1

FOREWORD

The increasingly high requirements to technical perfection, quality and

economic efficiency of aeroengines result in considerable increase in the cost of their
development, manufacturing and maintenance. While the cost price of air
transportation should by all means be reduced.
High scientific capacity and complexity of the processes of designing,
manufacturing and engine developing, control of engine rating and technical
condition make us consider a modern aeroengine as a composite technical system.
Processes different by their nature take place within the elements of this system. They
are interdepent and provide the following criterion functions performed by the engine:
- guaranteeing of necessary thrust work at minimum fuel consumption;
- guaranteeing of a failure-free operation in flight and readiness to execute
flight at minimum material costs;
- guaranteeing of an airline traffic minimum cost price by improvement or
preservation of design technical and economic parameters of reliability and engine
profitability;
- compliance with the international and domestic standard requirements on
environmental protection.
This lecture synopsis contains some particulars on the history of aeroengines
development and their classification, gives the general concepts of structure,
operation principles and specifications of civil aviation gas turbine engines.
Considerable attention is paid to methods of strength calculation of high-loaded
details as well as details responsible for engine safe life and reliability.
The lecture synopsis is intended for students of majors 6.070103 «Aircraft
Maintenance» and 6.051101 «Aircraft and Rocket Manufacturing».

ПЕРЕДМОВА

Безупинне зростання вимог до технічної досконалості, якості й економічної

ефективності авіаційних двигунів призводить до значного збільшення вартості
їхньої розробки, виробництва та технічного обслуговування. При цьому
собівартість повітряних перевезень (або авіаційних робіт) неодмінно повинна
знижуватися.
Висока наукоємність і складність процесів проектування, виробництва і
доведення двигуна, управління режимами його роботи і технічним станом
змушує розглядати сучасний авіаційний двигун як складну технічну систему. В
елементах цієї системи протікають різноманітні за своєю природою процеси, які
залежать один від одного та обумовлюють виконання двигуном таких заданих
цільових функцій:
- забезпечення потрібної тягової роботи при мінімальних витратах палива;
- забезпечення безвідмовної роботи в польоті і готовності виконати політ
при мінімальних матеріальних витратах на це забезпечення;
- забезпечення потрібної собівартості повітряних перевезень шляхом
поліпшення або зберігання проектних техніко-економічних показників
надійності й економічності двигуна;

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 - виконання вимог міжнародних і вітчизняних стандартів по охороні
навколишнього середовища.
Цей конспект лекцій містить достатньо докладні відомості про історію
розвитку і класифікацію авіаційних двигунів, дає основні поняття про склад,
принципи роботи і технічні дані газотурбінних двигунів цивільної авіації.
Значну увагу в конспекті приділено розгляду методик розрахунків на міцність
високонавантажених і, отже, відповідальних за ресурс і надійну роботу двигуна
в цілому, деталей.
Конспект лекцій призначений для студентів напрямів 6.070103
«Обслуговування повітряних суден» та 6.051101 «Авіа- та ракетобудування».

ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ

Непрерывное возрастание требований к техническому совершенству,

качеству и экономической эффективности авиационных двигателей приводит к
значительному увеличению стоимости их разработки, производства и
технического обслуживания. При этом себестоимость воздушных перевозок
(или авиационных работ) непременно должна снижаться.
Высокая наукоёмкость и сложность процессов проектирования,
производства и доводки двигателя, управления режимами его работы и
техническим состоянием заставляют рассматривать современный авиационный
двигатель как сложную техническую систему. В элементах этой системы
протекают разнообразные по своей природе процессы, которые зависят один от
другого и обусловливают выполнение двигателем таких заданных целевых
функций:
- обеспечение необходимой тяговой работы при минимальных расходах
топлива;
- обеспечение безотказной работы в полете и готовности выполнить полет
при минимальных материальных затратах;
- обеспечение минимальной себестоимости воздушных перевозок путем
улучшения или сохранения проектных технико-экономических показателей
надежности и экономичности двигателя;
- выполнение требований международных и отечественных стандартов по
охране окружающей среды.
Этот конспект лекций содержит достаточно подробные сведения об
истории развития и классификацию авиационных двигателей, дает основные
понятия о составе, принципах работы и технические данные газотурбинных
двигателей гражданской авиации. Значительное внимание в конспекте уделено
рассмотрению методик расчетов на прочность высоконагруженных и
ответственных за ресурс и надежную работу двигателя в целом, деталей.
Конспект лекций предназначен для студентов направлений 6.070103
«Обслуживание воздушных судов» и 6.051101«Авиа- и ракетостроение».

CONTENTS
FOREWORD.........................................................................................................3
ПЕРЕДМОВА.......................................................................................................3
3
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ..................................................................................................4
Contents...................................................................................................................5
Theme 1. INTRODUCTION...............................................................................9
1.1. From the history of aeroengines development.
Classification of air gas turbine engines)).............................................................9
1.2. Design features of manifold types of gas turbine engines..........................16
1.3. Main stages of gas turbine engines creation))..........................................23
1.4. Absolute and specific parameters of gas turbine engines...........................25
1.5. Air gas turbine engine’s lives)).................................................................27
1.6. Load-bearing schemes of rotors and casings of gas turbine engines.
Engine attachment fittings to aircraft................................................................35
Theme 2. FORCES AND MOMENTA COMING INTO ACTION
IN GAS TURBINE ENGINE.............................................................................68
2.1. Types of loads acting upon gas turbine engine structural elements...........68
2.2. Axial gas forces coming into action in gas turbine engines.
Formation of thrust in gas turbine engines of manifold types...............................75
2.3. Determination of axial gas force acting on impeller of gas turbine
engine centrifugal compressor))..........................................................................79
2.4. Torques coming into action in gas turbine engines. Balance of torques
in gas turbine engines of manifold types...............................................................82
Theme 3. STATIC STRENGTH OF GAS TURBINE ENGINE
BLADES...............................................................................................................90
3.1. Loads acting on blades. The blade stressed state characteristic.................90
3.2. Determination of rotor blade tensile stress caused by centrifugal forces. 91
3.3. Determination of rotor blade bending stress caused by gas forces..........94
3.4. Determination of rotor blade bending stress caused by centrifugal
forces. .................................................................................................................100
3.5.  Features of the guide and nozzle vanes strength calculation...................104
3.6.  Evaluation of gas turbine engine rotor blades strength ..........................106
3.7.  Strength of rotor blade roots))...............................................................110
Theme 4. STATIC STRENGTH OF GAS TURBINE ENGINE DISCS......123
4.1. Loads affecting the discs..........................................................................123
4.2. The design scheme and assumptions made at disc strength calculations.124
4.3. Design ratings...........................................................................................125
4.4. Disc thermal condition.............................................................................125
4.5. The disc stressed state equation. Boundary conditions............................126
4.6. Disc durability criteria and safety factor coefficients...............................133
4.7. Features of strength calculation of centrifugal compressor and
radial-flow turbine discs ....................................................................................138
4.8. Peculiarities of stresses calculation in drum-and-disc designs.................139
4.9. Strength of rotors and casings connection elements))............................141
4.10. Fan, compressor and turbine discs operational damage.
Disc strength and reliability increase measures...................................................147
Theme 5. STATIC STRENGTH OF GAS TURBINE ENGINE SHAFTS. .104
5.1.  Loads acting on shafts.............................................................................156

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 5.2.  Design schemes and stressed state of shafts. Safety factor coefficients
estimation.............................................................................................................156
Theme 6. DYNAMIC STRENGTH OF GAS TURBINE ENGINE
BLADES))........................................................................................................162
6.1.  Vibrations of blades and forces causing vibrations.................................162
6.2. Kinds and forms of blade normal modes.................................................166
6.3. Normal modes of blades with a stationary cross-section area.................167
6.4. Normal modes of blades with a variable cross-section area....................170
6.5. Influence of blade attachment effort to the disc......................................171
6.6. Influence of centrifugal forces on a blade vibration frequency...............172
6.7.Influence of a variable temperature...........................................................174
6.8.Forces damping blade vibrations...............................................................174
6.9. Resonant modes of blade vibrations. Frequency diagram.......................175
6.10. Torsional and composite blade vibrations..............................................176
6.11. Elimination of blade vibration breakages...............................................177
6.12. Concept of self-oscillations of blades.....................................................179
Theme 7. DYNAMIC STRENGTH OF GAS TURBINE ENGINE
DISCS)).............................................................................................................188
7.1. General information..................................................................................188
7.2. Forms of disc normal modes....................................................................188
7.3. Disc normal mode frequency....................................................................191
7.4. Compressor and turbine rotor wheel vibration calculation by
Rayleigh’s method...............................................................................................192
7.5. Factors influencing on the disc normal mode frequency..........................194
7.6. Disc forced undulations............................................................................195
7.7. The ways to eliminate dangerous resonance oscillations
of rotor wheels ....................................................................................................198
Theme 8. CRITICAL ROTATIONAL SPEEDS OF GAS TURBINE
ENGINE ROTOR..............................................................................................207
8.1. Concept of critical rotational speeds of gas turbine engine rotor ……. 207
8.2. Critical rotational speed of the two-support weightless shaft with disc 207
8.3. Connection of rotor critical rotational speed with its cross-sectional
oscillation frequency...........................................................................................215
8.4. Concept of two-support rotor critical rotational speeds of higher order...215
8.5. Critical rotational speeds of the two-support ponderable shaft without
disc.......................................................................................................................216
8.6. Critical rotational speeds of the ponderable shaft with several discs.......216
8.7. Operational factors affecting critical rotational speeds of
gas turbine engine rotor ......................................................................................218
8.8. Measures taken to reduce intensity of rotor oscillation connected
with critical rotational speeds..............................................................................235
Theme 9. STRENGTH, STABILITY AND VIBRATIONS OF GAS
TURBINE ENGINE SHELL DESIGNS))....................................................241
9.1.   Shell strength calculation.......................................................................241
9.2.   Stability of cylindrical and conical shells...............................................243
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 9.3.   Vibrations of cylindrical shells...............................................................245
Theme 10. CONTROL OF GAS TURBINE ENGINE VIBRATION
STATE ...............................................................................................................249
10.1. Brief information about the causes of gas turbine engine vibrations.....249
10.2. Control of gas turbine engine vibrations................................................249
10.3. The ways to lower the vibration level of gas turbine engines................251
Theme 11. GAS TURBINE ENGINE ROTOR SUPPORTS........................256
11.1. Brief data about gas turbine engine rotor supports.................................256
11.2. Calculation of support bearings..............................................................258
Theme 12. OIL SYSTEMS OF GAS TURBINE ENGINES.........................270
12.1. Oil systems designation..........................................................................270
12.2. Objects of lubrication in the gas turbine engine.....................................270
12.3. Types of the usable oils..........................................................................271
12.4. Oil systems classification and requirements...........................................284
12.5. Circulating oil systems construction and their typical schemes.............287
12.6. Oil systems parameters and their control in operation...........................312
12.7. Determining required oil circulation......................................................319
12.8. Calculation of oil tank capacity..............................................................319
12.9. Calculation of supply pump efficiency...................................................321
Theme 13. GAS TURBINE ENGINE FUEL SYSTEMS...............................343
13.1. Fuel system designation.........................................................................343
13.2. Types of used fuels.................................................................................343
13.3. Requirements to fuel systems.................................................................370
13.4. Construction of fuel systems..................................................................371
13.5. Standard schemes of fuel systems..........................................................373
13.6. Fuel system elements and their designation...........................................375
13.7. Selection of the plunger fuel pump parameters......................................413
13.8. Selection of the gear fuel pump parameters...........................................413
13.9. Hydraulic calculation of double-jet nozzles...........................................414
13.10. Centrifugal pump parameters determination........................................415
13.11. Guided-vane pump parameters determination......................................417
13.12. Fuel flow metering................................................................................418
Theme 14. GAS TURBINE ENGINE STARTING SYSTEMS.....................448
14.1. General information................................................................................448
14.2. Structure of gas turbine engine starting systems....................................448
14.3. Gas turbine engine start diagram. Characteristics of start stages...........450
14.4. Calculation of gas turbine engine starting system..................................452
14.5. Types of aeroengine starting devices.....................................................460
14.6. Ignition systems......................................................................................491
Theme 15. REDUCTION GEARS OF AEROENGINES.
TORQUEMETERS...........................................................................................500
15.1. General information................................................................................500
15.2. Base kinematic schemes of reduction gears...........................................501
15.3. Torquemeters..........................................................................................511
15.4. Defining reduction gear principal dimensions and calculating its

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elements strength)).............................................................................................519
Theme 16. PISTON AEROENGINES)).........................................................533
16.1. Reciprocating aeroengine construction..................................................533
16.2. General information about piston aeroengine working process.
An indicator diagram...........................................................................................448
16.3. Basis of piston aeroengine kinematics...................................................451
16.4. Basis of piston aeroengine dynamics.....................................................453
16.5. Balancing of piston aeroengine..............................................................457
References.......................................................................................................477
APPENDIX.....................................................................................................478
)
– not studied on EC–1–272/16–3.1.16
) 
– not studied on EC–1–134/16–3.1.4 and EC–1–134/16–3.2.4

Theme 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. From the history of aeroengines development. Classification of air gas

turbine engines.
1.2. Design features of manifold types of gas turbine engines.
1.3. Main stages of gas turbine engines creation.
1.4. Absolute and specific parameters of gas turbine engines.
1.5. Air gas turbine engine’s lives.

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 1.6. Load-bearing schemes of rotors and casings of gas turbine engines. Engine
attachment fittings to aircraft

Literature: [1], p. 4–36; [2], p. 3–28; [3], p. 5–36; [4], 5–41.

