes.
Both viscosity and density should be controlled by dilution. This normally implies disposal of
old and addition of fresh mud. Treatment indicators are the rheological indicators (PV, YP, gels)
which may exceed set limits, and MBT. An upper limit of 25lbs/bbl bentonite equivalent applies
for this parameter. Above this value the rheology will rapidly increase to intolerable values.
The mud volume to be changed out depends of course on the capacity of the reserve pits to
prepare fresh mud. but should be as large as possible, preferably at least 1/4 of the circulating
volume. The added new mud should contain all additives as required in the basic make - up. This
is particularly valid for the polymers. One could be tempted to add fresh volume with a reduced
viscosity to counteract the high viscosity in the circulating mud. By doing so, one would start to
convert the mud to a system which relies on the viscosity being provided by drilled clays rather
than by polymers. Reduction of the overall polymer level would result in incomplete
encapsulation hence increased hydration and dispersion of clay particles and a more rapid
deterioration of mud properties.
Treatment of KCI polymer mud (that is. preparation of batches of fresh volume) can be time
consuming in view of the amount of KCI which must be added to the mud (e.g. 500 bbls of mud
containing 35 ppb KCI requires 160 bags of 50 kg/bag). In areas where mud plant facilities are
available, KCI is often supplied as concentrated brine (80 - 90 lbs/bbl KCI). Alternatively, KC1
supplied in big bags (1mT content) can be utilized for mud make up.
K+ and polymer may deplete rapidly while drilling reactive clays and shales and the levels of
these additives should be monitored closely to enable timely replenishment. The chloride level of
the mud remains virtually constant, however, it is not possible to monitor the potassium content
in KCI mud by relating it to chloride measurements. Both KCI and polyacrylamide (which is
available as a liquid concentrate) can be added directly into the active system (no hopper
required). When reactive clays/shales are anticipated (e.g. gymbo) it is good practice to start off
with a slightly higher KC1 level than specified (e.g. 40 lbs/bbl when 35 lbs/bbl is specified).
more or less constant addition rate can be estimated from the observed rate of depletion.
For polyacrvlamide additions in reactive shales, a rule of thumb is 1pail (approximately 251
polymer solution) for every single drilled. Addition rate should be adjusted to maintain the
excess polymer content at approximately 0.5lb/bbl in the mud at the flow line.
Addition of polyacrylamide can result in a thickening of the mud in the active pit ( MFVof 60 to
70s). This is perfectly acceptable as it should be realised that the concentration is automatically
reduced when the mud enters the annulus where the polymer is absorbed onto the surfaces of
cuttings and formation face.

36
The polyacrvlamide content may not deplete because restoring the level may cause excessive
viscosity. Deficiently of polymer may result in the build-up of fine hydrated clay particles in the
mud. Subsequent addition of polymer may then result in bulky structures of flocculated particles
with the accompanied effect on the mud viscosity, which can only be restored by prolonged
shearing and circulation. Physically, this phenomenon is very similar to the “over the lump”
effect in bentonite mud upon salt or calcium additions.
Optimising K+ And Polymer Concentrations
The KCL concentration required for preventing shale hydration depends on the lithology and
type of shale and clay minerals present. Literature mention concentrations of 3% (by weight) or
less to protect consolidated illitic shales. while up to 20% (by weight) is required for gumbo
shales of young age.
Normally a KCL concentration of 10% (by weight. that is 35lbs/bbl) is adhered to whenever the
requirements dictated by the formulation properties are not known. Optimization of the KCI
content may be possible in case several wells are to be drilled in the same area. The basis for
such optimization should be laboratory tests on shale samples from early well and field
observations.
The K+ level is optimal when cuttings are firm and move off the sharker screens as discrete
particles. squeezed in the hand they should not form a sticky mass. Sticky cuttings indicate
incomplete inhibition hydration is still taking place. Other indicators of incomplete inhibition
are:
-High reduction rate of K+ level;
- Rapidly deteriorating rheological properties (requiring high dilution rate).
- Occurrence of operational problems (balling, tight hole).
Increasing the KCI level improves the inhibiting effect of the mud. Increasing the polymer level
does not contribute to the inhibition. As long as some excess polymer can be detected in the mud
from the encapsulating is considered optimal.

Solids Control Aspects

KCI - Polymer mud is sensitive to drilled solids. Even if complete inhibition were achieved
inclusion of fine particles in the mud is unavoidable, example, from the mechanical action of the
bit and string and incomplete removal in surface equipment. Lumps of partly aggregated clay
particles may interact and rapidly affect viscosity and gels of the mud.
Use of KCI - polymer mud puts therefore, heavy demands on the efficiency of solids removal
equipment especially with respect to shale shakers. The primary screening stage is crucial
because often cuttings do not have the mechanical integrity to withstand the high shear
conditions of a centrifugal, pump or hydrocvclone The screen area should, therefore, be as large
as is practical to ensure sufficient residence time on the screen Installed screens should be fine as
possible. Hydrocyclones should be operated in the mud cleaner mode, that is, with a vibrating

37
screen installed to treat the underflow of the cones. The liquid underflow from the mud cleaner
should therefore, be salvaged and preferably be processed by the centrifuge.
Drilling Anhydrite
Contamination by anhydrite does not affect the properties of a KCI - Polymer mud. The resulting
concentration of dissolved calcium (approximately 600 mg/I) is not sufficiently high to have a
noticeable effect on polyacrylarnide. Hydration of drilled clays is sufficiently prevented by
potassium to avoid flocculation calcium. The only indication of anhydrite contamination will be
an increase of dissolved calcium approximately 600mg/I.
Treatment against Cement Contamination
This mud is in principle free of bentonite. while the effect of dissolved calcium on drilled clay
solids is negligible. Drilled clays have been converted to a form with potassium as the base ion,
which provides inhibition against hydration. Cement contamination will, therefore. only become
apparent by increase of calcium content and mud alkalinity (Pm). In case the mud contains
polyacrylamide calcium levels in excess of 1000mg/I will de-activate and precipitate this
polymer. Other polymers used in KCI mud are PACs. XC - polymer and modified starch, which
all have a higher tolerance to calcium than polvacrylamide.
XC polymer and starches become ineffective only for severe contamination with cement that is.
at excessive pH (in excess of 11. 5) or calcium level (in excess of 2000mg/l).
Treatment against cement contamination is similar as in bentonite mud, that is. through pre-
treatment with sodium bicarbonate (0.25 - 0.5lb/bbl). This is typically done when drilling out
shoe tracks of shallow casing and cement plugs. Continued treatment with sodium bicarbonate
may be required when the contamination persist. In cases of severe contamination, dumping of
the contaminating batch could be required.
The Effects of Salt
The properties of KCI - polymer mud is not affected by contamination of salt, other than an
increase in chloride content. Similar to other non - saturated muds, the mud should be saturated
before continue drilling salt layers.
4.4 Tame
Characteristics/Composition and Preparation
TAME means thermally activated mud emulsion’. This is the best water - based mud modified
from KCl polymer mud. The development objective was to create a water - based drilling fluid
that not only would be cost effective, safe and environmentally friendly but also would help to
minimize hydraulic communication between the wellbore and shale pore fluids.
The typical composition of such mud:
Seawater as base fluid
Potassium chloride = 30-50lbs/bbl

38
Glycol = 5% (V/V)
Caustic Potash = 0.25 lb/bbl
Starch = 4lbs/bbl
Pac – L = 1- 2 lbs/bbl
Pac – R = 075 – l1.5lbs/bbl
XC polymer = 0.75 lb/bbl
Barite = as required
Giving the following properties
Density = 9.30 – 10.00lbs/bbl
MF viscosity = 40-60 secs/ quart
PV = as low as possible
YP = 15-30lbs/100ft2
pH = 9.0 – 10.5
API Fluid Loss = 10ml
10secs Gel = 5-8lb/100ft2
10 mins Gel = 10 – 15lb/100ft2

In view of the mud performance data obtained to date from TAME field trials in intermediate
shale sections in SOKU field for NLNG gas project in Nigeria, the following conclusions has
been reached:
- TAME outperforms conventional KCL - polymer and polyglycerol muds in terms of
penetration, mud - related operating time and dilution.
- TAME muds stabilize shales. resulting in firm cuttings and stable boreholes.
- TAME is less prone to low gravity solids build-up than KCI - polymer mud, therefore,
methylene blue titration values remain low and the mud can be re-utilised in successive sections
without further conditioning or centrifuging.
- Owning to their lower dilution rates, TAME muds cause less logistical problems than KCI –
polymer muds and reduce the environmental impact of drilling operations.
-TAME is cheaper than plvglvcerol muds but slightly more expensive than KCI polymer muds.

39
- TAME drills in - gauge holes carefully attention should be paid to effective hole cleaning and
the avoidance of excessive swab/surge pressures.
The glvcol, called alcohol alkoxylate, it clouds out into the pores to form emulsions thereby
reduces shale permeability to water or at least reduce the rate at which water can flow into
shales. The alcohol alkoxvlae phase can partially separate and form fine emulsions under
downhole conditions. To avoid potential environmental problems, however, it is design to revert
to its water - soluble state at surface ambient temperatures.
Mechanism
It is important to mention that the first cloud that comes out of the solution is called the cloud out
temperature. The effectiveness of’ TAME mud depends on the cloud - out temperature. it must
be equal or close to the bottomhole circulating temperature. And to achieve this, you either
increase the concentration of KCI or alcohol alkoxvlate. Therefore, cloud-out temperature
increases with depth. The effects of contaminants and treatment procedures are very similar to
that of KCL - polymer muds.

4.5 Saturated Muds

Characteristics/Composition and Preparation
These muds are use to drill through sections consisting of salt layers. The base fluid is a saturated
sodium chloride (NaCI) solution (300,000mg/I). Preparation of the brine from water and
standard packed salt (palletisc 50kg bags) at the rig is a time consuming exercise (1 bag/bbl).
Use of’ big bags (1 ton contents) or preparation in advance in a mud plant should be considered
when salt saturated muds are frequently used. The volume increase as a result of salt saturating
fresh water is approximately 10%. There are no limitations with respect to. the quantity of the
source of water for brine preparation.
Caustic soda is added to increase the PH to a level between 9 and 10.
Viscosity and fluid loss control can be obtained in many ways. Basically all types of polymer
(CMCs, PAC: biopolymers and starches) can be used. CMC and PAC develop less viscosity in
salt saturated water than fresh or low saline water. To yield similar results approximately 50%
more CMC and approximately 30% more PAC are required. Choice of the polymer will often
depend on the expected temperatures of the mud, whereby starches are most liable to
degradation.
For temperatures up to some 100-110oF, starches are preferred to polymers for both viscosity
fluid loss control. Starches are cheap, they dissolve readily without the tendency to form fish -
eyes. One disadvantage of high viscosity starches is their poor gel development. When massive
salt layers are being drilled, the drilled solids do not contribute to viscosity. The drill floor jargon
says that the mud is skinny and does not have “body’, that is, lacks sufficient carrying capacity to
suspend barites. Usually addition of XC polymer (typically 0.5 lbs/bbl) or prehydrated benetonite
(5lbs/bbl) is sufficient to improve the suspension capacity. Alternatively, it is good practice, if
applicable, to use some mud left over from the previous section (which is often bentonite based

40
containing plenty of colloidal fines) as a basis to prepare salt saturated mud ( 20% of total
volume required).
The initial composition of a typical salt saturated mud is:
water (fresh or saline)
NaCl = 110lbs/bbl
Caustic Soda = 1lb/bb.
Starch LV = 4lbs/bbl
Starch HV = 2lbs/bbl
XC polymer = 0-0.5lb/bbl
Bentonite = 5lbs/bbl
Barite = as required
This formulation would have the following properties:
Density = 0.52psi/ft or bibs/gal
MF Viscosity = 45 - 50 secs/quart
PV = I5-20cP
YP = 20lbs/100ft2
API fluid loss = < 1 0ml
Cl = 190.000 mg/I on filterate
pH = 9-10

Treatment while Drilling Clays and Shales

In general, salt saturated muds are exclusively utilised for drilling salt sections and are therefore
only exposed to shales and clays if these formations are encountered in the same interval.
The high salinity of saturated mud effective prevents shale hydration. Balling problems in salt
saturated muds are rare, and when they occur they can only be remedied by adjusting operational
procedures. such as reducing ROP. WOB and increasing circulation rate. Sloughing of brittle
shales will cause similar problems as in a KCL - mud. The absence of hydration of the rather
insensitive shales will leave the cavings intact which could result in hole cleaning problems and
related overspills. Again, adoption of certain operational procedures might alleviate these
problems. Mud treatment is mainly aim at neutralizing the effects of uptake of drill solids.
Treatment with litnnsulphonates to i-educe viscosity and fluid loss is, however, hardly effective

41
and in most cases not cost effective. The relevant mud pitiamelers (density. viscosity and fluid
loss) are best controlled by additions of batches of fresh mud, that is salt saturated brine with
polymers (starches and polyanionic celluloses or XC - polymer) to obtain the necessary fluid loss
control and viscosity.
To control salinity and PH additions of salt and caustic soda can be made directly into the active
system. Salt saturated mud is expensive ($ 40/bbl) and the liquid underflow from Hydrocvclones
should be screened to salvage the liquid.
When salt sections are to be drilled in the bottom part of the interval, it might be considered to
use a non saturated mud to drill the top part of the hole and to saturated the mud just prior to
entering into the salt. By doing so, mud costs for drilling the top part are reduced. The salinity
should, however, be kept sufficiently high in the top part of the hole to avoid a viscosity lump
when saturating the clay containing mud and to avoid bacterial degradation of starch. tar that
purpose a salinity of 100.000mg/I chloride is sufficient (that is. the mud is half saturated).

Drilling Anhydrite
As in KCL - polymer muds, contamination with anhydrite has no effect on the mud properties.
other than increase of the dissolved calcium level to 600mg/I. No treatment is necessary.
Treatment against Cement Contamination
Although this mud type may contain bentonite or bentonitic clays the effect of soft cement on the
clays negligible. In this case exchange on the clays hardly occurs because the mud is saturated
with sodium. Cement contamination will normally only become apparent as increases in pH.
calcium content and m alkalinity . If the contamination is sufficiently serve to affect polymers, a
viscosity decrease and fluid h increase will result.
Treatment against cement contamination is similar in KCl and TAME muds.

4.6 Invert Oil Emulsion Mud (IOEM)

Oil and water are the two ingredients for IOEM. Diesel oil which once was the common base oil
for invert has been replaced by ‘Low toxic’ mineral oils, which are environmentally more
friendly. Low toxic base oil like synthetic type is highly recommended.
The additives in an IOEM are emulsifiers, wetting agents, fluid loss reducers, viscosifiers, lime
and calcium chloride. Apart from the latter two additives, all other chemicals are marketed by
mud companies as a package under a trade name. Each of these packages contains chemicals
which, although having the same function, may be different in each package. The concentration
of each chemicals required to prepare mud is usually specified by the mud company. Although
muds are mutually compatible and chemicals of one package can be used successfully to re-
condition mud prepared according to another package, we will hold to a single company’s
additives when exemplifying preparation and treatment.

42
IOEMs have the following general composition:
Base Oil = ?
Primary emulsifier = 6 - 10 lbs/bbl
Secondary Emulsifier = 2 – 4 lbs/bbl
Lime = 5lbs/bbl
Calcium Chloride brine = to achieve oil - water ratio of 50/50 to 90/10
(20 - 30°/o w CaCl2)
Fluid Loss controller = System dependent
Viscosifier = 4 - 8 lbs/bbl
Barite = as required
Note: An oil wetting agent is normally used when barites are added to the mud. Normally 10 lbs
weighting agents is required per Mt of barite added.
The Oil—water ratio (OWR) is nominally maintained at 75/25, although stable muds can he
obtained from OWRs between 50/50 and 90/10. It is attractive to run low OWRs to reduce costs
(that is less oil and viscosity required). An added advantage in this application is the reduced
quantity of oil discharged into the sea related to the cuttings dumping. Also too low OWRs
would hamper free movement of dispersed water droplets and particles in the mud, which would
become apparent by excessively high viscosities. (PV) and loss of emulsion stability.
The usual OWR of 75/25 provides a safe margin against unexpected or accidental influxes of
water. A higher oil content favours the stability of mud for elevated temperature applications. A
further relevant point is, that in most operations IOEM is reused in other wells. Adopting an
OWR which is applicable in many circumstances as possible saves re-conditioning costs and
excessive stock increase.
Salts (CaCl2.or NaCl) are added to the water to impart an ‘internal phase activity’ to the mud,
which is considered to be of importance to reduce interaction with drilled shale cuttings.
Normally a level of 175,000 - 200,000mg/I chloride in the aqueous phase is adhered to when
preparing IOEM.
To prepare IOEM from scratch, availability of a separate tank to prepare the brine is desirable
though not strictly necessary.

43
 CHAPTER 5
5.0 Drilling Mud Calculations
5.1 Basic Reasoning for Material Balance Equations
The material balance equation is used for calculating volumes and densities when two or more
insoluble materials are mixed together.
The equation is as follows
V1 W1 + V2 W2 + ……… = Vf Wf
V1 + V2 + …………………… = Vf
V1 = Volume of the first material to be mixed
W1 = Density of the above volume (V1)
V2 = Volume of the second material to be mixed
W2 = Density of the second material (V2).
Vf = Total or sum of all volumes mixed together
Wf = Density of Vf..
Note: When numbers are filled in the equation, all volumes and all densities must be
expressed in the same units (i.e. lb/gal, specific gravity, barrels, gallons and so on).

Mix Two Muds Together.

Material Balance Equation
Mix 200bbl of 16 .0ppg mud with 500bbl of l8.0ppg mud.
Calculate the final density of the mixture.
Solution
First, write down all the known values that are to be filled into the equation.

44
 V1 W1 + V2 W2 = Vf Wf ; V1 + V2 = Vf

V1 = 200bbl
W1 = 16.0ppg (the density of V1)
V2 = 500bbl
W2 = 18.0lb/gal (the density of V2)
Vf = sum of the volumes to be mixed together, V1 and V2
Vf = V1 + V2 = 200 + 500 = 700bbl
Wf = (unknown) this is the final density that will be solved for.

Now substitute the numbers for the symbols in the equation

V1 WI +V2 W2 =VfWf
(200) (16) + (500) (18) = 700 W3
Simplify the equation above
3200 + 9000 = 700 W3
:. W3 = 17.4 lb/gal (ppg)
Note: Densities should be rounded off to the first decimal place.

FORMULA
Final or mixed mud weight = (Vol A ) (WTA) + (VOL B) (WT B)
Vol ( A + B)

Volume A = 200bbl
Weight A = 10 lb/ gal
Volume B = 500bbl
Weight B = 18 lb/gal
200 (16 )+ 500 ( 18 )
Final weight = ¿ 17.4 lb /gal
(200+ 500)

45
52 Weight A Mud Up
Material balance
Calculate how many 100lb sacks of barite are required to increase the density of 1000 bbl of 12.5
lb gal mud to 13.5 lb gal.

Solution
Write the equation and the values to be substituted into the equation.
V1 W1 + V2 W2 = Vf Wf + V1 + V2 = Vf
V1 = 1000 bbl
W1 = 25.5lb / gal
V2 = (unknown – This is the volume of barite which is being sought)
W2 = 35.0lb / gal (the density of barite)
Vf = V1 + V2 = 1000 + V2
Wf = 13/5lb/gal (the desired desnity)
V1 = V1 W1 + V2 W2 = Vf Wf
(1000) (12.5) + (V2) (35.0) = (Vf) (13.5)
This leaves the equation with two unknowns and it cannot be solved as such. Since V f is equal to
1000 + V2 this can be substituted leaving only one unknown, V2).
12,500 4 35.0 V2 = 13,500 - 1 .5 V2
(Now it is necessary to get all numbers on one side of the equation and all V 2 ‘s on the other side,
Subtract 12,500 from each side of the equation).
12.500 - 12,500 + 35.0 V2 = 13.500 - 12.500 + 13.5 V2
V2 = 46.5 bbl of barite
46.5 bbl of barite must be converted to sacks; I bbl of barite contains 14.7 sacks.
(46.5bbls) 14.7sk / bbl) = 684 sacks (Round off to the nearest sack)

Formula

46
 W 1+W 2
Sacks of barite/100bbl = 1470
(35.0−W 2 )

W1 = Initial mud density = 12.5; Wf = Final desired mud density = 13.5ppg

1470 and 35.0 are constants.
Note - 1bbI volume of barite = l470lb and a sack of barite weighs l00lbs,
So the number of sacks per bbl of barite is 14.7
(13.5−12.5)
Sack/ 100bbl = 1470 = 68.4 sacks/ 100bbl
35.0−13.5
We are to weight up l000bbI so it will take 10 times as much as the calculated 68.4 sacks for
100bbl
= (68.4) (10) or 684 sacks.

Rules of Thumb - Approximation

Desired mud wt x 5 = sacks of barite per 100 bbl of mud to increase the mud wt lb/gal.
(13.5)(5) = 67.5 sacks/l100bbI, therefore, for 1000bbls, we have
(657.5) 10 = 675 sacks.

