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    (2004 Karlsen Et Al.) Petroleum Migration, Faults and Overpressure. Part II. Case History The Haltenbanken Petroleum Province, Offshore Norway

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    Petroleum migration, faults and overpressure. Part I. Case history: ‘The Haltenbanken Petroleum Province, offshore Norway DAG A. KARLSEN.' JON ERIK SKEIE,' KRISTIAN BACKER-OWE,' KNUT BJORLYKKE,' RICHARD OLSTAD,’ KARI BERGE,’ MARCELLO CECCHI,’ EIRIK VIK* & RAINER G. SCHAEFER’ * Petroleum Geochemistry Program, Department of Geology P.O. Box 1047, Blindern, N.0316 Oslo 3, Norway thevronTexaco Norway AS, Karenslyst Alle 2, P.O. Box 97, N-0212 Oslo, Norway * Enterprise Oil Norge Ltd, P.O. Box 399, N-4001 Stavanger, Norway now at A/S Norske Shell, P.O. Box 40, N-4098 Tananger, Norway *Statoil Research Centre, Trondheim, N-7005 Trondheim, Norway Sinstinute of Petroleum and Organic Geochemistry, Forschungszentrum Silich D-52425 Jillich, Germany Abstract: Petroleum inclusion and geochemical data from core extracts were applied to deuce ‘4 model for ol migration, overpressure development and palaeoleakage of i from currently ‘dry structures the Haltenbanken Vel aa, The existence of Muorescent ol pe inclusions in ‘quirtz in the Smorbukk (Asgard-2) field suggest that of migrated into this structure 70-50 milion years before present (Ma bp). This also the ease forthe dry sluctures 6306/12, 6806/11°3 and 6806-1, west of the main Smorbukk Fault Zone. Blick ol inclusions ‘medium gasjil ratio (GOR) cecur in these feds together with condensatetype petrol Inclusions, This suggests that the dry structures transformed from containing ol to condensate before leakage. Petroleum extracted feom incisions in these structures and in neatby fields have identical marine type II kerogen signatures. Source rocks at the Spekk Formation level in the current dinage area of Smorbukk and these dry structures, were immature 70 S0Mabp and the Smorbukk Sor (Asgard-3) field did not flat this early ime, Thus, oil ‘must initially have entered into Smorbukk from areas o the W-SW. through the currently presure scaling Smorbakk Fault Zone which today marks the westward limit othe Smarbukk Fsi, Diagensis inthis fault zone caused the much later overpresure development and petro leu ws os rom the 606) 12-4, 6806/1 1-3 and 6806/1 strututes as overpressure built up regionally. Petroleum loss rom these tractures with their often thick seals mst have ooeurce ‘i selepropagating ope-fracturesinduced mechanisms. Lack of petroleum in the Cretaceous Strata above these structures sugges that leakage occurred to eve shallower srta. Thiseould imply thatthe Cretaceous stats in Halen Vest were overpresured atthe time of kakage- contrast, the el in the Cretaceous Lysing and Lange Formation (above the Iirasc reservoirs in Smorbukk aad Smorbukk Sor) most likely originated (based on geochemistry and GORS) from the Jurasse rxervoirs below and not from Cretaceows stat Ths migration event would have boen Factitate if it oovurted before these sands became overpressured as they te today. Modeling suggests thatthe Spek Formation became mature in the Smorbukk Sor region <]0Ma bp and microthermomttry of ol inclusions from Smorbukk Sor supports filing during the past 10 Ma, This implies tht caprock failure inthe Halen Vest tractures 6506) 12-4, 6306)11-1 a ie filing of the Smorbukk Sor ‘nd 6406)3-1 structures. Rapid regional burial daring the pas red local migration Df ol into Smorbukk Sar, Smorbakk and 6406-1 s\ructirs, and generation of high GOR ‘ils in the deper Halten Ves region, High GOR peroleum inclusions in the Halten Vest siuc- iy this event and suggests that caprock fracturing occured after a gas-condensste the past 3Ma is Hkely to have caused sure and associated leakage in Halen Vest. The fact that these traps did his progressively subsiding and maturing basin must be related to rap ng 100 close tothe actual Irate presses snot later refi pressures remai ‘Aims and structure of the paper traps in the form of hydrocarbon (HC) gas, bitu- ‘men and oils to deduce palaeo- and more recent ‘The prime message contained in this paper movement of petroleum into traps, and by using concerns the use of organic geochemistry from petroleum inclusions, to “time’ these events of From: Curr, 3. M., ENGLAND, W. A. LARTER, S. (ods) 2004. Understanding Petroleum Reservoirs: towards an Intograied Reservoir Engineering and Geochonical Approach, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 257, 305-372. 0305-8719 04/813 00 ©) The Geological Society of London 2004, 306 D. A. KARLSEN £7 AL. = 6 7 e 9 ese 64° pinqows Ag g 5s 5 asa some renee é g 38 ana went BB ge 2D NISTSHgNS Fao wea NBLTVH £ = PETROLEUM MIGRATION, FAULTS AND OVERPRESSURE. PART IL fon o_o so 309 Yn ro soon 2 Fig. 2. Iustration ofthe general tend ofthe faults, Plea er er) 29 km se note that some ful are ony tentatively mapped (Courtesy of the Norwegian Petroleum Digectorate (NPD). that the main scientific achievement of explora tion in this region was the invalidation of two paradigmsthat commercial porosity did not ‘occur below 450m, and that structures in the overpressured areas were incapable of holding hydrocarbons. ‘The overpressured Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary sequence constitutes the eaprock over the main part of the Haltenbanken area (Vik et al. 1991), This roek sequence is believed 10 have developed overpressure by burial uring the extremely rapid Pliocene to Recent burial (Vik ef al. 1991; Lilleng & Gundeso 1997), The Jurassic Smorbukk Sor (3160m) and Smorbukk (3380m) main reservoirs are both normally pressured, whilst there is an over- pressure of ea. 140 bar at the Lysing level (Fig. 3). ‘Above Smorbukk in the Lange Formation is there an overpressure of ca, 186 bar, Undersaturated oil oecurs in the Cretaceous strata both above Smorbukk and Smorbukk Sor, e.g. the saturation pressure in 6506/11-2 (Smorbukk) is 434 bar with a reservoir pressure ‘oF 630 bar, 310 D. A. KARI LSEN ET AL. GENERAL LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY NORWEGIAN SEA FORMATIONS PALEOGENE soa creTACEOUS cay suRASsiC ¥ eal [Jresevorn nook Bilore. ici rocks Fig. 3. Organic rich rocks in Hal snbanken include the coals and shales in the Are Formation (Brent ‘equivalent, the Melke (Heather equivalent) and the Spekk (Kimmeridge Clay equivalent) Formations. Petroleum in Haltenbanken is sourced mainly from tl coals and shales may have increased hydrocarbon sa expulsion from the Spekk Formation. ‘The Haltenbanken region can tentatively be divided into three pressure regions (Fig. 1) with high pressures generally confined to the deeper ‘western regions. Pressures here may approach and exceed estimated fracture pressures (Fig. 4) Most structures. in the western high-pressure regions (Fig. 1a,b) are today dry (eg. 6306/11-3, (6506/12-4, all three west of Smorbukk, 3-1 and 6406/6-1 farther south), but © Spekk (Melke) Formation. Petroleum from the Are ration in carter rocks long before the onset of ei most of these, as discussed below, earlier held oil. The high pressure Kristin field with its con- densate ig an exception to the general Halten Vest ‘dry hole scenario’. ‘The nearby Lavrans field, occurring to the east across a major Fault, is ‘normally pressured? (Fig. 5). ‘The border zone between the overpressured regions in the west and the normally pressured regions in the east can be difluse as in the PETROLEUM MIGRATION, FAULTS AND OVERPRESSURE. PART It a Pressure (Bars) 0 20 Aa Depth (mRKB) 00 0 ‘200 econ DSTRFT Sata ‘ed Snorer DOSTRFTHaton est, "Votes Vee Wate Gast cicratert(pyg=08 909) Fig. 4. Whilst the Smorbukk and Smarbukk Sor fells (Fig 18) today have pressures on the ol gradient just above the hydrostatic gradient, pressures in structures in Halten Vest are close tothe estimated fracture pressures (om leakeof test), Most wells in the overpresured region are dr, unless traps are sifcently deep fo avoid the facture gradbent, eg. Kristin (Figs la & 5), and this jm eoincides oughly withthe area where the Spekk Formation isin