1.1. From the history of aeroengines development. Classification of air

gas turbine engines

Since the middle of the ХIХ-th century the attempts to create aircraft without
engines had been made in many countries. At the end of the XIХ-th century (1881)
A.F. Mozhaysky got the patent and constructed an airplane with steam engines. In
1894 an Englishman Х. Maxim created a giant airplane. In France the inventor
К. Ader designed and created airplanes. Nevertheless, the steam engines turned out to
be heavy and unwieldy, and attempts to fly with such engines sailed. The first
successful flight was made on the 17 th of December, 1903 on an airplane with an
internal-combustion engine by the Wright brothers in the USA. At about the same
time airplanes having similar engines are created one after another in Europe, mainly
in France (L. Blerio, F. Ferber and A. Santos-Dumon).
A considerable stimulus for development of aircraft and engine building, in
particular, was given by the World War I. Nevertheless, there was no domestic
airmotor industry either in Russia, or in Ukraine at that time. And only in 1921 the
aircraft designer A.D. Shvetsov created in the USSR an air-cooled engine M-11 with
the power of 100 hp, which had been in serial production since 1924. It was mounted
on airplanes По-2 (У-2) and Як-18, which had served in aviation for more than forty
years. In 1950s in an experimental-design office of the General designer
A.G. Ivchenko (now Zaporozhye motor-building design office – ЗМКБ) the piston
air-cooled aeroengine AИ-14 with the power of 360 hp was created, which became
the basis for the whole family of engines for light airplanes and helicopters.
Nevertheless in 1920s and 1930s there exists a new direction in development of
aeroengines. The projects of the first jet engines appear.
The jet engines of aircraft are subdivided into air-breathing and rocket engines.
In air-breathing engines (ABEs) an atmospheric air is used for jet formation. In
rocket engines the gases are used for this purpose. They are yields of a chemical
reaction of a propellant.
The air-breathing engines are subdivided into three main types:
- ramjet air-breathing engines (RABEs);
- pulsatory (pulse) air-breathing engines (PABEs);
- gas turbine engines (GTEs).
Dependence of working process parameters on atmospheric parameters
(temperature of surroundings, altitude and flight speed) is typical of all these engines.
The classification of rocket engines is grounded on physical properties of fuel
before they enter a chemical reaction inside the engine. From this point of view the
rocket engines are subdivided into two main types:
- liquid-rocket engines (LREs), in which propellant components are liquid
before entering the combustion chamber;
- rocket engines of solid fuel (REsSF), in which propellant components are
solid before the beginning of a chemical reaction.
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 The working process parameters and rocket engines characteristics depend
little on flight conditions of an aircraft.
To use technical advantages of engines of different types in a unified power
plant, and therefore, to improve the characteristics of aircraft, sometimes combined
power plants are applied. They include air-breathing and rocket engines or hybrid
engines, which use manifold principles of working process formation, for example,
turbo/ramjet, rocket/ramjet, turbo-rocket engines, etc.
Each type of engine has a particular area of possible and optimal application.
In the manned aircraft power plants of military and civil aviation the most
widespread types of gas turbine engines are:
- turbojet engines (TJEs);
- turbofan engines (TFEs);
- turboprop engines (TPEs);
- turboshaft engines with free turbine (free-power turbine) (TShEsF);
- turbopropfan engines (TPFEs).
In turbojet engines practically all excessive potential energy of a gas flow,
coming out of a turbine, transforms into kinetic energy as gas expands in a jet nozzle.
It provides the acceleration of a gas flow up to a high speed and creation of thrust.
The afterburner (AB) is applied if it is necessary to supply a short-lived increase in
engine thrust without a considerable increase of overall dimensions and weight of a
power plant. It is set between turbine and jet nozzle. The overload fuel moves to AB
at a reheat starting. After it is burnt the temperature of gases rises, and therefore, the
speed of gas efflux from a jet nozzle and an engine thrust increase. Such type of
afterburning is used in some turbojet and turbofan engines, which in this case are
called afterburning turbojet engines (ATJEs) and afterburning turbofan engines
(ATFEs).
Modern TJEs without afterburning provide reaching of flight speeds
corresponding to Mach number (М) not larger than 1,3...1,4 at altitudes up to
12...14 km. The augmented engines ATJE allow to develop airplane flight speeds
corresponding to М numbers 3...3,5 at altitudes up to 30...35 km. The afterburning
turbojet engines of considerable and mean thrusts are set in fighters and bombers,
while low-powered TJEs and ATJEs are used on training airplanes. Besides, in 1950s
TJEs have been set in the first jet passenger airplanes: Tу-104 (USSR), Boeing-707
(USA), "Comet" (England), "Caravelle" (France). Later the TJEs were not used in
civil aviation airplanes owing to their low fuel profitability.
The turbofan engines have two flows – primary and secondary. In such engines
a part of fuel combustion energy, submitted to the primary flow is transformed into
mechanical energy for the fan drive of the secondary flow.
The TFE primary flow is an air-gas channel that houses working devices of
compressor, combustion chamber, turbine and jet nozzle, i. e. this flow is the turbojet
engine air-gas channel of a common scheme.
The TFE secondary flow is an annulus channel with a fan in it. Only air passes
through the secondary flow. It receives an impulse of motion from the fan. This air
passes outside the combustion chamber and the turbine. It is exhausted from the
engine in parallel to gases flow, that comes out of the turbine.
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 The TFE thrust consists of gas flow reaction forces in the primary flow and air
flow in the secondary flow.
The TFEs are more effective than single-flow TJEs as far as subsonic flight
speeds are concerned, and they have lower noise level. The high profitability is
provided with a high bypass ratio, which is characterized by relation of the mass air
flow in the secondary flow to the mass air flow in the primary flow.
The TFE bypass ratio (m) varies from 0,7 to 14.
The TFEs with high thrust effectiveness and low specific fuel consumption are
the main type of engines of long-haul passenger airplanes, that fly with speeds
corresponding to Mach number M=0,75...0,9.
In turboprop engines (TPEs) thrust is formed by air masses. They are
accelerated by a propeller, that rotates with the help of a gas turbine. The TPEs are
applied in power plants of passenger and transport airplanes with flight speeds
corresponding to M=0,4...0,7. Within this air speed range the TPE efficiency is higher
than in engines of other types. Therefore the airplanes with TPEs are more effective
than the airplanes with TJEs and TFEs.
The most popular power plants of modern helicopters include the turboshaft
engine with free-power turbine. The free-power turbine, which is not mechanically
connected with the compressor turbine in engines of such type, provides the drive of
lifting and antitorque propellers of the helicopter through reduction gear (main and
tail) and other transmission devices. Having high power at small overall dimensions
and weight, turboshaft engines with a free-power turbine have allowed to create
helicopters with weight-lifting capacity of some dozens of tons. Such are giant
helicopters created in М.L. Mil design bureau: Ми-6, Ми-10, Ми-12, Ми-26.
The perspective type of engines for a new generation of passenger airplanes is
a turbopropfan engine (TPFE). By its specifications TPFE takes an intermediate
position between TPE and TFE. Having multiblade propfans as a mover (“thrust
provider”), engines of such type are highly efficient. Modern techniques of propfan
contouring and manufacturing permit to use them at flight speeds, which correspond
to Mach number M=0,7...0,8. This provides a high economic efficiency of passenger
traffic at short stage and average stage distances. A "Super-fan" class engine is one of
the TPFE varieties. They have ducted fans. They work in a case like TFE fans. The
"Super-fan" engines provide airplane cruising speeds of flight corresponding to Mach
number M=0,75...0,82 with fuel consumption 15...20 % less than airplanes with TFE
have. The engines of such class are intended for long-distance passenger and
transport airplanes.
The modern scheme of the turbojet engine was offered by a French researcher
Gillome in 1922. For the first time turbojet engine was practically used by the
inventor Frank Whittle, who received the patent on the 11th of January, 1930. Frank
Whittle constructed the first turbojet engine in 1937, and the first flight with this
engine was made in England on an airplane "Gloster" in May 1941.
In Germany turbojet engines have been developed since 1930s, and on the 27th
of August, 1939 German pilots made first flight on an airplane with a turbojet engine.
In the USSR first design developments of air-breathing engines were proposed
by V.I. Bazarov (TPE with a centrifugal compressor, 1923) and A.M. Lyulka (TFE
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with an axial-flow compressor, 1937). Since 1932 V.V. Uvarov had been working on
TPE creation. In 1946 the first TJE (TP-1) constructed by A.M Lyulka was tested.
The experience of the first foreign engines development was used in the USSR
along with designing of new domestic engines. Production of the РД-10 and РД-20
engines with axial-flow compressors after the pattern of German UMO-004 and
BMW-003 engines was set going. During 1947...1949, the aircraft industry of the
USSR mastered production of РД-45 and РД-500 turbojet engines on the basis of the
licensed English “Nene 1” and “Derwent 5” turbojet engines, respectively. These
engines allowed to create and to begin operation of the first Soviet jet airplanes:
Як-15, МиГ-9, МиГ-15, Як-23, Ил-28, Ла-15, etc.
The main specifications for gas turbine engines, serial production of which
began before 1950, are given in Tab. 1.1.
After this, creation of more perfect engines started in the USSR. Soviet
designers and scientists V.Y. Klimov, A.A. Mikulin, S.K. Tumansky, A.M. Lyulka,
M.D. Kuznetsov, V.A. Dobrynin, A.G. Ivchenko, P.A. Solovyov, S.P. Izotov,
V.A. Lotarev, V.A. Glushenkov contributed a lot to new engines development.
As a result, a lot of gas turbine engines had been created and put in a serial
production by the beginning of 1950s in the USSR.
So, the ВК-1 (1949) and the ВК-1Ф (1951) engines with centrifugal
compressors have been successfully used for a long time (Ил-20 mail-carrying
airplane and МиГ-17 front fighter).
AM-3 engine, which had been in serial production since 1949, had thrust of
85,2 kN. At that time it was the most powerful TJE with an axial-flow compressor in
the world. It was set in Tу-16 long-distance bombers and in the first passenger
airplanes Ту-104 (1956), which initiated jet aviation for passenger traffic. The
modified version of this engine РД3М-500 with thrust of 93,1 kN has been still used
in airplanes Tу-16. Two ATJEs РД-9Б with afterburning rating thrust of 32,2 kN
were set in the first serial supersonic fighter МиГ-19 (1954).
While creating new, more powerful and efficient engines the necessity to
increase the compressor pressure ratio arose. Nevertheless, the use of high-head
(high-pressure) axial-flow compressors in TJE design created difficulties for
provision of a necessary reserve of compressor gas-dynamic stability (surge reserve
of compressor). The search for optimum solutions of this problem caused creation of
two-shaft engines. In the second half of 1950s Р11Ф-300 two-shaft ATJE with
maximum non-augmented rating thrust of 39 kN for МиГ-21 supersonic fighters and
Як-28 was created and put in serial production. It became the basis model for
designing high-performance, reliable and efficient engines.

Table 1.1
Main specifications for TJE, serial production of which began before 1950

Takeoff
Year of Specific fuel
Country – rating Type of
Engine manu- consumption
manufacturer thrust C compressor
facture R , kg/(Nh)
R, kN

11
 Не-53В Germany 1939 5,0 0,145 Centrifugal
UМО-004А Germany 1940 7,6 0,143 Axial
UМО-004В Germany 1940 9,0 0,140 Axial
ASX England 1943 11,8 0,130 Centrifugal
UМО-012 Germany 1943 27,6 0,120 Axial
BMW-003А Germany 1944 8,8 0,150 Axial
Derwent 1 England 1944 9,1 0,117 Centrifugal
UМО-004С Germany 1944 10,2 0,148 Axial
Derwent 5 England 1944 18,2 0,112 Centrifugal
Nene 1 England 1944 22,7 0,110 Centrifugal
Yankee-19В USA 1944 6,2 0,128 Axial
Не-S-011 Germany 1945 13,0 0,131 Axial
BMW-018 Germany 1945 35,0 0,118 Axial
Avon RA-3 England 1947 29,5 0,105 Axial
ТР-1 USSR 1947 13,0 0,135 Axial
РД-10 USSR 1947 10,2 0,140 Axial
РД-20 USSR 1947 8,8 0,140 Axial
РД-45 USSR 1948 18,2 0,109 Centrifugal
РД-500 USSR 1948 22,7 0,108 Centrifugal
ТР-3А USSR 1948 38,0 0,110 Axial
J-34-WE USA 1948 19,0 0,105 Axial
Аtar-101С France 1948 28,0 0,107 Axial
J-35-A-17 USA 1949 22,7 0,105 Axial
ВК-1 USSR 1949 27,0 0,105 Centrifugal
АМ-3 USSR 1949 85,2 0,105 Axial
АМ-5 USSR 1950 20,0 0,107 Axial
J-35-A-21 USA 1950 23,6 0,112 Axial

Perfection of single-shaft ATJE with variable guide vanes of compressor

stators was completed by creation of a serial АЛ-7Ф engine with maximum rating
thrust of 78 kN for fighters-interceptors and fighters-bombers. This ATJE also
became the basis model for single-shaft engines.
The most widespread turbojet engines, created in the USA in the middle of
1950s are the Pratt & Whitney J-57-P with maximum thrust of 45...61 kN, depending
on modification, and the General Electric J-79-GE with the maximum rating thrust of
55...75 kN. These engines are still used in military airplanes. Moreover, J-57-P
engines were set in the first modifications of B-707 passenger airplanes.
At the same time turboprop engines were being designed in the USSR. The
most powerful in the world TPE НК-12МВ (Nе=11 000 kW) was created under the
supervision of the general designer M.D. Kuznetsov. It provided operation of giant
transport airplane Ан-22 “Антей” and once the biggest passenger airplane Tу-114.
At the end of 1950s the АИ-20 and the НК-4 TPEs were created for passenger
and transport airplanes for long stage distances. They were set in Ил-18, Ан-10А,
Ан-8 airplanes, and АИ-20 engines are still used in Ан-12 and Ан-32 airplanes.

12
 АИ-20 (Nе=3 200 kW) TPE is followed by АИ-24 (Nе=1 875 kW) and
АИ-24ВТ (Nе=2 075 kW) TPEs for Ан-24, Ан-26 and Ан-30 airplanes. They are
distinguished by high serviceability.
Aeroengine building corporations of the USA, France, England and other
countries have reached a considerable success in development of turboprop engines.
In 1950s and 1960s TPEs of manifold types were designed: “Dart”, that was used as
a power plant for Vickers “Viscount” airplanes, “Protey” – in Bristol “Britain”
airplanes, “Allison 501” – in Lockheed “Electra” airplanes, “Tine 512” – in Vickers
“Vengard” airplanes and others.
The turboshaft engines for helicopters were developed in design bureaus
headed by P.A. Solovyov, V.A. Glushenkov, S.P. Izotov. They include Д-25В,
ТВ2-117А, ТВ3-117, ГТД-350 engines and others. So, in the heavy Ми-6 and Ми-
10 (“flying crane”) helicopters two Д-25В engines (with the power of 4 100  kW
each) are set, and Д-136 engines (with the power of 8 800 kW) are set in the
helicopters of new generation of Ми-26.
S.P. Izotov’s and V.A. Glushenkov’s turboshaft engines, which have small
overall dimensions and weight, permitted to create Ми-2, Ми-8, Ка-32 helicopters
and others with high flight performances.
The increasing volume of air traffic required higher flight speed combined high
economic efficiency. This problem was solved by development of turbofan engines.
In the USSR the first serial turbofan Д-20П engine was created in 1955 by
P.A. Solovyov design bureau. Then TFEs of the second generation (Д-30, Д-30КУ,
НК-8-2У, АИ-25) have been designed under the supervision of the general designers
M.D. Kuznetsov, P.A. Solovyov and A.G. Ivchenko. They have been successfully
used in the Tу-134, Ил-62М, Tу-154 and Як-40 airplanes for many years.
The second generation of TFEs is distinguished by small bypass ratio
(m=1...3). However, cruise rating specific fuel consumption is 15...25 % lower, than
TJEs’ with the same thrust.
As the researches have shown, the increase of TFE bypass ratio is accompanied
by the lowering of specific fuel consumption.
Examples of successful designing of TFEs with large bypass ratio are Д-36 and
Д-436 engines of the third generation for Як-42, Ан-72 and Ан-74 airplanes, and also
Д-18Т engine for the special heavy Ан-124 “Руслан” and Ан-225 “Мрія”
aeroplanes.
In 1970s and 1980s in the USA, England and other countries a number of
turbofan engines, which had new design solution, were created. Among them is
RB-211 TFE (England), distinguished by a high degree of design perfection and
reliability. The manifold series of RB-211 engine, with different values of thrust and
operational characteristics are used on several types of passenger airplanes.
CFM-56 engine, which is a joint design of French and American companies, is
noiseless, high efficient GTE for passenger airplanes with takeoff mass varying from
60 up to 160 tons, equipped with two, three or four engines.
In the USA there have been designed a lot of mean and large thrust TFEs for
passenger and transport airplanes. Various modifications of JT-9D, CF6, TF-39,

13
JT-10, V-2500, РW-4000 engines appear to be most interesting from the standpoint of
design and technology.
Engines of a new type – turbopropfan engines – intended for subsonic
passenger airplanes have been intensively designed lately. They differ from turboprop
engines by a new type of a propeller, which is called propfan, and developed control
of working process. The researches have shown, that the gain in specific fuel
consumption of TPFE, in comparison with perspective TFE, can make up to
20...30 %.
The most perspective TPFEs are ТВ7-117, Д-27, НК-93 engines, which are set
in Ил-114, Ан-70 airplanes and others.
The main specifications for modern GTEs used in civil aviation are given in
Tab. 1.2 and Tab. 1.3.
Analyzing the history of the global aeroengine building development, it
becomes obvious, that the development of ABE fundamental theory and techniques
of their production, dates back to 1920 – 1930s, while putting into practice coincides
with the beginning of the World War II. Intensive rise in gas turbine engines
development and production for military aviation has been observed since 1950s.
Such engines were set in the first passenger jet airplanes, and only since the second
half of 1950s gas turbine engines, specially intended for passenger airplanes, have
been designed. Many polytypic gas turbine engines have been designed and put into
operation lately. The main directions of engines perfection for civil aviation are
associated with the solution of the problems of profitability growth and steel intensity
decrease at a high level of reliability. Nevertheless, not only the technical
requirements are taken into consideration when creating such engines.
Since 1970s still higher ecological requirements have been made of the newly
developed engines used in civil aviation. They concern decrease in noise and noxious
substances emission, which issue from GTE when much fuel is burnt.
Compliance with all technical and ecological demands of GTE results in
considerable increase in the cost of research engineering and experimental
development associated with engine design, extension of terms for designing as well
as engine operational development prior to putting it into operation. As practice
shows, expenses to make modern highly efficient aviation GTEs with thrust of 200…
300 kN for wide-body passenger airplanes constitute from 2 to 4 bln. dollars, and the
process takes some 10…12 years of intense work of design bureau staff, research
institutes and plants of serial production.