5.3 Weight a Mud Up And Maintain Same Volume (Material Balance)

Weight up 200bbI of 12.5 lb / gal mud to 15.0 lb /gal and maintain exactly 200bbl of mud. How
much barite will be needed and how much mud must be dumped?
SOLUTION
V1 W1 + V2 W2 = V3 W3 + V1 + V2 = V3
V3 = 200bbl
W3 = 15.0lb/gal
W2 = 35.0lb/gal (the density of barite in lb/gal)
W1 = 12.5 lb/gal
V2 = ?
V1 = ?
V1 = V3 - V2 = 200 – V2
47
(200 – V2) 12.5 + 35.0 V2 = 15 (200)
2500 – 12.5 V + 35.0 V2 = 3000
500
V2 = = 22.2 bbl of Barite
22.5
V1 = 200 – 22 = 178bbl of mud
SINCE 22bbl of Mud Must Be Dumped Initially
One bbl of BARITE contains 14.7 sacks so the number of sacks of BARITE to be added = 22
(14.7) = 324 sacks.
5.4 Dilute a Mud with Water
Material Balance
Calculate the amount of water required to reduce the density of 1500bbl of 15.0lb mud to
14.5lb/gal.
Solution
Recall V1 W1 + V2 W2 = Vf Wf ; V1 + V2 = Vf
(1500) (15) + 8.33 V2 = (1500 + V2 ) (14.5) V1 = 1500bbl
22.500 + 8.33 V2 = 21/750 + (14.5) V2 W1 = 15.01b/gal
V2 = 122bbl of water V2 = ? (water un known)
Vf = 1500 + 122 = 1622bbl final volume W2 = 8.33lb/gal
Vf =1500 + V
Wf = 14.5lb/gal

5.5 Dilute a Mud and Maintain the Same Volume

Dilute 300bbI of a 16.0lb/gal mud in l4.0lb/gal and have a final volume of 300bbl. The water
added and mud dumped will be the same volume.
Solution

48
V1 W1 + V2 W2 = V2 W 3 ; V1 + V2 = V3 V1 = 300 – V2
(300 – V2) 16 + 8.33 V2 = (300) (14.0) W1 = 16.0lb/gal
V2 = ?
W2 = 8.33lb/gal
W2 = 10lb/gal
5.6 Make an Exact Volume of Water Mud
Material Balance
Calculate how much water and barite must be mixed to make exactly 500bbl of 1 4.0lb/gal mud.
Solution
V1 W1 + V2 W2 = Vf Wf V1 + V2 = Vf

V1 (8.33) + V2 (35.0) = 500 (14.0) W1 = 8.33lb/gal

Substitute for V2 in terms of V1 W2 = 35.0lb/gal
V1 (8.33) + (500 – V1) 35.0 = 500 (14.0) Vf = 500bbl
8.33 V1 + 17,500 – 35.0 V1 = 7000 WF = 14.0lb/gal
V1 = 356bbl of water V1 = ? (water unknown)
V2 = 144bb of barite V2 = ? (Barite unknown)
(144) (14.7) = 2117 sacks of Barite V2 = Vf - V1

5.7 Average Specific Gravity

Calculate the average specific gravity of the solids in a 14.0lb/gal mud with the following retort
analysis : water 65%. Oil - 5% (S.G = 0.83), solids, - 30% (Fresh water)
Solution
V1 W1 + V2 W2 + V3 W3 = Vf Wf
65 (1) + 5 (0.83) + 30 W3 = (100) (1.68) V1 = 65%
65 + 4.15 + 30 W3 = 168 W1 = 1, S G of fresh water
V2 = 5%

49
W3 = 3.30 W2 = 0.83, S.G of oil
V3 = 30%
W3 = unknown
VF = 10
WF = 14.0ppg or 1.68 S.G of mud
Note: This problem was worked in terms of specific gravity. It could have been worked in
terms of lb/gal and the answer converted to S.G.

5.8 Make an Exact Volume of an Oil Mud [ Material Balance]

Calculate how much oil water and BARITE are required to make exactly 300bbl of 15.0 lb/gal
oil mud with an 80/20 oil/water ratio.
Solution
V1 W1 + V2 W2 + V3 W3 = Vf Wf V1 + V2 + V3 = Vf
65 (1) + 5 (0.83) + (30) W3 = (100) (1.68) V1 = 65%
65 + 4.15 30 W3 = 168 W1 = 1 S.G of fresh water
W3 = 3.30 V2 = 5%
W2 = 0.83 S.G of oil
V3 = 30%
W3 = unknown
Vf = 100
Wf = 14.0ppg or 1.68 S.G of mud

Note: This part of the equation is the density of the 80/20 Oil/Water mixture.
( 5.44 + 1.67) V + 35.0 V3 = 4500
Recall, V3 = 300 - V
7.1 I V + 35.0 (300 - .V) = 4500
V = 215 bbl of oil and water
This 215 bbl mixture is 80% Oil and 20% water
215 (0.8) = 172 bbl of Oil
215 (0.2) = 43 bbl of water
300 - 2 15 = 85 bbl of BARITE
85 bl (14.7 sk /bbl) = 1250 sacks BARITE

50
5.9 Change Oil /Water Ratio
Add Oil
Calculate how much Oil will have to be added to change the Oil / water ratio of 100 bbl of 80/20
Oil mud to 90/10. Retort analysis: Oil 64%. Water - 16% Solids - 20% Oil must be added.

The Oil / Water ratio is changed by the following formula

ADD WATER
If the same 80/20 mud is to be changed to a 75/25 Oil / Water ratio, water must be added.
Now the Oil/Water ratio is changed by adding water and the following formula is used.

51
V = 5bbl of water added

5.10 Pipe Capacity, Annular Capacity and Displacement of a Drillstrings

In many drilling operations, a knowledge of the volume contained in or displaced by the
drillstring is required. The term capacity is always used to refer to the cross-sectional area of the
pipe or annulus expressed in units of contained volume per unit length. In terms of the pipe
diameter. d, the capacity of pipe. Ap is given by

Similarl
y, the capacity of an annulus, Aa, in terms of the inner and outer diameter, is

Where. d2 inner diameter of casing. in.

d1 = outer diameter of drill string, in.
The term displacement often is used to refer to the cross-sectional area of steel in the pipe
expressed in unit of volume per unit length. The displacement, A. as of

For field units of feet and barrels 1 q. 4.30 becomes

52
It is very important to mentioned here that pump cycle is always interchangeably use as pump
stroke. The number of pump cycles required to circulate the mud to the bit through the annulus
and back to the surface given as

EXAMPLE

Well Information

Depth, ft 13,000

5/8 in. casing of 36 lbs wt. At 9600ft of ID. 8.92

Bit size = 8 1/2 in.

Drilipipe (O.D.) = 4’/2 in.

Drill collar (O.D.) = 6Y2 in.

Drill collar (ID.) =2.81 in.

Length of Drill collars, ft = 1,000

Pump output, ft3/min 48

Pump factor = 0.178 bbl/cycle

Mud in active pit, bbls 360

Mud in active pit, bbls = 360

Mud in sand trap, bbls = 20

Settling pit, bbls 40

Assuming that, there is no mud in the trip tank and the borehole remains in guage, calculate
(a) String capacity

(b) Annular capacity

(c) Total circulating volume

(d) Bottoms up

53
(e) Number of pump cycles required to circulate mud from the surface to the bit and from the bo hole back to the
surface.

Solution

(a) Capacity of Drillpipe

(b) Annular volume between the drill pipe and the casing

= 29.14bbls

:. Total annular capacity bbls, = 553.52 -1- 121.28 + 29.15 703.95 bbls

(c) Total circulating volume string capacity -- Total annular capacity * mud in active pit + mud in sand
trap ± mud in settling pit

= 162.18 - 703.95 360 + 20 ± 40 = 1,286.13 bbls

(e) The number of pump cycles required to circulate new mud to the bit is given by

54
Also, the pump cycles required to circulate mud from the bottom of the hole to the surface is given by

CHAPTER 6
6. 0 Mud Type Selection Criteria
Selection of the optimum mud type for a particular well or hole section is a process in which
many parameters play a role. The main influential parameters are related to lithology and
properties of formation fluids. The choice of mud is furthermore influenced by a number of
conditions, example logistics, available rig equipment and hole characteristics. These factors are
not equally important and their relative importance and ultimate impact on mud selection may
change from well to well. Some factors are deciding on the selection (or decline) of a mud in a
particular application. In general, .the influence of few parameters can be ‘price tagged’. Of
other parameters, only a qualitative appraise of their importance on the mud selection can be
made.
This process of selecting and appraising influential factors is often done in people’s mind only
and results, therefore, depend on the individual’s experience and imagination.
In this section a large number of selection criteria and yard sticks are identified explicitly and
their influence on the utilization of each mud type is reviewed. This will assist in the choice of
the optimum mud and give the less experienced individual the confidence that “ nothing has been
overlooked”. In addition, it might help to identify modifications or arrangements necessary for
the utilization of a particular mud.
The factors governing or influencing mud selection are divided in the following categories:

 Formation characteristics i.e. lithology, composition of formation fluids, temperature.

 Well characteristics and operational aspects, i.e. well evaluational requirements, hole
inclinations, length of interval, potential for lost circulation, differentially stuck pipe and
influxes formation fluids.
 Surface conditions. i.e. available rig equipment, personnel experience level, logistics.
 Considerations regarding occupational health, safety and environmental effects.

6.1 Formation Characteristics

a. Lithology
The types of formations drilled have a large impact on the type of mud to be used. For instance,
layers are to be drilled, only salt saturated mud or IOEM should be used in that particular holes.
Used of other mud types will result in severe operational problems (e.g. hole instability through
wash outs and / or deteriorating mud properties). In the event that unexpected salt sections are
55
encountered while not using a salt saturated mud, drilling should be interrupted to allow
conversion to a salt saturated mud. Converting into a saturated mud by dissolution of the
formation salt is a bad practice as significant quantities of salt are required, hence large wash
outs will result.
The presence of anhydrite (CaSO4) precludes utilization of a bentonite mud. If thick anhydrite
streaks are encountered whilst using bentonite mud, it is preferred to convert the mud into a
gypsum mud, rather than to remove entrained anhydrite by chemical treatment.
In principle, shales can be drilled with all mud systems. The choice of mud type is governed
primarily by the type (reactivity) and the thickness of the optimal mud type is lacking. It would
be prudent to limit the use of bentonite mud to drilling intervals in which shales of a young age
are absent, example. only occur in thin beds or in formations which are described as argillaceous
or marly. Drilling reactive shales with bentonite mud might lead to operational problems such as
excessive balling, poor ROP, high overpulls and the need for excessive mud conditioning to
maintain rheology.
For more abundant shale occurrence an inhibitive mud. i.e. KCI - Polymer mud, TAME or
IOEM should be used.
In drilling shales, two aspects play a major role, example, interaction of mud with the formation
shales, which is relevant regarding borehole stability and interaction of mud with drilled cuttings,
which has its influence on mud treatment.
With regard to the former process, it is current thinking that borehole stability in shales is
influenced by an invading ‘pressure - front’ resulting from (slow) fluid invasion into the low
permeable shales. The process is called ‘pore-pressure’ penetration. This pressure front
penetrates into the shale with a velocity of typically 5 and 10 cm per day for low and high
permeable shales respectively. The fluid front moves one order of magnitude slower. Pore
pressure penetration results in a reduction of the overall stress level around the borehole and
hence favours borehole instability. Inhibition by dissolved salts in the mud is governed by the
rate of invasion of the fluid, which is considered insignificant in hard, cemented shales. In
practice this means that in hard shales the composition of the mud has little effect on the stability
of the borehole. .
In soft uncemented shales ( e.g. Tertiary shales in the North Sea area) it is considered that
inhibitive salts contribute to reduce borehole instability. As cuttings and drilled solids are
unconfined, invasion of and interaction with fluid is significant. The effect of inhibiting salts is
therefore much more pronounced on cuttings than on stressed shales in the borehole wall.
Both K+ and Ca++ are effective inhibiting ions to contract hydration and dispersion of clays.
Muds containing these ions are, therefore, inhibitive towards clay cuttings. KCI - based muds are
more effective than gypsum - based muds.
Above considerations imply that for drilling thick beds of reactive shales TAME mud is the best
water based mud to select, as it is most effective in enhancing borehole stability and reducing
operational problems due to clay hydration (balling). For drilling hard well - cemented shales
mud type is less significant.

56
IOEM is chemically inert towards shales and is, therefore, an ideal drilling fluid in shales.
Limestone (dolomite, chalk) and sandstone are inert towards all drilling muds and the presence
of these formations does, therefore, not affect the choice of mud type. However, when (potential)
sandstone reservoirs contain interstitial clays which are sensitive to water it is prudent to use a
drilling fluid which provides some inhibition (e.g. 3 percent KCI), in order to prevent formation
permeability impairment due to clay swelling or disintegration.
Composition of formation fluids
The formation fluids which can be encountered during drilling are water or brine, liquid and / or
gaseous hydrocarbons and gases such as H2 S, CO2, nitrogen and hydrogen.
(i) Water or brine
Formation waters encountered are mostly fresh or slightly saline (typically of sea water salinity)
but also more concentrated brines occur. Saline waters invariably contain chlorides, carbonates
and occasionally sulphates. Sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium are the predominant cations
present with often low concentrations of barium and strontium.
Even when formation brines are incompatible with the mud, mud properties are normally only
marginally affected because the volume of liberated pore fluids is small in relation to the volume
of mud.
Preference to utilize (or exclude) certain mud types in relation to compatibility with formation
water is, therefore, dictated by the chance on influxes of water whereby the mud is exposed to a
large volume.
When the salinity of formation water from (potential) reservoir sections is known, it is prudent to
select a mud composition which is compatible with this water to prevent precipitation of salts in
the near well bore region which is flushed with mud filtrate (e.g. no gypsum muds for carbonate-
rich formation waters).
(ii) Hydrocarbon liquids and
The presence of hydrocarbons has no impact on the choice of a drilling fluid visa - vis
compatibility or drilling fluid stability. However, limitations could be imposed by operation
conditions (gas solubility and chance on influxes) or for well evaluational reasons)

Of these gases, H2S and CO2, are of concern, the other gases are inert towards all drilling fluids
and therefore do not affect mud selection.
Both H,S and CO2 are corrosive and, in addition, H2S is a major health hazard. Removal by
scavenging is most effectively done in a water based mud. IOEM has an advantage regarding
corrosion which does not occur in this type of mud.
It is generally considered that the presence of H 2S has no effect on mud selection as long as this
resulting concentration of sulphides in the mud is low, say belo 0mg/l. When higher

57
concentration are expected, which is the case when the pore fluids contain much H 2S, oil base
mud is preferred
Of the water base muds, GLM has preference vis-a-vis CO 2 - influx, because of its inherent
scavenging ability (calcium ions present).
Elevated formation temperatures
All water base muds can be used without modifications up to temperatures raging from 100 to
I20o F.
Above this temperature polymers and thinners become no longer effective and have to be
replaced be more stable products. Water based muds such obtained are stable up to 175oF..
IOEM is by far the best drilling fluid vis-a-vis temperature stability (stability to at least 200°F).
6.2 Well Characteristics and Operational Aspects
Evaluation of formation and formation fluids
Collection and evaluation of relevant formation and fluid data is a prime objective in the drilling
of wells. These activities comprise:

 running petrophysical logs for measuring physical properties of both formation and
formation fluids
 sampling and evaluation of formation fluids, formation rock material and drilled cuttings.
The type of mud selected is important with regard to the quality and representativeness of the
data and samples obtained.
IOEM is most suitable to provide optimum hole quality. Its inertness towards shales ensures: a
gauge hole over shale and salt sections, the collection of large well preserved cuttings, and a
minimum impairment to reservoirs. Gauge holes ease the passage of logging tools, permit proper
tool centralisatiori and pad contact which favours the quality of the log run and enhance proper
sealing of downhole samplers.
A major disadvantage of IOEM is that not all evaluation data can be reliably obtained.
Difficulties with evaluations comprise the following:

 Since the continuous phase of IOEM is non-conductive, logging tools which measure the
resistivity of the path of a direct (as opposed to an induced) current will not work. Only
induction logs can be run which have a low vertical resolution and, therefore, a less
accurate response in thin beds. SP logs cannot be run.
 Dipmeter computations are more complicated in IOEM since the dipmeter is a direct
micro resistivity device. Modifications of the tool for use in IOEM are possible, however,
the results are at best of a reasonable quality only. .
 invasion by oil based mud filtrate leads to interpretation difficulties of the porosity log
and hampers fluid contact interpretation. Evaluation of wireline fluid recovery becomes
more difficult.

58
 Base oil or other mud components will interfere with the detection of hydrocarbon shows
while drilling.
In view of these disadvantages, the choice to use IOEM is, therefore, always the result of a trade
– off with, on one side the advantages of optimum hole conditions on the quality of log response,
and on the other hand the above disadvantages. In general, IOEM is not used for drilling the
objective intervals in exploration and appraisal wells unless its use in conditional to reach the
objectives.
The requirements for the type of water based mud vis-a-vis well evaluation are the following:

 The hole diameter should be as close to gauge as possible with minimum wash outs for
optimum quality of log data and cuttings. Hole sections through reactive shales might,
therefore, require the depleted use of an inhibitive mud (e.g. TAME mud).
 To optimise petrophysical interpretation the salinity of the mud filtrate should be kept
constant and be selected sufficiently different from the formation water salinity to
provide a conductivity contrast on logs (difference preferably in excess of 40 g / I
chlorides).

b. Hole inclination and interval length

These parameters are often interrelated, as an increase in inclination normally results in a greater
length to drill for reaching the same true vertical depth. Increasing hole inclination and section
length puts stringent requirements on the properties of a mud (density, rheology and fluid loss
properties) a stable hole, efficient hole cleaning and thin impervious mud cakes. When long
sections shales are to be drilled it could be considered to utilise an inhibitive mud to enhance
borehole in particular when the ‘open hole time’ (which is the time span between drilling the
hole and the casing of the reactive shales) is appreciable.
Optimum lubricity is desired to reduce drag forces between the string and the borehole wall. In
that respect, there is no obvious preference for any of the water based muds: lubricating
properties the same and could possibly be improved by adding a lubricant.
IOEM is superior to the water base muds regarding holes stability through shales and lubricity

c. Lost circulation, differentially stuck pipe and influxes of formation fluids

(i) Lost Circulation
When lost circulation is anticipated it is most cost effective to consider muds which are cheap
and prepare. In that respect dispersed muds (bentonite mud, GLM) are preferred mud types
which, approximately f13/bbl to prepare. Of the remaining, muds. IOEM is least desirable to use
in conjunction circulation, in view of its high costs (typically f120/bbl) and the long time
required to prepare the mud.
(ii) Differentially stuck pipe

59
Prevention of differentially stuck pipe is primarily established by selecting optimum mud
properties, to control the pressure differential between mud column pressure and formation
pressure and the composition and thickness of the filter cake. Good filter cakes can be obtained
with water base muds, hence no obvious preference exists for any of the water base muds.
IOEM provides superior mud cakes with regard to thickness and lubricity. This mud type could,
therefore, be considered in holes with an increased risk of differential sticking, e.g. deviated hole
sections, overpull, depleted reservoirs.
(iii) Influx of formation fluids (kicks)
When permeable formations are exposed, formation fluids may enter into the hole in case the
formation pressure exceeds the mud column pressure at the same depth. Although it is normal
drilling practice ‘overbalanced’ kicks may occur e.g. as a result of swabbing during a round trip
or when drilling into a formation with an unexpectedly high pore pressure.
Formation brines are a contaminant to drilling muds and the muds have to be reconditioned after
experiencing an influx of brine. The sensitivity to salinity of water based muds decreases in the
range bentonite mud – GLM-KCI polymer mud-TAME-salt saturated mud. Reconditioning of
IOEM results in a volume increase of approximately three times the volume of the influx (at an
oil - water ratio of 75/25) and is most expensive.
The choice of water based mud type is not influenced by the potential for influx of hydrocarbons
(oil, condensate or gas). Hydrocarhons are inert towards water based muds and gas solubility is
not significant. This latter aspect is different for IOEM: gaseous hydrocarbons are very well
soluble in IOEM at elevated pressure An influx of gas. which would lead to an increasing mud
flow from the well in water based muds due to expansion of gas bubbles, could remain dissolved
in an IOEM until at a certain shallow depth the pressure drops below bubble - point pressure
resulting in a sudden escape of gas.
The solubility of gas in IOEM is therefore a drawback against its utilization in (potentially) gas
hearing formations of unknown pressure regime.
- Dipmeter computations are more complicated in OEM since the dipmeter is a direct
micro resisitisity device. Modifications of the tool for use in IOEM are possible,
however, the results are at best of a reasonable quality only. Many logging contractors are
now introducing special oil based mud dipmeter which are still under investigation.
- Invasion by oil based mud filtrate leads to interpretation difficulties of the porosity log
and hampers fluid contact interpretation. Evaluation of wireline fluid recovery becomes
more difficult.
- Base oil or other mud components will interfere with the detection of hydrocarbon shows
while drilling.
In view of these disadvantages, the choice to use IOEM is, therefore, always the result of a trade-
off with on one side the advantages of optimum hole conditions on the quality of log response
and on the other hand the above disadvantages. In general, IOEM is not used for drilling the

60
objective intervals in exploration and appraisal wells unless its use is conditional to reach the
objectives.
The requirements for the type of water based mud vis-a-vis well evaluation are the following:
- The hole diameter should be as close to gauge as possible with minimum wash outs for
optimum quality of log data and cuttings. Hole sections through reactive shales might,
therefore, require the use of an inhibitive mud (e.g. TAME mud).
- To optimise petrophvsical interpretation the salinity of the mud filtrate should be kept
constant and be selected sufficiently different from the formation water salinity to
provide a conductivity contrast on logs (difference preferably in excess of 40 g/l
chlorides).
b. Hole inclination and interval length
These parameters are often interrelated, as an increase in inclination normally results in a greater
length to drill for reaching the same true vertical depth. Increasing hole inclination and section
length puts stringent requirements on the properties of a mud (density, rheology and fluid loss
properties) to provide a stable hole, efficient hole cleaning and thin impermeable mud cakes.
When long sections of reactive shales are to be drill. It could be considered to utilise an
inhibitive mud to enhance bore hole stability in particular when the ‘open time’ (which is the
time span between drilling the hole and cementing the casing of the reactive shales is
appreciable.
Optimum lubricity is desired to reduce drag forces between the string and the borehole wall in
that respect there is no obvious preference for any of the water base muds: lubricating properties
are about the same could possibly be improved by adding a lubricant.
IOEM is superior to the water based muds regarding hole stability through shales and lubricity.
The potential for kicks containing H2S and / or CO2 has no influence on the type of water based
mud to selected for drilling the particular interval. Treatment of H 2S or CO2 containing influxes
is done in a similar fashion in all water base muds.
Similar to hydrocarbon gases, both CO2 and H2S are appreciably soluble in IOEM.. Influx of
sour gas could remain undetected until the influx had reached a shallow depth. In addition to the
‘normal’ operational hazard of a gas kick, the escaping sour gas poses a major health risk. IOEM
is, therefore, unsuitable when drilling (potentially) sour gas bearing formations of unknown
pressure regime.