the very last part ofthe oil window, or already oversmatare southern part of Haltenbanken (with arguably also less well control), or better defined as along the fault zone delimiting the Smorbukk field to the west (Figs 1a,b & 5) It is suggested from Figures 1a,b, 2 & 5 that the regional pressure cells follow the generally trending N-8 faults systems, and we infer there to be a genetic linkage between the faults and overpressure development. Still, to further complicate matters, Jurassic reservoir strata in Smerbukk Sor are hydrostatic, whilst the shallower Cretaceous strata are overpressured, both holding black oil. We suggest that the structural configuration with generally updip draining areas in the east may help to establish pressure communication towards the east (Figs 1a,b, 2 & 5). In contrast, the presently dry and overpressured structures in the west, e.g. 6506/11-3 (Figs 1a, 1b & 5), apparently lack updip continuous pressure com- ‘municating strata towards the east. ‘According to the model illustrated in Figure 6, petroleum in deep overpressured reservoirs may be preserved in the traps provided that pressure ‘communication exists in the updip direction (cf. Olstad et al. 1997). This ‘pressure-vent’ acts 10 keep the reservoir pressure of the deeper struc- tures below the fracture pressure if leakage ‘occur only from the shallowest structure in the pressure system Figure 7 depicts another situation which may allow oil to remain in the trap, provided that a thin, non-perfect, caprock ‘semi-continuously" m2 D. A. KARLSEN £7 AL. Fig. 8. Structural details and pressure domains ofthe Smotbukk regi ‘of Elisubeth Holter of the Norwegian Petroleum Sosety (NDF), Arrows indicate filing directions with courte Petroleum system reproduced from Ronnevik (2000) land the gren and red colours represent low medium: and high-pressure domains respectively, Numbers in boxes represen overpresure in bar. Note the often sharp and dramatic changes in presure over short lateral distances, leaks preferentially water-soluble methane, ethane and propane through the caprock, possibly through the films of interconnected and continu- water (adsorbed water) on water wetting ras constituting the eaprock. Tn this model the water film may actually transfer the pressure through the eaprock whikt cil cannot move due to capillary restricting effects in the water wetting mineralogy We also assume, in a similar model, that pore size related molecular sieving of methane and thane with their identical and minute kinetic diameters may allow these petroleum constitu- ents to move by diffusion through the eaprock (Karlsen 1987; Karlsen eal. 1988), However, larger alkanes with more than (wo carbon atoms which have kinetic diameters of more than 4.3, cyclohexane with a kinetic dia- meter of 6.0, and even larger and more viscous oil constituents like polyaromatic compounds, steranes, hopanes, resins and asphaltenes, are uunable to move through the caprock, partly clogging. the available effective permeability and hence remain in the trap (ef. Karlsen 1987; PETROLEUM MIGRATION, FAULTS AND OVERPRESSURE, PART Il a3 VENT. PRES, VALVE PRESSURE DIFFERENCE Fig 6. Lack of prosure4eakage results in overpeesure development i the terminal tap in this dara, Leakage fom the terminal structure acts to preserve petroleum in the deeper structures. Partly leaking thin caprocks, permeable for gas (dynamic trap), 0” superthick and sone eaprocks in deep prospects (static trap) where advanced diageness has occurred, represent two other configurations able to retain petroleum for Karlsen ef al. 1988; Karlsen and Larter 1989; Hodgson et a, 1992), It is obvious from Figure 1b, that both the degree of faulting and the throw on the faults are similar in the western and eastern regions of Haltenbanken. Thus, it cannot be the lack of justapositioning of permeable strata across Faults (igs 1b, 8) or more extensive clay smear) fault gauge formation sensu stricto, that results in reduced updip pressure communication in the strata in Halten Vest. However, burial is deeper in Halten Vest, suggesting that_ more extensive diagenesis in fault planes (see Fig, 8) ‘may have resulted in pressure cells in Halten Vest by reducing the flux of penelateral compac- tion driven fuid flow. In this model the reduced permeability at faults is caused by advanced quartz diagenesis which is exponential in temperature (cf. Fig. 9), leading to constrained fluid flow and thereby overpressure development. Traps which earlier contained oil will, in the normal case of contin ‘ued communication with a subsiding basin, even- tually receive high GOR petroleum inthe form of ‘a condensate, ie. yas phase, from the subsiding deep source rocks. The replacement of the oil with the low density gas phase, in shallower sub-ertical traps, may exert an additional pres- sure on the caprock, and the trap could fail (ef Hodgson eral. 1992). This is particularly critical if the traps occur at depths close to the regional fracture gradient (Fig. 4). Much deeper traps may avoid the fracture gradient due to their depth, and the petroleum density in these traps ‘would in any ease approach that of the initial oil even if petroleum with relatively more ‘methane migrated into the trap due to increased ‘maturity of the source rock basin The additional overpressure development in shallow and intermediately deeply buried traps, caused by the influx of a high API gravity gas phase, may have resulted in catastrophic leakage from traps with thick tight caprocks which lacks a pressure valve (ef. Figs 6 & 7) like those in Halten Vest ‘Traps with such thick eaprocks may not be able to “bleed-off the excessive pressure by capillary leakage, as may more readily occur from thinner, partly eroded and more silty and sandy caprocks as often found off Mid-Norway slong the proximal basin perimeter, ic. along the Nordland Ridge or the Froya High (Fig. 1). Examples of such traps include Heidrun, Skarv, Nome, Svale and Falk, but also traps in 314 D. A. KARLSEN ET AL. SCENARIO -1 | SCENARIO -2 1 massive car-rock | Tw canRock = Pusatng - Peircium columm buiup | peoudostesay sat Inviaie fxs tough open fecure 1 tare ess duet tion “eng of acre dete dagenenie | Mote so New sun | Retains ot race 1 1 onn Ss Fig. 7. Isa bad caprock in fick a good caprock if ols the target? Pscudo-steadystate loss of gas by difusion ‘through a slty/thinparly eroded eaprock may allow room for oil na structure aa example of type TIL tap, Sales 1993, 1997), whilst a tight caprock will re Wirap). The “tight caprock’ scenario may result ‘4 and allow little room for ei (Sales type Ito partial type petroleum (or gis) columns becoming eventually t00 high forthe caprock strength, resulting in catastrophic open fracture dysmigration. We believe ‘Seenari- to be a sod exploration model for ol plays, whist "Scenaro-I" willbe gas plays i shallow or very dexp (ie. below the ‘regina fracture gradient or generally “duster at intermittent depts, ‘other regions like Njord, Draugen, Snorre, Gull- faks, Stafford, Oseberg, Visund and Ekofisk, the latter containing in addition oil wetting mineral- ‘ogy which facilitates a ‘semi-steady-state deple- tion mechanism. (See Paper I, figure 7.) Catastrophic leakage could be expected to be recurring (Schowalter 1979; Chen et al. 1990; Ortoleva 1994; Wensaas et al. 1994) as oss of fluids and gas from the structure would only continue until the elevation of the HC-water contact is sufficient for the pressure to reduce and the fracture to close (ef. Roberts & Nunn 1995). Cycles. with expulsion events. lasting 1/100 to 1/5000 of the time period leading up {0 the expulsion event were suggested by Roberts & Nunn (1995) and Ortoleva (1994) indicated that the cycles could repeat on the order of every 100000 years. Sull, itis clear from prin- ciples discussed in Paper I (cf. figures 6-9, 12 & 13 in Paper I) that the eycling rate of the “ill- rain-recharge-drain’ processes will depend on, and be rate controlled by the filing rate. This filing rate is determined by the parameters discussed in Paper I, and include, besides HC generation