Table 1.2
Main specifications for some serial TFEs used in civil aviation

Turbi-
Specific Com Mass
Fan ne
Takeoff fuel con- Маss of pres. By- air
pres- inlet
rating sumption engine pres- pass flow
Engine Country M eng , sure tempe- Aircraft
thrust CR sure ratio rate
, ratio rature
R, kN kg ratio m Ga,
kg/(Nh)  * T*ti,
c*c fan kg/s
fan

14
 2350 Ту-154Б
НК-8-2У USSR 103,0 0,0591 10,7 2,06 1,05 228 1250

Д-30 series II USSR 66,5 0,0600 1150 18,4 2,10 1,00 128 1340 Ту-134
Д-30КУ USSR 112,0 0,0510 2600 19,6 2,08 2,40 200 1400 Ил-62М
АИ-25 USSR 14,7 0,0580 348 8,0 1,76 2,00 42 1270 Як-40
Д-36 USSR 64,0 0,0390 1100 20,0 1,47 5,30 275 1500 Як-42, Ан-72
Д-18Т USSR 235,0 0,0370 3700 27,5 1,65 5,50 740 1550 Ан-124, Ан-225
ПС-90А USSR 157,0 0,0350 3500 32,5 1,65 4,80 500 1620 Ту-204, Ил-96
RB-211-535 England 169,0 0,0380 3215 23,0 1,60 4,50 435 1473 В-757-200
RB-211-524D England 244,0 0,0360 3678 26,2 1,70 5,50 750 1590 В-747-200
JT8D-15 USA 69,0 0,0650 1500 18,0 1,80 1,00 147 1340 В-737
JT9D-70A USA 236,0 0,0380 4146 24,5 1,70 4,90 734 1623 В-747G
JT9D-7R4D USA 214,0 0,0347 3913 23,2 1,70 5,00 721 1468 В-747
CF6-50C USA 224,0 0,0400 3960 29,4 1,70 4,40 664 1595 DC-10, A-300
CF6-50C2 USA 234,0 0,0379 3955 30,4 1,70 4,31 670 1620 DC-10
France+
CFM56-5С 112,5 0,0360 2183 26,6 1,65 5,90 380 1540 B-737-300
USA
PW-4056 USA 250,0 0,0366 4267 30,5 1,70 4,85 700 1626 A-320

The high expenses on GTE production stipulate considerable operating costs of

aeroengines maintenance and repair. These expenses are to a large extent connected
with salary costs of highly qualified pilots, engineers and technicians. The
preparation of a personnel structure for civil aviation enterprises provides studying
fundamental, engineering and special disciplines. First module of the course “Design
and strength of aeroengines” gives analysis of the loads, that affects the details and
units of GTEs, and considers strength calculation techniques as well as calculation
techniques of vibrations of blades, discs, shafts and shell-type constructions.

1.2. Design features of manifold types of gas turbine engines

Gas turbine engines can be of different designs. They differ both in relative
position of the main engine units and accessories arrangement, that is layout, and
units design. Generally, the GTE design of manifold types is selected taking into
account the designation and requirements made of the engine.

Table 1.3
Main specifications for some serial turboprop and turboshaft
engines used in civil aviation

Com- Mass
Efficient Turbine
Takeoff pressor air
fuel con- inlet Mass of
rating pres- flow
Engine Country sumption tempe- engine
power sure rate
Ce, rature Meng, kg
N, kW ratio Ga,
kg/(kWh) Т*ti, К
* c kg/s
ТГД-10 USSR 736,0 0,340 7,4 4,1 1270 225
ТГД-20 USSR 1100,0 0,330 9,5 5,9 1270 360
15
 АИ-24Т USSR 2075,0 0,340 7,7 14,4 1200 600
АИ-20М USSR 3200,0 0,330 8,5 21,0 1200 1000
НК-12МВ USSR 11000,0 0,280 9,7 49,5 1200 2950
ГТД-350 USSR 258,0 0,480 6,0 2,5 1228 175
ТВ2-117А USSR 1100,0 0,360 6,6 8,2 1150 330
ТВ3-117 USSR 1840,0 0,340 8,5 9,2 1300 300
Д-136 USSR 8700,0 0,300 17,5 55,0 1400 1000
GT7-5 England 912,0 0,330 7,5 5,5 1370 307
PT-7A Canada 1026,0 0,360 9,0 6,5 1250 500
T55L-9 USA 1860,0 0,376 6,4 9,7 1400 620
T56A-7 USA 2980,0 0,330 9,5 15,0 1243 846
T53L-13 USA 1130,0 0,357 7,4 5,8 1200 240
T55L-5 USA 1620,0 0,358 6,3 8,7 1250 258
T-700-68 USA 1147,0 0,307 17,0 4,5 1473 235

The turbojet engines structurally differ in such characteristic features as: the
type of compressor and turbine, the number of rotors, means of thrust augmentation,
inlet and exhaust arrangement types.
Single-rotor TJE with subsonic inlet, axial-flow or centrifugal compressor and
without afterburner is an engine of an elementary scheme, which is used on aircraft
with subsonic flight speeds. The inlet of such engines functions as a channel, that

supplies air to the compressor without considerable transformation of air kinetic

energy into pressure potential energy. The compressor can be of axial-flow or
centrifugal type depending on the required value of air pressure ratio. The principal
scheme of TJE with the axial-flow compressor is shown in Fig. 1.1. and the principal
scheme of the TJE with the centrifugal compressor is shown in Fig. 1.2. The
combustion chambers are tubular (“can”), annular or cannular (“can”-“annular”). The
gas turbine has one or two stages. A nozzle, as a rule, is of a constant geometry. The
arrangements of sound suppression and thrust reversing can be placed in an exhaust
arrangement. They are used for decreasing an airplane roll-out after landing as well as
for noise abatement.

Fig. 1.1. Principal scheme of TJE with an axial-flow compressor

16
 Fig. 1.2. Principal scheme of TJE with a centrifugal compressor

The augmented ATJE (Fig. 1.3) has an afterburner, located behind the

turbine. In the afterburner the additional fuel is burnt to increase engine thrust for a
short time. The ATJE nozzle is a variable to provide an augmented turbojet engine
afterburning rating, to facilitate the engine starting, and also to increase the engine
efficiency and profitability in flight.
Depending on the number of rotors, TJEs are subdivided into single- and two-
shaft. Two-shaft ATJE (Fig. 1.3) has two consecutive compressor spools of low and
high pressure, which rotate with the help of kinematically independent turbines.
Such layout has a number of important advantages. There is no unstable
compressor operation in case engine rating deviates from designed one due to “rotors
slip”. Thus, the absence of mechanical connection between rotors permits a more
flexible engine control under the optimal laws. It is enough to crank only high
pressure rotor for engine starting, and due to this the required starter power and
starting time of the engine are reduced. The two-shaft engine is structurally more
composite than single-shaft engine because of the greater number of supports, shafts,
couplings and more complex lubricating system.

Fig. 1.3. Principal scheme of a two-shaft afterburning

turbojet engine (ATJE)

Design layouts of turbofan engines are different in the place a fan, the number
of rotors, type of exhaust from primary and secondary flows and some other design
characteristics. TFEs with a fan in the fore-part are the most common. Here, the fan

17
compresses the air that goes to the engine primary flow (core). Besides, additional
low pressure compressor stages are set behind the fan on the same shaft with it to
increase the total compressor pressure ratio (Fig. 1.4). In this case single-stage fan of
a large diameter is structurally joined with the low pressure compressor of a smaller
diameter having a few stages. There can be distinguished two- and three-shaft (twin-
spool and triple-spool) TFEs, depending on the number of rotors. Two-shaft TFEs
(Fig. 1.4) have the same advantages as two-shaft TJEs, therefore, they are
widespread. The three-shaft TFE has a turbofan rotor along with two turbocompressor
rotors of the primary flow (Fig. 1.5). Such scheme is advisable both at large, and
moderate by-pass ratio. Each engine rotor rotates with optimum rotational speed
owing to kinematic independence. Therefore, three-rotor design requires, in
comparison with double-rotor, the smaller number of compressor stages and variable
guide vanes. It is shorter, more rigid and it provides more flexible regulation of
necessary operating performances.

Fig. 1.4. Principal scheme of a two-shaft TFE

18
 Fig. 1.5. Principal scheme of a three-shaft TFE

Depending on exhaust type from primary and secondary flows there are TFEs
with a general jet nozzle (with flow mixing) and TFEs with separate jet nozzles for
each flow (with a separate exhaust). Air goes from a secondary flow into a special
chamber, which is called the mixing chamber, in the TFE with general jet nozzle,
where with the help of a special mixing device air and gas flow coming out of the
turbine mix. The heat of the primary flow being used for heating air coming from the
secondary flow, the profitability of the TFE with flow mixer increases by 1…3 % in
comparison with TFE with separate jet nozzles. Besides, in such engines the noise
level is lower and the design of a thrust reverser becomes simpler.
The turboprop engines are distinguished by such design features as: the
number of propellers, reduction gear arrangement, the number of engine rotors,
presence of a heat regeneration system. Single-shaft TPEs with one propeller are the
most common. The reduction gear can be located in a fore part of an engine, being
the component of engine design, or it can be external and placed in front of an engine
depending on the requirements of the engine layout in the aircraft. The external
reduction gear is connected with engine shaft with the help of the prolonged shaft
adapted to misalignment.
Coaxial reduction gears are frequently applied. In such engine the rotor axis
coincides with propeller shaft axis. The coaxial reduction gears have great advantages
over reduction gears with displaced axes. In particular, in coaxial reduction gears the
casing form is axisymmetrical, due to what the air input to the compressor is designed
with minimum losses. The coaxial reduction gears used for driving TPE single
propellers are, as a rule, of a planetary or differential made type. The scheme of the
TPE with a single propeller is suitable for engines with the power not exceeding
3 500...5 000 kW. At higher values of power the single propeller has an extremely
large diameter, and its efficiency reduces.
The single-rotor scheme of the engine with two coaxial propellers (Fig. 1.6) is
applied in TPEs with the power up to 11 000 kW. These engines have propellers
rotating in opposite directions with equal rotational speeds, owing to what the
gyroscopic momenta of propellers are mutually equilibrated and are not transmitted to
an aircraft. In the TPEs with coaxial propellers the differential reduction gears are
preferable to be used.

19
 Fig. 1.6. Principal scheme of a single-shaft TPE with coaxial propellers

For the TPE turbine most of the gas energy is transformed, the number of
turbine stages can reach up to 5...6.
Modern TPE propellers are designed with a pitch, changing in flight to
coordinate the power required for propeller rotation with the power created by the
engine. The propeller blades crank to a minimum installation angle permits to reduce
a starter power, necessary for an engine starting.
One of the TPE features is the capability to increase efficiency of a cycle
through regenerating heat. The TPE with heat regeneration has a heat exchanger,
which is located behind the turbine. First, the compressed air is turned to a heat
exchanger before it is supplied to the combustion chamber. There it is heated by gas
coming out of the turbine. Thus the fuel consumption decreases while profitability of
a cycle increases.
The distinctive feature of the turboshaft GTE design used in power plants of
helicopters is a free-power turbine, that causes the rotor rotation. The rotational speed
of a free-power turbine rotor can be much smaller than the rotational speed of the
turbocompressor rotor due to kinematic independence. Therefore, the necessary gear
ratio and the weight of the main reduction gear of helicopter decrease. At steady
turbocompressor operation such scheme permits to change rotor speed within a wide
range and, thus, to set the optimal rotor ratings. Thus, the lowering of a free-power
turbine rotor rotational speed has no effect on compressor pressure ratio. Certainly, to
ensure high level of flight safety, the power plant scheme is used, in which two
engines operate with one reduction gear (Fig. 1.7). In this case transmission design
should make a power plant operation possible either with the reduced power or with
one of the engines completely shutoff.

20
 Fig. 1.7. Principal scheme of a helicopter power plant with two turboshaft GTEs

The turbopropfan engines have the same gas generator as TFEs have, but they
differ in a mover type. Instead of a fan there is a multiblade propeller with variable
pitch of scimitar-shaped propeller blades (propfan). The number of blades varies from
7 to 12. The propfans can be applied both as single-row and coaxial with blades
reverse rotation. The design scheme of TPFE with coaxial propfan is shown in
Fig. 1.8. Specific power, received from 1 square meter of area, circumscribed by a
propfan, is 2...5 times higher than existing TPE propellers have. The air pressure ratio
in the compressor is *C =25...40, and the turbine inlet gas temperature is
T*ti =1600...1700 K depending on the TPFE designation. In comparison with
propellers of the turboprop engines the propfan diameter decreases by 25... 30 %.
The selection of an engine type is determined by an aircraft designation.