6.3 Surface Conditions

a. Rig equipment
The effect of the availability and quality of rig equipment is reviewed in this paragraph. Subjects
covered at solids removal equipment, reserve pit capacity, mixing and shearing equipment and
modification to rig equipment required / recommended for utilization of IOEM,

61
(i) Solids removal equipment (SRE)
The costs and efforts to maintain optimum mud properties are very much dependent on the type
and efficiency o the SRE installed. Mud treatment comprises to a large extent the correction of
mud properties which have been altered by the influence of drilled solids. Consequently the more
effectively solids are removed, the lesser treatment is required.
SRE is usually part of the rig equipment package supplied and maintained by the drilling
contractor. For a long time drilling contractors considered mud treatment rather as periferal to
their activities and SRE was, therefore not of prime interest to them. Nowadays in areas with an
intensive drilling activity the drilling rigs are usually equipped with properly functioning SRE
resulting from the operators activities to reduce mud related drilling costs. In more remote areas,
however, SRE is often not yet in optimal shape because of lack of maintenance and spare parts.
For proper removal of solids SRE should at least consist of shale shakers which can handle the
full mud circulation with the required mesh screens installed, desanders and desilters (or mud
cleaners) both capable of handling full flow. The presence of a centrifuge is desirable. The
equipment should work and be lined-up optimally for detailed review of SRE.
From the water based muds. KCl-polmer mud is most sensitive to poor solids removal. Drilled
solids remain flocculated and the effect on viscosity, of unremoved solids is therefore, largest in
this mud type. TAME mud, KCI -polymer mud and salt saturated mud are expensive muds.
When considering these muds for a hole section there should be the possibility to process the
desilter underflow to salvage expensive base fluid. A high speed centrifuge is recommended for
this purpose; a mud cleaner screen would be the bare minimum. The dispersed muds (bentonite
mud and GLM) are most forgiving to non-optimal solids removal. Their solids tolerance is large
(in particular that of GLM), the muds are easy to treat (thinning and dilution) and are cheap.
When considering IOEM, SRE should operate optimally. Dumping of fluids is expensive and
environmentally unacceptable. Hvdrocyclone underflows should at least be screened. A
centrifuge to salvage the fluid is necessary, either installed on the rig, or in a mud treatment plant
nearby.
(ii) Reserve pit capacity
The (lack of) reserve pit capacity may affect mud selection in a number of ways, i.e.:
For IOEM, storage for base oil is required. The capacity depends on the delivery time of oil to
the rig, but at least an on-site pit volume capacity of 300bbls would seem required.
Treatment of KCI-polymer mud involves discarding of part of the circulating mud and
replacement by fresh mud. Pit capacity to prepare the latter should be available (at least
500bbls).
Lack of spare pit capacity may delay operations in case different muds are used in subsequent
hole sections. Converting one mud type into another or mixing of completely new mud is time
consuming and, in absence of sufficient reserve pit capacity, must be carried out after cementing
the casing, prior to drilling out the casing shoe.

62
(iii) Mixing equipment and shear capacity
The requirement for adequate mixing and shearing capacity is most critical for polymers.
Lacking good retards mud preparation and hampers adequate treatment especially of polymer
muds.
When utilizing IOEM without the availability of a mud storage plant with mixing facilities,
appreciable, time must be dedicated to mud preparation.
Mixing and shearing equipment should consist of at least two chemical hoppers charged by
separate pumps, an agitator in every mud pit.
(iv)Rig modifications for IOEM
When considering the use of IOEM certain modifications to rig equipment are required to avoid
spillage of mud (which is both expensive and environmentally unacceptable), to reduce personal
exposure (skin contact inhalation) and to minimise the chance on contamination of the expensive
mud with water. In most an utilization of TOEM requires the installation and use of cuttings
cleaning equipment.
b. Level of personnel experience
The choice of mud may be influenced by the operational experience obtained in neighboring
wells. The personal experience also might play a role; when selecting a mud it is logical to prefer
a mud type which is familiar from own experience.
Mud engineers provided by mud service companies should be fully familiar with all mud types.
This is certain the case in areas with a lot of drilling activity where there is ample opportunity for
training and familiarizing

63
 CHAPTER 7
7.0 Mechanical Solids Control
Drilling fluid maintenance costs can decrease greatly when proper solids control techniques are
utilized technical service company must be thoroughly knowledgeable of available solids control
techniques in order maximise drilling fluid performance and minimize costs.
Adverse effects caused by drilled solids account for a major portion of drilling fluid maintenance
expenditures.
Considering that a 12 1/4 in gauge hole drilled to 10,000ft would result in 1,327,000 lb or more
of drilled solids. The above statement is not surprising. Overall drilling costs can also be severely
affected by the quantity drilled solids incorporated into the system. These effects include the
following:
1. Increased drilling fluid maintenance costs.
2. Greater difficulty in maintaining optimum rheological properties.
3. Increased frequency of differential sticking.
4. Reduced penetration rate.
5. Decreased bit life and increased rate of wear on pump
parts.
6. Increased circulating pressure losses, and consequently
increased possibility of lost circulation,
7. Increased tendency for well to swab on trips, possibly contributing to pressure control
problems.
A solids control program should consider the drilling fluid as well as the formation to be drilled,
prior to selecting equipment for a particular operation. Care should be taken to operate the
selected equipment efficiently and in the correct sequence to prevent overloading any individual
unit.
It would be desirable in most cases to remove all drilled solids. Although this is possible with the
use of chemical enhancement prior to separation, it is not always the most economical approach.
The goal of a solids control system is to achieve the balance between mechanical solids being
maintained at an acceptable level with the minimum cost. This is achieved when the cost of the
mechanical equipment plus the cost of the required dilution mud is at a minimum.

64
7.1 Classificaition of Solids
Pertaining to the removal, solids can be classified into categories based on specific gravity and
particle size.
1. Specific Gravity - solids in drilling fluids can be separated essentially into two density
groups, high a, low specific gravities. High specific gravity will refer to those solids with
a specific of gravity of 4.2 and above. The most commonly used for density increases are
barite, which is 4.2, and hematite, which is 5.0. Low specific gravity solids may range
from as low of 1.1 for lignite to 2.9 for dense lime. 2.6 is normally used in solid analyses
as the average specific gravity of low gravity solids.
In a drilling fluid containing only low - gravity solids and fresh water, the concentration of solids
will be function of fluid density. The same relationship exists if a drilling fluid is composed only
of barite and water. If drilling fluid contains low gravity and high gravity solids, then the solids
content will vary between the two ranges a particular density.
2. Particle Size - mud solids are measured in microns because of their small size. A micron
(m) is a unit of measure in the metric system and is 1/1000 of a millimeter. To better
illustrate the relative size of a micron, there are 25,400microns to the inch. Classification
of solids by size range is listed as follows:

7.2 Effects Of Solids On Rheological Properties

A brief review of the effects of drilled solids on the flow properties of water - base drilling fluids
is necessary to assist in determining the effectiveness and need of solids control.
Plastic viscosity is largely due to mechanical friction between solid particles in the drilling fluid.
The plastic viscosity value depends primarily on the size, shape and concentration of solids in the
system, and the viscosity of the liquid phase. Day - to - day trends in plastic viscosity can give an
indication of an increasing degree of fitness within the solids concentration and can be utilized as
a guide in determining the necessity for centrifuging and/or the addition of water.
Yield point and gel strength indicate the degree of attractive forces existing between particles in
the system, Chemical treatment is usually indicated when high yield and gel values are present.

65
Dilution or mechanical removal of solids may also reduce yield point and/or gels. These
attractive forces are related to the distance between the particles. Either of these actions will
result in increased particle separation.

7.3 Current Solids Control Techniques

There are three methods by which drilled solids can be removed.
- By settling
- By displacement
- By removal with mechanical devices.
Removal by settling is restricted to low-viscosity, low density muds and requires a rather larger
settling pit area to allow particles the necessary time to settle out. Displacement reduces solids by
discarding the mud and replacing it with drill solids free mud. This is the most expensive method
of solids control because the solids are not concentrated when discarded. The higher the
concentration of drill solids in a discard, the more favourable the method. The purpose of
mechanical control is to minimize dilution requirements by discarding solids in the highest
-concentration possible.
Mechanical solids control equipments include:
- Shale shaker
- Degaser
- Desander
- Desilter/ Mud cleaners
- Centrifuge.
The basic mechanical solids removal equipment available falls into two categories: Screening
devices and enhanced settling devices.
7.4 Vibrating Screen Separators
Vibrating screens (shale shakers) are of primary importance in solids removal. It is the first piece
in the solids control system to process the mud and by maximizing the removal of solids at this
point, it will increase the efficiency of the remainder of the solids equipment utilized.
On unweighted mud systems, maximum removal with shakers will reduce the solids loading on
the desander thus lowering the chance of an overload condition, which in turn, will lower the
chance of overloading downstream desilter. The cascading effect of solids control system points
out the importance of having piece of equipment operate to its maximum potential, thus allowing
the downstream units to do the same, since the operation of the shaker affects the remainder of
the equipment, it must be sized and utilized correctly for system to remove the maximum amount
of solids.

66
Fine screen shakers should be used on any operation where optimum solids control is desired,
but they particularly suited for operations employing weighted muds. When weight materials is
carried in the mud system, the options for removing solids without removing the weight
materials, are limited to screening centrifuging. If weighted oil muds are used, then even
centrifuging is not feasible because of economic environmental reasons. In this case, it is very
important to have optimum solids removal at the shale shaker. would be contrary to sound
engineering practices to spend thousands of dollars for an oil mud system or inhibited system to
retain ‘cutting integrity” without utilizing the most efficient solids control equipment available.
Two basic designations are used for shakers presently in the field: rig and high speed shakers.
The term shakers generally refers to a low cost shaker that was not designed to operate with fine
screen cloth. Norm operation would typically use screens in the 10 to 40 mesh range. The term
high speed refers to a unit that capable of operating with fine screens. These units also are
commonly referred to as: Linear motion, premium and high - efficiency shakers. The term high
speed has its origin with some of the early improved shakers the operated with speeds in the
range of 3600 rpm and even more. Although very few shakers have this speed on the vibrator
shaft at present, the term stick. Linear motion refers to the action that the vibrating assembly
transmit to the screen deck regardless of the particulars of the machine, the most important point
to remember is that the goal is to remove the maximum amount of solids, and this is done by
running a screen with the smallest openings lf we assumed the average particle size of formation
solids (in mud returns) was 80% finer than 828microns and 70% larger than l78microns,
theoretically only 20% could be removed with the 20 - mesh screen, whereas 70% could be
rejected with the 80 - mesh screen.
Fine shaker screens come in a multitude of designations, and no single measurement adequately
describes a screen’s solids removal measurement of the number of openings per inch. The
aperture is the actual opening dimension which controls the maximum size particle that can pass
through a screen. Two screens of the same mesh, if woven with different diameter wires, will
have different apertures.
The current API screen designation states that a screen be described according to:
(1) mesh
(2) the opening dimension between wires in microns and
(3) the percent open area. This description is sufficient for single layer screens, but with
advent of multiple layered screens and bonded screens, this designation falls short in
describing the effective cut point of a screen, the ability to pass mud and the actual screen
area available to pass mud. A new description is recommended be attached to all screen
panels and will call for: cut point at 0 - 5 and 0 - 95. conductance, and percentage or total
screen area available for screening.
A D-50 cut point is defined as the point measured in microns where 50 volume percent of the
solids are larger than the size specified microns size .0 - 95 indicates that 95 percent are smaller
and 5 percent are larger than the micron size specified.
Conductance is defined as the permeability of the screen cloth divided by the thickness of the
cloth, and usually given in kilodarcys per millimeter (kd/mm) Permeability of a screen is a

67
function of the opening size and the wire geometry. Basically it is a measure of the ease with
which fluid will flow through the screen. No units will be indicated on screen conductance
designation. as this will be a relative measurement.
Table lists US. Test Sieve Numbers, These sieve numbers each has a standard opening size given
in microns. The sieve number refers to the mesh count of the given screen. Cut points of screens
will be referred to commonly either using the sieve number or the micron cut point.

7.2.1 Hydroclones
Hydroclones are used for desanding, desilting and salvaging barite. Desanding hydroclones are
usually 6 in, larger in diameter. As the name implies, desander hydroclones are designed to
handle large volumes of fluid and remove essentially all low-gravity particles above 74 microns,

68
the sand designation size. The is economical and performs very well in low solids, inexpensive
drilling fluids.
Desanders, operated with a spray discharge, will normally make a 30-micron median cut on low-
gravity solids in low density drilling fluids. Median cut implies that there is a 50-50 chance for
particles of 30-microns and above to be ejected through the under-flow opening, normally called
the apex value. Median cut is called the 0-50 cut point. A 30-micron median cut on low-gravity
solids would be equivalent to a 20-micron median cut on barite since quality barite normally
contains 40% of particles greater than 20 microns in size, it would economical impractical in
most cases to desand a weighted drilling fluid. An exception to this would be in higher viscosity
drilling fluids, where the median cut point would be greatly increased.
In these cases it may be practical to desand a weighted drilling fluid for short intervals provided
the barite content of the underflow is closely monitored.
Hydroclones are normally rated using water that provides the minimum viscosity possible. This
results reported cut points that are comparable from one unit to the next, but do not gave realistic
number that can be related to a drilling fluid. Because the cut point is directly proportional to the
viscosity of the fluid, the actual performance on a viscosified mud will be much higher than the
manufacturer’s specifications. Remember cut points mentioned here are based on optimum
conditions. Sufficient cyclones should be utilized to process 1 .25 to 1.5 times the maximum
circulating rate. The back flow in the mud pit, caused by this excess of processing capacity from
the desander discharge pit to the suction pit will ensure that all the mud is processed.
Desilters are hydroclones which are normally 4 in diameter and will process 50 to 80gal of mud
per minute per cone depending on manufacturer. Feed head requirements range from 75 to 96ft
with the most common requirement being 75ft. Desilters with a spray discharge will make a 16
to 18 micron median cut on low gravity solids. A sufficient number of cones should be provided
to process 1.25 to 1.5 times the circulating rate of maximum efficiency.
It is most important that desilters be employed at the start of an operation and run almost
continuously is delayed or utilized only part-time the recycled drilled solids will rapidly degrade
into particle sizes too small to be removed by the desilter.
7.2.2 Mud Cleaners
The hydroclone / screen combination consists of a bank of desilters which are mounted over a
fine mesh vibrating screen (140 to 200 - mesh). The desilter underfiow is processed by the fine
screen. Particles removed by the screen are discarded and the fluid processed through the screen
is returned to the active system. The effluent or desilter overflow is also returned to the active
system. The mud cleaner is essentially a fine screen shaker. Its primary purpose is to remove that
portion of sand-sized or larger particles that pass through the rig shaker.
Ideally, a 200 - mesh screen would be desirable on mud cleaner, however, a 140 - to - 150-mesh
screen is generally necessary to minimize barite losses.
Mud cleaners are not recommended on low-weight systems which can utilize a desilter, since the
desilter will remove more solids down in the fine range. On the other hand, on unweighted
system with very expensive liquid phases. the flow lost at the desilter underfiow may be

69
economically prohibitive (oil muds, TAME mud, polymer. KCL mud, etc.). In these cases, a
mud cleaner may be of assistance in the control of drilled solids’
The mud cleaner is not a centrifuge and does not replace a centrifuge on weighted systems.
However, this device does fill a gap if premium shakers are not employed with a weighted
drilling fluid. Rig shakers may only be able to use on 80-mesh screen which removes drilled
solids larger than 178 microns. The centrifuge removes the solids smaller than 4 - to 6 - microns,
so it is apparent that on particle that passes through the 80-mesh screen be retained in the system
until it is ground down to the 4 - to - 6 - micron range. Utilizing a mud cleaner 200 - mesh
screens would give a 74 - micron cut and fill the gap.
Removal of particles in the 75 - to 178 micron with the mud cleaner could produce the following
benefits:
1. Improved filter cake quality (less coarse drilled solids) results in the less-permeable, less-
porous Improve cake quality (thinner and tougher) can minimize wall sticking and reduce
frictional force between drilistring and wellbore.
2. A decreased concentration of drilled solids contributes to improved rheological properties
and reduce mud maintenance costs.
7.2.3 Centrifuges
Centrifuges used centrifugal force, as do hydroclones, to shorten and/or control the settling time
required separate solids from liquids. Centrifuges utilize an external force to rotate a separation
chamber and increase centrifugal force. This “G” force can be calculated using the following
formula:
G = 0.0000142 ………..(7.1)
G = 0.0000142rd
Where,
G = “G” Force
r = revolutions perminute
d = inside diameter of the bowl in inches

Practical application of the barite recovery centrifuge for processing drilling fluids considers the
following:
1. It is a common misconception that centrifuges separate low-gravity solids from barite,
but this would be possible if all barite in a system was above 3 to 4 microns and all low
gravity solids are below the 6 micron range. Under field operating conditions,
approximately 10% of barite is below 3 microns in size and 20 to 50% of LGS are below
6 microns in size. The solids removed with a centrifuge are the fine-particles which have
a greater relative effect on rheology than the coarser particles.
70
2. Centrifuge will not eliminate the need for water. Water will still be required to replace
that lost through the centrifuge and to the wellbore. Dilution requirements will, however,
be reduced and drilling fuid maintenance cost reduction can be expected. This is
particularly true in areas where reactive formation solids are prevalent.
3. Day-to-day trends in plastic viscosity can give an indication of how fast solids
concentration is increase and can be used as a guide for operating the centrifuge and/or
addition of water. Bentonite content measured by cationic exchange capacity (CEC)
using the methylene Blue Test (M.B.T.), and solids content, as determined by retort
analysis, can also be assistance in determining the need for centrifuging and/or water
additions content,a s determined by retort analsyis can also be assited in determining the
need for centriguging and / or water additions
There are basically three types of decanting certifuges. The types are grouped depending on the
“G” force rpm. Cut point, and capcity.
1. Baritie revocovery Centriguge: Usd primarily for viscosity control. These centriguges
operate in an rpm range of 1.600 to 1,800rpm and generate a “G” force for from 500 to
700 “G”s. cut point will be between 6 to 10 microns for low-gravity solids (LGS) and 4
to 7 microns for high gravity solids. Feed rate normally run from 10 to 40gpm depending
on the density of the whole mud. This centrifuge will strip barite above the cut point from
the mud and discard the liquid phase with the remaining fine solids.
2. Hgh volume centrifuge: Used primarily discarding low graviy solids from the mud. It is
also named because processing rate range from 100 to 200gpm. Normal rpm rnages from
1900 to 2200rpm. “G” forces average about 800 “G”s. The cut point attained is from 5 to
7 microns on unweighted mud applcaitions.
3. High –speed centrifuge: Used for removal of LGS for unweighted mud systems nd as
second centrifuge in dual-centrifuging applcaitions. This group of centrifuges turns from
2,500 to 3,300rpm. “G” forces created by these units range from 1,200 to 2,100 “G”s. cut
point can be as low as 2 to 5 microns. Feed rates will rnage from 40 to 120gpm
depending on application and the fluid to be processed.
The term dual centrifuging comes fromt the use of two centrifuges in tandem. Effluent from a
barite recovery unit is used to feed the second centrifuge. The benefit of this operation is that
some solids can be removed from the low end of the size rnage without the loss of th fluid phase.
RMS Centrifuge
There is an alternative to the use of a decanting bowl centrifuge for barite recovery. It is the
RMS type centrifuge. This type unit is particularly applicable where rig-up restrictions will not
allow use of a decanting type unit. Although this unit is capable of handling more mud, it tends
to not make as fine a cut on the barite as a decanting unit does. Also, because the returned phase
is wetter, it will contain a high % of the nondesirable solids.
7.24 Degasser
This is more applicable to gas wells. A typical example is a vaccume degasser. The vacuum
applied ranges from approximately 7 yo 12 inches of mercury, 2.8 – 5.8psi, depending on the
weight of the mud to be drawn into the unit. The mud enters near the top of the horizontal barrel

71
and flows inside a pipe that is closed on the far end. The top of the pipe is sliced away
horizontally; thus to form an open trough. The spills evenly over both sides of this through and
downward as thin streams on inclined plates that extend the full length of t he vessel. In order for
the mud to spill over the sides of the through evenly and to thin stream properly on the inclined
plates the degasser ubnit should be careful leveled.
As the mud thin streams in the machine the vaccum int eh vapour space causes the gases to leave
mud and be withdrawn from the tank. The degasser mud back to its nornmal weight is now ready
for exist. This mud flows from the barrel bottom a pipe to a point where the pressure is reduce
below that of the degasser by a mud stream jet. As a result of this reduce pressure the mud flows
from the degasser pipe into the mud tank where it is ready for reuse.s afety valves are positioned
to prevent mud from the vacuum pump, backing into the degasser imporoperly as the result of
reduced pressure, etc.

72
 CHAPTER 8
8.0 Workover Fluids, Formation Damage, And Packer Fluids
8.1 Workover Fluids.
Many functions of a workover fluid are the same as functions of a drilling fluid. A workover
fluid unit:
(1) provide sufficient hydrostatic pressure to prevent formation fluids from entering the
wellbore.
(2) be able to clean the hole with reasonable pump pressures and annular velocities,
(3) prevent excessive fluid (filtrate or whole workover fluid) losses to the formation,
(4) be stable at the maximum well temperature. and
(5) provide maximum protection against formation damage.
In years past it has been common practice to use drilling fluid materials (harite, clays, fluid loss
control agents and chemicals) for preparing and maintaining workover fluids. This practice has
resulted in formation damage and loss of productivity in a significant percent of the wells
worked over with these fluids.
The likelihood of a well being damaged is much greater during work over operations than during
drilling operations.
Completion operations such as acidizing and fracturing, which are designed to open up a
formation and increase production. also increase the potential for invasion of the formation by
the work over fluid when remedial work is required.
Damage to the formation occurs:
(1) when solids contained in the work over fluid lost to the formation plug pores and reduce
its effective permeability,
(2) when swelling of expandable clays in the producing formation is caused by the invading
fluid.
(3) when there is particle movement within the sandstone,
(4) when the fluid lost to the formation forms a viscous emulsion with formation fluid, or
changes the interfacial tension resulting in reduced production.
(5) when enough fluid is lost to the formation to flush the hydrocarbons away from the
wellbore, thus allowing water from a water drive to enter the wellbore.