rate and expulsion mode sensu strito, “the degree of focus’ of secondary migration and its overall efficiency. Such ‘dynamic overpressure systems’ (sic.) with traps experiencing cyelicfil-drain periods was proposed by Leonard (1993) and invokes intermittent breaching of the seal and subsequent annealing due to petroleum column loss, pro- tressive burial and diagenetic cementation. However, some overpressured traps, such as Kristin (Figs 1 & 5), with a substantial column of condensate exist in Halten Vest and preser tion of petroleum in such high pressure isolated” faul-bounded reservoirs is fundamentally no different from a hydrostatic system, ie, the ‘occurrence of the accumulation simply reflects that the fracture pressure at the given depth is higher than the actual reservoir pressure (cf. eneral principles discussed in Holm 1996) ‘Thus, Kristin is presently ‘sufficiently deep” to avoid the fracture gradient and has also a very thick caprock (ef. Figs 4 & 7). No obviously visible gas chimney exists above Kristin, whilst such is indicated over the Lavrans trap, ‘The presence of gas chimneys as evidence of leaking traps or traps whieh did leak in the past PETROLEUM MIGRATION, FAULTS AND OVI RPRESSURE. PART Il us Fut Zope e0u6g 2090 fonmreduel Fig. 8. Movement on a fault plane may result in juntaposition of high and low permeability sandstones, oF reconnection of two high poroperm sandstones, previously disconnected. Conversely microfabric rearrangements of cay mineral, grain breakage and fault gouge formation may reduce the relative Permeability foro versus wate rons and inthe fault zone. Bural-indaced agenesis inthe fault one, as in the deeper parts of Halten Vest, wll eventually reducejconstrainidiseupt fluid Now (Mux) communication and induce Fegional fault controlled pressure cells (ef. Figs la & 5) (f Leonard 1993) is dificult to use in particular in overpressured regions. This is not only due to problems in rationalizing the effect the gas has in scattering seismic energy, depending on the gas ‘occurring in fine grained porosities or in Trace tutes (ef Hodgson et al, 1992; Holm 1996), but ‘more importantly no free gas will form until the bubble-point is reached during the ascent of the petroleum towards the surface Thus, undersaturated petroleum could migrate ‘over larger vertical distances, without developing fa free gas phase, In contrast, @ saturated Petroleum entering hydrostatic “strata would ‘immediately’ exsolve a free gas phase and a ‘seismically-recognizable’, gas chimney would appear even at only 5-10% gas saturation. If, on the other hang, tighter and well cemented lithologies are present in the overburden, well defined open fractures could form and exsolving sas and oll would moxe, for considerable vertical distances, in these open fractures to shallower depth without producing a broad ‘gas chimney’, until reaching shallower depths. The well known regionally significant ‘gas brightening’ in. the Lysing Formation off Mid-Norway may be @ result ofthis particular effet Modelling oil migration and pressure evolu- tion in a basin requires real calibration points 316 Well: 6506/12-1 - Smerbukk D. A. KARLSEN ET AL, Burial history ~ corrected TEMPERATURE, degrees centigrade (C) Erma, ee Geige ERIE DEPTH (on) below sediment surface TIME My BP) Fig. 9. The temperature for Guid inclusion formation in quarts translated into time using the burial history of Smorbukk erestal wall 6506 ‘The biomarkers inthe inclusions 1 Fi 2 & 27) Oil occurred in Smorbukk atleast as ealy as 70-S0Mabp, imilar to those found in Halten Ves (sce Fig. 2) Inclusion formatio ‘exponential intemperate (Se inset) and the GOR i eta the time of inclusion closure. Biomarkers will in ist represent an average, though Based towards the earliest low maturity oil as such ol contain far higher absolute concentrations of biomarkers than do mote mature and high GOR peteoleums like “condensates in time, It is obvious that the hydrocarbon and water communication across faults, eg. like \west of Smorbukk and Lavrans (Figs 1a,b & 5), have changed during lime in response to mover ment on the fault and level of diagenesis (cf, Fig. 9). Fluid movement may become slowed down and impeded in fault zones. This may ‘occur by the fault movement reducing or snap- ping off fuid flow communication across the fault (¢f. Fig. 8), due to production of clay smear of fault gouge, reducing effective perme- abilities and fluxes of oil, whilst water may stil move. Eventually, movement of oil and water may cease in the fault zone due to the progress fof ongoing temperature dependent diagenetic permeability-destructive mineral translorma- tions (Bjorlykke ef al. 1986; Ehrenberg. 1990; ‘Walderhaug 1990, 1994, 2000; Ehrenberg et al 1992; Bjorkum 1996; Muhusi eal. 2003). The rate of quartz cementation is exponential in burial temperatures (ef. insert in Fig. 9). W believe this process to be the only one which both qualitatively and quantitatively can, at about 34km, suddenly transform faults from being open for lateral flow, to become flow flux restrictors, and eventually define isolated pres- sure cells Disconnection of strata across a fault and pro- ‘duction of fault gauge are linear processes, deter~ mined by the actual relative fault movement, ‘whilst mineral reactions like quartz diagenesis are exponential with temperature, ie. reflecting absolute burial depth and temperature. ‘The generally deeper burial in Halten Vest, as ‘compared with eastern regions, has therefore not s0 much resulted in more faulting and fault gauge formation, as higher temperatures and hence exponentially increased porosity reducing mineral transformation and quartz diagenesis im the fault zones. Diagenesis of the fault zones is Uhus the most likely cause of ‘isolated pressure cells’ in the western part of the Halten Terrace ‘and in Halten Vest, Lateral HC migration at, Haltenbanken is short, eg. mostly ea. 15-20km except for Midgard (Asgard-1) and) Draugen (Karlsen PETROLEUM MIGRATION, FAULTS AND OVERPRESSURE, PART IL a7 et al. 1995). Thus, fields in this region generally fll by short distance migration from separate sub-basins. This conclusion is deduced from the organic geochemical molecular parameters in the reservoired petroleum, Lr Fluid communication across faults and within faults may thus be genetically linked to both petroleum migration and overpressure develop- ment (ef. Figs 8 & 10). In particular, ‘palaco- migration’ of petroleum from the Are source asic sediments (Grey Beds" "ed Bode) ‘assicsesimonts (Grey Bade" & "Red Bods") Fig. 10. Harly expulsion from a deeper source rock, eg the Are Formation (a), may have established a network of hydrocarbon and asphaltene weed conduits that may have resulted in match higher migration efiences than assumed fora later generated and migrating ol charge from shallower souree rocks such asthe Spekk Formation (b). This elect may be overlooked in basin modelling. is rock may have increased the ‘oil wettability” in lateral carriers so that increased migration effi ciencies are obtained when the Spekk Formation later expels petroleum (Fig. 10). Thus, itis the intricate relationship between fault properties and episodes of petroleum migration and trap filling, traced in traps, that we investigate in this paper. “The Halten Terrace underwent rapid burial in “Mid'-Cretaceous times (ef. Fig. 9, ie. from ca; 110 to 80Mabp), whilst the entire Trena- banken-Haltenbanken region underwent rapid subsidence in Late Pliocene-Pleistocene times ackson & Hastings 1986). I is likely that the fault planes in the deeper Halten Vest region were "exponentially diagenetically modified during this latter period, and that this may have caused both the overpressure development and also the relatively short range lateral migra- tion patterns revealed by the distribution of Spek derived petroleum families at Haltenban- ken (Karlsen et al, 1995). If tis is supported by the data presented below, the implication is that overpressure build-up at the Halten Terrace occurred, “geologically speaking’, yesterday. Known regional source rocks and their