Fig. 1.8. Principal scheme of a TPFE with a coaxial propfan

21
 1.3. Main stages of gas turbine engines creation

The GTE designing, as well as any technical object designing, consists of a

number of successive steps, regulated by state standard. Aircraft developer gives
technical requirements (TR) to engine designer. The technical requirements are
based on aircraft technical specifications, technical requirements to aircraft, and
preliminary general design development of aircraft and engine.
Technical requirements cover the following:
- main designation;
- main technical characteristics;
- major specifications and quality parameters;
- technical economic and special requirements, associated with specificity of
the engine application.
Technical requirements are the main normative document at all stages of
engine designing and operational development after they have been worked over,
agreed and approved.
Preliminary work at engine type selection includes the analysis of various
design concepts, finding out their attributes and shortcomings with regard to set
requirements, draft calculations and engine characteristics.
One of modern new engine designing techniques is the principle of unified
(basis) gas generator to be used in different GTEs. Gas generator (high pressure
compressor - combustion chamber - high pressure turbine) is the most composite and
important TFE unit. The design and specifications of a fan and low pressure turbine
being varied within a wide range, a "family" of engines with different designation can
be created with one and the same gas generator being used. At this the development
expenses will be reduced considerably. For instance, the “General electric”
corporation within 15 years has designed 36 different modifications of engines, using
the unified gas generator GE1.
The major condition for successful creation of modern engines is that the
designers should rely on technological advances to obtain the basic characteristics of
engine, details and units (high-pressure fans, smokeless combustion chambers, cooled
turbine blades, etc.).
The process of engine designing has the following stages:
- technical proposal (TP) is the whole complex of documents, containing
technical, technical and economic grounds for a new engine creation on the basis of
TR analysis, preliminary calculations and design developments;
- draft (D) (conceptual design) is complete development of engine design
with all component units and parts, more detailed calculations; optimization of design
versions, making experimental models; consideration and approval of the draft;
- detail design (DD) is the whole complex of design documents, that represent
ultimate engineering solutions, which are the initial data for documentation working
out;
- preparation of documentation is the final step in designing, which is made
in view of particular production technology and tests of engine and all its units. It
includes all drafts, calculations and techniques, technical specifications for
23
manufacturing and testing, semi-assembly and assembly communication schemes,
assembly drafts, etc. For configuration improvement and ultimate version of
communications a full-scale engine model is made. It must be coordinated with an
experimental aircraft model.
Each stage of designing process is considered completed after it has been
approved and agreed upon, which takes time. Taking into account that the time factor
is decisive in engine construction aviation GTE designers practice the system of
parallel-consecutive working schedules. This approach enables designers to work at
the project more efficiently at early stages of the project development.
At stages of the draft and technical projects development design office
staff (designers, technologists, metallurgists and other experts) are involved as well as
trade associations and representatives of the customer. They evaluate the level of the
engine main parameters and the possibility to reach them, engine reliability, taking
into consideration design safety factors, the level of technological effectiveness and
labouriousness of manufacturing, maintenance and repair of details and units,
verifiability and diagnosing level, material marks used, etc.
Considerable attention is paid to creation of the GTE automatic control system.
Specialized design office works on it. The cost of automatic control system
development together with system of the engine technical condition estimation,
constitutes around 30...40 % of the total cost of GTE development.
There exist a number of stages in between designing accomplishment and
engine introduction in a serial production:
- making experimental engines for experimental development;
- testing engines to confirm basic required parameters and characteristics (with
necessary design modifications);
- conducting continuous stand tests in order to verify engine strength and
reliability;
- conducting special tests to improve and verify engine conformity to given
technical requirements;
- flight tests in flying laboratory and special high-altitude stands (benches);
- flight tests in research aircraft;
- administration state testing and introduction in a serial production.
Experimental development plans stipulate that each engine type be put to the
whole complex of tests, with the tests mentioned above being performed in a parallel-
consecutive order. This will reduce labor and time expenses, the number of
experimental engines which makes several dozens of engines.
Parallel-consecutive order in performing design and development operations
becomes still more advisable if we take into account the fact that the process of
construction of modern engine with prospective parameters takes, on average, twice
as long as the process of an equipped airframe designing. According to data received
from abroad the construction of a new gas turbine engine takes from 12 to 14 years.
The engine is improved even after it has been put in a serial production. The
purpose is to increase engine reliability, improve industrial and operational
effectiveness, reduce labouriousness of production and operation, raise the efficiency
of diagnostics and failure warning system.
24
 Since the aeroengine design is becoming still more complex, the process of
modern aviation GTE design requires that various experts seeking optimum decisions
be actively involved.
Gas dynamic and thermal calculations, their implementation in particular
designs which are calculated for strength and dynamics, optimization of constructive
and technological solutions are impossible without computer-assisted design
systems (CADS) being used, which reduce dramatically designing terms, improve
the quality of design, allow to release designers from doing routine work giving space
to their creative activity.

1.4. Absolute and specific parameters of gas turbine engines

1.4.1. Absolute and specific parameters of turbojet engines

The following parameters are concerned to absolute parameters of TJEs:
thrust R, mass of the engine M eng , fuel consumption per hour G f , engine mass air
flow rate Ga , area of midlength cross-section Fmid , engine cost C eng , life time
(guarantee period , overhaul life, specified life (assigned life limit), etc.)  .
The following parameters are concerned to specific parameters of TJEs:
Rsp  R / Ga specific thrust characterizing degree of engine gas-dynamic perfection,
γ eng  М eng / R engine specific weight characterizing its constructive-technological
perfection, specific fuel consumption c sp  G f / R characterizing engine efficiency in
starting conditions, front thrust RF  R / Fmid characterizing external aerodynamic
perfection of the engine, specific cost C eng sp  C eng / R .

1.4.2. Absolute and specific parameters of turbofan engines

The following parameters are concerned to absolute and specific parameters
of TFEs, except those as in TJEs: thrust of primary R I and secondary RII flows, air
flow rate through primary G aI and secondary G aII flows, bypass ratio m= G aII / G aI ,
specific thrust of primary RspI  RI / GaI and secondary RspII  RII / GaII flows.
Total thrust of the TFE under conditions of gas complete expansion in jet
nozzles equals:
R  GaI    С jnI  V f   m С jnII  V f   ,
where CjnI and CjnII are the velocities of gas in primary and secondary flow jet
nozzles, respectively; Vf is a flight speed.
If exhaust arrangement has mixing chamber, than:
R  GaI  1  m    С jn  V f   Ga   С jn  V f  ,
where Cjn is a velocity of gas in common jet nozzle.
For TFEs with separate jet nozzles an effective efficiency is determined by the
formula:
GaI   C 2jnI  V f2   GaII   C 2jnII  V f2  3600  C 2jnI  V f 2   m   C 2jnII  V f 2 
e    1800  GaI
2 q f  Hu G f  Hu
and with mixing chamber it is determined as in TJE, by the formula:

25
 C jn  V f
e  1800  .
Csp  H u
Propulsion efficiency of TFE with separate jet nozzles equals:
RV f 2 2V  C jnI  V f   m  C jnII  V f  
R  2  ,
C jnI  V f 2  m  C 2jnII  V f 2  GaI  C 2jnI  V f 2  m  C 2jnII  V f 2 
 
and with mixing chamber:
2V f 2
R  
C jn  V f C ,
1  jn
Vf
i.e. the same as in TJE, the more gas flow rate and less speed of flight, the less is R .
Total efficiency is determined by equation:
Vf
3
0  e R  3,6  10  .
C sp H u
As in TFE gas flow rate is less, then in TJE, the total efficiency of TFE is
greater then TJE has.

1.4.3. Absolute and specific parameters of turboprop engines

Incomplete estimation of turboprop engine parameters is carried out on
magnitude of turbine power, which is transmitted to the propeller shaft and is called
as effective power:
N e  Lt pr Ga ,
where Lt pr is a gas expansion work transmitted to the propeller shaft.
On the magnitude of effective power on the propeller shaft the admission of the
engine is carried out in manufacturing plant.
The effective power on propeller is used non-completely as there are losses
during throwing away and twisting of air which are taking into account in propeller
efficiency η pr . That’s why propulsion power is estimated by the formula:
N pr  N e  pr  R prV f ,
from there
N
R pr  N pr / V f  e  pr .
Vf
Thrust created by reaction of gas stream RR  Ga  Ñ jn  V f  , that’s why total
thrust of turboprop engine R  R pr  R R .
For full estimation of parameters the conditional equivalent power is used,
which represents the power of turboprop engine, developed by total thrust for creation
of aircraft speed:
RV f R pr  RR
N eq   Vf
 pr  pr

26
or
RRV f
N eq  N pr   N pr  N R .
 pr
At conditions H=0 and Vf  =0 there is dependence between thrust and power:
R pr 0  N pr  0,8 N pr .
So, for turboprop engines the specific parameters are distinguished according
to effective and equivalent powers:
- specific effective and equivalent powers:
N e sp  N e / Ga ; N eq sp  N eq / Ga ;
- specific effective and equivalent engine masses:
γ eng е  М eng / N е ; γ eng eq  М eng / N eq ;
- specific fuel consumption:
Ce  G f / N e ; C eq  G f / N eq ;
- front power:
N F e  N e / Fmid ; N F eq  N eq / Fmid ;
- specific engine cost:
C eng е  С eng / N e ; C eng eq  С eng / N eq .

I.5. Air gas turbine engine’s lives

Today such types of air GTEs’ lives are considered:
– total engine’s specified life (assigned life time);
– engine’s specified life;
– engine’s guarantee period (life);
– engine’s first overhaul period (life);
– engine’s overhaul period (life);
– initial engine’s specified life;
– initial engine’s first overhaul period (life);
– specified life of element (unit, module);
– useful (operating, service) life (during operation (maintenance) by technical
state).
While using of one and the same engine on aircraft of different destination,
distinct by operational conditions, setting of engines’ lives should be carried out for
each type of an aircraft. Setting of aircraft’s engine life with less loaded operational
cycle can be carried out by the data of testing of airplane’s engines with more loaded
operational cycle by the way of recalculation of equivalent no-failure operating time.
Requirements on scope of testing and margin of durability, written in
normative documentation, are enough if requirements of regulations, related to
strength, materials, technology of main engine’s elements manufacturing, are carried
out.
Engine operation at first overhaul period and in limits of overhaul periods may
include operation with guarantee period and operation by technical state on
manufacturer documentation.

27
 During specified lives, including operation by technical state, engine should
satisfy operating requirements on failure-free (reliability), diagnostics, maintenance
manufacturability, repairability.
Engine’s logbook (history sheet) should contain information about engine’s
specified lives.

1.5.1. Nomenclature of lives

Total engine’s specified life and engine’s specified life are engine’s lives from
the beginning of its operation until discarding.
Specified engine’s life is set for the given stage of series production and
operation, and approved by all types of testing and research, provided by normative
documentation, total non-failure operating time, at reaching of which the engine
operation should be stopped.
Guarantee engine’s life is set engine non-failure operating time during which
the Manufacturer or Overhaul plant carries out the reconstruction of product with
structural-manufacturing defects if all operational, repair, storage and transportation
rules are observed and compensate operational costs according to existing legislation,
regulations and agreement between Supplier and Operator.
Engine’s first overhaul period is set for the current stage of series production
and operation the non-failure operating time from the beginning of operation till its
first overhaul.
Engine’s overhaul period is set for the current stage of series production and
operation the non-failure operating time between consecutive overhauls.
At the beginning of regular operation of given type of an aircraft the values of
initial engine’s specified life and initial engine’s specified first overhaul period
(initial guarantee period) are set.
Specified life of element (unit, module) is set the non-failure operating time for
the given stage of series production and operation, at reaching of which the usage of
an aircraft’s engine element (unit, module) should be stopped independently of its
state.
Operating life is set the non-failure operating time for maintenance by technical
state of new or repaired engine, within the limits of which it can be operated without
overhaul.
1.5.2. Sequence of assigning, setting and increase of lives
The value of all types of lives is determined by technical requirements (TR) on
engine’s development, normative documents and accepted operational strategy.
All types of engine’s lives are set in flight cycles and hours. Usage of other
additional units, measurement of lives is carried out by the agreement between
engine’s Developer and State Air Service.
Engine, its modules, units and aggregates should be designed by values of total
specified lives, based on prospective operational conditions, given in TR, also
including typical flight cycles and planned non-failure operating times on heavy
(nominal and higher) ratings.
In technical requirement the following values of lives are pointed:

28
 – total specified life (value of total specified life may be set differentially: for
elements of engine’s hot part and cold part);
– engine’s first overhaul period;
– overhaul period;
– initial value of lives (specified life, first overhaul period);
– guarantee period.
Total specified engine’s life should be, as a rule, not less than 20000 flight
cycles. At duration of generalized flight cycle more than 3 hours some limitations on
cumulative operating time in hours of separate elements, units, modules and engine
as a whole, can be introduced.
At impossibility or economical irrationality of providing of total specified life
of separate elements equals to the total specified engine’s life, the life of such
elements may be less than engine’s life.
At duration of generalized flight cycle less or equal to 3 hours initial first
overhaul period is set not less than 1000 flight cycles, but not less than 1200 hours.
At duration of generalized flight cycle more than 3 hours initial first overhaul
period is set equal to 3000 hours (in these cases number of flight cycles is
determined, based on duration of generalized flight cycle).
Initial specified engine’s life is set equal to doubled initial first overhaul period.
Engine’s calendar time till first overhaul and overhaul (overhaul life) should be
not less than 12 years.
Values of total specified lives of engine, its elements and aggregates can be
increased in comparison with the given in TR on the base of more precise
calculations, introduction of procedures, results of forward testing and operational
experience.
Values of specified and overhaul lives should increase by stages from initial
values till total values, given in TR.
Within the limits of specified engine’s life the necessary engine’s overhauls
and mid-life repairs, replacements and repairs of modules, units, elements, according
to accepted maintenance strategy, are carried out. Quantity of repairs within the limits
of specified life is unconditioned.
Specified lives of elements, units and aggregates, as a rule, should be equal or
more than set for the given stage of series production and operation engines’ specified
life, excepting that units, elements and aggregates, life of which is lower than
engine’s life.
On the draft stage Engine’s Developer presents a plan, containing stages and
terms of setting and increasing of all types of lives of engine, aggregates and
components for the whole planned operational period. Together with plan there
should be list of main elements, units, modules, aggregates and components, which
lives are lower than engine’s lives, made by Developer and adjusted with State Air
Service.
Increase of all types of engine’s lives during its operation is carried out on the
basis of positive bench life tests or tests on flying laboratory (FL) of engine and main
elements, positive results of engines fleet maintenance, engine’s dismantling and flaw
detection at repairs (within the limits of previously available lives, confirming the
29
accordance of engine’s reliability levels to the levels, given in TR for the engine),
absence of damages of main engine’s elements and units, connected with serving out
the service lives and influencing on flight safety, and analysis of the effectiveness of
maintenance and diagnostics systems.
Adequacy of margin of safety while setting and increase of all types of lives,
providing of required testing conditions and degree of conformity of tests to the
specified service conditions should be confirmed by the conclusion of Developer and
State Air Service.
On manufacturing plant it is carried out the periodical test of characteristics on
bench, dismantling, flaw detection and analysis of state of 1…2 engines (with edition
of express-report) from the number of engines under control, which have the highest
non-failure operating time during maintenance. To the test of mentioned engines it is
allowed to use engines, obsolescent because of other reasons.
While use of engine on different aircraft or change during maintenance of end
use, engine’s working ratings or its parameters, influencing on life working-out,
should be carried out the recalculations of life’s value with reference to different
aircraft and changed operational conditions. In case of necessity the additional life
testing should be carried out.
For the determination of life working-out value during operation it is necessary
to use standard sources of objective monitoring of set life indexes (life’s counters).
At the absence of sources of objective monitoring of non-failure operating time
or at failures and malfunctions of such sources the values of life working-out during
operation, are determined by data, given in crew’s documentation and in logbook:
– cumulative engine’s operating time in hours during its operation in flight and
on-ground conditions, including non-failure operating time on heavy ratings;
– actual number of flights and number of ground tests with going out on
maximum rating.
Non-failure operating time in hours and flight cycles is determined within the
limits of each type of the life – first overhaul, overhaul period, specified life.
At depletion (serving out) of one of set for engine life indexes the engine’s
operation should be stopped.
After serving out of given in TR total specified engine’s life the decision about
increase of its value according to the additional plans and in the order, established by
the State Air Service Statute, may be taken.