73
For a well to return to full production after work over operations., the fluid lost to the formation
during work over should be minimized and the solids and chemicals lost to the formation must
be removed, Simply producing the well may be sufficient to flush these solids from the
formation, where they lodge and cannot be flushed out, thus permanently impairing the
productivity of the well.

8.1.1 Heavy Brines

Many of these problems can be avoided by using solids-free work over fluids. This is achieved
by filtering brine using the filtration units until the turbidity is between 1 - 25NTU. It is possible
to have solids free work over systems with a density range of 7.0 to 19.2 lbm/gal. The maximum
operational densities in pounds per gallon which may achieved with various salts are shown in
Table 7.1. The use of these brines as work over and completion fluids has increased dramatically
over the past several years due to their non-damage characteristics. In addition to heavy brines
being used as work over fluids, they are also used as packer fluids, perforating fluids and gravel
pack fluids.

8.1.2 Work over Products

Various materials have been used in an effort to give the desired characteristics to brine work
over fluids while retaining the solids free benefits. These materials have had varying degree of
success.
Hvdroxyethlcellulose (HEC) is a nonionic viscosifier widely used in work over applications as
hi-vis that is, to sweep the hole. HEC is almost completely acid soluble. HEC, like guar gum, is
susceptible to bacterial degradation. Xantham gum or XCD polymer is a higher molecular weight
natural polysaccharide produced the bacterial fermentation of the micro organism Xanthomonas
Compestreis. This polymer is slightly anioic and shows good solubility in sodium chloride,
potassium chloride, and to an extent calcium chloride brines.
To obtained fluid loss control in a brine work over or completion fluid it may be necessary to add
solid fluid-loss control agents. The most common additive used is sized calcium carbonate.
Calcium grades depending on the pore size of fractures present in the producing zones. Calcium
carbonate is acid soluble, thus offering protection against the p1uging of producing formations.

74
Other fluid-loss control agents used in work over and completion fluids include oil-soluble fluid-
loss resins, sized NaCI crystals, and iron cabonate.
Lost-Circulation Materials (L.C.M.) for work over and completion fluids include calcium
carbonate, oil soluble resins. All these materials are normally acid soluble.
8.1.3 Other Work over Fluids
Alternative work over fluids to heavy brines that have been utilized in the past include acid
soluble carbonate materials such as calcium carbonate or iron carbonate which are used as a
weighting agents. Using calcium carbonate, densities up to l4lb/gal can be achieved while
densities of up to l8lbm/gal can be obtained using iron carbonate as the weighting agent.
Advantages of these types of work over additives include lower cost, resistance to crystallization,
and greater fluid loss control.
8.2 Formation Damage: Cause and Remedies
It is obvious that a rock formation’s permeability should be reduced as little as possible when it
is drilled and completed. This is difficult to avoid, however, and the reduction of permeability is
referred to as “formation damage”. In the drilling fluids industry, the principal concern is the
formation damage caused by drilling fluids.
Formation damage caused by drilling fluids involves the interaction of drilling fluid or the filtrate
with a permeable rock formation that results in a loss of permeability. After a formation is
drilled, pressure and flow tests can sometimes be done to determine if it has experienced such
damage.
The simplest form of formation damage involves the flow of the entire drilling fluid (liquids and
solids) into the pores of the rock; this is usually called “mud invasion.” If enough solid material
such as gel or weighting agents accumulate in the pores. blockage and permeability loss can
result. This type of damage can occur due to one or a combination of the following factors:
(I) poor fluid loss control,
(2) excessive overbalance, or
(3) high-formation permeability.
Mud invasion can be avoided if the drilling mud forms a stable filter cake on the borehole wall
that serves as a barrier to invasion. One possible remedy in extreme cases is the use of “bridging
agents,” which are particulate materials such as calcium carbonate that will block the formations
pores at or near the borehole wall.
Selecting the proper size bridging agent is critical; If the size of the formation pores is known, a
bridging agent that will block the pores without passing through them can be selected.
Other forms of formation damage are more complex, involving chemical reactions between the
drilling fluids and formations. Carbonate rocks (limestone and dolomites) are not very reactive
with most drilling fluids. So this type of damage is most likely in classic rocks such as
sandstones. Classic rocks consist of a network of interconnected particles which are usually

75
quartz or feldspar: these are called “framework grains.” The pore spaces between these grains
may be empty or filled by other materials. The pores spaces in these rocks may contain clay
minerals: because minerals can be highly reactive with drilling fluid, formation damage can
occur in clay-bearing classic racks.
Formation damage can also occur in classic rocks with non-expandable clays such as kaolinite or
illite. This clay minerals tend to form plates and fibers that are loosely attached to the pore walls.
If a fluid is introduced into a rock that contains a lot of these clays, they can detach, migrate, and
plug pores if the invading fluid chemically different from the material formation fluid.
8.3 Packer Fluids
Packer fluids are fluids, either clay-laden or without solids, which are left in the annular space
between tubing and the casing.
Packer fluids for the most part have been drilling fluids conditioned to left in the hole on
completion of the well. Under normal situations of low temperatures and normal pressures, this
approach has usually been satisfactory. Not until the advent of lime mud in the late 1940s and
early 1950s did packer fluids attain industry attention. Lime muds, when exposed for prolonged
periods of time to high temperature, may set to a non-pumpable state from the chemical reaction
of clays, silica, lime, and caustic soda, which forms the cement-like substance tobermorite. This
condition becomes quite severe at about 250°f. Such muds prevent unseating of the tubing from
the packer and pulling of the tubing during work over operations. Literally, these “set” muds
have to be drilled out.
The problem of lime muds focused considerable attention on packer fluid requirements. Since
then a number of approach to the design of packer fluids have evolved.
Requirements of a Good Packer Fluids
The primary purpose of packer fluids is to provide sufficient hydrostatic pressure to protect the
casing excess formation pressures. Hydrostatic pressure is obtained by using soluble salts such as
NaCl, CaCl, C , ZnBr,, and insoluble materials, such as barite and calcium carbonate.
A packer fluid should be thermally stable at bottomhole temperatures. It should have sufficient
gel properties adequate suspension of barite in weight systems but easily sheared down during
pumping or pulling operation.
The packer fluid should be non-corrosive. It should not form scales or produce gaseous by-
products such as H2S and CO2. It should not react with metal to produce intergranular
crystallization or changes in the metallurgical structure of the steel.
A packer fluid should be free of solids settling on the packer. Gel properties in solids systems
must be controlled to prevent sedimentation. Salt solutions must not form scales or produce
insoluble sediments which could settle on the packer.
Types of Packer Fluids
Clear Brines

76
Brine solutions are sometimes used as completion and packer fluids instead of conventional
drilling fluid systems. There are two primary advantages of salt brines:
(I) a clean, particle-free medium minimizes formation damage during completion operations
(perforations and cleaner, good sand control, plastic squeeze jobs are more successful,
etc.) and
(2) fluids do not settle or solidify in the tubing-casing annulus to complicate work over jobs.
Also, a reliable circulating fluid capable of retaining any formation pressures in the well
is available at all times.
Conditioned Drilling Fluids
Conditioning drilling fluids for use as packer fluids is generally done as a matter of economics
rather than performance. Since investment has been made in the drilling fluids, why not use it as
a packer fluid? In the early 1960s. lime muds for the most part was replaced with system like low
pH gypsum muds.
In late I 990s, SPDC Nig. Ltd., Port Harcourt, Nigeria, completed most of their wells at Soku-
field using a well refined work over fluids called TH1XSAL mud and graded calcium carbonate,
open-hole completion, for NLNG project.

77
 CHAPTER 9
Drilling Fluid Chemicals
In this chapter the common mud chemicals are reviewed, with regard to type, function and
application referring to the types of chemicals, commercial or brand names are given as an
example. No attempt is made to provide an extensive list of additive brand names. An updated
version of such a list is provided yearly May or June issue of Wor1d Oil’.
9.0 Chemicals For Water Based Drilling Fluids
Preparation and maintenance of the various mud types involves the utilization of a large number
of chemical this chapter the most important mud additives are reviewed. The following topics are
discussed for each additives:
- type, function and concentration;
- brand names and names of equivalent products;
- limitations for use and alternatives.
9.1 Clays
Clays has been the basic constituent for viscosity and filtration control of the early drilling fluids
which caused them to be called ‘muds’. In modern muds, clays are still amongst the main
additives: bentonite is the commonly used viscosifier.
9.1.1 Bentonite (or in US terminology “Gel”)
Bentonite is a commercial grade of the clay mineral montmorillonite. In a fresh water
environment the bentonite particles swell and disperse by water adsorption (hydration).
Suspensions of bentonite in fresh water, therefore exhibit viscosity and controlled fluid loss and
are used as base muds. Addition of bentonite to mud reduces fluid loss and increase the viscosity.
Hydration of bentonite in saline water is incomplete. We can also make use of bentonite in saline
(e.g. seawater) muds by prehydrating bentonite in fresh water prior to addition to the saline
system. Concentration of bentonite in fresh water bentonite mud are normally maintained around
15 - 20 lbs/bbl, in spud muds, higher Ievel (typically 25 - 30 lbs/bbl, may be required to provide
sufficient viscosity. In pre-mixes (prehydrated bentoinite for addition to muds) the concentration
can be as high as 40 - 45 lbs/bbl (115 - 130 kg/m). A graph relating viscosity and concentration
of bentonite suspension is given below in fig.8.1.

78
 Figure 8.1: Viscosity of bentonite suspensions.
The product is widely available and cost-effective compared with polymeric viscosifiers/fluid
loss controllers.
Use of bentonite should be avoided or discontinued in the following areas:
- in drilling or workover fluids which are intended to be completely acid soluble;
- when formation drilled are “mud making” (as a result of dispersion of hydratable
formation clays/shales) to such an extent that extensive mud treatment to combat
excessive viscosities would become necessary.
When anticipating such problems, one could select an inhibitive mud (e.g. TAME mud, KCI-
Polymer mud) for which viscosity and fluid loss control are provided by polymers rather than by
bentonite.
In mud parlance, bentonite is classified as ‘sodium bentonite’ or ‘calcium bentonite’ depending
on the exchangeable cation. The sodium form which has the best viscosifying characteristics,
was not abundant in the western part of the US, e.g. Wyoming, South Dakota and Montana.
Deposits in Southern state Louisiana) tend to be calcium bentonites. These bentonites have to be

79
treated to improve the yield properties in order to meet industry specifications. To that end the
bentonite is normally contacted with sodium carbonate to establish ion exchange, or small
amounts of polyacrylates are added.
‘Wyoming’ bentonite is the industry’s nomenclature for an untreated, sodium bentonite, which
passes API specifications The deposits of good sodium bentonites are becoming increasingly
rare. Most bentonites used in drilling are treated “beneficiated” and quality assurance and control
is becoming an increasingly important issue.
Bentonite is sold under various trade name which are mostly connected to synonym ‘gel’
(Aquagel, Magcogel, Milgel).
9.1.2 Salt Water Clay
Salt-water clay is a commercial grade of the clay mineral attapulgite. This additive is providing
viscosity to saline water, because its needle shaped particles form a ‘brush heap’ structure when
sheared in water. This particle shape, however, is also the reason for poor filtration control of the
suspensions. This caused of salt-water clay in drilling mud never to become very popular.
Examples of trade names of salt-water clay are Saltgel, Salt-water gel, Zeogel.
9.2 Weighting Materials
Weighting materials are used to increase the drilling fluid density. The materials are always
finely chemically inert and readily available in large quantities. The most common weighting
agent is barites which is virtually insoluble in water and inert to other mud components. Other
materials include iron oxide, ilmenite (FeO.TiO2) and the carbonates siderite (FeCO3), calcite
(CaCO3) and dolomite (CaCO3.MgCO3

9.2.1 Barites
Pure barite has a specific gravity of 4.5. Commercial barites is of lower specific gravity because
other minerals (e.g. quartz, chert, calcite and silicates) are included. Commercial barites has a

80
specific gravity ranging from approximately 4.20 to 4.30. It can be used to provide mud densities
of up to approximately 1.040 psi/fl.
As barites is not soluble in acid, it should not be used in acid soluble mud.
The major sources of barites are located in the USA, but for the oil industry outside North
America other sources, from e.g. Ireland, Morocco, India, Nigeria, Thailand are more significant.
Due to the high consumption of this mineral ( 4 million tons during 1984 in the US alone) stocks
of high mineral are reducing rapidly, especially in the USA. It is, therefore increasingly difficult
for suppliers to comply with the industry specification for the minimum density of barites.
In NAM the use of barites in drilling muds for onshore drilling is restricted in view of legislative
disposal limitations. NAM are utilizing graded dolomite instead. In this way mud densities up to
0.60psi/ft can be obtained.

9.2.2 Calcium Carbonate/Dolomite

Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and dolomite (CaCO3.MgCO3) are mainly used to prepare acid
soluble drilling, coring or work-over fluids. The density of the materials is approximately 2.7,
which limits the maximum mud density obtainable in a variety of grain size ranges. This feature
allows for designing tailor-made muds to limit filtrate invasion and cake thickness (relevant to
e.g. pay-zone drilling and coring) and for application in lost circulation pills.
Examples of trade names of calcium carbonate/dolomite are:
Microdol 325 (CEBO)
Baracarb 100, 200 (NL Baroid)
Idcarb 75, 150 (IDF)
Lo-Wate (Magcobar)
9.2.3 Iron Compounds
(a) Iron oxides (Hematite, Ilmenit)
Natural iron oxides (principally Hematite Fe203) were among the first materials used to increase
mud density. The use of iron oxide was discontinued in the early 1940s because ample supply of
barites was available at by production costs. Reduce availability of high quality barites over the
last year has revived interest into the iron compounds, especially in the USA and Canada.
Iron oxides do have some advantage over barites, however. Firstly they are 10-20% denser than
barite (S.G. hematite — 5.0 – 5; ilmenite 4.6) which implies a lower volumetric requirement to
prepare a certain quanttity of mud and a smaller volume fraction of solids in the mud. The latter
could lead to higher penetration rates. Secondly, iron oxides have some scavenging capacity to
H2S.
Utilization of iron oxides in drilling muds has, however, some drawbacks as well, viz.:

81
- The material is harder than barites which could result in increase abrasive wear and tear
of equipment On the other hand, it has been indicated that the abrasiveness of iron oxides
could possibly be reduce to within acceptable limits by proper selection of particle size
distribution.
- Because of the magnetic character of the hematite particles, several Operation companies
has experienced that the use of this material affects the accuracy of magnetic survey
tools, e.g. magnetic single and multi-shots, steeling tools and MWD tools.

Iron oxides are available under various brand names e.g. Bar-Gain (Baroid) for Ilmenite and
Densimix, Magco Fer-Ox, Iron oxide for Hematite. Fer-O-Bar is a synthetic iron oxide (Fe 2O3),
claimed to be less abrasive than a natural ore. Its density deviates from hematite.
(b) Siderite (FeCO3)

Siderite (S.G. 3.7) is acid soluble and can therefore be used to prepare acid soluble drilling
fluids. The potential for application is mainly for the higher mud weights, where calcium
carbonate cannot be used. Acid solubility may vary from 90 - 99% depending on the level of
impurities. The material is less abrasive than in oxide.
Siderite is marketed under various trade names e.g. Iron carbonate (CEBO. Hughes), Idwate
WO- 35 (Baker Hughes Inteq).
9.3 Viscosifiers and Fluid Loss Reducers
Organic polymers are used in drilling fluids to reduce fluid loss, increase viscosity and
encapsulate or flocculate drilled solids. The suitability of a polymer to provide one or more of
the above functions is governed by its molecular structure. Molecular size and shape, presence of
charged sites and stability are particularly important.
The following trends apply:
- large molecules (MW typically 5 x 106) provide viscosity and some fluid loss control, e.g.
XC-polymer;
- small molecules (MW typically 50 to 100 x l03) provide fluid loss control, e.g. CMC
‘Lo- Vis’;
- large molecules with many charged sites present will promote shale encapsulation and
flocculation of drilled solids, e.g. polyacrylamides.
Under certain condition polymer may be degraded:
- Some organic polymer are sensitive to degradation by micro-organisms (fermentation)
and treatment with biocides is required to maintain mud properties. If the mud are
saturated with salt or have pH in excess of 12, biocide treatment is not necessary.

82
- During operations, drilling fluids are subject to considerable shear and the large polymer
molecules will tend to break up into smaller fragment. Sensitivity to shear degradation is
determined by the molecular structure, and therefore, specific for the polymer at hand.
- Degradation by temperature is again dependent on molecular structure and hence specific
for a particular type of polymer. Thermal degradation can be somewhat slowed down by
removal of oxygen from the mud utilizing scavenger.
- Some polymers loose their effectiveness in the presence of large concentrations of salts
and bivalent ions such as calcium and magnesium. This so-called ‘salinity’ and
‘hardness’ sensitivity is also polymer specific.
From the above it is apparent that the selection of polymer for a certain application is governed
by its various properties under the prevailing conditions. Prices of polymers vary widely, not
only between the different types, but also within the same type between various grade. It is,
therefore, recommended that laboratory testing be performed as part of the selection procedure
utilizing the intended mud type so as to compare the performance of various (grades of)
candidate polymers.
The main types of polymers are briefly discussed below.
9.3.1 HEC
Hydroxy ethyl cellulose is also produced by chemical modification of cellulose. It has a very
high hardness tolerance and the viscosifying ability is not affected by salinity.
HEC more expensive than CMC. For that reason it is usually not applied in drilling fluids if
CMC can be used instead . As HEC is readily acid degradable, it is commonly used to viscosity
clear brine work over completion and gravel-pack fluids.
9.3.2 Guar gum
Guar gum is a natural gum (extracted from guar beans). It is mainly used for the preparation of
stimulation fluids. In wells drilled from semi-submersibles. top sections are often drilled with
returns to seabed, using sea water and viscous slugs for which guar gum is normally used (2-3
ppb in sea water). It has a high salinity /hardness tolerance but is sensitive to bio-degradation and
is temperature stable to approximately 65°C modified’ hydroxy propyl guar dissolves even better
and has somewhat improved thermal and biological stabilities.
9.3.3 Xanthan gum (XC-polymers)
Xanthan gums are produced by culturing micro-organisms. They are used as viscosifiers and
suspending agents low solids content fluids, XC-Polymers have a unique ‘shear thinning effect,
i.e. at high shear conditions, viscosity is low, whereas at low shear conditions, the viscosity is
high.
Although the concentrations required to provide viscosity are lower than for alternative
viscosifiers (up to I – 1 1/2ppb) high price XC-Polymer is a drawback for large scale application
in muds. In most areas the application confined to more expensive fluids (TAME, Salt saturated
muds. KCI-polymer muds) and work over fluids.

83
Xanthan gums have a high tolerance of salinity and hardness, are sensitive to biodegradation and
are temperature stable up to approximately 120°C.
9.3.4 Polvacrylarnides
Polvcrylamides are synthetic polymers. Their main application in drilling fluids is as
encapsulating agent for drilled solids. Typical concentration in KCL-polymer mud is 0.5 - 1
lb/bbl (1.4 - 2.8 kglm3).
9.3.5 Starch
Pregelatinised starch is a low cost polymer for reducing the fluid loss or increasing the viscosity
alkaline or salt saturated muds at temperatures below 100°C. Concentrations of starch in mud
range between 1 and 6 ppb.
The main sources of Pregelatinised drilling starches are potatoes and corn although other sources
are occasionally used. Starch is shear sensitive and subject to bio-degradation. Its tolerance to
salinity and hardness is high.
In most drilling starches a biocide is preblended (e.g. 1 - 3% paraformaldehyde) to prevent
fermentation in low saline muds. Contrary to what is claimed biodegradation cannot be
prevented in this way and necessary to use additional biocide in these cases. From both an
operational as a Health Safety and end point of view, use of non-fermenting alternatives is
preferred.
Some manufacturers produce modified starches (by cross-linking or carboxyl methylation) which
are higher temperatures and have a higher resistance to fermentation than ordinary starch. An
example of product is Stabilose.
9.3.6 CMC
Sodium carboxy methyle cellulose (CMC) are semi-synthetic polymers, produced by the
chemical modification of cellulose. They are available in low, medium and high viscosity grades
are widely used for the control of both fluid loss and viscosity in fresh water as well as saline
(sea water) muds, in concentrations ranging 1 - 4ppb.
CMCs do not ferment and have a higher temperature stability than Pregelatinised starch. Their
hardness is. however, lower (max. 2000 mg/I calcium). CMCs are approximately 30% less
effective in tolerance hardness is, however, lower (max. 200mg/l calcium) CMCs are
approximately 30% less effective in providing viscosity in a salt saturated environment
compared to fresh water.
9.3.7 PAC
Polyanionic cellulose (PAC) is a highly modified, high molecular weight CMC with better
thermal stability and hardness tolerance than the regular CMCs, but it is approximately twice as
expensive. PACs show better encapsulating properties than CMC or starch. For this reason PACs
are often used as a viscosifier/fluid loss reducer in inhibitive ‘low solids’ muds (KCL-polymer
muds). PACs are normally applied in concentration of 3ppb.