geochemical signature ‘The main organic-rich rocks and source rocks of this region belong tothe Spekk, Molke and Are Formations (Fig. 3). The kerogen of the Are Formation is heterogeneous and consists of rooted coals, drifted coals, mudstones and shales, and was found by Cohen & Dunn (1987) to have S°1C values of about ~26.1 1.1 (n= 11), and are comparable to data published by Elvborg er al. (1985) (258£0., n= 4) Pristane/phytane ratios of Are Formation extracts fall inthe range 1.4-9.5 (Elvsborg et al 1985; Cohen & Dunn 1987) and we have observed. values exceeding 10 in. coals. The Serane distribution is dominated by Cyy ste- anes, €8. Cy = 15%, Cos = 20%, Cag = 65% (Cohen & Dunn 1987). There is therefore no. problem in identifying Are coal-derived hydrocarbons (C)s,). Vanadiumnickel ratios [VY +N) for the coals range from 0.5 to 0.98 even within a metre of coals, most likely reflecting the extremely varied Eh and pH condi- tions during deposition (Karlsen eral, 1995). The V/(V + Ni) of Spekk extracts from 6407) $1 are much more uniform (ca. 0.9) than in the ‘Are Formation (0.5-0.9; see Karlsen et al 1995): The Spekk Formation kerogen is isotopi- cally lighter than found for the Are Formation with °C values of ~28.5 1.6 (n= 10, Cohen B.A. KARLSEN ET AL, & Dunn 1987), thus closely matching the values (282 £27, n= 3) found by Elvsborg et al (1985). The pristane/phytane ratio of extracts from this formation fall in the range of typical type I marine shales, e.g. 0.6-1.60 (Elvsbore cr al. 1985; Cohen & Dunn 1987) and with a uniform sterane distribution centring around Coy = 34%, Coy = 33%, Coy = 33% (Cohen & Dunn 1987), Available data tentatively suggest that there are, in a gross sense, substantial similarities in the organic geochemistry between the Spekk/ Melke Formations in the Haltenbanken area, and the Draupne/Heather Formations from the Viking Graben (ef. Cohen & Dunn 1987; Espita- 1ié er al. 1991; Forbes et al. 1991). The 5°C values of kerogen inthe Spekk Formation ‘match closely the data published by Huc et al (2985) for the Draupne in the Viking Graben. Hue et al. (1985) reported in a study from the ‘Viking Graben that both the 6"C and the &H values became heavier, from 308 to ~25%e and from —125%e to —100%, respectively, in erogens isolated from a 100m section through the Draupne and top Heather Formations. This, and reduetion in bisnorhopane and clay minerals, was interpreted by Huc ef al. (1985) to reflect a more proximal terrestrially derived ‘organie matter input with increasing depth through this section (also cf. Scotchman 1991) Similarly, Bailey er al. (1990) described vertical variations in &°C of kerogens and pyrolysates from the top of the Hot Shale (mostly ~30 10 =29%) into the Heather, Brent Dunlin and Statfjord Formations (mostly ~27 10 ~24%). We postulate that the Spekk/Melke transition similarly reflects an inerease in the terrestrial ‘component with depth and we assume that similar lateral variations occur in Haltenbanken. ‘Thus, itis possible that the Spekk/Melke source rocks may generally take on a more dysoxic and terrestrial signature towards the cast, i. towards the palaco-coastline (Walther’s Law). However, a number of deeper local basins exist also towards the east where it may be assumed that the Spekk/Melke formations are thick, anoxic and productive and the geochemistry of the petroleum in traps like Skarv, Nome and Svale (Fig. 1a) suggests indeed that such sub- basins are highly generative in this region (cf Winterstad 2003; Xu 2003). In particular Skarv is evidently. sourced from a superior source rock facies more commonly associated with the highly prolific source rocks in the Trestakk, Tyrihans, Smorbukk Sor region (Sletten 2003) whilst the Svale and Falk oils belong to the general Norne sub-family, albeit progressively Diodegraded in an updip direction, ie. closer to PETROLEUM MIGRATION, FAULTS AND OVERPRESSURE. PART IL aquifers which were active during the low sea level of the last glaciations (Xu 2003) ‘Some of the shallow wells in the deep water region which “encountered reservoirs with mainly gis, and in some cases thin oil sims, have been’ suggested to contain petroleum derived from Cretaceous or Tertiary strata. A problem with some of these rather shallow {raps and thei content of the age-specific bio- markers among the nordiacholestanes, which may give Tertiary or Cretaceous ages, is the potential for these compounds to have been fenerated in sity, and examination of some of these petroleum phases and core extracts have ‘convinced us that these compounds are in cases having the same in sitw origin as co-occurring non-isomerized hopates and steranes, ie. these compounds are not allochthonous. Stl, the gaseous compounds are certainly allochthonous. Ie may therefore, in this setting, be generally ‘unsound to conchide about a Tertiary or Cre cous oil play based solely om age specific eom- pounds. Furthermore, the nordiacholestanes Imay tend to give ‘young’ ages in immature sediments (Holba er al. 1998a,b), and litle is Known about how these age-specific biomarkers respond to biodegradation, which often is a factor inthe sallow and cool traps in the deep- water province. IF not supporting age-speciic compounds of Cretaceous Tertiary age, such 3s ‘oleanane, is found in these petroleum systems, it may be dificult to conclude that these traps contain allochthonous petroleum from Tertiary ff Cretaceous strata. Despite this we are aware ‘of three traps off Mid-Norway which clearly Contain. non-Spekk/Melke- derived. petroleum. ‘One of these isthe Tdun tap in which the Coy condensate in the separate reservoir units fas Strong. ferigenous characters (including heavy 8!Couea values, mostly heavier than “20%, and high Pr[Ph values, mostly from 3 to 5) Suugesting Idun,to have been sourced at least partly from the Are Formation (Xu 2003 ‘The nearby Skarv trap, on the other hand, con tains all the characteristics of Spekke-derived cogenetic gas and oil (Winterstad. 2003; Xu 2103) Concerning unusual extracts and souroe rocks from the general region, Karlsen eal. (1995) described avery malkane ich, “isoprenoids- poor, isotopically Very Tight (22%) bitumen Saining with only 10% total aromatic com- pounds from a clean sandstone at ea. 2.5m in Well 6609/11-1. The vanadium/aickel ratio figgests 8 non-marine origin and a potential Triassie/Palaeozoie origin was suggested. Bugge 1 al, 2002) describe their interpretation of this Sample as well as their own very extensive 39 database from shallow dsiling, and provide ive Tutable evidence for the Upper Permian to Lower Triassic SR play of the Ravnefjeld Formation type (known from Greenland) off Mid-Norway. They also provide compelling evidences for th facies to represent Permo-Triassic generative basin play scenarios in proximal regions off Mid-Norway where the Jurassic section is too shallow to be generative for oil, A tentative regional model for the existence of this facies all along the Norwegian Continental Shelf from the Central Graben and into the Barents Sea was first published by Surlyk er al, (1984) and these data put together suggest strongly that palaco-migration of Palaeozoic derived oil ‘might have occurred over large portions of the NOCS Source rock productivity, HC generation and expulsion ‘The kerogen of the most prolific ‘Hot Shale’ Kimmeridge equivalent part of the Spek For mation is a highly favourable source for oil with @ gasjoil generation index (GOGI CyCpCyp.) of about 0.19: 0.08 (n= 8) (Cohen & Dunn 1987), The Ate Formation contains coals and shales that are rated at having generated about 135kg of petroleum/t rock (gas~30%, condensate~S0%, oil 20%) during burial to about 4% 2. (Heum et al. 1986). Shales and coals inthe Lower Jurassic Are Formation have GOGI in the range of about 0.33 +0.06 (n= 3), ie. siving rise to a mainly ‘mined oil and gas’ (Cohen & Dunn 1987). Espitalié er al, (1991) rated. the petroleum potential (10°t of HCs/km?) of the ‘oals in the Are, Formation to be four times higher (HCs/km?) than that of the Viking Group (Spekk-+ Melke), dc to the high produc tivity of the Are