1.5.3. General requirements to life testing of engines and their main

elements
For lives approving (demonstration) the following types of bench tests are
used:
– equivalently-cyclical tests (ECT) of main elements;
– ECT of engine;
– engine’s tests according to operational program.
Equivalently-cyclical tests are the main type of resource tests.
Forming of life test programs of engine and its main elements before operation
starts is carried out on the base of generalized flight cycle (GFC), given in TR for
30
engine, correspondent to prospective operational conditions. This GFC and programs
may be specified by the results of flight tests on airplane’s prototype or flying
laboratory.
At increase of lives of engines and main elements the GFC and life test
programs may be specified by the data of actual operation conditions. At this the
equivalent non-failure operating time of engine in whole and its main elements during
tests, which were carried out before, are recalculated for conditions of specified GFC.
To the main elements belong engine’s elements, failures of which may lead to
catastrophic situation for an aircraft (according to airworthiness requirements
classification). As a rule, elements of rotors, casings, which are under pressure,
uncontrolled fan blades, and engine’s mounting elements belong to them.
Specific list of main elements for each engine’s type is determined by Engine’s
Manufacturer in agreement with State Air Service and Customer representative on the
base of analysis of functional failures and taking into account the engine development
experience and its prototypes operation.
Bench life tests of main engine’s elements are carried out in structure of full-
size engine. It is allowed to carry out the life tests of 2-nd (3-rd) specimen of main
engine’s elements on specialized installations at reproduction of their principal
loading conditions.
Bench engine’s life tests (at confirmation of all types of lives, such as first
overhaul period, overhaul period and specified life) till the value of life equals 2500
hours are carried out with reserve (load factor) KN=1,2 and at lives more than
2500 h – with the excess on number of flight cycles over 500 h.
While testing of engine it is recommended to use test cycles with conformity
factors for the most loaded elements within limits =0,75…1,25 (at commensurable
conditions on temperature and pressure in the engine’s inlet).
At bench engine’s life tests the damageability of engine’s elements in expected
operational conditions should be reproduced in maximum possible degree.
Engine’s life tests are carried out by the way of multiple realizations of testing
cycles on benches with atmospheric conditions in the inlet, which imitate the altitude-
velocity conditions.
During tests on operational program all steady-state ratings and transient
processes (ratings) are repeated in sequence, corresponding to engine’s use in
prospective operational conditions.
While carrying out of equivalently-cyclical tests the reduction of bench
engine’s tests duration is achieved by decrease of working time at long low-loading
ratings and reducing of number of weakly damaging variable processes at their
equivalent reduction to “heavy” ratings and more loading variable processes in
engine’s elements, limiting its life.
In case of carrying out of life tests of main engine’s elements on separate
benches the equivalently-cyclical tests are used, which provide the reproduction of
damageability of these elements in prospective working conditions consisting of
engine.
Typical flight is flight, for which profile, modes and conditions are set in
normative-technical documentation (NTD) for an aircraft.
31
 Typical flight cycle of engine (TFC) is the change in time of air pressure and
temperature in the engine’s inlet and main engine’s parameters, characterizing its
working rating while proceeding of typical aircraft’s flight, including ground
operating time, correspondent to one typical flight.
Generalized flight cycle of engine (GFC) is typical flight cycle of engine,
damageability of which is equal to average damageability at life, calculated by all
TFC for given type of an aircraft taking into account their reiteration.
Test cycle is the change in time of parameters, which characterize engine’s
operation and conditions in engine’s inlet at bench tests.
Steady-state rating is engine’s working rating at which its parameters don’t
change in time more than in allowable limits, given in TR for engine.
Transient process is the process of engine’s parameters change in time between
two steady-state ratings (start, full and partial acceleration, chop deceleration,
shutdown, etc).
During testing on increase of engine’s specified life the replacement of
engine’s elements, the specified life of which (in cycles or hours) is less than engine’s
specified life, is foreseen.
While engine’s testing for confirmation of first repair overhaul period and
overhaul period, partial dismantling and revisions of engine’s elements (according to
the program, adjusted with Customer representative), foreseen by in-line
documentation are allowed.
It is allowed the replacement of engine’s elements, on which the defects
occurred during testing that are not connected with lifetime duration.
It is allowed the combination of ECT of main elements with ECT of engine for
definition and increase of first overhaul period, overhaul period and specified life.
Engine’s life testing is ended by characterization, engine’s dismantling and
flaw detection of its elements by means of industry and repair plants. At that the
report about technical state of engine, its main elements and components is made.
Tests for definition and increase of all types of engine’s lives are evaluated as
successful, if during their carrying out there were no destructions of main engine’s
elements, their damages (set by methods, approved in series technology), and also
failures and defects of other elements, which in operation conditions may lead to
failures with dangerous consequences (according to airworthiness requirements).
Engine’s characteristics and its systems parameters during testing process
should correspond to technical specifications (TS).

1.5.4. Forming of typical and generalized engine’s flight cycles

TFC (GFC) are designed on the base of analysis of expected engine’s operation
conditions, supposed character of airplane’s use, analysis of actual operation
conditions of aircraft’s prototype of the same purpose.
Generalized engine’s flight cycle (collection of TFC with indication of
coefficient of use of each TFC in operation) is specified in TR for engine and is used
at designing, strength calculations and for compilation of programs of engine’s
(unit’s, module’s) special life tests and its main elements.

32
 TFC (GFC) of operating engines is specified on the base of statistical
generalization of information, available in engine’s logbooks, by the data of operating
time counters, flight recorders or special tests. Correction is carried out by head SRI
CA (Scientific Research Institute of Civil Aviation) and is adjusted with Developers
of an aircraft and engine. Corrected cycles are used for specifying of life testing
programs, and also for specifying of lives values, fixed on the base of tests, carried
out before.
During forming of TFC (GFC) the following requirements should be carried
out:
1. TFC (GFC) should include steady-state ratings and transient processes of
engine’s operation, beginning from start on ground before the flight, during whole
flight and till shutdown after landing and taxiing. At that the non-failure operating
time (used ratings and transient processes) during maintenance works should be taken
into account.
2. Engine’s working ratings on time are set with indication an environment
(flight profile on altitude, deviations from international standard atmosphere (ISA))
and engine’s work parameters, which allow to estimate the damageability of engine’s
elements.
3. Each TFC (GFC) is represented in form of graphs and tables, containing
engine’s working ratings and order of their alternation, and also parameters,
characterizing these ratings:
– duration of engine’s TFC (GFC) and corresponding to it aircraft’s flight
cycle;
– working time at steady-state ratings with its distribution on flight sections
(ranges of рin and Тin);
– number of varying ratings with distribution on intensity and environment on
different sections of flight;
– operating time on steady-state ratings, quantity and character of varying
ratings during maintenance works of engine, number of starts, related to one flight
cycle (or to definite life operating time);
– servicing factor (probability, frequency) of TFC.

1.5.5. Forming of test cycles

Forming of TC is carried out on the base of collection of typical, generalized
typical or generalized flight cycles.
Test cycles for lives testing programs of engine and its main elements are
compiled by engine’s Developer and are adjusted with State Air Service.
Engines test cycles may include working ratings, realizable on benches with
atmospheric conditions in inlet and benches, simulating altitude-velocity flight
conditions (AVC benches).
While forming of TC for operational testing program the following
requirements should be carried out:
– each TC begins from engine’s start and ends with engine’s shutdown;
– operating time at each of steady-state rating in test cycle should be equal to
the working time at this rating in TFC (GFC);
33
 – the number of varying processes, realized in TC, and their consequence
should be equal to the number of varying processes and their consequence in TFC
(GFC).
At impossibility of ratings realizing on AVC benches their realizing at lower or
varying values of bench parameters or on bench with atmospheric conditions in inlet
with increase of operating time on heavy ratings and number of loading cycles for
providing of equivalence on long-term strength and low-cycle fatigue, is allowed.
While forming of TC for the engine’s equivalently-cycling tests (ECT) program
the acceleration in time in comparison with operational program’s cycles is achieved
due to decrease of operating time at less loading steady-state ratings (nominal,
cruising, etc), decrease of number of less loading varying processes (idle – cruising,
cruising – nominal, etc), and, correspondingly, equivalent increase of heavy ratings
duration and number of more loading varying processes.
Forming of special test cycle for approving of engine’s dynamic strength on
confirmed life is allowed.
Testing for dynamic strength verification is carried out by the way of repeated
blends upward and downward or at step change of rotational speed.
Order of ratings alternation in TC is set taking into account the alternation of
ratings in TFC (GFC). At that varying processes should be distributed within the
limits of corresponding flight sections, uniformly, if it’s possible.
1.5.6. Forming of programs of life tests
Order of registration of life test programs is determined by existent inter-
departmental scientific and technical documentation. Programs are compiled by
engine’s Developer and are adjusted with State Air Service.
While making up of programs of engine’s life testing the following
requirements should be carried out:
1. Tests are carried out by the way of consequent execution of stages,
consisting of TC. Duration of the stage is determined by organizational conditions of
testing procedure.
2. While making up of programs of life testing on the base of several TC,
corresponding to different TFC, quantity of TC of different types per confirmed life is
determined taking into account the use factor of corresponding TFC in operation.
3. The additional cycle for engine’s dynamic strength check is included, if it is
necessary.
4. At testing the total number of TC per life should provide corresponding
reserve by the number of confirmed flight cycles.

1.6. Load-bearing schemes of rotors and casings of gas turbine engines.

Engine attachment fittings to aircraft

1.6.1. Load-bearing schemes of gas turbine engines

Load-bearing scheme of gas turbine engine is perceived as a system of load-
bearing details intended to take the loads, affecting the elements of the engine, and
transfer their resultant to engine attachment fitting to an airplane. It consists of the
rotor load-bearing scheme and casing load-bearing scheme.
34
 The load-bearing scheme of the rotor includes load-bearing details of
compressor and turbine rotors, units of their connection, drives of aggregates, and
rotating parts of TPE’s reduction gear.
The load-bearing scheme of the casing includes casings of the compressor,
combustion chamber, turbine, reduction gear, support bearings, and in a case of TFEs
with mixing chamber and common jet nozzle – also casing of a secondary flow.
Gas-dynamic and inertia loads act on elements of GTE load-bearing scheme.
The following main requirements are made to the load-bearing scheme:
– guaranteeing of strength and rigidity of engine for prevention of appearance
of inadmissible elastic deformations and full elimination of occurrence of residual
deformations:
– the form of load-bearing details and their joints should provide as smaller
engine weight as possible;
– the design and joints of details should provide freedom of temperature
deformations for avoidance of temperature stress appearance.
1.6.1.1. Load-bearing schemes of rotors
As analysis of the design layouts displays, modern gas turbine engines have
from one up to three mechanically disconnected between themselves rotors. The
turbocompressor rotors consist of rotor wheels of the compressor and turbine, joined
by shaft. The free turbine rotors include a system of shafts connecting turbines with a
reduction gear. Depending on gas turbine engine layout the schemes with coaxial
shafts or separate arrangement of connective shafts are applied.
In the load-bearing scheme of a rotor the number and location of supports, and
also ways of rotor axial fixation depending on load-bearing connection of compressor
and turbine rotors are analyzed. The number of supports and their location are
determined by rotor weight and its flexural stiffness. They should ensure minimum
radial clearance between rotor and casing at all operational ratings, eliminate graze of
a rotor about a casing, lower a vibration level generated by a rotated rotor. The
indicated requirements should be realised at minimum number of supports, as the
increase of their number essentially complicates a design of gas turbine engine.
The load-bearing connection between rotors of the compressor and turbine
should provide reliable and, maximum possible, simple transfer of acting loads: a
torque, and if necessary – radial and axial forces.
General singularity of the rotor load-bearing schemes is that the axial fixation
of each rotor in casing is implemented with the help of one combined journal-and-
thrust bearing (if rotors of the compressor and turbine have axial junction, will use
one combined journal-and-thrust bearing for both rotors). On other supports the
journal (radial) bearings ensuring a capability of axial movement of a rotor
concerning a stator are set. Such scheme eliminates constraint of temperature and
load deformations at engine starting and change of its rating. The radial-thrust bearing
location is usually selected to ensure its reliable cooling and to reduce, if it is
possible, change of axial clearances in the turbine. Other singularity is applying of
rolling-contact bearings in supports.
Depending on the number of supports double-, three- and four-support rotors are
distinguished.
35
 The double-support rotors (Fig. 1.9) are usually applied as HP rotors of lift
engines, rotors of APU and other cases, when number of compressor and turbine
stages, and distance between supports are insignificant.

a b

c
Fig. 1.9. Schemes of double-support rotors with front (а) and rear (b, c) location of turbine
bearing
The turbine and compressor rotors are hardly jointed in double-support scheme.
In all schemes the journal-and-thrust bearing is located in a forefront of a rotor, i. е.
in a zone of lower temperatures, that provides the best working conditions of the
bearing. As the second support the roller bearing is usually applied (sometimes ball
bearing with an outer race not fixed concerning a casing in an axial direction is used).
The second support is located before (see Fig. 1.9, а) or behind the turbine (see
Fig. 1.9, b). In the first case the flexural stiffness of a rotor is limited, as minimum
diameter of the connective shaft is determined by the size of the bearing; there are
difficulties in organization of load-bearing connection of the bearing with an outer
casing; the disassembly of a gas turbine engine becomes complicated, but distance
between supports is less, than in the second case. At second support location behind
the turbine the rotors are jointed by the shaft of large diameter (this increases flexural
stiffness of a rotor), the area of the combustion chamber is free from details of a
support, that simplifies layout of the engine. For reduction of distance between
supports in this scheme the forward bearing is sometimes displaced in the turbine
direction.
In a design, shown in Fig. 1.25, the double-support schemes are applied in
rotors of middle pressure and low pressure (fan), i.e. at enough large distance
between the turbine and compressor (ventilator). The functionability of such design is
reached by arrangement of bearings practically in centres of mass of the applicable
units, by flexible shaft connection of turbine and compressor (fan) rotors, as well as
applying of elastic support with dampers. A distinctive singularity of the double-
support scheme of a fan rotor in this case is use of the limiter of sags (see Fig. 7.1, в).
At normal operation conditions there is a guaranteed radial clearance in the limiter.
At abruption of a blade the limiter works as an additional sliding bearing.
The scheme of three-support rotors (Fig. 1.10) has received more widespread
using. In this case the compressor rotor is established on two, and the turbine rotor –
on one bearing (second end of it rests on a compressor rotor). The connection of
turbine and compressor rotors implements by a coupling muff ensuring transfer of a
36
torque, as well as axial and radial forces in conditions of a non-axiality of rotors. The
mobile connection essentially simplifies the production technology, as the necessity
of a precise centering and co-machining of mounting surfaces for bearing casing
passes, as well as provides a capability of separate rotor assembly and separate
balancing of compressor and turbine rotors.
The journal-and-thrust bearing in the three-support scheme usually places
behind the compressor (see Fig. 1.10, а). It enables to reduce change of axial
clearances in the turbine and to lower a radial load on a ball bearing at console
arrangement of turbine discs. At the same time such arrangement of journal-and-
thrust bearing complicates a design of a gas turbine engine and make difficult its
disassembly. At a compressor rotor tie by a central bolt a ball bearing sometimes is
located in a forefront of the engine (see Fig. 1.10, b), where the axial force from a
turbine rotor is transmitted. It enables a little to simplify disassembly of the engine.
However in such scheme it is necessary to set large axial clearances in the turbine.
The rear support of a rotor can place both before, and behind turbine discs. In
the latter case the flexural stiffness of a turbine rotor is reduced because of distance
increase between middle and rear supports. For its increase we design conical turbine
shaft (see Fig. 1.10, c).

Fig. 1.10. The schemes of three-support rotors with front (a, b) and rear (c) location of
turbine bearing

The four-support rotors are used at considerable distance between turbine

and compressor rotors and large number of their stages. Each rotor is set on two
supports.

37
 The axial fixation of rotors can be separate, i. е. the journal-and-thrust bearings
are set on a turbine rotor and on a compressor rotor. In this case connection of rotors
provides only transfer of torque. The similar scheme is applied seldom, for example
in rotors of APUs, as in designs of a gas turbine engine with large thrust (power)
practically it is impossible to ensure functionability of ball bearings because of
considerable levels of axial loads.
More widespread scheme is the scheme with general ball bearing for turbine
and compressor rotors. It is usually located behind the compressor (Fig. 1.11). An
imperfection of a four-support rotor is the nonuniform distribution of load between
supports.
In all schemes the elastic supports are used to improve their dynamic
characteristics and decrease a non-axiality of rotors.