84
9.3.8 Others
Synthetic polymers such as (modified) polyacrylates and sulphonated styrene are occasionally
used for fluid loss and viscosity control at high temperatures.
9.4 Deflocculants (Thinners, Dispersants)
Thinners are used to reduce the yield value and gel strength of drilling fluids. Improvement of
the fluid loss is usually observed as a side effect and some thinners stabilize the mud properties
at elevated temperatures.
9.4.1 Lignosulphonates
Heavy metal lignosulphonate complexes usually of iron and/or chromium are at present the most
commonly used thinners. They are effective up to temperatures of 130°C and can tolerate mud
salinities in excess of 35,000ppm
NaCI, Chrome-free lignosuiphonate complexes are available for use in environmentally sensitive
areas, although technically these products are not needed as chromium is present in the non-
toxic trivalent state.
Example of trade names: Spersene, Q-broxin; Chrome-free products: Aqua-magic, Ferrocal.
Treatment levels in mud are normally up to 6 - 8 ppb.
9.4.2 Lignites
Lignites and heavy metal lignite complexes are heat resistant thinners (maximum temperature
approximately (175°C) for use in fresh or saline water muds, treatment levels are up to 5ppb (14
kg/rn3). Examples of trade names: CC 16, XP2O.
The water soluble condensation products of lignites and acrylates. developed a few years ago are
highly temperature and salt resistant (> 150°C, > 100,000 mg/l NaCl). In combination with
lignosulphonates they aid to obtained suitable muds for high temperature operations. Examples
of trade names: Hi-temp. Resinex, Durenex.
Laboratory tests have indicated that Resinex, also at temperatures far below 150°C, exhibits a
favourable effect on the filter cake (thin, impervious) in sea water/bentonite muds. For that
purpose Resins is occasionally added to muds (2-3ppb, 5.7 - 7.5 km 3) in areas/wells with an
increased chance on differential sticking.
9.4.3 Phosphates/Polyphosphates
Sodium polyphosphate are effective thinners in fresh-water muds (< 500 ppm NaCI) and at
temperatures below 60°C. Because of these limitations they are rarely used in oil well drilling.
9.4.4 Tannins
Since the introduction of lignosulphonate thinners. tannins are used only occasionally in low
salinity mud for shallow wells (> 1500 ppm NaCI and temperatures below 80°C). The best
known thinner in this category is quebracho, a hardwood extract containing 60 - 65% tannin.

85
9.5 Oxygen and Hydrogen Sulphide Scavengers
Although most muds are run at P H level at which oxygen corrosion of any significance is not
likely to occur, application of oxygen scavenger can sometimes be considered, Solutions of
ammonium bisulphite and sodium sulphite are common oxygen scavengers. Dosage rate is
approximately 10ppm for each ppm O2 present.
Ammonium bisulphite is only suitable at pH levels below 9, in view of decomposition and
release of ammonia fumes above this value. Examples of trade names: Coat 777, IdSCAV.
Hydrogen sulphide entrained into the mud will be converted into soluble suiphides as a result of
reaction with caustic soda or lime, It is preferable to use scavengers, which react irreversibly
with H2S such as basic zinc carbonate and specially treated iron oxide. Examples of scavenger
trade names: Mil-Gard (zinc-compound). Ironite Sponge (iron oxide).
9.6 Lost Circulation Materials
Lost circulation is often remedied by introducing a bridging or plugging solid so that normal
filtration across a pervious borehole wall is re-established. The materials may be classified as
flaky, granular or fibrous. Generally a mix of composition and particle sizes is preferred to be
effective. Commonly used materials are: mica and cellophane flakes, ground walnut shells,
shredded wood, diatomaceous earth.
To combat lost circulation in the pay zone, it is often preferred to use acid soluble material
(graded carbonate).
Trade names of LCM are Ven-fibre, Diaseal, Kwikseal, Sureseal.
9.7 Commercial Chemicals
9.7.1 Potassium chloride (KCl )
KCI is used for clay inhibition in KCI-muds. Treatment levels vary typically between 10 and 50
ppb depending on the type of shale to be inhibited. Addition to the mud system does not require
use of a hopper, hut should be done during circulation to avoid viscosity ‘lumps’. To simplify
addition KCl is sometimes supplied as a concentrated brine 80 - 90 lbs/bbl).
9.7.2 Sodium chloride (salt, NaCI )
Salt is the base chemical for salt saturated muds, used to drill salt formations. Addition
procedures are similar to those of KCI.
9.7.3 Caustic soda (NaOH)
Caustic soda is used for pH control. For most muds the pH should be approximately 9 - 10.
Restoration of pH requires little caustic (typically [ 1/2 ppb). Caustic soda is best added via a
‘prernix’ to ensure even distribution into the mud. In view of its aggressiveness, caustic soda
should be handled with due care and attention.

86
9.7.4 Soda Ash (Na2CO3)
Soda Ash may be applied to reduce the hardness of water used to prepare prehydrated bentonite
or KCI-Polymer mud. The required concentration is based on the level of dissolved Ca ++ in the
source water. Over-treatment should be avoided.
9.7.5 Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)
Sodium bicarbonate is used to combat cement contamination. It effectively precipitates calcium
and redcues high pH in fresh water or saline muds. Treatment dosage is dependant on the
severity of cement contamination Over-treatment should be avoided as excessive gel values may
result from excess carbonates. Especially after top hole cementations are relatively low
temperatures, chances are that (part of) the cement is not yet sufficiently cured to avoid
dispersion into the muds while drilling the shoe track. It is common practice to pretreat the mud
(not a calcium based mud!) already before drilling out the shoe track with a few bags of sodium
bicarbonate.
9.7.6 Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
Gypsum is mainly used to prepare gyp muds. The inhibitive effect of these muds is provided by
dissolved Ca ions originating from gypsum. Although gypsum is only slightly soluble (resulting
in 600 - 1200 mg/I dissolved Ca++) a fairly large excess of 4 - 6 lbs/bbl gypsum is normally
maintained to provide adequate supply of soluble Ca ++. Finely grounded gypsum is preferred to
minimize losses via solids removal equipment and to provide faster supply of soluble Ca++

9.8 Specialty Product

9.8.1 Lubricants
Lubricants are added to a drilling mud to reduce torque, drag and differential sticking. Besides
diesel and crude oils, which are environmentally objectionable or prohibited, a large number of
proprietary products are on the market. Their effectiveness varies and is strongly dependent on
mud type. Selection of a mud lubricant should therefore be based on laboratory and field tests.
Examples of trade names: Magcrolube, lubrisal.
9.8.2 Detergents
Detergents are sometimes recommended to reduce bit balling and torque and to increase
penetration rate. Any beneficial effect of detergents have so far been reported in qualitative
terms. Balling is caused by the presence of a fluid suction force within the shale mass. In view of
this, it is hard to see how detergents would be of any benefit. Examples of trade names: DD,
Condet.
9.8.3 Spotting fluids
Spotting fluids are meant to free pressure differentially stuck drill strings by shrinkage and
cracking of the mud cake. They are surfactants which are dissolved in diesel or low toxicity oil
and spotted around the drill collars.

87
Some spotting fluids can be weighted to prevent upward migration. Example of trade names:
Pipe-Lax, B-Free.
9.8.4 Defoamers (Aluminum Stearate, et al.)
Aluminum Stearate is commonly used to counteract mud foaming. The product is insoluble in
water. It should be mixed with diesel oil before being added to the mud (typically 1 - 2 kg/b10 l
oil). Treatment level 0.1 to 0.2 lbs/bbl (0.3 - 0.6 kg/rn3) of mud.
Besides Aluminum Stearate a range of defoamers is available from most companies. Cement
defoamers can be used as well, although these products tend to be rather expensive, compared to
most alternatives defoamers are effective in combating foam, but are not effective against air
entrapment into the mud. This latter phenomenon is in most cases related to the solids content
and mud rheology and can best be combated by thinning/dilution of the mud. Trade names of
defoamers are: Surfio 300, Magconol W.O. Defoam, DFM.
8.8.5 Asphalt Derivatives
These black powders are claimed to have shale stabilizing properties. The stability mechanism is,
however not known. Normally advised concentration is 2 - 3 lbs/bbl. Some types have to be
dissolved in diesel oil before being added. Most products are ground asphalt or gilsonite (a
naturally occurring asphalt). Soltex (Drilling Specialties) is a sulphonated asphalt in order to
make it water soluble.

88
 CHAPTER 10
10.0 Pilot Testing and The Instructions
Testing the response of a given drilling fluid to specific additives is referred to as Pilot Testing.
The complex drilling fluid system of today requires a systematic approach to problem solving.
Pilot testing is not necessarily restricted to the treatment of problem muds. It is often important
to be able to predict the effectiveness of an additive, or additives, to alter much characteristics to
meet specific downhole requirements as drilling progresses. Recognizing that this method of
testing can be utilized as a vital tool in correcting mud problems or modifying fluid
characteristics.
The sample to be evaluated should be taken from the suction pit (active tank) while no chemical
additions being made. A routine mud check will confirm if it is representative of the problem
that has been experience or if it exhibits properties consistent with previous analyses. A 1 gallon
sample will normally be sufficient for comprehensive evaluation.
Several tests will usually be required to determine the most economical and effective treatment.
It is v essential to use the same fluid when a suitable samples has to be run and the result of
various additions are to compared.
It is very important to mention that 1 lb/bbl which is equal to lg/35occ on conversion from field
unit to SI. unit. Therefore, a convenient liquid volume for each “response to additive” evaluation
is 35occ. This is normally adequate volume to conduct the necessary measurement after sample
preparation. Before removing each 350ml portion from the large sample, be sure that the sample
is thoroughly mixed. Frequently, separation will cause erroneous pilot test results.
Procedure:
Liquid materials: Use a syringe to measure liquid materials. For field Pilot testing. the following
equivalent can be used:

For greater accuracy, the actual weight of the liquid material in the syringe should be measured.
This was requires an instrument capable of weighing to 0.1gram. A syringe is weighed empty
and then weighed with amount of liquid to be added. The liquid weight equals the difference
between the weights.

89
90
Example:
Titration of filtrate shows a calcium level of 950 mg/I. To remove all but approximately
100mg/I. treat 850mg (950 - 100 = 850) of calcium with soda ash.
Therefore, soda ash required is approximately 850 x 0,00093 = 0.79lbm/bbl.

91
 Glossary of Drilling Fluid and Associated Terms
American Petroleum institute Bulletin D II, First Edition, December 1965.
-A-

Absorption - The penetration or apparent disappearance of molecules or ions of one or more

substances into the interior of a solid or liquid. For example, in hydrated bentonite, the planar
water that is held between the mica-like layers is the result of absorption.
Acid - Any chemical compound containing hydrogen capable of being replaced by positive
elements or radicals to form salts. In terms of the dissociation theory. it is a compound which, on
dissociation in solution, yields excess hydrogen ions. Acids lower the pH. Examples of acids or
acidic substances are: hydrochloric acid sodium acid pyrophosphate.
Acidity - The relative acid strength of liquid as measured by pH. A pH value below 7. See pH.
Adhension - The force which holds together unlike molecules.
Adsorption - A surface phenomenon exhibited by a solid (adsorbent) to hold or concentrate
gases, liquids, or dissolved substance (adsorptive) up its surface, a property due to adhension.
For example, that water held to the outside surface of hydrated bentonite is adsorbed water.
Aeration - The technique of injecting air or gas in varying amount into a drilling fluid for the
purpose of reducing hydrostatic head. Compare Air Cutting.
Agglomerate - The larger groups of individual particles usually originating in sieving or drying
operations.
Agglomeration - The grouping of individual particles.
Aggregate - A group of or more individual particles held together by strong forces. Aggregates
are stable to normal stirring, shaking, or handling as powder or a suspension. They may be
broken by drastic treatment such as ball milling a powder or by shearing a suspension.
Aggregation - Formation of aggregates. In drilling fluids, aggregation results in the stacking of
the clay platelets face to face. The viscosity and gel strength decrease in consequence.
Air Cutting - The inadvertent mechanical incorporation and dispersion of air into a drilling-fluid
system. Compare Aeration.
Alkali - Any compound having marked basic properties. See Base.
Alkalinity - The combining power of a base measured by the maximum number of equivalents
of an acid with which it can react to form a salt. In water analysis, it represents the carbonates.
bicarbonates, hydroxides, and occasionally the borates, silicates, and phosphates in the water. It
is determined by titration with standard acid to certain datum points. See API RP 13B* for
specific directions for determination of phenolphthalein (Pf) and methyl orange (Mf) alkalinities
of the filtrate in drilling fluids and the alkalinity of the mud itself (Pm). Also see Pf, Mf, and Pm

92
Aluminum Stearate - An aluminum salt of stearic acid used as a defoarner. See Stearate.
Analysis. Mud Or Drilling-Fluid - Examination and testing of the drilling fluid to determine its
physical and chemical properties and condition.
Anhydrite - See Calcium Sulphate. Anhydrite is often encountered while drilling. It may occur
as thin stringers or massive formations.
Anhydrous - Without water.
Aniline Point - The lowest temperature at which equal volumes of freshly distilled aniline and
an oil which is being tested are completely miscible. This test gives an indication of the character
(paraffinic, naphthenic, asphaltic, aromatic, mid continent, etc.) of the oil. The on-line point of
diesel or crudes used in drilling mud is also an indication of the deteriorating effect these
materials may have on natural or synthetic rubber. The lower the aniline point of an oil the more
severe it usually is in damaging rubber parts.
Anion - A negatively charged atom or radical, such as Cl-, OH-, SO4=. etc., in solution of an
electrolyte. Anions move toward the anode (positive electrode) under the influence of an
electrical potential.
Annular Veleocity - The velocity of a fluid moving in the annulus.
Annulus or Annular Space - The space between the drill string and the wall of the hole or
casing.
Antifoam - A substance used to prevent foam by greatly increasing the surface tension. Compare
Defoamer.
Api Gravity - The gravity (weight per unit volume of crude oil or other related fluids as
measured by a system recommended by the American Petroleum Institute. It is related to specific
gravity by the following formula:

Apparent Viscosity - The viscosity a fluid appears to have on a given instrument at a stated rate
of shear. It is a function of the plastic viscosity and the yield point. The apparent viscosity in
centipoises, as determined by the direct-indicating viscometer which is equal to 1/2 the 600-rpm
reading. See also Viscosity, Plastic Viscosity, and Yield Point. In a Newtonian fluid, the
apparent viscosity is numerically equal to the plastic viscosity.
Asbestos - Term applied to many fibrous silicate minerals, some forms of which are used in
certain drilling fluids.
Asphalt - A natural or mechanical mixture of solid or viscous bitumens found in natural beds or
obtained as a residue from petroleum. Asphalt, blends containing asphalt, and altered asphaltic
materials (e.g., air-blown, chemically modified, etc.) have been added to certain drilling fluids
for such widely different purposes as a component in oil-base muds, lost-circulation material,
emulsifier, fluid-los-control agent, wall-plastering agent, etc.
93
Atom - According to the atomic theory, the smallest quantity of an element which is capable of
entering into chemical combination or that can exist alone.
Atomic Number - The relative weight of an atom of an element as compared with the weight of
1 atom of oxygen, using 16 as the weight of I atom of oxygen.
Attapulgite - A colloidal, viscosity-building clay used principally in salt-water muds.
Attapulgite, a special fullers earth, is a hydrous magnesium aluminum silicate.
-B
Balance Mud - A beam-type balance used in determining mud density. It consists primarily of a
base, graduated beam with constant-volume cup, lid, rider, knife edge, and counterweight.
Barite, Barytes. or Heavy Spar - Natural barium sulphate used for increasing the density of
drilling fluids. If required. it is usually upgraded to a specific gravity of 4.20. The barite mineral
occurs in white. grayish, greenish, and reddish ores or crystalline masses.
Barium Sulphate - BaSO4. See Barite
Barrel - A volumetric unit of measure used in the petroleum industry consisting of 42 gal.
Barrel Equivalent - A laboratory unit used for evaluating or testing drilling fluids. One gram of
material when added to 350 ml of fluid, is equivalent to 1 lb of material when added to one 42-
gal barrel of fluid.
Base - A compound of a metal or a metal-like group, with hydrogen and oxygen in the
proportion to form an OH radical, which ionizes in aqueous solution to yield excess hydroxyl
ions. Bases are formed when metallic oxides react with water. Bases are formed when metallic
oxides react with water. Bases increases the pH. Examples are caustic soda and lime.
Base Exchange - The replacement of cation associated with the clay surface by those of another
species. e.g., the conversion of sodium clay to calcium clay.
Basicity - pH value above 7. Ability to neutralize or accept protons from acids.
Bentonite - A plastic, colloidal clay, largely made up of the mineral sodium montmorillonite, a
hydrated aluminum silicate. For use in drilling fluids, bentonite has a yield in excess of 85
bbl/ton. The generic term “bentonite” is neither an exact mineralogical name, nor is the clay of
definite mineralogical composition.
Bicarb - See Sodium Bicarbonate.
Blooie Line - Flow line for air or gas drilling.
Blow Out - An uncontrolled escape of drilling fluid, gas, oil, or water from the well caused by
the formation pressure being greater than the hydrostatic head of the fluid in the hole.
Boiler House - To make up a report on a condition as fact without knowledge of its accuracy.
Sometimes referred to as “dog house.”

94
Brackish Water - Water containing low concentrations of any soluble salts.
Break Circulation - To start movement of the drilling fluid after it has been quiescent in the
hole.
Break out Oil - Oil that has risen to the surface of the mud which previously had been combined
in the mud as emulsion.
Bridge - An obstruction in a well formed by intrusion of subsurface formations.
Brine - Water saturated with or containing a high concentration of common salt (sodium
chloride); hence, any strong saline solution containing such other salts as calcium chloride, zinc
chloride, calcium nitrate, etc.
Bromine Value - The number of centigrams of bromine which are absorbed by 1 g of oil under
certain conditions. This is a test for the degree of unsaturatedness of a given oil.
Brownian Movement - Continuous, irregular motion exhibited by particles suspended in a
liquid or gaseous medium, usually as a colloidal dispensation.
BS or BS & W - Base sediment, or base sediment and water.
Buffer - Any substance or combination of substances which, when dissolved in water, produces
a solution which resists a change in its hydrogen ion concentration upon the addition of acid or
base.
-C-
Cable-Tool Drilling - A method of drilling a well by allowing a weighted bit at the bottom of a
cable fall against the formation being penetrated. See Rotary Drilling.
Cake Consistency - According to API RP l3B, such notations as “hard,
“soft,”“tough,”“rubbery,”“fin etc., may be used to convey some idea of cake consistency.
Cake Thickness - The measurement of the thickness of the filter cake deposited by a drilling
fluid against a porous medium, most often following the standard API filtration test. Cake
thickness is usually reported in 32nd of an inch. See Filter Cake and Wall Cake.
Calcium - One of’ the alkaline earth elements with a valence of 2 and an atomic weight of about
40. Calcium compounds are a common cause of the hardness of water, it is also a component of
lime, gypsum, limestone, etc.
Calcium Carbonate - CaCO3. An insoluble calcium salt sometimes used as a weighting mater
(limestone, oyster shell, etc.), in specialized drilling fluids. It is also used as a unit and/!or
standard to report hardness.
Calcium Chloride - CaCl2. A very soluble calcium salt sometimes added to drilling fluids to
impart special properties, but primarily to increase the density of the fluid phase.

95
Calcium Contamination - Dissolved calcium ions in sufficient concentration to impact
undesirable properties in a drilling fluid, such as flocculation, reduction in yield of bentonite.
increase in fluid loss, etc. See also Calcium Sulfate, Gyp, Anhydrite, Lime, Calcium Carbonate.
Calcium Hydroxide - Ca(HO)2. The active ingredient of slaked lime. It is also the main
constituent in cement (when wet). This material is referred to as “lime” in field terminology.
Calcium-Treated Muds - Calcium-treated muds are drilling fluids to which quantities of soluble
calcium compounds have been added or allowed to remain from the formation drilled in order to
impart special properties.
Calcium Sulphate - (Anhydrite: CaSO4, Plaster of Paris: CaSO4. l/2H20; and Gypsum:
CaSO4.2HO2) . Calcium sulfate occurs in muds as a contaminant or may be added to certain
muds to impart special properties.
Cation - The positively charged particle in the solution of an electrolyte which, under the
influence of a electrical potential, moves towards the cathode (negative electrode). Examples are.
Na+ , H+, NH4+, Ca++ Mg++, Al+++.
Caustic or Caustic Soda - See Sodium Hydroxide.
Cave-in - See Sloughing. Cave-in is a severe form of sloughing.
Cavernous Formations - A formation having voluminous voids, usually the result of dissolving
by formation waters which may or may not be still present.
CC or Cubic Centimeter - A metric-system for the measure of volume. It is essentially equal to
the milliliter and commonly used interchangeably. One cubic centimeter of water at room
temperature weighs approximately I g.
Cement - A mixture of calcium aluminates and silicates made by combining lime and clay while
heating. Slaked cement contains about 62.5 percent calcium hydroxide, which is the major
source of trouble when cement contaminates mud.
Centipoise (cP) - A unit of viscosity equal to 0.01 poise. A poise equals I g per meter-second,
and a centipoise is I g per centimeter-second. The viscosity of water at 20°C is 1.005 cP ( I cP =
0.000672 lb/fl sec).
Centrifuge - A device for the mechanical separation of high specific gravity solids from a
drilling fluid. Usually used on weighted muds to recover weight material and discard drill solids.
The centrifuge uses high-speed mechanical rotation to achieve this separation,, as distinguished
from the cyclone-type separator in which the fluid energy alone provides separating force. See
Cyclone and Desander.
Chemicals - In drilling-fluid terminology, a chemical is any material that produces changes in
the viscosity. yield point, gel strength, and fluid loss, as well as surface tension.
Chemical Barrel - A container in which various chemicals are mixed prior to addition to the
drilling fluid.

96
Chromate - A compound in which chromium has a valence of 6. e.g. Sodium dichromate.
Chromate may be added to drilling fluid either directly or as a constituent of chrome lignites or
chrome lignosulphonates. In certain areas, chromate is widely used as an anodic corrosion
inhibitor, often in conjunction with lime.
Chrome Lignite - Mined lignite, usually leonardite, to which chromate has been added and/or
reacted. The lignite can also be causticized with either Sodium or Potassium hydroxide.
Circulation - The movement of drilling fluid from the suction pit through pump, drill pipe, bit,
annular space in the hole, and back again to the suction pit. The time involved is usually referred
to as circulation time.
Circulation Loss - The result of drilling fluid escaping into the formation by way of crevices or
porous media.
Circulation Rate - The volume flow rate of the circulating drilling fluid usually expressed in
gallons or barrels per minute.
Clabbered - A slang term commonly used to describe moderate to severe flocculation of mud
due to various contaminants; also called “gelled-up.”
Clay - A plastic, soft variously coloured earth, commonly a hydrous silicate of alumina, formed
by the decomposition of feldspar and other aluminum silicates. See also Attapulgite. Bentonite,
high yield, low yield, and natural clays. Clay minerals are essentially insoluble in water but
disperse under hydration, shearing forces such as grinding, velocity effects, etc., into the
extremely small particles varying from submicron to 100-micron sizes.
Clay Extender - Any of several substances, usually high molecular weight organic compounds
that, when added in low concentrations to a bentonite or to certain other clay slurries, will
increase the viscosity of the system, e.g., polyvinyl acetatemaleic anhydride copolymer. See
Low-solids Muds.
CMC - See Sodium Carboxyl rnethyl cellulose.
— J--
Coagulation - In drilling-fluid terminology, a synonym for flocculation.
Coalescence - The change from a liquid to a thickened curd-like state by chemical reaction. Also
the combination of globules in an emulsion caused by molecular attraction of the surfaces.
Colloid - A state of subdivision of matter which consists either of single large molecules or of
aggregations of smaller molecules dispersed to such a degree that the surface forces become an
important factor in determining its properties. The size and electrical charge of the particles
determine the different phenomena observed with colloids, e.g., Brownian movement. The sizes
of colloids range from 1 x l0-7 cm to 5 x 10-5 cm (1micron = 1 x 10-4) in diameter, although the
particle size of certain emulsions can be in the micron range.
Colloidal Composition - A colloidal suspension containing one or more colloidal constituents.