Formation and also de to its steater cumulative thickness . Espitali er a. (1991) suggest thatthe Are For- ration expelled about 25 times more hydro- ‘carbons than the Spekk and Melke Formations. ‘The sugagsted breakdown between coals and shales in Are in terms of expelled hydrocarbons is proposed to be about 17:1, while the ratio between expulsion for the Spekk and Meike Formations is about 24:1 (Espitai€ et al. 1991), Forbes etal. (1991) aseribed most of the cil generation in the drainage area of the Smor- bbukk Sor accumulation to the Are Formation, claiming that the Are Formation is about six times as important, volumetrically with respect to expelled Cys, hydrocarbons, compared with the Spekk plus the Melke Formations. s0 The expulsion of oil from humic coals like these may, however, be seriously questioned ‘The data refered to aboveare base on extensive pyrolysis experiments. Tt is well Known that pyrolytic conditions, ie. the use of ‘kerogen ‘ersus source rock particles, open versus closed pyrolysis, hydrous versus anhydrous conditions, 45 well as temperature proiefheating rate and the size ofthe pyrolytic eal, are all parameters alfecting chemical “reactions and products, Furthermore, high temperature generation pro- files for isolated kerogens or source rock (SR) samples are not by any standard a relevant analogue for SR expulsion. The latter involves feneration and mass transfer, whilst HC feneration senv stricto is merely temperature Sensitive expression of the second law of thermo- dynamics ‘Coals are generally good generators but poor expeller (Isaksen et ul 1998) and recent pytoly= sis work on coarse grained coal particles suggests that humic and brown coals like the Are coals basically wil not expel liquid range HCs. This was also inferred for torbanites,lamosites, ma nites and liptinite-rich humic coals (Inan ea 1998). Likewise Isksen et al. (1998) suggested that there is too low @ concentration of Cy, precir- sors in the Middle Jurassic Hugin coals in the North Sea to cause expulsion of non-volatile black oils, and they also suggested that neither the hydrogen index (111) nor the resiite content correctly reflect the ability ofa given coal toexpel black ol Absorption and adsorption of petroleum in the solid organic matrix Cequal dissolves equal) in SSRs means that, unless the generative potential of the kerogen is high, expulsion is delayed and the probability for early expulsion from these SRs is reduced (Gf. Pepper & Corvi 1995). A rminimam HE of ea, 200mg/HCig TOC was, ‘ated as a minimum for the petroleum products to overcome the sorptive capability ofthe organic ‘mate, and Pepper && Cori (1995) concluded that {he inal off expulsion threshold could ineease from 110°C (best posable SR) to 135°C in the worst case for oil producing source rocks in a basin subsiding at a rate of 2 C/Ma, ‘Shifting the initial part of the oil window ‘down’ by 20°C can have severe consequences in risking prospects, not only in tems of tap filing as such, but aiso for GOR predictions, as GOR increases with delayed expulsion (increase in temperature). It follows that detailed know- edge about the kerogen quality, quantity and seometsic organization in the SR is nesded to determine if marginally mature basins are prospective foro D. A. KARLSEN £7 AL, It is for these reasons that the distribution of oil and gas discoveries provide important cali bration for understanding the actual expulsion and migration status of a basin, ‘The Melke Formation has insignificant oil potential compared with the Spekk Formation and the deeper Are Formation (ef. Heum et al. 1986; Cohen & Dunn 1987). Heum et al. (1986) rated the Metke Formation as potentially eleas- ing no more than 1.5kg of petroleum/t rock (mainly gas Cs and some condensate Ce — ‘Cyg), whereas approximately 30-35 kg of petro- leum/t rock (gas~ 15%, condensate 45%, cil, ive, Cis = 40%) was estimated to have been released from the Spekk Formation during pro- agressive burial to a maturity of about 4% R.. It is stil likely that the oil potential of the Meike Formation may vary significantly laterally as well as vertically in off Mid-Norway, and more systematic investigations on facies’ variations sare needed especially from deeper parts of the basins where the formation may’ have developed as ‘anoxic ponds’ Peak oil generation from the Spekk Formation was estimated by Leadholm et al. (1985) to have occurred at Haltenbanken at “about 3400m cof burial. Initial oil expulsion was estimated by Cohen & Dunn (1987) to have oceurred at about 120°C, equivalent in their dataset to about 3100m of burial, while Heum et al, (1986) have 0.7% vitrinite reflectance equiva- lence (VRE) as the threshold for primary migra- tion from this formation. In their dataset 0.7% VRE corresponds to about 390m of burial, ‘whilst this depth is considered by Cohen & Dunn (1987) to be associated with initial oil to ‘eas cracking (T'~ 150°C). Initial refractory gas generation may occur at 4600m (Cohen & Dunn 1987) and Heum er al. (1986) similarly put the end of the oil window at 1.0% VRE, or 700m, Our database on biomarkers from the Spekk Formation contains good quality mature core samples in only one extensive core—6407/S-1 in southern Haltentanken. The biomarker distibu- tion ofthese extracts at 3900 m reveals a maturity equivalent to that found in the most mature petroleums from Haltenbanken, except in 6407/ 41, Kristin and Lavrans, These limited data ‘may indicate that significant oil expulsion has occurred from the Spekk Formation shallower than 3900m, Thereis also likely to bea difference in temperature or depth for expulsion from leaner SRs like the Melke as discussed above, Thus, more extensive generation and higher maturities are necessary for primary migration to occur in lean source rocks lacking a 2D or 3D continuous kerogen network. This difference PETROLEUM MIGRATION, FAULTS AND OVERPRESSURE, PART x in temperature for expulsion is important with respect to depth and GOR of the expelled products (f. Durand er a. 1987; Durand 1988; England and Mackenzie 1989: Stainforth and Reinders 1990; Pepper and Cor 1995). We sug- test that the Spekk Formation at Haltenbanken {s generally more prolific and thicker inthe non- Grilled basinal depocentees than is commonly assumed, We also_ propose that expulsion ‘cus shallower than some of the contemporary ‘models sem to indicate ‘Over much of the Haltenbanken area the Are Formation is of 0.2-0.5% higher in maturity than the overiying Spekk Formation (ef. Lead holm et al. 1985; Heum et al. 1986; Whitley 1992), Sul, great variations exist, due to differen tial burial depth of the units, ea. the difference between the tops ofthese two formations varies from about S00m in the Midgard Horst to approximately 1000-1500m 25km farther south (Mo er al. 1985), Petroleum generation i thus assumed to have been initiated significantly earlier in the deeper Are Formation than in the shallower Spekk Formation, i. during Mid- to Late Tertiary times (Champbell & Ormaasen 1987), Heum et al. (1986) suggested that expul- sion in the Spekk Formation is initiated at a maturity of about 0.7% Re, and at 0.5-0.7% Re and at 0.85% R. in the deeper Are Formation coals and shales, respectively. Forbes et al (1991) proposed that expulsion from the Spekk and Melke Formation in the Smorbukk. Sor region became significant as late as about SMabp, whilst in the Are Formation expulsion probably occurred as early as 40-80 Ma bp, {We assume that petroleum products from the ‘Arc Formation could conceivably have helped in saturating laterally extensive migration avenues in the basins, so that socondary migration from the Spekk Formation, when “tumed on’ millions of years later, would proceed. which much Increased efliency ef. Fig. 10, and figure 8 in Paper D. Maturity and geochemical signatures of petrolewn in traps in the study region Karlsen et al, (1995) concluded, on the basis of a database of 33 petroleums from the Haltenban- ken region, that the Cio. fractions of the oils ‘and condensates of this region were all sourced from the Spekk Formation. These petroleums represented the majority of petroleum aecumula- tions at that time, apart from Smorbukk. This interpretation was based on biomarkers, ‘medium range alkanes and aromatic hydro- carbons as well as on individual molecular isotope patter. An east-west systematic (bulk Cig, eatbon isotope trend (Fig. 11) vas found for the petroleum. This was interpreted to reflect possibly a more terestial input to the source rock kerogen in the proximal eastern regions, ‘whereas in the distal western regions the inferred kerogen was assumed to be moze amorphous and deposited under generally more reducing cond: tions. Extension of this work (Angard 1996; Steinhof? 