Fig. 1.11. Scheme of a four-support rotor

The rotor load-bearing schemes of two- and three-shaft GTEs are designed
under the reviewed above schemes of single-shaft engines. The HP rotor is usually
two- or three-supported and LP rotor – three- or four-suppoted.
Singularity of multi-shaft GTEs is using of intershaft bearings, one race of
which is connected with the first rotor, and other – with the second rotor. The
intershaft bearings are usually located inside the turbine shaft or HPC rotor. There are
considerable difficulties at their layout, connected with oil supply and cooling.
Other singularity of bearings setting in two- and three-shaft GTEs consist in
their such layout so that to reduce number of support casings (applying of common
support casings). It simplifies a design of the engine reducing its weight and axial
overall dimensions.
Coupling muffs of compressor and turbine rotors
It is accepted to call units of three- and four-support rotor connection working
in conditions of a non-axiality, as coupling muffs.
The coupling muffs of three-support rotors should provide:
- transfer of a torque from a turbine rotor to a compressor rotor in conditions of
a non-axiality and shaft misalignment;
- transfer of axial force from a turbine rotor to a compressor rotor having one
journal-and-thrust support. At the majority of engine operational ratings the axial
force of a turbine rotor is directed back, against flight. At reduced engine operational
ratings at aircraft evolutions (for example, at braking during landing) there are inertial
forces aiming to move the shaft forward, on flight. Thus, the coupling should ensure
transfer both direct, and inverse axial load;
- transfer of radial force, that at the three-support scheme of a rotor the
coupling muff is the second support of turbine shaft. The value of this force depends
38
also on a degree of balancing of a coupling muff. Therefore couplings of the large
sizes, as a rule, contain balancing elements. By selection of their weight we reach a
given minimum degree of rotor unbalance;
- a mutual centering of coupling details eliminating appearance of considerable
radial backlashes;
- light disassembly and assembly of a unit and, simultaneously, reliable fixation
of details an all operational conditions.
Let us consider ways of fulfilment of the indicated requirements.
The transfer of a torque in conditions of a non-axiality and shaft
misalignment is provided by involute splines. Compensation of a non-axiality is
reached due to availability of clearances in splines. The coupling operation in
conditions of a non-axiality results in overload of spline ends, specially at lengthy
splines. For increase of their durability and facilitation of operational conditions of
splines following design measures are applied:
– several splines are sequentially set (Fig. 1.21);
– augment external diameter of a spline (Fig. 1.22), that results in reduction
required spline length as owing to increase of their number, and reduction of load
accepted by them. At increase of diameter twice required spline length will be
diminished four times;
– for maintenance of spline self-installation small axial and radial clearances
(0,3...0,7 mm) are made.
Even with such measures a coefficient of irregularity of spline loading makes
0,5...0,7, i.e. almost half splines are unloaded.
The transfer of axial force in conditions of a non-axiality and shaft
misalignment is reached by applying:
– of ball joints (Fig. 1.22, Fig. 1.17, Fig. 1.18). For reduction of spline
misalignment an axis of a ball joint dispose on rotation axis of a rotor in a plane
passing through middle of the spline;
– of a short and rigid bolt joint of rotors with compensation of a non-axiality at
the expense of elastic elements of rotor supports (Fig. 1.13, Fig. 1.14, Fig. 1.16,
Fig. 1.19);
– of a flexible lengthy binding (connective) bolt (Fig. 1.15). Thus
compensation of a non-axiality is reached at the expense of a flexural yielding of a
bolt. For elimination of stability loss of the bolt at it transition through the critical
rotational speed the intermediate supports are designed on all its length.

39
 Fig. 1.12. Coupling muff of three-support TJE rotor:
1 – muff driven part; 2 – spherical surface, taken an axial force, directed to turbine; 3 –
passage for oil support to muff cavity; 4 – muff driving part; 5 – stem; 6 – spherical surface,
taken an axial force, directed to compressor

Fig. 1.13. Coupling muff of three-supported TPE rotor:

1  – compressor shaft; 2 – distance sleeve; 3 – latch casing; 4 – latch spring; 5 – latch
double-spline bushing; 6  – turbine shaft; 7 – coupling bolt; 8  – bolt bearing

40
 Fig. 1.14. Coupling muff of three-support TPE rotor:
1 – spring; 2 – toothed wrench; 3 – muff toothed sector; 4 – conical teeth on the wrench; 5 –
wrench guide; 6 – turbine rotor; 7 – muff; 8 – detent for muff plugging; 9 – pin; 10 –
window in compressor rotor journal for wrench input-output

Fig. 1.15. Coupling of turbine and compressor shafts with the help of tubular
spring and tightening bolt (rod):

41
1 – lock; 2 – low pressure compressor shaft; 3 – low pressure compressor rotor rear journal;
4 – tightening bolt; 5 – lock bushing; 6 – tubular spring; 7 – thin-walled tube; 8 – nut; 9 –
turbine shaft

At an inoperative engine the tightening of such bolt is equal to zero, and it can
move forward together with the shaft of the turbine on value of an end clearance
(0,5...0,7 mm). At engine operation the bolt transmits an axial force of a turbine rotor
rearward, against flight to the corresponding flange of the compressor shaft. Inverse
axial force, appearing at airplane braking and directed forward, should not be
transmitted to a bolt in order to prevent loss of its stability.
On examples of real designs we will consider fulfilment of all requirements
made to coupling muffs. The coupling muff of TFE high pressure rotor is shown in
Fig. 1.16. The torque is transmitted by evolvent splines and axial force – by short
rigid coupling-bolt 6. Under the head of a bolt two spherical rings 5 are located. They
unload a bolt from a bending at a non-axiality of shafts. For a locking of a bolt from
unscrewing the two-splined ring 7 is put, which is retained by the split lock ring 8.
Axial and radial forces are transmitted through spherical rings 5 to a bolt 6 and then
through a threaded part of a bolt on the intermediate bushing 3 and threaded part of
compressor shaft 1. The adjusting ring 2 provides an indispensable axial position of a
turbine rotor concerning casing. The clearance  eliminates end jamming of a spline
and enables their self-installation. The transfer of inverse axial force is accompanied
by clearance  adjustment and contact of the applicable surfaces.

Fig. 1.16. Coupling muff of TFE high pressure rotors:

1  – compressor shaft; 2 – adjusting ring; 3 – intermediate thread bushing; 4 – turbine shaft;
5 – spherical rings; 6 – coupling bolt; 7  – split retaining ring;  – axial clearance between
shafts

In Fig. 1.17 and Fig. 1.18 the coupling of a helicopter gas turbine engine is
shown, in which the shaft of the turbine 4 (Fig. 1.17) is connected in an axial
direction to a rear journal of a compressor rotor 2 by means of an orb with three slots.
The torque is transmitted by a multispline connection including the splined bush 3
and mating splines of the turbine shaft and a compressor rotor journal. Connection of
rotors is executed by axial input of spherical ledges of the turbine shaft through slots
in an internal orb of a compressor rotor journal and then rotational displacement of

42
the turbine shaft by 60. The fixation of a rotor in this position is provided with the
splined bushing 3, which enters in engagement with splines of the turbine and
compressor shafts under an action of force of a spring 1. At disassembly of a unit the
bushing 3 is squeezed to the left and the disassembly of the turbine shaft is realized in
the inverse order.

Fig. 1.17. Coupling muff of three-support rotor of a helicopter turbine engine:

1  – spring; 2 – rear journal of compressor rotor; 3 – two-splined driving bushing; 4 –
trunnions of turbine shaft

Fig.  1.18. Coupling muff of three-support helicopter TShE rotors:

1 – spring; 2 – double-spline moving bushing; 3 – rear journal of compressor rotor; 4 –
bulge; 5 – turbine rotor journal; 6 – groove (slot)

In a design of the coupling shown in Fig. 7.19 the torque also is transmitted

direct by an evolvent spline of the turbine shaft 2 and compressor rotor journal 1. In
an axial direction the shaft of the turbine is retained by a binding bolt 3, having two
threaded segments with different screw pitches. The elastic fingers are applied for a
locking of a bolt. At assembly of a rotor previously elastic fingers are pressed out by
special key and then we screw a bolt in the threaded bushing of the turbine shaft 5

43
against the stop in a shoulder. Then the turbine shaft is entered in a compressor rotor
journal and a bolt is screwed in this journal by means of grooves 4 for a key. Because
of a difference of screw pitches for each turnover of a bolt the turbine shaft displaces
forward by 0,5 mm. A bolt screw so long as the axial clearance between a rotor and
stator of the turbine will not reach desired value, then a key take out, the elastic
fingers enter in engagement with internal splines of the turbine shaft and reliably fix a
bolt from unscrewing.

Fig. 1.19. Coupling muff of three-supported TJE rotor:

1 – rear journal of compressor rotor; 2 – turbine shaft; 3 – coupling bolt; 4  – coupling bolt
grooves; 5  – turbine shaft thread bushing

The four-support rotors are used in TFEs as low pressure rotors. From four
available supports only one (is customary second) takes axial force of all rotor.
The representative scheme of a coupling muff of a four-support rotor is shown
in Fig. 7.20. The shafts of the compressor 1 and turbine 4 are coupled by the lengthy
shaft 2, which is slit with both ends. The shaft 2 transmits a torque of a turbine rotor
and small inverse axial force in case of its origin. To transfer a direct axial force a
lengthy flexible binding bolt is applied.

Fig. 1.20. Scheme of four-supported rotor coupling muff:

1  – compressor shaft; 2 – long spline shaft; 3 – flexible coupling bolt; 4 – nut of coupling
bolt; 5 – turbine shaft

The example of such design fulfilment of a coupling muff is shown in

Fig. 1.21. The torque is transmitted by a shaft-tube 2 with evolvent splines. In an
axial direction both rotors are connected by a binding bolt 6, which transmits a direct
axial force of a turbine rotor through a spherical support 7 to the compressor shaft.
The binding bolt is locked by the spring lock 8.

44
 Fig. 1.21. Coupling muff of four-supported TFE rotor:
1  – compressor shaft; 2 – spline shaft-tube; 3  – adjusting ring; 4  – distance sleeve; 5 –
spline turbine shaft; 6 – coupling bolt; 7 – spherical support; 8  – lock

The details of coupling muffs operate in conditions of high contact stresses.

Therefore these details are manufactured from alloy steels, and increase of hardness
of contact surfaces is provided with case hardening (steel 12Х2Н4А, 18ХНВА) or
nitride hardening (steel 38ХМЮА).
For elimination of a mechanical hardening of contact surfaces, facilitation of
assembly and disassembly of a unit, the increase of an evenness of load facilitation
distribution a copper plating or silvering of contact surfaces are applied.
1.6.1.2.   Load-bearing schemes of casings
The load-bearing scheme of a casing represents a system of connected fixed
units, which reacts loads acting in the engine, and transmits their resultant to an
aircraft through attachment fittings. The load-bearing casing of the engine consists of
several supporte casings (on which the loads from rotor bearing are transmitted), joint
among themselves by casings of compressor, combustion chamber, turbine and
second flow (in ТFEs). The elements of inlet duct and exhaust arrangement are join to
it (if they are not made by the way of separate units with their elements of attachment
to an aircraft), and also gearbox and aggregates.
The engine casing should have indispensable strength and rigidity at minimum
overall dimensions and weight.
The classification of the load-bearing schemes of casings can be made
depending on ways of load-bearing connection between the turbine and compressor.
The scheme with internal load-bearing connection (Fig. 1.22, а) is
characterized by connection of turbine and compressor casings with the help of an
internal wall of a combustion chamber casing. Such scheme is usually applied in
engines with tubular combustion chambers, that provides a capability of their
replacement at maintenance and also easy access to connections of turbine and
compressor rotors. That at usage of such scheme for support of indispensable casing
rigidity (because of small diameters of connective load-bearing elements in area of

45
the combustion chamber) it is necessary make thicker their wall and, therefore, to
augment casing weight, it is applied now usually only in APUs.
The scheme with external load-bearing connection (see Fig. 1.22, b) differs
by that the connection of compressor and turbine casings is implemented an external
casing of the combustion chamber. External casing, due to greater diameter, is rigid
enough at rather small weight and more simple design.
Singularity of any scheme of the engine is that the load-bearing elements,
executing transmission of loads from support bearing of a rotor to external load-
bearing elements of gas turbine engine, intersect a gas stream. Specially it is difficult
to execute load-bearing connection in a hot part of the engine, i. е. in area of
combustion chamber and turbine casings connection. Therefore scheme with lo0ad-
bearing connection is preferential at arrangement of a rear support of engine behind
the turbine.
The scheme with double unclosed load-bearing connection (see Fig. 1.22, c)
differs by that the connection of turbine and compressor casings is implemented by
external casing of the combustion chamber. But combustion chamber internal casing,
ensuring transmission of loads from a support (arranged before turbine) to radial load-
bearing elements (in a forefront of the combustion chamber or to a rear compressor
casing) is also included in load-bearing scheme. Often this internal load-bearing
element is conical ring-type beam (Fig. 1.23).

Fig. 1.22. The schemes of casings of a turbine engine with internal load-bearing connection
(а), with external load-bearing connection (b), with double unclosed load-bearing
connection (c), with double closed connection (d):
46
1 – forward compressor casing; 2 – casing of compressor guide vanes; 3 – rear compressor
casing; 4 – internal combustion chamber casing; 5 – external casing of the combustion
chamber; 6 – radial load-bearing elements of a turbine front support casing; 7 – turbine
casing; 8 – casing of rear turbine support

Thus, in the given scheme there are not load-bearing elements intersecting a
gas flow before the turbine. Such scheme is applied predominantly in engines with
tubular combustion chamber.
The scheme with double closed load-bearing connection (Fig. 1.22, d)
differs by maximum usage of load-carrying ability of combustion chamber casings, as
the turbine and compressor casings are connected both internal, and external
combustion chamber casings. In area of the combustion chamber the powerful ring-
type load-bearing frame is formed, having high rigidity and strength. Such scheme is
widely applied in different types of gas turbine engine (see, for example, Fig. 1.23…
1.24).

Fig. 1.23. Single-shaft TPE:

1 – reduction gear; 2 – front casing; 3 – compressor; 4 – load-bearing racks of a
combustion chamber casing; 5 – tubular combustion chamber; 6  – turbine

Fig. 1.24. Double-flow TJE (TFE):

1 – front compressor casing; 2 – LPC; 3 – intermediate compressor casing; 4 – HPC; 5 –
rear compressor casing; 6 – mount casing; 7 – load-bearing racks; 8 – cannular combustion
chamber; 9  – load-bearing ring; 10 – HPT; 11 – LPT; 12 – turbine rear support casing; 13 –
mixing device

The load-bearing schemes of TFEs have some singularities, connected with

versions of fan layout and possibility of load-carrying ability using of second flow
casings. In the scheme of two-shaft TFE, shown in Fig. 7.16, the internal part of an
engine casing is executed under the reviewed above load-bearing scheme with double

47
closed load-bearing connection. It include HPC casing, external and internal casings
of combustion chamber, turbine casing and rear support casing. The internal and
external casings of the combustion chamber are connected by load-bearing elements
in its front and rear parts. An external part of the load-bearing scheme include front
support casing, guide vane casing of LPC, intermediate compressor casing and
second flow casings. Both parts are connected between themselves by load-bearing
racks in area of the combustion chamber. Besides the HPC casing is supported on a
intermediate compressor casing (only radial loads are transmitted in this junction,
axial connection between casings here is missing). Thus, in a casing design of a gas
turbine engine there are three load-bearing contours: 1) internal (internal casing of the
combustion chamber), 2) intermediate including HPC and turbine casings and
external casing of combustion chamber, and 3) external, including a LPC casing and
shells of TFE secondary flow. All three contours are connected between themselves
by radial load-bearing connections.
The basis of the load-bearing scheme of a three-shaft TFE casing (see
Fig. 1.25) makes a intermediate compressor casing. In front to its outside flange the
fan casing is fastened, and to internal flange – casing of front supports with an IPC
casing. To rear flange of intermediate compressor casing the HPC, combustion
chamber and turbine casings are joined.