97
Colloidal Suspension - Finely divided particles of ultramicroscopic size swimming in a liquid.
Conductivity - A measure of the quantity of electricity transferred across unit area per unit
potential gradient per unit time. It is the reciprocal of resistivity. Electrolytes may be added to the
drilling fluid alter its conductivity for logging purposes.
Connate Water - Water that probably was laid down and entrapped with sedimentary deposits
distinguished from migratory waters that have flowed into deposits after they were laid down.
Consistency - The viscosity of a non-reversible fluid, in poises, for a certain time interval at a
given pres and temperature.
Consistometer - A thickening-time tester having a stirring apparatus to measure the relative
thickening time for mud or cement slurries under predetermined temperatures and pressures. See
API R.P 10B.
Contamination - The presence in a drilling fluid of any foreign material that may tend to
produce detrimental properties of the drilling fluid.
Continuous Phase - The fluid phase which completely surrounds the dispersed phase that may
be colloids, oil, etc.
Controlled Aggregation - A condition in which the clay platelets are maintained, stacked by a
polyvalent cation, such as calcium, and are deflocculated by use of a thinner.
Conventional Mud - A drilling fluid containing essentially clay and water.
Copolymer - A substance formed when two or more substances polymerize at the same time to
yield product which is not a mixture of separate polymers but a complex having properties
different from either polymer alone. See Polymer. Examples are polyvinyl acetate-maleic
anhydride copolymer (clay extender and selective flocculant), acrylamide-carboxylic acid
copolymer (total flocculant), etc.
Corrosion - The adverse chemical alteration on a metal or the eating away of the metal by air.
moisture chemicals; usually an oxide is formed.
Crater - The formation of a large funnel-shaped cavity at the top of a hole resulting from a
blowout occasionally from caving.
Creaming of Emulsions - The setting of rising of the particles of the dispersed phase of an
emulsion observed by a difference in colour shading of the layers formed. This can be either
upward or downward creaming, depending upon the relative densities of the continuous and
dispersed phases.
Created Fractures - Induced fractures by means of hydraulic or mechanical pressure exerted on
formation.
Cuttings - Small pieces of formation that are the result of the chipping and/or crushing action of
the bit. See Samples.

98
Cycle Time, Drilling-Fluid - The time of a cycle, or down the hold and back, is the time
required for pump to move the drilling fluid in the hole. The cycle in minutes equals the barrels
of mud in the hole divided by barrels per minute.

Cyclone - A device for the separation of various particles form a drilling fluid, most commonly
used as a desander. The fluid is pumped tangentially into a cone, and the fluid rotation provides
enough centrifugal force to separate particles by mass weight. See Centrifuge.
-D-
Darcy - A unit of permeability. A porous medium has a permeability of 1 darcy when a pressure
of 1atm on a sample 1 cm long and 1 sq cm in cross section will force a liquid of 1-cP viscosity
through the sample at the rate of 1 cc per sec.
Deflocculation — Breakup of flocs of gel structure by use of a thinner,
Dehydrateion — Removal of free or combined water from a compound.
Diesel-Oil Plug — See Gunk Plug.
Deliquesence — The liquefaction of a solid substance due to the solution of the solid by
adsorption of moisture from the air, e.g., calcium chloride.
Density - Matter measured as mass per unit volume expressed in pounds per gallon (ppg),
pounds per square inch per 1,000 ft of depth (psi/1 ,000 ft), and pounds per cubic ft (lb/cu ft).
Density is commonly referred to as “weight.”
Desander — See Cyclone.
Diatomaceous Earth — An infusorial earth composed of siliceous skeletons of diatoms and
being very porous. Sometimes used for combating lost circulation and as an additive to cement;
also has been added to special drilling fluids for a particular purpose.
Differential-Pressure — The difference in pressure between the hydrostatic head of the drilling-
fluid column and the formation pressure at any given depth in the hole. It can be positive, zero,
or negative with respect to the hydrostatic head.
Differential-Pressure (Wall) Sticking -. Sticking which occurs because part of the drill string
(usually the drill collars) becomes embedded in the filter cake resulting in a non-uniform
distribution of pressure around the circumference of the pipe. The conditions essential for
sticking require a permeable formation and a pressure differential across a nearly impermeable
filter cake and drill string.
Diffusion — The spreading, scattering, or mixing of a material (gas, liquid, or solid).
Dilatant Fluid — A dilatant or inverted plastic fluid is usually made up of a high concentration
of well dispersed solids which exhibits a non-linear consistency curve passing through the origin.
The apparent viscosity increases instantaneously with increasing rate of shear. The yield point, as

99
determined by conventional calculations from the direct-indicating viscometer readings, is
negative; however, the true yield point is zero.
Diluent — Liquid added to dilute or thin a solution.
Direct-Indicating Viscometer — See Viscometer, Direct-indicating.
Dispersant — Any chemical which promotes dispersion of the dispersed phase.
Dispersed Phase — The scattered phase (solid, liquid or gas) of a dispersion. The particles are
finely divided and completely surrounded by the continuous phase.
Dispersion (Of Aggregates) — Subdivision of aggregates. Dispersion increase the specific
surface of the particle; hence results in an increase in viscosity and gel strength.
Disperso1d — A colloid or finely divided substance.
Dissociation The splitting up of a compound or element into two or more simple molecules,
ions. Applied usually to the effect of the action of heat or solvents upon dissolved substance. The
reaction is reversible and not as permanent at decomposition; i.e., when the solvent is removed,
the ions recombine.
Distillation — Process of first vaporizing a liquid and then condensing the vapor into a liquid
(the distillate) leaving behind non-volatile substances, the total solids of a drilling fluid. The
distillate is the water, oil content of a fluid.
Dog-Leg — The “elbow” caused by a sharp change of direction in the well bore.
Drilling In — The operation during the drilling procedure at the point of drilling into the pay
formation
Drilling Mud or Fluid — A circulating fluid used in rotary drilling to perform any or all of
functions required in the drilling operation.
Drilling Out — The operation during the drilling procedure when the cement is drilled out of the
casing before further hole is made or completion attempted.
Drill-Stem Test (DST) — A test to determine whether oil and/or gas in commercial quantities I
encountered in the well bore.
Dynamic — The state of being active or in motion; opposed to static.
—E---
Electric Logging — Electric logs are run on a wire line to obtained information concerning the
porosity, permeability, fluid content of the formation drilled, and other information. The drilling-
fluid characteristics may need to be altered to obtain good logs.
Electrolyte — A substance which dissociates into charged positive and negative ions when in
solution fused state and which will then conduct an electric current. Acids, bases, and salts are
common electrolytes.

100
Emulsifier or Emulsifying — A substance used to produce an emulsion of two liquids which do
not mix. Emulsifers may be divided according to their behavior into ionic and non-ionic agents.
The ionic may be further divided into an ionic, cationic, and amphoteric, depending upon the
nature of the ion-active groups.
Emulsion — A substantially permanent heterogeneous liquid mixture of two or more liquids
which normally dissolve in each other but which are held in suspension or dispersion, one in the
mechanical agitation or, more frequently, by adding small amounts of substances known as
emmusifiers. Emulsions may be mechanical, chemical, or a combination of the two. They may
be oil-in-water or water- in-oil.
Emulsoid — Colloidal particles which take up water.
End Point — Indicates the end of some operation or when a definite change is observed. In
titration this change is frequently a change in colour or an indicator which has been added to the
solution or the disappearance of a coloured reactant.
Engineer, Mud or Drilling-Fluid — One versed in drilling fluid whose duties are to manage,
carry through, and maintain the various types of oil-well mud programs.
Ep Additive — See Extreme-pressure Lubricant.
Emp or Equivalents Per Million — Unit chemical weight of solute per million unit weight of
solution. The epm of a solute in solution is equal to the ppm (parts per million) divided by the
equivalent weight. Refer also to ppm.
Equivalent Circulating Density — For a circulating fluid, the equivalent circulating density in
lb/gal equals the hydrostatic head (psi) plus the total annular pressure drop (psi) divided by the
depth (ft) and by\0.052.
Equivalent Weight or Combining Weight — The atomic or formula weight of an element. or
ion divided by its valence. Elements entering into combination always do so in quantities
proportional to their equivalent weights.
Extreme-Pressure Lubricant — Additives which, when added to the drilling fluid, impart
lubrication to the bearing surfaces when subjected to extreme pressure conditions.

-F-
Fault — Geological term denoting a formation break, upward or downward, in the subsurface
strata. Faults can significantly affect the area mud and casing programs.
Fermentation — Decomposition process of certain organic substances, e.g., starch in which a
chemical change is brought about by enzymes, bacteria, or other micro-organisms. Often referred
to as “sourcing”
Fiber or Fibrous Materials — Any tough stringy material used to prevent loss of circulation or
to restore circulation. In field use, fiber generally refers to the larger fibers of plant origin.

101
Filling the Hole — Pumping drilling fluid continuously or intermittently into the well bore to
maintain the fluid level in the hole near the surface. The purpose is to avoid danger of blowout,
water intrusion, and/or cavinig of the well bore. e.g., as the pipe is withdrawn,
Fill up Line — The line through which fluid is added to the hole.
Filter Cake — The suspended solids that are deposited on a porous medium during the process
of filtration. See also Cake Thickness.
Filter-Cake Texture — The physical properties of a cake is measured by toughness, slickness,
and brittleness. See also cake consistency.
Filter-Cake Thickness — A measurement of the solids deposited on filter paper in 32 nd of an
inch during the standard 30-mm API filter test. See cake thickness. In certain areas the filter-cake
thickness is a measurement of the solids deposited on filter paper for a 7 1/2-min duration.
Filter Loss — See Fluid loss
Filter Paper — Porous unsized paper for filtering liquids. API filtration test specifies one
thickness of 9-cm filter paper Whatman No. 50, S&S No. 576. or equivalent.
Filter Press — A device for determining fluid loss of drilling fluid having specifications in
accordance with API RP 13B.
Filtrate — The liquid that is forced through a porous medium during the filtration process. For
test, See Fluid Loss.
Filtration — The process of separating suspended solids from their liquid by forcing the latter
through a porous medium. Two type of fluid filtration occur in a well; dynamic filtration while in
circulating, and static filtration when at rest.
Filtration Qualities — The filtration characteristics of a drilling mud. Generally these qualities
are inverse to the thickness of the filter cake deposited on the face of porous medium and the
amount of filtrate allowed to escape from the drilling fluid into or through the medium.
Filtration Rate — See Fluid Loss.
Fishing — Operations on the rig for the purpose of retrieving from the well bore sections of
pipe, collar or other obstructive items which are in the hole.
Flat Gel — A condition wherein the 10-mm gel strength is substantially equal to the initial gel
strength
Flipped — When the opposite occurs of what is intended in a drilling fluid. In an invert water-
in-oil emulsion, the emulsion is said to be flipped when the continuous and dispersed phase
reverse.
Flocculates — Groups of aggregates or particles in suspension subject to being broken up by
shaking and stirring and reforming on standing.

102
Flocculating Agent — Substances, such as most electrolytes, some polysaccharides, certain
natural or synthetic polymers, that bring about the thickening of the consistence of a drilling
fluid, In Bingham Plastic fluids, the yield point and gel strength increases.
Flocculation — Losses association of particles in lightly bonded groups, non-parallel association
platelets. In concentrated suspensions, such as drilling fluids, flocculation results in gelation. In
some drilling fluid, flocculation may be followed by irreversible precipitation of colloids and
certain other substances from the fluid, e.g., red beds.
Flocs — See Flocculates.
Fluid .— A fluid is a substance readily assuming the shape of the container in which it is placed.
The term includes both liquids and gases. It is a substance in which the application of every
system of stress ( other than hydrostatic pressure) will produce a continuously increasing
deformation without any relation between time rate of deformation at any instant and the
magnitude of stresses at that instant.Fluids are usually Newtonian and plastic, seldom
pseudoplastic. and rarely dilatant fluids.
Fluid Flow — The state of fluid dynamics of a fluid in motion is determined by the type of fluid
(Newtonian, plastic, pseudoplastic, dilatants), the properties of the fluid such as viscosity and
density, the geometry of the system, and the velocity. Thus, under a given set of conditions and
fluid properties, fluid flow can be described as plug flow, laminar, streamline, parallel flow, or
turbulent flow. See above terms and Reynolds number.
Fluidity — The reciprocal of viscosity. The measure of rate with which a fluid is continuously
deformed by a shearing stress. Ease of flowing.
Fluid Loss — Measure of the relative amount of fluid loss (filtrate) through permeable
formation or membranes when the drilling fluid is subjected to a pressure differential. For
standard API filtration –test procedure, see API RP I3B.
Fluorescence — Instantaneous re-emission of light of a greater wave length than that light
originally absorbed.
Foam — A foam is a two-phase system, similar to an emulsion, where the dispersed phase is a
gas or air
Foaming Agent - a substance that produces fairly stable bubbles at the air-liquid interface due to
aeration, or ebullition. In air or gas drilling, foaming agents are added to turn water influx into
aerated form. This is commonly called “mist drilling”
Formation Damage — Damage to the productivity of a well resulting from invasion into the
formation by mud particles or mud filtrates. Asphalt from crude oil will also damage some
formations. See Mud
Foamation Sensitivity — The tendency of certain producing formations to adversely react with
mud filtrates.
Function of Drilling Fluids — The most important function of drilling fluids in rotary drilling is
to bring cuttings from the bottom of the hole to the surface. Some other important functions are:

103
control subsurface pressures, cool and lubricate the bit and drill string, deposition of an
impermeable wall cake, etc.
Funnel Viscosity — See Marsh Funnel Viscosity.
-- G --
Galena — Lead sulfide (PbS). Technical grades (specific gravity about 7) are used for
increasing density of drilling fluids to points impractical, impossible with barite.
Gas Cut — Gas entrained by a drilling fluid. See Air Cutting.
Gel — A state of a colloidal suspension in which shearing stresses below a certain finite value
fail to produce permanent deformation. The minimum shearing stress that will produce
permanent deformation is know as the shear or gel strength of the gel. Gels commonly occur
when the dispersed colloidal particles have a great affinity for the dispersing medium. i.e., are
lyophilic. Thus gels commonly occur with bentonite in water. For their measurement, see Gel
Strength, Initial and 1 0-mins.
Gel — A term used to designate highly colloidal, high-yielding, viscosity-building commercial
clays, such as bentonite and attapulgite clays.
Gelation - Association of particles to form a continuous structure.
Gel Cement — Cement having a small to moderate percentage of bentonite added as a filler
and/or to reduce the slurry weight. See Gunk Plug.
Gelled Up — Oil-field jargon usually referring to any fluid with high gel strength and/or highly
viscous properties. Often a state of severe flocculation.
Gel Strength -. The ability or the measure of the ability of a colloid to form gels. Gel strength is
a pressure unit usually reported in Ib/l00 sq ft. It is a measure of the same inter particle forces of
a fluid as determined by the yield point except that gel strength is measured under static
conditions, yield point under dynamic conditions. The common gel-strength measurements are
initial and the 10-mm gels. See also Shear and Thixotropy.
Gel Strength, Initial -- The measured initial gel strength of a fluid is the maximum reading
(deflection) taken from a direct-reading viscometer after the fluid has been quiescent for 10 sec.
It is reported in lb/l00 sq ft. See API RP 13b for details of test procedure.
Gel Stength, 10-m1n — The measured 10-mm gel strength of a fluid is the maximum reading
(deflection) taken from the direct-reading viscometer after the fluid has been quiescent for 10
mins, the reading is reported in lb/100 sq ft. See API RP 13B for details of test procedure.
GPG or Grains Per Gallon — ppm (which see) equals gpg x 17.1.
Gravity, Specific — The weight of a particular volume of any substance compared to the weight
of an equal volume of water at a reference temperature. For gases, air is usually taken as the
reference substance although hydrogen is sometimes used.

104
Greasing Out — Certain organic substances, usually fatty-acid derivatives, which are added to
drilling fluids as emulsifiers, e.g. lubricants, etc, may react with such ions as calcium and
magnesium that are in or will subsequently come into the system. An essentially water-insoluble
greasy material separates out.
Gum - Any hydrophilic plant polysaccharides or their derivatives which, when dispersed in
water, swell to produce a viscous dispersion or solution. Unlike resins, they are soluble in water
and insoluble in alcohol.
Gumbo — Any relatively sticky formation, such as clay, encountered in drilling.
Guar Gum — A naturally occurring hydrophilic polysaccharide derived from the seed of the
guar plant. The gum is chemically classified as a galactomannan. Guar gum slurries made up in
clear fresh or brine water posses pseudoplastic flow properties.
Gunk Plug — A slurry in crude or diesel oil containing any of the following materials or
combination bentonite, cement, attapulgite, and guar gum (never with cement). Used primarily
in combating circulation. The plug may or may not be squeezed.
Gunning The Pits — Mechanical agitation of the drilling fluid in a pit by means of a mud gun,
electric mixer or agitator.
Gyp or Gypsum — See Calcium Sulphate. Gypsum is often encountered while drilling. It may
occur as stringers or massive formations.
-H-
Hardness (of Water) — The hardness of water is due principally calcium and magnesium ions
present in the water and is independent of the accompanying acid ions. The total hardness is
measured in terms parts per million of calcium carbonate or calcium and sometimes equivalents
per-million of calcium. For hardness tests, see API RP 13B.
Heaving — The partial or complete collapse of the walls of a hole resulting from internal
pressures primarily to swelling from hydration or formation gas pressures. See Sloughing.
Heterogeneous — A substance that consists of a more than one phase and is not uniform, such
as colloid emulsions, etc. It has different properties in different parts.
High-PH Mud — A drilling fluid with a pH range above 10.5. A high-alkalinity mud.
High-Yield Drillng Clay — A classification given to a group of commercial drilling-clay
preparations having a yield of 35 to 50 bbl/ton and intermediate between bentonite and low-yield
clays. High-yield drilling clays are usually prepared by peptizing low-yield calcium
montmorillonite clays or, in a few cases by blending some bentonite with the peptized low-yield
clay.
Homogenous --- Of uniform or similar nature throughout; or a substance or fluids that has at all
points same property or composition.
Hopper, Jet — See Mud-mixing Devices. A device to hold or feed drilling-mud additives.

105
Humic Acid — Organic acids of indefinite composition in naturally occurring leonardite lignite.
The humic acids are the most valuable constituent. See Lignin.
Hydrate — A substance containing water combined in the molecular form (such as
CaSO42H2O). crystalline substances containing water of crystallization.
Hydration —The act of substance to take up water means of absorption and/or adsorption.
Hydrogen Ion Concentration — A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. normal
expressed as pH. See pH.
Hydrolysis — Hydrolysis is the reaction of a salt with water to form an acid and base. For
example soda ash (Na2CO3) hydrolyzes basically, and hydrolysis is responsible for the increase
in the pH of water when so ash is added.
Hydrometer — A floating instrument for determining the specific gravity of density of liquid,
solutions, and slurries. A common example is the Mud water hydrometer used to determine the
density of mud.
Hydrophile — A substance usually in the colloidal state or an emulsion, which is wetted by
water; i.e.. it attracts water or water adheres to it.
Hydrophilic-Lipophilic Balance (HLB) — The hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) is one of
the most important properties of emulsifiers. It is an expression of the relative attraction of an
emulsifier for water and oil, determined largely by the chemical composition and ionization
characteristics of a given emulsifier. The HLB of an emulsifier is not directly related to
solubility, but it determines the type of an emulsion that tends to be formed. It is an indication of
the behavior characteristics and not an indication of emulsifier efficiency.
Hydrophobe — A substance, usually in the colloidal state, not wetted by water,
Hydrophobic — Descriptive of a substance which repels water.
Hydrostatic Head — The pressure exerted by a column of fluid, usually expressed in pounds
per square inch, usually. To determine the hydrostatic head at a given depth in psi. multiply the
depth in feet by the density in pounds per gallon and by 0.052.
Hydroxide — A designation that is given for basic compounds containing the OH radical. When
these substances are dissolved in water, they increase the pH of the solution. See Base.
Hygroscopic — The property of a substance enabling it to absorb water from the air.
-I-
Indicator — Substance in acid-base titrations which, in solution, change colour or become
colourless as the hydrogen ion concentration reaches a definite value, these values varying with
the indicator. In other titrations such as chloride, hardness, and other determinations, these
substances change colour at the end of the reaction. Common indicators are phenolphthalein,
potassium chromate, etc.