1996; Storvoll 1999; Storvoll er al 2002; Sletten 2003: Wintestad 2003; Xt 2003) has allowed expansion of the dataset to include newer discoveries, all of which fall along the {rend shown in Figure 11. The maturities of the petroloums generally follow a systematic east ‘west trend, being more mature and less terrest= Sally influenced in the western portion of the basin This trend basically follows a maturity map based upon the depth to base Cretaceous and it is hence inferred that lateral migration distances for the presealy reservoired hydro- carbons is short, Le. shorter than 15-20km, with notable exceptions concerning migration fof the hydrocarbons found in Midgard and Draugen. ‘The following maturity sequence is propose: Kristin = Lavrans > 6407/41 > 6507/2-2DST 2(Cyy_ fraction) Idua(Coy_ fraction) > Smorbukk (condensates) Ive > Smorbukk Sor 6506 /12-3 > Midgard > Smorbukk Sor 6506/125 > Trestakk > Njord vale > Heidrun = Skary > Draugen > Tyrihans Nord > Tyrihans Sor > Mikkel. Dahle (1997), who. studied tight hydrocarbon distributions (C:-C,) of 38 petzoleums from Haltenbanken and additional petroleums from the Central and Viking Graben, concluded that no evidence could be found to suggest thatthe Halienbanken petroleums had an origin. from ther than an anoxie type II souree rock ike the Spekk/Draupme equivalent or, alternatively, an moxie Melke/Heather analogue. Dale (1997) con- cluded, furthermore, that the light hydrocarbon maturity trend of the petrolcums parallels to a large extent the maturity end based upon biomarker and medium’ range hydrocarbon 32, D. A. KARLSEN £7 AL. 8*°C of oils versus UTM East 58°C of total oil (C49,) ho Me cae | TRE ging” su Mi we Fig. 11. The 6°C values ofthe Ci. faction from fields =30 to =20%6 (PDB) dominate ia the western Hels lke UTMEAST —snamensomaieig {in Haltenbanken. Light carbon isotope values like smorbukk (SM), Smorbukk Sor (B & 8), Trestakk GERI), Tyrians Nord (T1) and Sor (12). Inthe more shallowly buried regions inthe cost are the °C values towarts 29 to ~27-%), eg Mikkel 1, 1), Midgard Thntermediate values occu inthe middle ofthe basi range migration from west aad in Heiden (H1-H14). Th (MI-M4), Nore (N), Alve (A), Skarv (8). ‘Njord (NI, N3, Draugen (DI, D2) with long end ress generation from more terrestrially influenced and dysanic souree rock intervals inthe proximal eastern regions close the palaeo-coastine, ‘whilst more al bacterialamorphous Kerogens ae inf parameters suggested by Karlsen et al. (1995). This suggests that the reservoired petroleums are all cogenetic in terms of light hydrocarbons, medium range hydrocarbons and_ biomarkers except from the Idua and the 6507/2-2 discoveries. ‘The more recent work of Odden e¢ al. (1998, 2000), using molecular distributions and indivi- ual carbon isotopes of light (Cy-Cys) hydro- carbons mobilized by thermal evaporation and pyrolysis from Spekk, Melke and Are source rocks, strongly suggests that the bulk of these ‘compounds on the Halten & Donna Terrace have been sourced from the Spekk Formation. However, these authors suggested that the Nore oil could have been derived from a SR with more terrestrial components than the bulk of the Mid-Norwegian oil, This overall view is supported by Patience (2003) who expresses doubt as to the existence and nature of any ‘eservoired gas or liquid contributions from the Are Formation and who suggests three tentative to oocur inthe western regions explanations, none of which are supported by our observations. ‘Since coals are so rich in organic material, they have very high ability to dissolve liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons and associated organic compounds, ic. of. the standard chemical rule of thumb: ‘equal dissolves equal’ ‘The microporosity of coals involves highly complex pores of various ‘openness’ and sizes land generally with avery high retention capacity of organic molecules (van Krevelen 1961; Hanbaba, er al. 1968; Peters & Jintgen 1968; Given ef al, 1986; Durand et al. 1987; Pepper 1991), Different molecular signature were extracted from open versus closed pores, or from more or less strongly adsorbed organic ‘matter (Beletskaya & Syrova 1972: Beletskaya 1978; Sagjé er al. 1983; Price & Clayton 1992), suggesting a lack of free exchange within the coals, Wilkins & George (2003) suggest in their excellent review paper that interconnected pores PETROLEUM MIGRATION, FAULTS AND OVERPRESSURE, PART IL do not exist in vitrinite macerals in coals, and concluded oil expulsion from coals in general t0 be an extraordinarily rare phenomenon, a view ‘supported by our own work during the past 15 ‘years on the NOCS, ‘We believe thatthe abundant aromatic carbon content in coals with associated -lectrons available in the coaly matrix is also probably effective in promoting retention and absorption ‘of polar compounds and aromatic hydro- carbons, but also nonpolar material like alkanes are adsorbed in large proportions (ef. Sandvik er al. 1991; Isaksen et al. 1998). ‘This retention of humic coals will delay expul- sion from the coals until higher maturities, ie. emphasizing 1o a dramatic degree the general difference between generation and initial expul- sion ot following the nomenclature of Pepper & ‘Corvi (1995) between generation, expulsion and primary migration, This could suggest that the bull of the generated hydrocarbons are retained in the coals until higher temperatures cause cracking to gas (ef. Sandvik et al. 1991). This type of gas generation may have promoted trap seal failure and could be partly responsible for the numerous gas chimneys and gas eseape structures observed at Haltenbanken and even the gas brightening seen regionally in. the Lysing Formation. This latter gas might, how- ‘exer, have an in situ Cretaceous origin due 10 the exponential increase in gas generation from OM before the “peak oil window’ (cf. Schaefer & Leythaeuser 1984; Karlsen 1987). ‘We, however, suggest that the time gap between generation and expulsion from the deep Are For- ‘ation relative tothe shallower Spekk Formation, and time dependent HC loss from traps, ie. the ‘pseudo-steady-state’ model of loss and replenish- ment discussed in this paper and in Paper I, is the reason why we today generally donot observe type Mi/coal derived gas inthe traps off Mid-Norway. ‘Thus, the time lag between, even delayed expulsion from the Are Formation, and expulsion from the shallower Spekk Formation is simply too significant in light of the “dynamic rap model (cf. Sales 1993, 1997—trap type IT and II}, for these traps to hold on to petroleum generated eg. 50 Mabp. Furthermore, we feel convinced that the relative enrichment of toluene, xylenes and methyl-cyciohexane in Nore, used by Odden ‘et al. (1989, 2000) as indicative of coaly source rock, originates from palaeo-biodegrada- tion of None petroleum. These aromatic and cyclic molecules are lest susceptible to bio- degradation than normal alkanes and their relative enrichment in Norne may simply reflect palaeo-biodegradation which occurred before 333 Nome became buried deeper than ca. 22km and biodegradation ended due to the increased temperature and/or cut-off of oxygenated water as faults became more sealing. These compounds ‘occur in ‘normal’ concentrations in the nearby Alve discovery which is buried ca. 1km deeper than Nose and which thus was sufficiently deep when trap filling was initiated (0 avoided biodegradation Itis clear that ‘meteorie-pumping’ would have