Fig. 1.25. Principal scheme of a three-shaft TFE

Support casings. The connection of internal, intermediate and external parts of

the load-bearing scheme is implemented, as it was already indicated above, with the
help of radial load-bearing elements intersecting an air-gas channel of GTE. They
are, as a rule, parts of casings, which represent ring-type load-bearing frames
arranged in planes of support bearings of the engine rotors and attachment fittings (or
near to them). The load-bearing frame consists of internal and external rings jointed

48
by radial load-bearing elements. It has heightened load-carrying availability and
practically even rigidity on a circumference.
The function of load-bearing elements in front support casings of compressors
is executed by racks or inlet guide vanes (see Fig. 1.24). Usage as load-bearing
elements of inlet guide vanes allows to reduce axial overall dimensions and weight of
the engine, and also to lower hydraulic losses. In this case front casing represents
separate unit (from other parts of an engine stator). When the front or intermediate
casing will be utillized for arrangement of gears (intended for the drive of aggregates
from shafts of gas turbine engine), it is manufactured usually by cast with load-
bearing racks (see Fig. 7.16). In other cases the welded or dismountable design is
applied.
Support casings in area of connection of compressor and combustion chamber
casings also have as radial load-bearing elements a guide vanes or racks. At usage of
load-bearing vanes of compressor last stage (see Fig. 1.24) the support casing is
designed by the way of separate unit (unit of rear compressor casing) from other
compressor casing. The load-bearing racks are included usually in a design of the
combustion chamber casing, which in this case is welded (see Fig. 1.23).
It is most difficult to design connection between load-bearing contours in a hot
part of the engine, as in these cases it is necessary to ensure effective cooling of
radial load-bearing elements. Usage of the cannular-type combustion chamber allows
to execute connection with the help of racks arranged between flame tubes (see
Fig. 1.24). Their cooling is implemented by mixing air of the combustion chamber. If
a support casing is located behind the turbine then the load-bearing racks are
protected by special aerodynamic fairings. In internal cavity of the rack, and also in
space between a rack and fairing the cooling air is supplied (in TFEs for this purpose
usually second flow air is used).
At an annular-type combustion chamber usage, and also at arrangement of a
support casings between turbines of different spools (see Fig. 1.25) the radial load-
bearing elements are designed in the form of studs, bolts or rods and placed inside
cooled nozzle vanes. It is necessary to mean, that the similar design results in
increase of thickness ratio of a nozzle vane profile and reduces the efficiency of the
turbine.
Support casings taking considerable thrust loads (for example, at transfer of
axial loads from a rotor ball bearing), have sometimes structural elements made by
the way of a load-bearing triangle in a longitudinal section, that provides increase of
casing rigidity in an axial direction. An alternative version of increase of design axial
stiffness is the applying of the scheme with double closed load-bearing connection, as
was indicated above.

1.6.2. Attachment fittings of the engine to an aircraft

The mount of the engine is implemented with the help of special units installed
on an engine casing, and engine mount frames relating to a design of an aircraft.
Generally GTE attachment fittings transmit to an aircraft following loads:
– thrust;
– force of inertia of engine weights appearing at aircraft evolutions;
49
 – gyroscopic torque from engine rotor depending on angular speeds of a rotor
and aircraft evolution;
– force of inertia and moment caused by engine rotor unbalance (balanced with
defined degree of accuracy).
The reaction torque from a propeller directed in opposite to its rotation also
acts on attachment fittings of TPE to an aircraft. At availability of two propellers
rotated in the counter direction, the reaction torque is equal to a difference of the
moments of propellers. At determination of inertia forces and moments caused them,
rotor gyroscopic moment in this case it is necessary to take into account availability
of the reduction gear and propellers.
One of the versions of engine attachment scheme is shown in Fig. 1.26.

Fig. 1.26. Scheme of engine attachment to an airplane:

1  – rod of longitudinal and cross attachment; 2 – brackets of the main front mount; 3 –
walking beams of the rear mount; 4 – rear hoist fitting; 5 – front transporting (shipping) and
hoist brackets; 6 – rear transporting brackets

To a design and arrangement on the engine of attachment fittings, except for

convenience of replacement of gas turbine engine and its maintenance on an airplane,
the following basic requirements are presented:
- the attachment fittings should be arranged on the engine so that the
attachment of the engine in a direction of all six degree of freedoms was provided: in
axial, vertical and lateral directions and around of longitudinal vertical and horizontal
axes. Thus the mount unit should be statically determinate, i.e. it is not enabled of
double attachment in a direction and around of called axes. Due to this the casing
system of the engine is isolated from deformation of an aircraft design and the origin
of large off-design loads is prevented in attachment fittings;
– the attachment fittings of the engine at all flight conditions and engine
operational ratings should not hinder from thermal deformations of an engine casing;
– the mane attachment fittings should be arranged on compressor load-bearing
casings in a plane, close to centre of engine mass. As a rule, such planes are the
planes of internal load-bearing connections of compressor rotor supports;
– additional attachment fittings should be arranged on a turbine casing, also in
a plane of interconnection of turbine supports;
– the afterburner has the additional attachment fitting in a plane of casing of
variable geometry jet nozzle. That the static definability of the mount was provided,
the afterburner should be joined to a turbine casing with the help of a hinged
connection;
50
 – in case of light thin-wall designs of casings applying, for avoidance of their
large local radial deformations and the grazes of blades against a casing, large radial
efforts in attachment fittings are inadmissible;
– for making of lifting, assembly and shipping activities on the engine the
additional attachment fittings should be installed (fulfilling conditions for mane
attachment fitting). At fulfilment of assembly works on an airplane the mount and the
support of the engine in arbitrary points is not enabled.
The engine is mounted to an aircraft, as a rule, in two planes. The plane, in
which transmission of thrust force is implemented, has a title main. The second plane
of the mount is accordingly called additional or supplementary. In both planes of
attachment it is necessary to ensure free temperature spreadings of engine casing in a
radial direction, and in a supplementary plane – in addition in an axial direction.
The mane plane of a mount usually is located probably closer to a centre of
engine mass, and additional plane – as it is possible further from maiden. Such
arrangement of planes of the mount allows to receive smaller values of responses in
attachment fittings caused by inertial forces and momenta. It is also desirable, that the
arrangement of attachment fittings results in minimum influence of casing
deformations on radial clearances in the compressor and turbine. In this connection
they are located on engine casings made by the way of ring-type load-bearing frames.
In TJEs and TFEs with small and mean by-pass ratio the fulfilment of these
requirements is fullest reached at arrangement of a mane plane of attachment in an
area of compressor and combustion chamber casings connection, and additional
plane – in a plane of compressor front casing or turbine rear support. In TPEs the
main attachment fittings, as a rule, are installed on an engine front casing. Taking into
account weight of a propeller, this plane is close to a centre of engine mass, besides
such arrangement of attachment fittings enables to unload an engine casing from an
action of thrust force and reaction torque of a propeller. The additional attachment
fittings in this case are located in a place of connection of combustion chamber and
compressor casings.
In TFEs with large by-pass ratio a considerable thrust can be created in second
flow; besides a compressor intermediate casing has greatest rigidity in such design.
Therefore a plane of the main attachment fittings coincides with a plane of
intermediate casing, and the additional attachment fittings are usually connected in
this scheme with rear support casing of the engine (Fig. 1.27, Fig. 1.28).

1757*
*
1545*

m.P
1.6°
1726*

±0.2
920

3 1
3 1
3 1

791 0,4*

51
 Fig. .27. Universal attachment fitting of TFE for engine arrangement on pylon above the
wing, under the wing or on the fuselage

Fig. 7.20. Rocker arm of a universal front mount of TFE

Fig. 1.28. Front attachment fitting assembly

In engines of large length (for example, in afterburning turbojet engins), the

third additional plane of the mount located in rear part of afterburner is also applied.
As well as in any additional plane of engine attachment, the free temperature
spreading of engine casing concerning an airplane is provided in it as in axial, and
radial directions.
Number of attachment fittings select minimally indispensable. At their
arrangement aim to ensure a free access to them for facilitation of assembly and
disassembly of the engine at replacement. In a number of cases provide for some
versions of engine attachment, that expands a capability of its usage on different
airplanes (universal mount). The connection of attachment fittings with a load-
bearing structure of an aircraft are usually implemented with the help of hinges
ensuring free temperature spreadings of an engine casing and eliminating its loading
at airplane deformations. In a design of attachment fittings often use damping devices
ensuring a vibration insulation of a gas turbine engine.

Questions for self-check

1. Describe the main stages of aeroengine development.

2. Define features of engine design manifold types.
3. Analyze the main stages of GTE creation.
4.  Describe absolute and specific parameters of gas turbine engines.

52
 5.  Analyze nomenclature of air gas turbine engines lives.

Vocabulary
1. an aircraft – повітряне судно (ПС) – воздушное судно (ВС);
2. an airplane – літак – самолет;
3. a steam engine – паровий двигун – паровой двигатель;
4. an inventor – винахідник – изобретатель;
5. unwieldy – громіздкий – громоздкий;
6. an internal-combustion engine – двигун внутрішнього згоряння – двигатель
внутреннего сгорания;
7. air-cooled engine – двигун з повітряним охолодженням – двигатель с
воздушным охлаждением;
8. a serial production – серійне виробництво – серийное производство;
9. an experimental-design office – дослідно-конструкторське бюро – опытно-
конструкторское бюро;
10.the Zaporozhye motor-building design office – Запорізьке моторобудівне
конструкторське бюро (ЗМКБ) – Запоржское моторостроительное
конструкторское бюро (ЗМКБ);
11.a jet engine – реактивний двигун – реактивный двигатель;
12.the air-breathing and rocket engines – повітряно-реактивні (ПРД) і ракетні (РД)
двигуни – воздушнореактивные (ВРД) и ракетные (РД) двигатели;
13.a ramjet air-breathing engine – прямотечієвий ПРД – прямоточный ВРД;
14.a pulsatory (pulse) air-breathing engine – пульсуючий ПРД (ППРД) –
пульсирующий ВРД (ПВРД);
15.a gas turbine engine (GTE) –газотурбінний двигун (ГТД) – газотурбинный
двигатель (ГТД);
16.surroundings (environment) – навколишнє середовище – окружающая среда;
17.an altitude and flight of speed – висота і швидкість польоту – высота и
скорость полета;
18.a liquid-rocket engines – рідинні ракетні двигуни (РРД) – жидкостные
ракетные двигатели (ЖРД);
19.the working process parameters – параметри робочого процесу – параметры
рабочего процесса;
20.the flight conditions – умови польоту – условия полета;
21.a power plant – силова установка (СУ) – силовая установка (СУ);
22.a combined power plant – змішана силова установка – смешанная СУ;
23.a hybrid engine – комбінований двигун – комбинированный двигатель;
24.turbo/ram jet, rocket/ram jet, turbo-rocket engines – турбопрямотечієві,
ракетнопрямотечієві, турборакетні двигуни – турбопрямоточные,
ракетнопрямоточные, турборакетные двигатели;
25.a manned aircraft – пілотоване ПС – пилотируемое ВС;
26.a turbojet engine (TJE) – турбореактивний двигун (ТРД) – турбореактивный
двигатель (ТРД);
27.a turbofan engine (TFE) – турбореактивний двоконтурний двигун (ТРДД) –
турбореактивный двухконтурный двигатель (ТРДД);
53
28.a turboprop engine (TPE) – турбогвинтовий двигун (ТГД) – турбовинтовой
двигатель (ТВД);
29.a turboshaft engine with free (free-power) turbine (TShEF) – турбовальний
двигун з вільною турбіною (ТВлД) – турбовальный двигатель со свободной
турбиной (ТВлД);
30.a turbopropfan engine (TPFE) – турбогвинтовентиляторний двигун (ТГВД) –
турбовинтовентиляторный двигатель (ТВВД);
31.a jet nozzle – реактивне сопло – реактивное сопло;
32.a thrust – тяга – тяга;
33.an afterburner – форсажна камера згоряння – форсажная камера сгорания;
34.the overall dimensions – габарити – габариты;
35.afterburning – форсування – форсирование;
36.an afterburning turbojet engine (ATJE) – форсований ТРД (ТРДФ) –
форсированный ТРД (ТРДФ);
37.an afterburning turbofan engine (ATFE) – форсований ТРДД (ТРДДФ) –
форсированный ТРДД (ТРДДФ);
38.Mach number (M) – число Маху (M) – число Маха (M);
39.an augmented engine – форсований двигун – форсированный двигатель;
40.the engines of considerable and mean thrusts – двигуни значних і середніх тяг –
двигатели значительных и средних тяг;
41.a fighter – винищувач – истребитель;
42.a bomber – бомбардувальник – бомбардировщик;
43.a low-powered THE – малопотужний ТРД – маломощный ТРД;
44.a training airplane – навчальний літак – учебный самолет;
45.a fuel profitability – паливна економічність – топливная экономичность;
46.the primary and secondary flows – перший і другий контури (ТРДД) – первый
и второй контуры (ТРДД);
47.a mechanical energy – механічна енергія – механическая энергия;
48.an air-gas channel – проточна частина – проточная часть двигателя;
49.the working devices – робочі пристрої – рабочие устройства;
50.a compressor – компресор – компрессор;
51.a combustion chamber – камера згоряння – камера сгорания;
52.a turbine – турбіна – турбина;
53.an annulus channel – кільцевий канал – колцевой канал;
54.a fan – вентилятор – вентилятор;
55.an impulse of motion – імпульс руху – импульс движения;
56.exhausted from the engine – що витікають з двигуна (що покидають двигун) –
вытекающие из двигателя (покидающие двигатель);
57.the gas flow reaction forces – сили реакції газового потоку – силы реакции
газового потока;
58.effective – ефективний – эффективный;
59.a single-flow THE – одно контурний ТРД – одноконтурный ТРД;
60.a profitability – економічність – экономичность;
61.a bypass ratio – ступінь двоконтурності – степень двухконтурности;
62.a mass air flow rate – масова витрата повітря – массовый расход воздуха;
54
63.a specific fuel consumption – питома витрата палива – удельный расход
топлива;
64.a long-haul passenger airplanes – дальньомагістральні пасажирські літаки
(ДМПЛ) – дальнемагистральные пассажирские самолеты (ДМПС);
65.a propeller – повітряний гвинт (пропелер) – воздушный винт (пропеллер);
66.a helicopter – вертоліт – вертолет;
67.a compressor turbine – турбіна компресора – турбина компрессора;
68.a drive – привід – привод;
69.the lifting and antitorque propellers – несучий і хвостовий гвинти – несущий и
хвостовой винты;
70.a reduction gear (main and tail) – редуктор (основний і хвостовий) – редуктор
(основной и хвостовой);
71.a transmission – трансмісія – трансмиссия;
72.a weight-lifting capacity – вантажопідйомність – грузоподъемность;
73.a design bureau – конструкторське бюро – конструкторское бюро;
74.a new generation of passenger airplanes – пасажирські літаки нового
покоління – пассажирские самолеты нового поколения;
75.the multiblade propfans – багато лопатевий гвинтовентилятор –
многолопастной винтовентилятор;
76.contouring – профілювання – профилирование;
77.manufacturing – виробництво – производство;
78.an economic efficiency – економічна ефективність – экономическая
эффективность;
79.a passenger traffic – пасажирські перевезення – пассажирские перевозки;
80.short stage and average stage distances – лінії малої і середньої протяжності –
линии малой и средней протяженности;
81."super-fan" class engine – двигун класу “Супер-фен” – двигатель класса
“Супер-фен”;
82.a ducted fan – за капотований вентилятор – закапотированный вентилятор;
83.a fuel consumption – витрата палива – расход топлива;
84.long-distance passenger and transport airplanes – дальньомагістральні
пасажирські та транспортні літаки – дальнемагистральные пассажирские и
транспортные самолеты;
85.a researcher – дослідник – исследователь;
86.an inventor – винахідник – изобретатель;
87.a pilot – пілот – пилот;
88.a centrifugal compressor – відцентровий компресор – центробежный
компрессор;
89.an axial-flow compressor – осьовий компресор – осевой компрессор;
90.a test – випробування – испытание;
91.an aircraft industry – авіаційна промисловість – авиационная
промышленность;
92.a serial production – серійне виробництво – серийное производство;
93.a mail-carrying airplane – поштовий літак – почтовый самолет;
94.a front fighter – фронтовий винищувач – фронтовой истребитель;
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95.a powerful THE – потужний ТРД – мощный ТРД;
96.a jet aviation – реактивна авіація – реативная авиация;
97.the passenger traffic – пасажирські перевезення – пассажирские перевозки;
98.an afterburning rating thrust – тяга на форсажному режимі – тяга на
форсажном режиме;
99.a supersonic fighter – надзвуковий винищувач – сверхзвуковой истребитель;
100. a high-head (high-pressure) axial-flow compressor – високонапірний осьовий
компресор – высоконапорный осевой компрессор;
101. a compressor gas-dynamic stability – газодинамічна стійкість (ГДС)
компресора – газодинамическая устойчивость (ГДУ) компрессора;
102. a surge reserve – запас по помпажу – запас по помпажу;
103. a two-shaft (twin-spool) engine – двовальний (двокаскадний) двигун –
двухвальный (двухкаскадный) двигатель;
104. a maximum non-augmented rating thrust – тяга на максимальному
нефорсованому режимі – тяга на максимальном нефорсированном режиме;
105. a high-performance, reliable and efficient engine – високоефективний,
надійний і економічний двигун – высокоэффективный, надежный и
экономичный двигатель;
106. the variable guide vanes (VGV) – регульовані напрямні апарати РНА
(поворотні лопатки РНА) – регулируемые направляющие аппараты РНА
(поворотные лопатки РНА);
107. a compressor stator – статор компресора – статор компрессора;
108. a maximum rating thrust – тяга на максимальному режимі – тяга на
максимальном режиме;
109. a fighter-interceptor – винищувач-перехоплювач – истребитель-перехватчик;
110. a fighter-bomber – винищувач-бомбардувальник – истребитель-
бомбардировщик;
111. a general designer – генеральний конструктор – генеральный конструктор;
112. an operation – експлуатація – эксплуатация;
113. a transport airplane – транспортний літак – транспортный самолет;
114. a passenger airplane – пасажирський літак – пассажирский самолет;
115. a serviceability – експлуатаційна надійність – эксплуатационная
надежность;
116. aeroengine building corporations – двигунобудівні корпорації –
двигателестроительные корпорации;
117. a new generation engine – двигун нового покоління – двигатель нового
поколения;
118. the overall dimensions – габаритні розміри – габаритные размеры;
119. the flight performances – льотно-технічні характеристики – летно-
технические характеристики;
120. an air traffic – повітряні перевезення – воздушные перевозки;
121. a cruise rating specific fuel consumption – питома витрата палива на
крейсерському режимі – удельный расход топлива на крейсерском режиме;
122. a special heavy aeroplane – надважкий літак – сверхтяжелый самолет;