106
Inhibited Mud — A drilling fluid having an aqueous phase with a chemical composition that
tends to retard and even prevent (inhibit) appreciable hydration (swelling) or dispersion of
formation clays and shales through chemical and/or physical means. See Inhibitor (Mud).
Inhibitor (Corrosion) — Any agent which, when added to a system, slows down or prevents a
chemical reaction or corrosion. Corrosion inhibitors are used widely in drilling and producing
operations to prevent corrosion of metal equipment exposed to hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide,
oxygen, salt water. etc. Common inhibitors added to drilling fluids are filming amines, chromate,
and lime.
Inhibitor (Mud) — Substances generally regarded as drilling-mud contaminants, such as salt
and calcium sulphate, are called inhibitors when purposely added to mud so that the filtrate from
the drilling fluid will prevent or retard the hydration of formation clays and shales.
Inhibitor Gel — See Gel Strength, Initial.
Interfacial Tension — The force required to break the surface between two immiscible liquids.
The lower the interfacial tension between the two phases of an emulsion, the greater the ease of
emulsification. When the values approach zero, emulsion formation is spontaneous. See Surface
Tension.
Interstitial Water — Water contained in the interstices or voids of formations.
Invert Oil-Emulsion Mud — An invert emulsion is a water-in-oil emulsion where fresh or salt
water is the dispersed phase and diesel, crude, or some other oil is the continuous phase. Water
increases the viscosity and oil reduces the viscosity.
Iodine Number — The number indicating the amount of iodine absorbed by oils, fats, and
waxes, giving a measure of the unsaturated linkages present. Generally, the higher the iodine
number, the more severe the action of the oil on rubber.
Ion — Acids, bases, and salts (electroles) when dissolved in certain solvents, especially water,
are more or less dissociated into electrically charged ions or part of the molecules, due to loss or
gain of one or more electrons. Loss of electrons results in positive charges producing a cation. A
gain of electrons results in the formation of an anion with negative charges. The valence of an
ion is equal to the number of charges borne by it.
--J--
Jetting — The process of periodically removing a portion of, or all of, the water, mud and/or
solids from the pits, usually by means of pumping through a jet nozzle arrangement.
Jones Effect — The net surface tension of salt solution first decreases with an increase of
concentration, passes through a minimum, and then increases as the concentration is raised.

107
 - K-
Kelly or Kelly Joint — A heavy square pipe or other configuration that works through a like
hold in the rotary table and rotates the drill stem.
Key Seat — That section of a hole, usually of abnormal deviation and relatively soft formation
which has been eroded or worn by drill pipe to a size smaller than the tool joints or collars. This
keyhole type configuration will not allow these members to pass when pulling out of the hole.
Killing A Well — Bringing a well under control. Also the procedure of circulating water and
mud into complete well before starting well-service operations.
Kill Line. - A line connected to the annulus below the blowout preventers for the purpose of
pumping into the annulus while the preventers are closed.
Kinematic Viscosity — The kinematic viscosity of a fluid is the ratio of the viscosity (e.g., cP in
g/cm sec) to the density (e.g., g/cc) using consistent units. In several common commercial
viscometers the kinematic viscosity is measured in terms of the time of efflux (in seconds) of a
fixed volume of liquid through a standard capillary tube or orifice. See Marsh Funnel Viscosity.
---L---
Laminar Flow — Fluid elements flowing along fixed streamlines which are parallel to the walls
of the places or sections with a differential velocity across the front .which varies from zero at
the wall to a maximum toward the center of flow. Laminar flow is the first stage of flow in
Newtonian fluid; it is the second stage in a Bingham plastic fluid. This type of motion is also
called parallel, streamline, or viscous flow. See Plug and Turbulent Flow.
Leonardite — A naturally occurring oxidized lignite. See Lignins.
Lignins, Mined or Humic Acids — Mined lignins are naturally occurring special lignite, e.g.,
loenardite that are produced by strip mining from special lignite deposits. The active ingredient
is the humic acids. Mined lignins are used primarily as thinners, which may or may not be
chemically modified. However they are also widely used as emulsifiers.
Lignosulfonates — Organic drilling-fluid additives derived from by-products of sulphite paper
manufacturing process from coniferous woods. Some of the common salts, such as the
ferrochrorne. chrome, calcium, and sodium, are used as universal dispersants while others are
used selectively for calcium treated systems. In large quantities. the ferrochrome and chrome
salts are used for fluid-loss control and shale inhibition.
Lime — Commercial form of calcium hydroxide.
Lime-Treated Muds — Commonly referred to as “lime-base” muds. These high-pH system
contain most of the conventional fresh-water additives to which slake lime has been added to
impart special properties. The alkalinities and lime contents vary from low to high.
Limestone — See Calcium Carbonate.
Lipophile — A substance usually colloidal and easily wetted by oil.

108
Lipophilic - Having an affinity for oil.
Live Oil — Crude oil that contains gas and has not been stabilized or weathered. This oil can
cause gas cutting when added to mud and is a potential fire hazard.
Logging — See Mud Logging and Electric Logging.
Loss of Circulation — See Circulation, Loss of.
Loss of Head or Friction Loss — See Pressure-drop Loss.
Lost-Circulation Additives — Materials added to the mud to control or prevent lost circulation.
These materials are added in varying amounts and are classified as fiber, flake, or granular.
Lost Returns — See Circulation, Loss of.
Low-Solids Muds — A designation given to any type of mud where high performing additives,
e.g.. CMC, have been partially or wholly substituted for commercial or natural clays. For
comparable viscosity and densities (weighted with barite), a low-solids mud will have a lower
volume-percent solids content.
Low-Yield Clays — Commercial clays chiefly of the calcium montomorillonite type having a
yield of approximately 15 to 30 bbl/ton.
Lyophilic — Having an affinity for the suspending medium, such as bentonite in water.
Lyophilic Colloid — A colloid that is not easily precipitated from a solution and is readily
dispersible after precipitation by an addition of the solvent.
Lyophobic Colloid — A colloid that is readily precipitated from a solution and cannot be
redispersed by an addition of the solution.
--M--
Marsh Funnel — An instrument used in determining the Marsh funnel viscosity. The Marsh
funnel is a container with fixed orifice at the bottom so that when filled with 1.500 cc fresh
water, I qt (946 ml) will flow out in 26 ± 0.5 sec. For 1,000 cc out, the efflux time for water is
27.5 ± 0.5 sec. See API RP 138 for specifications.
Marsh Funnel, Viscosity — Commonly called the funnel viscosity. The Marsh funnel viscosity
is reported as the number of seconds required for a given fluid to flow I qt through the Marsh
funnel. In some areas, the efflux quantity is 1,000 cc. See API RP 13B for instructions. See also
Kinematic Viscosity.
Meniscus -- The curved upper surface of a liquid column, concave when the containing walls are
wetted by liquid and convex when not.
Mesh — A measure of fitness of a woven material, screen, or sieve; e.g., a 200-mesh sieve has
200 openings per linear inch. A 200-mesh screen with wire diameter of 0.0021 in. (0.0533 mm)
has an opening of 0.074 mm, or will pass a particle of 74 microns. See Micron.

109
Mf— The methyl orange alkalinity of the filtrate, reported as the number of milliliters of 0.02
Normal (N/50) acid required per milliliter of filtrate to reach the methyl orange end point (pH
4.3).
Mica — A naturally occurring flake material of varying size used in combating lost circulation.
Chemically, an alkali aluminum silicate.
Micelles — Organic and inorganic molecular aggregates occurring in colloidal solutions. Long
chains of individual structural units chemically joined one another and laid side by side to form
bundles. When bentonite hydrates, certain sodium or other metallic ions go into solution, the clay
particle plus its atmosphere of ions is technically known as a micelle.
Micron µ = Mu — A unit of length equal to one millionth part of a meter, or one thousandth
part of a millimeter.
Milk Emulsion — See Oil-emulsion Water.
Millidarcy — 1/100 darcy. See Darcy.
Mist Driling — A method of rotary drilling whereby water and/or oil is dispersed in air and/or
gas as the drilling fluid.
Ml or Milliliter — A metric system unit for the measure of volume. Literally 1/1000th of’ the
liter. In drilling mud analysis work, this term is used interchangeably with cubic centimeter (cc).
One quart is about equal to 946 ml.
Molecular Weight — The sum of the atomic weights of all the constituent atoms in the
molecule of an element or compound.
Molecule — When atoms combine they form a molecule. In the case of an element or a
compound. A molecule is the smallest unit which chemically still retains the properties of the
substance in mass.
Montmorillonite--- A clay mineral commonly used as an additive to drilling muds. Sodium
montmorillonite is the main constituent in bentonitie. The structure of montmorillonite is
characterized by a form which consists of a thin platey-type sheet weight the width and breadth
indefinite, and thickness that of the molecule. The unit thickness of the molecule consists of
three layers. Attached to the surface are ions that are replaceable. Calcium montmorillonite is the
main constituent in low-yield clays.
MUD — A water- or oil-base drilling fluid whose properties have been altered by solids,
commercial and/or native, dissolved and/or suspended. Used for circulating out cuttings and
many other functions while drilling a well. Mud is the term most commonly given to drilling
fluids..
Mud Additive — Any material added to a drilling fluid to achieve a particular purpose.
Mudding Off — Commonly thought of as reduced productivity caused by the penetrating,
sealing, or plastering effect of a drilling fluid.

110
Mudding Up — Process of mixing mud additives to achieve some desired purpose not possible
with the former fluid, which usually has been water, air, or gas.
Mud House - A structure at the rig to store and shelter sacked materials used in drilling fluids.
Mud Logging — A method of determining the presence or absence of oil or gas in the various
formations penetrated by the drill bit. The drilling fluid and the cuttings are continuously tested
on their return to the surface, and the results of these tests are correlated with the depth of origin.
Mud-Mixing Devices — The most common device for addition solids to the mud is by means of
the el hopper. Some other devices for mixing are: eductors, paddle mixers, electric stirrers, mud
guns. Chemical barrels, etc.
Mud Pit — Earthen or steel storage facilities for the surface mud system. Mud pits which vary
in volume and number are of two types: circulating and reserve. Mud testing and conditioning is
normally done in the circulating pit system.
Mud Program — A proposed or followed plan or procedure for the type(s) and properties of
drilling fluid(s) used in drilling a well with respect to depth. Some factors that influence the mud
program are the casing program and such formation characteristics as type, competence,
solubility, temperature, pressure, etc.
Mud Pumps --- Pumps at the rig used to circulate drilling fluids.
Mud Scales — See Balance, Mud.
Mud Still — An instrument used to distill oil, water and other volatile material in a mud to
determine oil, water, and total solids contents in volume-percent.
- N-
Natural Clays — Natural clays, as opposed to commercial clays, are clays that are encountered
when drilling various formations. The yield of these clays varies greatly, and they may or may
not be purposely incorporated into the mud system.
Neat Cement — A slurry composed of Portland cement and water.
Neutralization - A reaction in which the hydrogen ion of an acid and the hydroxyl ion of a base
unite to form water, the other ionic product being a salt.
Newtonian Flow — See Newtonian Fluid.
Newtonian Fluid — The basic and simplest fluids from the standpoint of viscosity consideration
in which the shear force is directly proportional to the shear rate. These fluids will immediately
begin to move when a pressure or force in excess of zero is applied. Examples of Newtonian
fluids are water, diesel oil, and glycerin. The yield point as determined by direct indicating
viscometer is zero.
Non-Conductive Mud — Any drilling fluid, usually oil-base or invert-emulsion muds, whose
continuous phase does not conduct electricity, e.g., oil. The spontaneous potential (SP) and

111
normal resistivity cannot be logged, although such other logs as the induction, acoustic velocity,
etc., can be run.
Normal Solution — A solution of such a concentration that it contains I gram-equivalent of a
substance per liter of solution.
—O —
O1l Base Mud — The term “oil-base mud” is applied to a special type drilling fluid where oil is
the continuous phase and water the dispersed phase. Oil-base mud contains blown asphalt and
usually 1 to 5 percent water emulsified into the system with caustic soda or quick lime and an
organic acid. Silicate, salt, and phosphate may also be present. Oil-base muds are differentiated
from invert-emulsion muds (both water-in-oil emulsion) by the amounts of water used, method
of controlling viscosity and thixotropic properties, wall- building materials, and fluid loss.
Oil Content—The oil content of any drilling fluids is the amount of oil in volume-percent.
Oil-Emulsion Water (Milk Emulsion) — A drilling fluid in which the oil content is usually
keep between 3 to 7 percent and seldom over 10 percent (it can be considerably higher). The oil
is emulsified into fresh or salt water with a chemical emulsifier. Sometimes CMC, starch, or gum
may be added to the fresh and salt-water systems.
Oil-N-Water Emulsion Mud--- Commonly called “emulsion mud”. Any conventional or
special water normally base mud to which oil has been added. The oil becomes the dispersed
phase and may be emulsified into the mud either mechanically or chemically.
---P —
Packer Fluid — Any fluid placed in the annulus between the tubing and casing above a packer.
Along with other functions, the hydrostatic pressure of the packer fluid is utilized to reduce the
pressure differentials between the formation and the inside of the casing and across the packer
itself.
Particle — A minute unit of matter, usually a single crystal, or of regular shape with a specific
gravity approximating that of a single crystal.
Parts Per Milion — See ppm.
Parallel Flow — See Laminar Flow.
Pay Zone or Pay Formation — The formation drilled into that contains oil and/or “as in
commercial quantities.
Penetration, Rate of — The rate in feet per hour at which the drilling proceeds to deepen the
well bore.
Peptization —An increased dispersion due to the addition of electrolytes or other chemical
substances. See Deflocculation and Dispersion.
Peptized Clay — A clay to which an agent has been added to increase its initial yield. For
example, soda ash is frequently added to calcium montmorillonite clay.
112
Percent — For weight-percent, see Ppm. Volume-percent is the number of volumetric parts of
any liquid or solid constituent per 100 like volumetric parts of the whole. Volume-percent is the
most common method of reporting solids, oil, and water contents of drilling fluids.
Permeability — Normal permeability is a measure of ability of a rock to transmit a one-phase
fluid under conditions of laminar flow. Unit of permeability is the darcy.
Pf— The phenolphthalein alkalinity of the filtrate, reported as the number of milhliter of 0.02
Normal (N/50) acid required per milliliter of filtrate to reach the phenolphthalein end point.
pH---- An abbreviation for potential hydrogen ion. The pH numbers range from 0 to 14, 7 being
neutral, and are indices of the acidity (below 7) or alkalinity (above 7) of the fluid. The numbers
are a function of the hydrogen ion concentration in gram ionic weights per liter which, in turn, is
a function of the dissociation of water as given by the following expression:

The pH may be expressed as the logarithm (base 10) of the reciprocal (or the negative logarithm)
of the hydrogen ion concentration. The pH of a solution offers valuable information as to the
immediate acidity or alkalinity, as contrasted to total acidity or alkalinity, (which may be
titrated).
Phosphate — Certain complex phosphates, usually sodium tetraphosphate (Na 6P4O13) and
sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP, Na2H2P2O7), are used either as mud thinners or for treatment
of various forms of calcium and magnesium contamination.
Pilot Testing — A method of predicting behaviour of mud systems by mixing small quantities
of mud and mud additives, then testing the results.
Plastic Flow — See Plastic Fluid.
Plastic Fluid — A complex, non-Newtonian fluid in which the shear force is not proportional to
the shear rate. A definite pressure is required to start and maintain movement of the fluid. Plug
flow is the initial type of flow and only occurs in plastic fluids. Most drilling muds are plastic
fluids. The yield point as determined by direct-indicating viscometer is in excess of zero.
Plasticity — The property possessed by some solids, particularly clays and clay slurries, of
changing shape or flowing under applied stress without developing shear planes or fractures.
Such bodies have yield points, and stress must be applied before movement begins. Beyond the
yield point, the rate of movement is proportional to the stress applied, but ceases when the stress
is removed. See Fluid.
Plastic Viscosity — The plastic viscosity is a measure of the internal resistance to fluid flow
attributable to the amount, type, and size of solids present in a given fluid. It is expressed as the
number of dynes per sq cm of tangential shearing force in excess of the Bingham yield value that
will induce a unit rate of shear. This value, expressed in centipoises, is proportional to the slope
of the consistency curve determined in the region of laminar flow for materials obeying

113
Bingham’s Law of Plastic Flow. When using the direct- indicating viscometer, the plastic
viscosity is found by subtracting the 300-rpm reading from the 600-rpm reading.
Plug Flow — The movement of a material as a unit without shearing within the mass. Plug flow
is the first type of flow exhibited by a plastic fluid after overcoming the initial force required to
produce flow.
Pm — The phenolphthalein alkalinity of the mud reported as the number of milliliters of 0.02
Normal (N/50) acid required per milliliter of mud.
Polymer — A substance formed by the union of two or more molecules of the same kind linked
end to end into another compound having the same elements in the same proportion but a high
molecular weight and different physical properties, e.g., paraformaldehyde. See Copolymer.
Porosity — The amount of void space in a formation rock, usually expressed as percent voids
per bulk volume. Absolute porosity refers to the total amount of pore space in the rock,
regardless of whether or not that space is accessible to fluid penetration. Effective porosity refers
to the amount of connected pore spaces, i.e., the space available to fluid penetration. See
Permeability.
Potassium — One of the alkali metal elements with a valence of I and an atomic weight of about
39. Potassium compounds, most commonly potassium hydroxide (KOH) are sometimes added to
drilling fluids to impart special properties, usually inhibition.
Pound Equivalent — A laboratory unit used in pilot testing. One gram or pound equivalent,
when added 350 ml of fluid, is equivalent to 1 lb/bbl.
Ppm Or Parts Per Million — Unit weight of solute per million unit weights of solution (solute
plus solvent), corresponding to weight-percent except that the basis is a million instead of a
hundred. The results of standard API titrations of chloride, hardness, etc. are correctly expressed
in milligrams (mg) of unknown per liter but not in ppm. At low concentrations, mg/i is about
numerically equal to ppm. A correction for the solution specific gravity or density in g/ml must
be made as follows:

Thus, 316,000 mg/l salt is commonly called 316,000 ppm or 31.6 percent, while 264,000 ppm
26.4 percent, respectively.
Precipitate — Material that separates out of solution or slurry as a solid. Precipitation of solids
in a drilling fluid may follow flocculation or coagulation, such as the dispersed red-bed clays
upon addition of a flocculation agent to the fluid.

114
Preservative — Usually paraformaldehyde. Any material used to prevent starch or any other
substance from fermenting through bacterial action.
Pressure-Drop Loss — The pressure lost in a pipeline or annulus due to the velocity of the
liquid in the pipeline, the properties of the fluid, the condition of the pipe wall, and the alignment
of the pipe. In certain mud-mixing system, the loss of head can be substantial.
Pressure Surge — A sudden, usually short-duration increase in pressure. When pipe or casing is
run into a hole too rapidly, an increase in the hydrostatic pressure results, which may be great
enough to create lost circulation.
Pseudoplastic Fluid — A complex non-Newtonian fluid that does not posses thixotropy. A
pressure or force in excess or zero will start fluid flow. The apparent viscosity or consistency
decreases in instantaneously with increasing rate of shear until at a given point the viscosity
becomes constant. The yield point as determined by direct-indicating viscometer is positive, the
same as in Bingham plastic fluid; however, the true yield point is zero. An example of a
pseudoplastic fluid is guar gum in fresh or salt water.
— Q ---
Quebracho — A drilling-fluid additive used extensively for thinning or dispersing to control
viscosity and thixotropy. It is a crystalline extract or the quebracho tree consisting essentially of
tannic acid.
Quickline — Calcium oxide, CaO. Use in certain oil base muds to neutralize the organic acid.
Quiescence - The state of being quiet or at rest (being still). Static.
— R—
Radical — Two or more atoms behaving as a single chemical unit, i.e., as an atom; e.g., sulfate,
phosphate, nitrate.
Rate Of Shear — The rate at which an action, resulting from applied forces, causes or tends to
cause two adjacent parts of a body to slide relatively to each other in a direction parallel to their
plane of contact. Commonly given in rpm.
Red Mud — A clay, water-base drilling fluid containing sufficient amounts of caustic soda and
tannates to give a pronounced red appearance. Normally a high-pH mud.
Red-Line Mud — A red mud which has been converted to a lime-treated mud. The pH is
usually between 12.0 to13.0.
Resin — Semisolid or solid complex, amorphous mixture of organic compounds having no
definite melting point nor tendency to crystallized. Resins may be a component of compounded
materials that can be added to drilling fluids to impart special properties to the system, wall cake,
etc.

115
Resistivity — The electrical resistance offered to the passage of a current, expressed in ohm-
meters: the reciprocal of conductivity. Fresh-water muds are usually characterized by high
resistivity, salt-water muds by a low resistivity.
Resistivity Meter — An instrument for measuring the resistivity of drilling fluids and their
cakes.
Reverse Circulate — The method by which the normal flow of a drilling fluid is reversed by
circulating down the annulus and up and out the drill string.
Reynolds Number — A dimensionless number. Re, that occurs in the theory of fluid dynamics.
The diameter, velocity, density and viscosity (consistent units) for a fluid flowing through a
cylindrical conductor are related as follows:
Re = (diameter) (velocity) (‘density,) / (viscosity,) or = DVW/p
The number is important in fluid hydraulics calculations for determining the type of fluid flow.
i.e.. whether laminar or turbulent. The transitional range occurs approximately from 2,000 to
3.000; below 2.000 the flow is laminar, above 3.000 the flow is turbulent.
Rheology—The sciences that deals with deformation and flow of water.
Rotary Drilling — The method of drilling wells that depends on the rotation of a column of drill
pipe to the bottom of which is attached a bit. A fluid is circulated to remove the cuttings.
----S ---
Salt - In mud terminology, the term salt is applied to sodium chloride, NaCl. Chemically, the
term salt is also applied to any one of a class of similar compounds formed when the acid
hydrogen of an acid is partly or wholly replace by a metal or a metallic radical. Salts are formed
by the action of acids on metals, or oxides and hydroxides, directly with ammonia, and in other
ways.
Salt-Water Clay — See Attapulgite Clay.
Salt Water Muds — A drilling fluid containing dissolved salt (brackish to saturated). These
fluids may also include native solids, oil, and/or such commercial additives as clays, starch, etc.
Sample Mud — A drilling fluid possessing properties to bring up suitable samples.
Samples — Cuttings obtained from geological information from the drilling fluid as it emerges
from the hole. They are washed, dried, and labeled as to the depth.
Sand — A loose granular material resulting from the disintegration of rocks, most often silica.
Sand Content — The sand content of a drilling fluid is the insoluble abrasive solids content
rejected by a 200-mesh screen. It is usually expressed as the percentage bulk volume of sand in a
drilling fluid. This test is an elementary type in that the retained solids are not necessarily silica
nor may not be altogether abrasive. For additional information concerning the kinds of solids
retained on the 200-mesh screen. more specific tests would be required. See Mesh.