occurred during the 30-40 or so periods of slaciations-deglaciations which were initiated a, 3Ma bp and that this mechanism would pro- vide an effective means of mobilizing not only oxygenated water (during glaciations) but also, during the deglaciations, influx of marine sul- phate containing water for anacrobic oxidation. Thus, the issue of anaerobie versus aerobic oxi- dation of commercial quantities of oil, such as found incipiently in Draugea, in variable but generally more severe development in Heidrun (where also influx of non-degraded oil occurred), and in more extreme degree in Svale and Falk (even with demethylated homohopanes) respec- tively (Xu 2003), must be understood in a more dynamic basinal/climatic sense and in relation to the water fluxes set up by the glaciations) eglaciations, than, e.g. “burial resulting in palaco-pasteurization’ as suggested by Wilhelms ral. (2000). These elements are discussed more fully‘in “Paper I ‘The Norne trap with its thinner, party eroded and imperfect caprock, currently buried ea. ! km shallower than Alve’ with its much thicker ccaprock, isin our opinion a good example of a ‘Sales type 3° trap, and the maturity of its oil, Which clearly is of the same organic facies as found in Alve, suggests that it originated from a ‘kitchen area’ buried ca. km shallower than the ‘kitchen’ that generated the condensate in Alve, With its thicker caprock, lve, on the other hand, is a good example of a "Sales type trap (ef. Sales 1993, 1997) Concerning “partially leaking caprocks’ and biodegradation, it is a fact in the study area that this phenomenon is restricted to proximal traps with bad caprock properties, buried cu rently at depths les than ea. 2.2km (70-80°C). ‘Thus, it seems that some kind of “openness” of the reservoir itself to water movement, including possibly the caprock with interconnected water films on the grains (cf. Nordgird Bolis et al 2003), and not only ‘large scale regional opet- ness’ Le. lateral connectivity of communicating ‘migration avenues or aquifers, as suggested by ‘Ahsan (1993) and Ahsan eal. (1997), are impor- tant elements for understanding in-reservoir biodegradation, This ‘openness’ in of interest D. A. KARLSEN ET AL ae ei g Bw = a = — Bisa oer moe sehen pe oversea hepa ei Fig, 12. Current Spekk Formation maturities inthe Smorbukk region illustrate that oil which entered SSmarbukk 70-50 Ma bp must have criginated from western regions. Se also Figute 9. ‘concerning the repeated development of hydra lic heads of meteoric oxygenated waters during slaciations (aerobic oxidation) and influx of ‘murine sulphate containing waters during degla- Cations (anaerobic oxidation) ‘There is: no published systematic (non-com. ‘mercal} database on gas isotopes from oils and ‘condensate associated gases from the Norwegian Sea, Our own data on methane to propane from Smorbukk, Draugen, Norne, Alve and Skarv Show isotope values in the Following ranges: 3C) = —38 to —d6ie, 8°Cy = —28 to 35% and ‘8° Cy = -25 to 30%, with the heavier values representing the eastern accumulations Norne and Alve. These fields also contain isoto- pically heavier oil/condensate than was generally found in the western accumulations. Relatively Tor Values for, ethane and propane 270 and SC; = ~26%m) were reported for the Midgard gas by Elvsborg ef uf (1985). The EC diflerence between methane and ethane in Midgard is greater than in Smarbukk, Norne and. Alv, ‘where this diference is ea. 1,1. indicating 100% eogenetic yas isotope signatures. ‘The gis. isolope values at Mid-Norway {onpublshed data) are not systematically ifer- ent from North Sea gases in which the 8!°Cy range mostly from —39 10 ~4, There is general agreement that the gases as well asthe ols in the Central & Viking Graben are derived from the Upper Jurassic marine shales, in particular the Draupne/Kimmeridge SR sequence Thus, despite the undisputed high generation capacity of the Are Formation, there is hardly fany evidence for coal-derived hydrocarbons in fields and discoveries at the Halten & Donna Terrace. The methylanthracenes found in the Midgard condensate and in some of the Heidrun and Draugen oils discussed in Karlsen et al (1995) might constitute weak_ circumstantial evidence 10 suggest palaco-HC contributions from the Are Formation. These compounds are known to occur in coals (M. Radke, pers comm.) and it is possible that such relatively polar compounds could have remained in the ‘migration system or in the traps from an earlier Arederived condensate, ‘This, and the deeper burial of the Are Forma- tion relative to the Spekk Formation (et. Figs 1b & 12), could indicate that the Haltenbanken traps are indeed dynamic traps which lost all of their Are-derived gases and condensates before the Spekk Formation matured. As the Spekk Formation became mature more recently, its petroleum “wiped out” most of the potential Are-derived molecular signatures from the traps. “The Spekk Formation with its type I kerogen tnd jts overall lower maturity, compared with the Are Formation, would be expelling petro- Jeum sith much higher relative concentrations of biomarkers. This effect will also act, 10 reduce possible trace signals from palaeo-Are- derived petroleum (gas-condensate) in the traps. PETROLEUM MIGRATION, FAULTS AND OVERPRESSURE. PART IL Samples 87 core samples from the following wells were available for this study. Dry wells: 6406/3-1, {6406 /6-1, 6506/L1-1, 6506/11-3 and 6506/12-4 Petroleumflled structures: Smorbukk 6506/12- 1 and Smorbukk Sor 6506/12-S. These wells are discussed in detail below. Fluid inclusions were studied in these samples. 70 additional core samples from these wells and 66 drill stem test (DST) fuids from the general Haltenbanken region were analysed and discussed by Angard (1996), Steinhoff (1996), Dale (1997) and Olstad (1997), and sesulls From these studies are inte- grated in this paper. 16 core samples analysed for uid inclusions and core extracts were also available from the dry wells 6506/11-3 (4100m), (6406;8-1 (4380m) and 6507/5-1 (4220m), the condensate containing 6407/4-1 structure (4000m) plus the oil fields Trestakk_ 6406/3-2 (3950m), Tyrihans Sor 6407/1-2 (3670m) and ‘Tyrians Nord 6407/1-3 (3630m). The data on these wells are utilized here more as auxiliary regional control points for the interpretations. Inorganic and organic coatings in Kristin and Lavrans were discussed by Storvoll (1999) along with core extract compositions, mineral diagenesis and maturity signatures. 16 DST samples and 31 core samples from Heidrun ‘were examined geochemically (Angard 1996; Steinhoft 1996). Furthermore, results of geo chemical investigations of core extracts, oils, szases and petroleum inclusions by Sletten (2003), Winterstad (2003) and. Xw (2003) have been implemented in this study. Thus, whilst a limited dataset is discussed in depth here, more data were available for the interpretations offered. Details of the methods and analytical conditions are found in the appendix. Results and discussion Core extracts of dry wells compared with {fluids and core extracts in Smorbuikk Quantitative extract data are shown as vertical ‘ell profiles in Figure 13. The four wells 6506/ T2-1 Smorbukk), 6406/3-1. (dry), 6506/11-1 (dry) and 6506/12-4 (dry) hold typical migrated hydrocarbons, ie. core extract compositions typified by 65-80% saturated hydrocarbons, 10-20% aromatic hydrocarbons and polar com: pounds typically in the range of only 10-22%, ‘The extract amounts are mostly in the range 0.2-1.3 mgig rock with most values in the range 03-07 mg extract/g rock. The values are comparable with those found in the Smorbukke 25 field (6506/12-1). Extract yields and com- positions like these are empirically found for oi And condensate producing Jurassic sandstones a similar depths offhore Norway (ef, Horstad et al. 1990; Karlsen & Larter 1999, 1991; Karlsen er al. 1993, Skdines 1993; Horstad 1995; Angard 1996; Steinhoff 1996). However, higher yields ae ako common and in TrestakK, ‘Tynhans Sor and Nord values range from 310 5.6mgig rock ‘Wel 6506/12-1, the Smorbukk discovery well, today holds condensate at four levels in. Garn and Hie wih GORS between ca. 975 and 1550m*/m’ (Fig. 14), but uid inclusions, dis- cussed below, suguest that oil was present at acter times ia the strata that at present contain gas-condensate Core extracts from the dry well 6406/6-1 deviate from those of the other wells in being dominated by polar compounds and very low yields, Such signatures are not representative of allochihonous bitumen or oil. Tn the dry well 6506/24 the extracts are more enriched in polar compounds, i.e. resins and asphaltenes, Compared with the two other wells including the Smorbukk well 6506/121. The Lysing) Lange extract from 3142,75m in well 6506/12-4 is even more enriched in polar compounds, reaching about 45% (Fig. 13) and the extract eld is also very low, ie. ca. O.L2mgig rock ‘This value is in the range of two ofthe extracts from the Tije Formation in well 6$06/11-1 at 42645 and 4504.75. These later core extracts, have compositions which correlate with the core extracts from well 606/61. Extract yields fare poor in this well, i. <0.09mg extrat/e rock, and the extracts afe dominantly polar, .