116
Saturated Solution — A solution is saturated if it contains at a given temperature as much of a
solute as it can retain. At 68°F it takes 126.5 lb/bbl salt to saturate 1 bbl of fresh water. See
Supersaturated.
Screen Analysis — Determination of the relative percentages of substances, e.g., the suspended
solids of a drilling fluid, passing though or retained on a sequence of screens of decreasing mesh
size. Analysis may be by wet or dry methods. Referred to also as “sieve analysis”. See Mesh.
Sealing Agents — Any of many materials added to drilling fluid to restore circulation.
Sea-Water Muds — A special class of salt-water muds where salt water is used as the fluid
phase.
Seconds API - A unit of viscosity as measured with a Marsh funnel according to API procedure.
See API RP 13b and Marsh Funnel viscosity.
Sequestration — The formation of stable calcium, magnesium, iron complex by treating water
or mud with certain complex phosphates.
Set Casing — the installation of pipe or casing in a well bore. Usually requires mudding up,
reconditioning or at least checking the drilling-fluid properties.
Shale — Fine-grained clay rock with slate-like cleavage, sometimes containing and organic oil-
yield substance.
Shale Shaker — Any of several mechanical devices for removing cuttings and other large solids
from the mud. Common examples are vibrating screen, rotating cylindrical screen, etc.
Shear (Shearing Stress) — An action, resulting from applied forces, which causes or tends to
cause two continuous parts of a body to slide relatively to each other in a direction parallel to
their plane of contact.
Shearometer — A device used as an alternative method for measuring gel strengths. See API
RP 13b for specifications and procedure.
Shear Strength — A measure of the shear value of the fluid. The minimum shearing stress that
will produce permanent deformation. See Gel Strength.
Side Tracking — See Whipstock.
Sieve Analysis — See Screen Analysis.
Silica Gel — A porous substance consisting of SiO 2. Used on occasion as a dehydrating agent in
air or gas drilling where small amount of water is encountered.
Silt .— Materials that exhibit little or no swelling whose particle size generally falls between 2
microns and API sand size, or 74 microns (200-mesh). A certain portion of dispersed clays and
barite for the most part also fall into this same particle-size range.
Skid — Moving a rig from one location to another usually on tracks where little dismantling is
required.

117
Slip Velocity — The difference between the annular velocity of the fluid and the rate at which a
cutting is removed from the hole.
Sloughing — The partial or complete collapse of the walls of a hole resulting from incompetent,
unconsolidated formations, high angle or repose, and wetting along internal bedding planes. See
Heaving and Cave-in.
Slug The Pipe — A procedure before pulling the drill pipe whereby a small quantity of heavy
mud is pumped into the top section to cause an unbalanced column. As the pipe is pulled, the
heavier column in the drill pipe will fall, thus keeping the inside of the drill pipe dry at the
surface when the connection is unscrewed.
Soap — The sodium or potassium salt of a high-molecular-weight fatty acid. When containing
some metal other than sodium or potassium, they are called “metallic” soaps. Soaps are
commonly used in drilling fluids to improve lubrication, emulsification, sample size, defoaming.
etc.
Soda Ash — See Sodium Carbonate.
Sodium - One of the alkali metal elements with a valence of 1 and an atomic weight of about 23.
Numerous sodium compounds (all of which see) are used as additives to drilling fluids.
Sodium Bicarbonate — NaHCO3. A material used extensively for treating cement
contamination and occasionally other calcium contamination in drilling fluids. It is the half-
neutralized sodium salt of carbonic acid.
Sodium Bichromate — Na2Cr2O7. Also correctly called “sodium dichromate”. See Chromate.
Sodium Carbonate — Na2CO3. A material used extensively for treating out various types of
calcium contamination. It is commonly called “soda ash”. When sodium carbonate is added to a
fluid, it increases the pH of the fluid by hydrolysis. Sodium carbonate can be added to salt
(NaCl) water to increase the density of the fluid phase.
Sodium Carboxy Methyl Cellulose — Commonly called CMC. Available in various viscosity
grades and purity. An organic material used to control filtration, suspend weighting material, and
build viscosity in drilling fluids. Used in conjunction with bentonite where low-solids muds are
desired.
Sodium Chloride, NaCl — Commonly known as salt. Salt may be present in the mud as a
contaminant or may be added for any of several reasons. See Salt.
Sodium Chromate - Na,CrO4. See Chromate.
Sodium Hydroxide - NaOH. Commonly referred to as “Caustic” or “Caustic soda”. A chemical
used primarily to impart a higher pH.
Sodium Polyacrylate — A synthetic high-molecular-weight polymer of acrylonitrile used
primarily as a fluid-loss-control agent.

118
Sodium Silicate Muds — Special class of inhibited chemical muds using as their bases sodium
silicate, salt, water, and clay.
Solids Concentration or Content — The total amount of solids in a drilling fluid as determined
by distillation includes both the dissolved and the suspended or undissoived solids. The
suspended solids content may be a combination of high and low specific gravity solids and
native or commercial solids. Examples of dissolved solids are the soluble salts of sodium,
calcium, and magnesium. Suspended solids make up the wall cake; dissolved solids remain in the
filtrate. The total suspended and dissolved solids contents are commonly expressed as percent by
volume and less commonly as percent by weight.
Sol — A general term for colloidal dispersions, as distinguished from true solutions.
Solubility — The degree to which a substance will dissolve in a particular solvent.
Solute - A substance which is dissolved in another (the solvent).
Solution — A mixture of two or more components that form a homogeneous single phase.
Example solutions are solids dissolved in liquid, liquid in liquid, gas in liquid.
Solvent — Liquid used to dissolved a substance (the solute).
Sourcing — A term commonly used to mean fermentation (which see).
Specific Gravity — See Gravity, Specific.
Specific Heat — The number of calories required to raise 1 g of a substance through 1 deg
Centigrade. The specific heat of a drilling fluid gives an indication of the fluid’s ability to keep
the bit cool for a given circulation rate.
Spudding in — The starting of the drilling operations of a new hole.
Spud Mud - The fluid used when drilling starts at the surface, often are thick bentonite-lime
slurry.
Spurt Loss — See Surge Loss.
Squeeze — A procedure whereby slurries of cement, mud, gunk plug, etc. are forced into the
formation pumping into the hole while maintaining a back pressure, usually by closing the rams.
Stability Meter — A instrument to measure the breakdown voltage of invert emulsions.
Stacking a Rig — Storing a drilling rig upon completion of a job when the rig is to be
withdrawn from operation for a period of time.
Starch — A group of carbohydrates occurring in many plant cells. Starch is specially processed
(pregelatinized) for use in muds to reduce filtration rate and occasionally to increase the
viscosity. Without proper protection, starch can ferment.
Static — Opposite of dynamic. See Quiescence.

119
Streaming Potential — The electrokinetic portion of the SP (spontanous potential) electric-log
curs which can be significantly influenced by the characteristics of the filtrate and mud cake of
the drilling fluid that was used to drill the well.
Streamline Flow — See Laminar Flow.
Stearate — Salt of stearic acid, which is a saturated, 18-carbon fatty acid. Certain compounds,
such aluminum stearate, calcium stearate, zinc stearate, have been used in drilling tluids for one
or more of t following purposes: defoamer, lubrication, air drilling in which a small amount of
water is encountered. etc
Stuck — A condition whereby the drill pipe, casing, or other devices inadvertently become
lodge in the hole May occur while drilling is in progress, while casing is being run in the hole, or
while the drill pipe is being hoisted. Frequently a fishing job results.
Supersaturation - If a solution contains a higher concentration of a solute in a solvent that
would normally correspond to its solubility at a given temperature, this constitutes
supersaturation. This is unstable condition, as the excess solute separates when the solution is
seeded by introducing a crystal oft solute. The term “supersaturation” is frequently used
erroneously for hot salt muds.
Surface-Active Materials ----See Surfactant.
Surfactant — A material which tends to concentrate at an interface. Used in drilling fluids to
control degree of emulsification, aggregation, dispersion, interfacial tension, foaming,
defoaming, wetting, etc.
Surfactant Mud — A drilling fluid which contains a surfactant. Usually refers to a drilling fluid
containing surfactant material to effect control over degree of aggregation and dispersion or
emulsification.
Surface Tension — Generally, the force acting within the interface between a liquid and its own
vapour which tends to maintain the area of the surface at a minimum and it expressed in dynes
per centimeter Since the surface tension of a liquid is approximately equal to the interfacial
tension between the liquid air, it is common practice to refer to value measured against air as
surface tension, and to use the term “interfacial tension” for measurements at an interface
between two liquids, or a liquid and a solid.
Surge Loss — The flux of fluids and solids which occurs in the initial stages of any filtration
before pore openings are bridged and a filter cake is formed. Also called “spurt loss”.
Suspensoid - A mixture consisting of finely divided colloidal particles floating in a liquid. The
particles are so small that they do not settle but are kept in motion by the moving molecules of
the liquid (Brownian movement).
Swabbing — When pipe is withdrawn from the hole in a viscous mud or if the bit is balled, a
Suction is created.
Swelling — See Hydration.

120
Synergism, Synergistic Properties — Term describing an effect obtained when two or more
products are used simultaneously to obtain a certain result. Rather than the results of each
product being additive to the other, the result is a multiple of the effects.
- T-
Tannic Acid — Tannic acid is the active ingredient of quebracho and other quebracho
substitutes such as mangrove bark, chestnut extract, hemlock, etc.
Temperature Survey — An operation to determine temperatures at various depths in the hole.
This survey is used to find the location of inflows of water into the hole, where doubt exist as to
proper cementing of the casing and for other reasons.
Ten-Minute Gel - See Gel Strength, 10-mm.
Thermal Decomposition — The chemical breakdown of a compound or substance by
temperature into simple substances or into its constituent elements. Starch thermally decomposes
in drilling fluids as the temperature approaches 300 F.
Thinner — Any of various organic agents (tannins. lignins. lignosulfonates. etc.) and inorganic
agents (pyrophosphates, tetraphosphates, etc.) that are added to a drilling fluid to reduce the
viscosity and/or
Total Depth (or TD) — The greatest depth reached by the drill bit.
Tour — A person’s turn in an orderly schedule. The work, which designates the shifts of a
drilling crew, pronounced as if it were spelled t-o-w-e-r.
Turbulent Flow — Fluid flow in which the velocity at a given point changes constantly in
magnitude the direction of flow; pursues erratic and continually varying courses. Turbulent flow
is the second and ii stage of flow in a Newtonian fluid; it is the third and final stage in a Bingham
plastic fluid. See Critical Velocity and Reynolds Number.
Twist-Off — The severing in two of a joint of drill pipe by excessive force applied by the rotary
table.
-U-
Ultraviolet Light — Light waves shorter than the visible blue-violet waves of the spectrum.
Crude coloured distillates, residuum, a few drilling-fluid additives, and certain minerals and
chemicals fluoresce the presence of ultraviolet light. These substances, when present in mud.
may cause the mud to fluoresce.
Univalent — Monovalent. See Valence.
---V----
Valence Or Valency — The valence is a number representing the combining power of an atom.
i.e., number of electrons lost, gained, or shared by an atom in a compound. It is also a measure of
the number hydrogen atoms with which an atom will combine or replace, e.g., an oxygen atom

121
 combines with two hydrogen, hence has a valence of 2. Thus, there are mono-, tri etc. valent
ions.
Valence Effect - In general, the higher the valence of an ion, the greater the loss of stability to
emulsion colloidal suspensions, etc. these polyvalent ions will impart.
Velocity — Time rate of motion in a given direction and sense. It is a measure of the fluid flow
and may expressed in terms of linear velocity, mass velocity, volumetric velocity, etc. velocity is
one of the factors which contribute to the carrying capacity of a drilling fluid.
Velocity, Critical — That velocity at the transitional point between laminar and turbulent types
of flu flow. This point occurs in the transitional range of Reynolds numbers of approximately
2,000 to 3,000.
V-G Meter Or Viscosity-Gravity Viscometer — The name commonly used for the direct-
indication viscometer (which see).
Vibrating Screen — See Shale Shaker.
Viscometer (Viscosimeter) — An apparatus to determine the viscosity of a fluid or suspension
Viscometer vary considerably in design and methods of testing.
Viscometer, Direct-Indicating — Commonly called “V-G meter”. The instrument is a
rotationally device powered by means of an electric motor or hand crank, and is used to
determine the apparent viscosity plastic viscosity, yield point, and gel strengths (all of which see)
or drilling fluids. The usual speeds are 600, 300, 200, 100, 6 and 3 rpm. See API RP l3B for
operational procedures.
Viscometer,Tormer .— A rotational shear viscometer used for measuring the viscosity and gel
strength drilling fluids. This instrument has been largely superseded by the direct-indicating
viscometer.
Viscosimeter — See Viscometer.
Viscosity — The internal resistance offered by a fluid to flow. This phenomenon is attributable
to the attractions between molecules of a liquid, and is a measure of combined effects of
adhesion and cohesion the effect of suspended particles, and to the liquid environment. The
greater this resistance, the greater ti viscosity. See Apparent and Plastic Viscosity.
Viscosity Funnel — See Funnel Viscosity.
Viscous Flow — See Laminar Flow.
Volatile Matter — Normally gaseous products, except moisture, given off by a substances, such
as gas breaking out of live crude oil that has been added to a mud. In distillation of drilling
fluids. the volatile matter is the water, oil, gas, that are vaporized, leaving behind the total solids
which can consist of both dissolved and suspended solids.

122
 ---W--
Wall Cake — The solid material deposited along the wall of the hole resulting from filtration of
the fluid part of the mud into the formation.
Wall Sticking — See Differential-pressure Sticking.
Water-Base Mud — Common conventional drilling fluids. Water is the suspending medium for
solids and is the continuous phase. whether or not oil is present.
Water Block — Reduction of the permeability of a formation caused by the invasion of water
into the pores (capillaries). The decrease in permeability can be caused by swelling of clays,
thereby shutting off the pores, or in some cases by a capillary block of the pores due to the
surface tension phenomena.
Water-In-Oil Emulsion - See Invert Oil-Emulsion Mud.
Water Loss — See Fluid Loss.
Weight In mud terminology, this refers to the density of a drilling fluid. This is normally
expressed in either lb/gal, lb/cu ft,. psi hydrostatic pressure in 1,000 ft of depth.
Weight Material — Any of the high specific gravity materials used to increase the density of
drilling fluids. This material is most commonly barite but can be galena, etc. In special
applications limestone is also called a weight material.
Well Logging — See Electric Logging and Mud Logging.
Wetting Agent — A substance or composition which, when added to a liquid, increases the
spreading of the liquid on a surface or the penetration of the liquid into a material.
Whipstock — A device inserted in a well bore used for deflecting or for directional drilling.
Wild Cat — A well in unproved territory.
Workover Fluid — Any type of fluid used in the work over of a well.
---Y---
Yield — A term used to define the quality of a clay by describing the number of barrels of a
given centipoise slurry that can be made from a ton of the clay. Based on the yield, clays are
classified as bentonite. high yield, low-yield etc., types of clays. Not related to yield value below.
See API RP 13B for procedures.
Yield Point — In drilling-fluid terminology, yield point means yield value, of the two terms.
yield point is by far the most commonly used expression.
Yield Value — The yield value (commonly called “yield point”) is the resistance to initial flow,
or represents the stress required to start fluid movement. This resistance is due to electrical
charges located on or near the surfaces of the particles. The value of the yield point and
thixotropy, respectively, are measurements of the same fluid properties under dynamic and static

123
states. The Bingham yield value, reported in lb/100 sq ft, is determined by the direct-indicating
viscometer by subtracting the plastic viscosity from the 300-rpm reading.
--Z---
Zero-Zero Gel — A condition whereby the drilling fluid fails to form measurable gels during a
quiescent time interval (usually 10 min).
Zeta Potential — Electrokinetic potential of a particle as determined by its electrophoretic
mobility. This electric potential causes colloidal particles to repel each other and stay in
suspension.
Zinc Chloride — ZnCI2. A very soluble salt used to increase the density of water to points more
than double that of water. Normally added to a system first saturated with calcium chloride.

124
 REFERENCE AND RECOMMENDED LITERATURE
1. ME. Chenevert
SHALE CONTROL WITH BALANCED ACTIVITY OIL CONTINUOUS MUD
J. Petr. Techn., 22, 1309 (1970).

2. G.M.Bol
THE INTERACTIONS BETWEEN SHALES AND FLUIDS PART IV, THE
KINETICS OF SHALE DESTABILISATION - EP 87-2748 KSEPL, March 1987.
3. R.K. Clark and S. G. Almquist
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE STICKING/LUBRICITY PART II PULL-OUT FORCE
AND FILTTRATION MEASURES IN A SEA WATER LIGNOSULFONATE MUD. -
EP 87-2241 BRC, September 1987.

4. J.J. Nahm
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE STICKING: STATE-OF-THE-ART REVIEW EP-50868
BRC, April 1979.

5. N. Adams
A FIELD CASE STUDY OF DIFFERENTIAL-PRESSURE PIPE STICKING - SPE
6716 Soc. Petr. Eng., October 1977.

6. G.M. Bol
EFFECT OF MUD COMPOSITION ON WEAR AND FRICTION OF CASING AND
TOOL JOINT -EP 63746. KSPEL, August 1985.

7. A. Abrams
MUD DESIGN TO MINIMISE ROCK IMPAIRMENT DUE TO PARTICLE INVASION
EP-457 16 BRC, September 1973.

8. K. J. Bil and K.M. Diederix

PERMEABILITY IMPAIRMENT BY MUD FILTRATE - EXPERIMENTS ON
COEVORDEN CORE SAMPLES, THE NETHERLANDS - EP-5 8796 KSEPL. August
1983.

9. J.J. Hartog and B.H.J. van der Linden

PRODUCTIVITY IMPAIRMENT BY DRILLING FLUID FILTRATES IN LOW-
PERMEABILITY LIMESTONE GAS RESERVOIRS — EP-52680 KSEPL. September
1980.

10. A. Thomson
PRESERVATION OF POROSITY IN THE DEEP WOODBINE/TUSCALOOSA
FIELD, LOUISIANA. JI. Petr. Tech. 1156-1162 (1982).

125
11. M. van Zanten and B. L. Arentz
INVESTIGATION INTO POSSIBLE FORMATION DAMAGE BY WEIGHTED
INVERT EMULSION MUD - EP-62094 KSEPL, November 1984.

12. W.G. Anderson

WETTABILITY LITERATURE SURVEY - PART I: ROCK-OIL-BRINE
INTERACTION, AND THE EFFECT OF CORE HANDLING ON WETABILITY -
SPE 13932 Soc. Petr. Eng., December 1984.

13. J.J. Hartog and A. Maltha

USE OF A DYE IN DRILLING MUD TO MEASURE FILTRATE INVASION IN
CORES — EP-5 5086 KSEPL., December 1981.

14. P. A. Smeenk
CORING PRACTICES AND MUD DESIGN. - EP-53000 SIPM Drilling Conference
1980 Session II. 1.
15. G.R. Gray, H.C.H. Darley and W.F. Rogers
COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF OIL WELL DRILLING FLUIDS Fourth
Edition, Gulf Publishing Co. Houston, London, Paris, Tokyo
16. G.M. Bol and J.J. Hartog
ABRASIVITY OF DRILLING FLUID WEIGHTING MATERIALS - EP-56090
KSEPL, June 1982.

17. C. O. Walker
ALTERNATE WEIGHTING MATERIAL - SPE 11116 Soc. Of Petroleum Engineers,
1982.

18. J.J.Nahm
WEIGHTED SEA WATER MUDS - EP-5 0962
Part 1: Evaluation of commercial mud additives in a sea water environment EVORDEN
BRC, June 1979.
Part 2: Development of cost effectiveness criteria of sea water and systems —BRC,
August 1979.

19. B.H.J. van der Linden EVALUATION OF ADDITIVES FOR DRILLING FLUIDS —
EP-57870 Part 1:
Fluid loss reducing polymers and detlocculants in sea water based
Drilling fluids. DSEPL, April 1983.

20. G.R. Gray, H.C.H. Darley and W.F. Rogers

126
 COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF OIL WELL DRILLING FLUIDS — Chapter
11, 4th Ed. (1990). Gulf Publishing company, Houston, London, Paris, Tokyo.

21. J. Chatterji and J.K. Borchardt

APPLICATION OF WATER-SOLUBLE POLYMERS IN THE OIL FIELD
Journal of Petroleum Technology, p. 2042 — 53, November 1981.

22. G.M. Bol, SW. Wong, C.J. Davidson, and D.C. Woodland
BOREHOLE STABILITY IN SHALES - SPE 24975 P. 127-141, November 1992.

23. F.K. Moth’ and A. H. Hale

STABILITY MODEL TO COUPLE THE MECHANICS AND CHEMISTRY OF THE
DRILLING FLUIDS/SHALE INTERACTION - SPE/IADC 25728 P.473—490,
February 1993.

24. R. Bland.
DEVELOPMENT OF NEW WATER-BASED MUD FORMULATIONS
SPEC. PUBL. - R SOC. CHEM
V. 97. P. 83-98, 1991.

25. R. Bland
WATER-BASED GLYCOL SYSTEMS ACCEPTABLE SUBSTITUTE FOR OIL-
BASED MUDS Oil and Gas Journal, P. 54-59, June 1992.

26. W.A. Reddie and E.R. Werlein DRILING AND COMPLETION FLUIDS US Patent
3.061,542, October 1992.
27. H.R.H. Darley
DRILLING FLUID AND METHOD FOR INCREASING RATE US Patent 3,528,914,
September 1970.

28. G.V. Chilinp.arian and P. Vorabutr

DRILLING AND DRILLING FLUIDS
Elsevier, Amsterdam. P. 345-364, 1981.

29. C.J. Davidson

DRILING FLUID European Patent 0271943. June 1988.
30. D.E. O’Brien and M.E. Chenevert
STABILISING SENSITIVE SHALES WITH INHIBITED POTASSIUM BASE
DRILLING FLUIDS
J. Technol. P. 1089— 1100, September 1973.

31. Milpark
DRILLING FLUIDS MANUAL, 1991.

127
32. Baroid
DRILING FLUIDS TECHNOLOGY. PHASE II Module C and D, 1994.

128