¢ typical sigoatures of sit generated bituien, Even in relatively homogeneous. high-energy~ deposited sandstones like the Gar Formation at Haltenbanken, some trace amounts of organic ‘matter occur the dust rim on sandstone grains and also in more silty lithologies. Such organic matter, being of a largely oxidized type with low hydrogen to carbon ratios, will stil at depths of 3-8km inevitably. produce trace amounts of extractable organic matter. Gener- ally, this material a any frsiuederived organic matter, is easily recognized by its very polar composition (ef. Tissot & Welt 1984). In three out of four dry wells there is clear ev dence forthe presence of bitumen in proportions indicating thatthe reservoir rocks contained up {othe same hydrocarbon saturations asthe refer. ‘ence well 6S06/12-1 from the Smorbukk eld (Fig. 27). Note that the depth trend through the Garn andthe le Formation inthe Smorbukk {6506/12 wells very silar to that of the dry 326 D. A. KARLSEN ET AL a se a | a | . =z | 5 eee A § sess ZZ LLL 2 pee | gues ZZ a |S al LA |. =e LE see zea H ar sus. Zz i aa | ome za Ca ) ze | 007 8 ZZ * ana WLLL cae Za | gaa | ae rz 7 an ce | Ze gly 2-0 ZZ Mlle 4 os ZIM | | a Fig. 13, The dry structures 6506/12-4 and 6506/l-1 west of Smerbukk contain coe extracts of the same mount and gross composition as found inthe Smocbulk well 6506/12-1. Well 606/31, south of Smorbukk (ig. Ia), is tay dy whilst the core extracts indicat larly that this wel eater held ol, in contrast to well (406/61 which only Contains small amounts of polar and saturated compounds (f. Figs la & 27). PETROLEUM MIGRATION, FAULTS AND OVERPRESSURE. PART II sm Seerbokk DST Rea es Towns [owes [own [ooo [eos iat eum tea] tee Beas iat ea a ee crear Tear me sicmz07 | Somzes ater me cmvcot Jomema [SRC | CORGE = fe Gott [ott Tor Tae re ox ee umes SOR | age Boxe Tatar Goer Gon bined wae Somat Pomme cata ums | SORTS, joe meme or or ree Be |sieaey | mes [mor [ow oe race aor aed. ors | 5C=282 als = GOR 620 Om nS °C hn PDE, AP yas in ees Fig. 14. The highly segmented nature of the ‘mutistacked play nes" in the Smarbuk eld is illustrated in this tentative grid arranged by tentative reservoir horizons, Note the highly varied GORS and the more uniform carbon isotope values, In wel [2-1 there is producible condensate today, whilst residual ol saturation in Garn {in the other wells) in es palaco-leakage. Te dramatically different GOR illustrate the complex and long fling history ofthis tap, which was sourced from basically rather uniform and progressively maturing source rock fais, as suggested by the more uniform carbon isotope values, ‘well 6506/11-1. In contrast, there is no depth trend in 6406)3-1 and 6506/12-4. In the dry well 6506/11-3 west of Smarbukk and in the dry ‘well 6406/8-1 south of Lavrans and west of Njord (Fig. 1a), the core extracts reach 0.8- L7mglg rock and O4mgig rock, respectively. In well 6407/5-1 west of Mikkel (Fig, 1a), the amount of core extracts is even lower, ie. ca. 0.3mgig rock. The amount of saturated hydro- carbons in both 6407/5-1 and 6506/11-3 is about 70% with ca. 17% polar compounds, whilst in well 6406/8-1 the extract composition is very different, being dominated by 47% satu- rated compounds and 47% polar compounds, D. A. KARLSEN ET AL. 308 esos 2109p “anny spony sio> yy “soem 2109 a6} mayen} 194802 2109 Bump aBuer “2 24 wt suoqsesospsi Jo 58) rodeas alana pasays 24260 GLE-20 P17 UL “STB ee ee om Cy — mE canes ; ce gore ay cect wk, FEE T PETROLEUM MIGRATION, FAULTS AND OVERPRESSURE. PART IL ice, similar to the extract composition from well (6406 /6-1 discussed above ‘These additional regional data points on extract amounts and composition support that ‘well 6406/6-1 and 6406/8-1 never contained oil ‘whilst petroleum existed in well 6407/5-1 and 6506 /11-3. ‘Some representative GC-FID chromatograms From these five wells are shown in Figure 15 and itis indicated that the presently dry well 6406/6-1 did not contain allochthonous thermogenic hydrocarbons of the same type as found in the ‘other wells, The extracts from this well, which all had very polar signatures on Tatroscan TLC FID, have alkane compositions similar to that observed in diesels and recycled diesel-based deiling fluids, The other chromatograms show that core extracts have suffered severe losses of light hydrocarbons, eg. 6506/11-1, but retain the characteristic petroleum signatures. The GC-FID chromatograms of the vore extracts from the dry wells all substantiate the obser- vations made from the Tatrosean TLC-FID measurements. Undoubtedly, there is in 11-1 Dristine/phytane a large loss of C.y_ components ‘caused by core bleeding during sample retrieval from the high pressure and deep reservoir condl- tions. Due to the loss of light ends, the pristine) pphytane (Pr/Ph) ratios are also severely modified and therefore unsuitable for direct correlative purposes. This applies also for the 12-1 sample in Figure 15. Extrapolation of the malkane (Cu-Cyp) and isoprenoid profile to that of the 6506/121 DST 7 (whole oil GC-FID, Fig. 16, Tables 1 & 2) sample from the Gam Formation ‘may still allow for a more realistic tentative estimate of the Pr/Ph ratios also in the other ‘core exiracts, In this condensate sample (DST 7) the Pr:Ph 1.56 and the PrinC,, and the PhinCyg ratios are 0.81 and 0.62, respectively The extrapolation is possible as the relative loss of isoprenoids relative to n-alkanes from the Smorbukk core sample will not differ from that in the dry wells, The absolute and relative Tosses of these compounds reflect the relative vapour pressures of these compounds and the PVT conditions in the trap, in addition to core porosity/preservation conditions. We suggest tentatively the original alkane/isoprenoid ratio to be less than unity, and the Pr/Ph ratio to be between 1 and 2 for the evaporatively influenced ‘core extracts in Figure 15, Fluorescent petroleum inclusions ‘The time for filling of Smorbukk is best evaluated in the context of petroleum inclusions and the m9 burial history of Smorbukk (Fig. 9) using the methods of Karlsen er al (1993). Figure 17 shows ample evidence for fluorescent petroleum. inclusions in Smorbukk as well as in the dry ‘wells 6506/12-4, 6506/11-1 and 6406/3-1. Figures 18 & 19 illustrate depth profiles ofthe amount of fAuorescent inclusions in Uhese well. The petro- Jeum inclusions occur mostly in the cement and ‘long the dust rim of the detrital grains, albeit some secondary inclusions in fractures are also recorded. The size ofthe gas bubble in the petro- eum inclusions is an indicator of the GOR of the entrapped petroleum fuid (Fig. 20). In the Halten Vest samples from well 6506/12-4 and 6506/11-1, two types of inclusion are often found. One type has rather small gas bubbles, ie, 10-20%, and a second type has gas bubbles constituting ea. 70-80% of the inclusion area. This could indicate that the sampled reservoir strata have experienced an increase in GOR

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