56
123. a high degree of design perfection and reliability – високий ступінь
конструктивної досконалості та надійності – высокая степень
конструктивного совершенства и надежности;
124. an operational characteristics – експлуатаційні характеристики –
эксплуатационные характеристики;
125. a noiseless engine – малошумний двигун – малошумный двигатель;
126. a takeoff mass – злітна маса – взлетная масса;
127. the mean and large thrust TFEs – ТРДД середньої і великої тяг – ТРДД
средней и большой тяг;
128. a technology – технологія – технология;
129. a subsonic passenger airplane – дозвуковий пасажирський літак – дозвуковой
пассажирский самолет;
130. a propfan – гвинтовентилятор – винтовентилятор;
131. a working process – робочий процес – рабочий процесс;
132. a fundamental theory – теоретичні основи – теоретические основы;
133. a techniques of production – технологія виробництва – технология
производства;
134. putting into practice – практична реалізація – практическая реализация;
135. an engine development and production – розробка і виробництво двигуна –
разработка и производство двигателя;
136. to put into operation – запустити (впровадити) в експлуатацію – запустить
(внедрить) в эксплуатацию;
137. a steel intensity – металоємність – металлоемкость;
138. the technical requirements – технічні вимоги – технические требования;
139. the ecological requirements – екологічні вимоги – экологические требования;
140. a decrease in noise and noxious substances emission – зниження (рівня) шуму
та викидів шкідливих речовин – снижение (уровня) шума и выбросов
вредных веществ;
141. the technical and ecological demands – технічні та екологічні вимоги –
технические и экологические требования;
142. a research engineering and experimental development – науково-дослідні та
дослідно-конструкторські роботи (НДР і ДКР) – научно-исследовательские и
опытно- конструкторские работы (НИР и ОКР);
143. an engine operational development prior to putting it into operation – доведення
двигуна перед впровадженням в експлуатацію – доводка двигателя перед
внедрением в эксплуатацию;
144. a staff – штат (колектив) – штат (коллектив);
145. the research institutes – науково-дослідні інститути (НДІ) – научно-
исследовательские институты (НИИ);
146. a plant of serial production – серійний завод – серийный завод;
147. a fan pressure ratio – ступінь стискання повітря у вентиляторі – степень
сжатия воздуха в вентиляторе;
148. a turbine inlet temperature – температура (газу) на вході в турбіну –
температура (газа) на входе в турбину;
149. an operating costs – експлуатаційні витрати – эксплуатационные расходы;
57
150. an aeroengine maintenance and repair – технічне обслуговування та ремонт
авіаційного двигуна – техническое обслуживание и ремонт авиационного
двигателя;
151. a salary costs – витрати на заробітну плату – расходы на заработную плату;
152. an engineer – інженер – инженер;
153. a technician – технік – техник;
154. a personnel structure –кадровий склад – кадровый состав;
155. a civil aviation enterprise – експлуатаційне підприємство цивільної авіації
(ЦА) – эксплуатационное предприятие гражданской авиации (ГА);
156. a strength calculation technique – методика розрахунку на міцність –
методика прочностного расчета;
157. a calculation technique of vibration – методика розрахунку вібрації
(коливань) – методика расчета вибрации (колебаний);
158. the main engine units – основні вузли двигуна – основные узлы двигателя;
159. a layout – компоновка, схема – компоновка, схема;
160. the means of thrust augmentation – способи форсування тяги – способы
форсирования тяги;
161. an inlet and exhaust arrangement – вхідний та вихідний пристрої – входное и
выходное устройства;
162. a single-rotor THE – однороторний ТРД – однороторный ТРД;
163. a subsonic inlet – дозвуковий вхідний пристрій – дозвуковое входное
устройство;
164. a subsonic flight speed – дозвукова швидкість польоту – дозвуковая скорость
полета;
165. an air kinetic energy – кінетична енергія повітря – кинетическая энергия
воздуха;
166. a pressure potential energy – потенційна енергія тиску – потенциальная
энергия давления;
167. the tubular (“can”), annular or cannular (“can”-“annular”) combustion
chambers – трубчаста (індивідуальна), кільцева або трубчасто-кільцева
(комбінована) камери згоряння – трубчатая (индивидуальная), кольцевая или
трубчато-кольцевая (комбинированная) камеры сгорания;
168. a stage – ступень – ступень;
169. a nozzle – сопло (паливна форсунка) – сопло (топливная форсунка);
170. a constant geometry jet nozzle – нерегульоване реактивне сопло –
нерегулируемое реактивное сопло;
171. the arrangements of sound suppression – пристрої шум оглушення –
устройства шумоглушения;
172. an exhaust arrangement – вихідний пристрій – выходное устройство;
173. an airplane roll-out – пробіг літака – пробег самолета;
174. landing – посадка – посадка;
175. a variable nozzle – регульоване сопло – регулируемое сопло;
176. an augmented turbojet engine afterburning rating – форсований режим
форсованого ТРД – форсажный режим форсированного ТРД;
177. an engine starting – запуск двигуна – запуск двигателя;
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178. the single- and two-shaft (singlе- and twin-spool) engines – одно- і двовальні
(одно- і двокаскадні) двигуни – одно- и двухвальные (одно- и
двухкаскадные) двигатели;
179. the compressor spools of low and high pressure – каскади компресорів
низького і високого тисків – каскады компрессоров низкого и высокого
давлений;
180. a kinematically independent rotor – кінематично незалежний ротор –
кинематически независимый ротор;
181. no unstable compressor operation – нестійка робота компресора –
неустойчивая работа компрессора;
182. “rotors slip” – ковзання роторів – скольжение роторов;
183. a flexible engine control – гнучке керування двигуном – гибкое управление
двигателем;
184. a support – опора – опора;
185. a coupling – муфта – муфта;
186. a lubricating system – система змащування – система смазки;
187. a fan in the fore-part – переднє розташування вентилятора – переднее
расположение вентилятора;
188. a core – внутрішній контур – внутренний контур;
189. an additional low pressure compressor stages (booster stages) – додаткові
(приєднані) ступені компресора низького тиску (КНТ) – дополнительные
(присоединенные) ступени компрессора низкого давления (КНД);
190. a total compressor pressure ratio – сумарний ступінь стискання повітря в
компресорі – суммарная степень сжатия воздуха в компрессоре;
191. a single-stage fan – одноступінчастий вентилятор – одноступенчатый
вентилятор;
192. the two- and three-shaft (twin- and triple-spool) TFEs – дво- та тривальні (дво-
та трикаскадні) ТРДД – двух- и трехвальные (двух- и трехкаскадные) ТРДД;
193. a turbocompressor rotor – ротор турбокомпресора – ротор
турбокомпрессора;
194. an optimum rotational speed – оптимальна частота обертання – оптимальная
частота вращения;
195. a three-rotor design – трироторна конструкція – трехроторная конструкция;
196. a double-rotor design – двороторна конструкція – двухроторная
конструкция;
197. a general jet nozzle (with flow mixing) – спільне реактивне сопло (зі
змішуванням потоків) – общее реактивное сопло (со смешением потоков);
198. a separate jet nozzles – сопла з роздільним виходом потоків – сопла с
раздельным выходом потоков;
199. a separate exhaust – роздільний вихід – раздельный выход;
200. a mixing chamber – камера змішування потоків – камера смешения потоков;
201. a mixing device – пристрій змішування потоків – устройство смешения
потоков;
202. a flow mixer – змішувач потоків – смеситель потоков;
203. a noise level – рівень шуму – уровень шума;
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204. a thrust reverser – реверсор тяги – реверсор тяги;
205. a reduction gear – редуктор – редуктор;
206. a heat regeneration system – система регенерації тепла – система
регенерации тепла;
207. an external reduction gear – виносний редуктор – выносной редуктор;
208. a misalignment – неспіввісність – несоосность;
209. a coaxial reduction gear – співвісний редуктор – соосный редуктор;
210. a reduction gear with displaced axes – редуктор зі зміщеними осями –
редуктор со смещенными осями;
211. a casing – корпус, обшивання, картер – корпус, обшивка, картер;
212. a planetary or differential made type reduction gear – планетарний або
диференційний замкнутий редуктор – планетарный или
дифференциальный замкнутый редуктор;
213. the coaxial propellers – співвісні гвинти – соосные винты;
214. a gyroscopic moment – гіроскопічний момент – гироскопический момент;
215. a pitch – крок (повітряного гвинта) – шаг (воздушного винта);
216. the propeller blades – лопаті повітряного гвинта – лопасти воздушного
винта;
217. an installation angle – настановний кут – установочный угол;
218. efficiency of a cycle – ККД циклу – КПД цикла;
219. a heat regeneratiоn – регенерація тепла – регенерация тепла;
220. a heat exchanger – теплообмінник – теплообменник;
221. a power plant – силова установка – силовая установка (СУ);
222. a free (free-power) turbine – вільна турбіна – свободная турбина;
223. a gear ratio – передатне число – передаточное число;
224. a main reduction gear – основний редуктор (несучого гвинта) – основной
редуктор (несущего винта);
225. a steady turbocompressor operation – стійка робота турбокомпресора –
устойчивая работа турбокомпрессора;
226. a rotor speed (a rotor rotational speed) – частота обертання ротора – частота
вращения ротора;
227. a flight safety – безпека польотів – безопасность полетов;
228. a transmission – трансмісія – трансмиссия;
229. a cutoff (shut down) – вимкнення (останов двигуна) – выключение (останов
двигателя);
230. a mover – рушій – движитель;
231. a multiblade propeller – багато лопатевий гвинт – многолопастной винт;
232. a variable pitch of scimitar-shaped propeller blades (propfan) – шаблеподібні
лопаті повітряного гвинта (гвинтовентилятора) змінного кроку –
саблеобразные лопасти воздушного винта (винтовентилятора) изменяемого
шага;
233. a single-row propfan – однорядний гвинтовентилятор – однорядный
винтовентилятор;
234. a specific power – питома потужність – удельная мощность;

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235. an area, circumscribed by a propfan – площа, що омивається
гвинтовентилятором – площадь, омываемая винтовентилятором;
236. a turbine inlet gas temperature – температура газу на вході в турбіну –
температура газа на входе в турбину;
237. the GTE designing – проектування ГТД – проектирование ГТД;
238. a state standard – державний стандарт – государственный стандарт;
239. aircraft developer – розробка ПС – разработка ВС;
240. a technical requirements (TR) – технічне завдання (ТЗ) – техническое
задание (ТЗ);
241. an engine designer – конструктор двигуна – конструктор двигателя;
242. a general design development – загальна конструктивна розробка – общая
конструктивная разработка;
243. a normative document – нормативний документ – нормативный документ;
244. operational development – доведення (двигуна) – доводка (двигателя);
245. worked over, agreed – опрацьований, узгоджений – проработанный,
согласованный;
246. approved – затверджений – утвержденный;
247. a unified (basis) gas generator – єдиний (базовий) газогенератор – единый
(базовый) газогенератор;
248. a "family" of engines – сімейство двигунів – семейство двигателей;
249. the development expenses – витрати на розробку – расходы на разработку;
250. a high-pressure fan, smokeless combustion chamber – високонапірний
вентилятор, бездимна камера згоряння – высоконапорный вентилятор,
бездымная камера сгорания;
251. a technical proposal (TP) – технічна пропозиція (ТП) – техническое
предложение (ТП);
252. a draft (D) (conceptual design) – ескізний проект (Е) – эскизный проект (Э);
253. the experimental models – експериментальні зразки – экспериментальные
образци;
254. a detail design (DD) – технічний проект – технический проект;
255. an ultimate engineering solution – остаточне технічне рішення –
окончательное техническое решение;
256. a preparation of documentation – розробка робочої документації – разработка
рабочей документации;
257. a production technology – технологія виготовлення – технология
изготовления;
258. a test of engine – випробування двигуна – испытание двигателя;
259. the drafts – креслення – чертежи;
260. the techniques, technical specifications – методики, технічні умови (ТУ) –
методики, технические условия (ТУ);
261. the semi-assembly and assembly communication schemes, assembly drafts –
напів монтажні і монтажні схеми комунікацій, збиральні креслення –
полумонтажные и монтажные схемы комуникаций, сборочные чертежи;
262. a full-scale engine model – повно розмірний макет двигуна –
полноразмерный макет двигателя;
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263. an aircraft model – макет ПС – макет ВС;
264. a design safety factor – запас міцності конструкції – запас прочности
конструкции;
265. a technological effectiveness – технологічність – технологичность;
266. a labouriousness of manufacturing, maintenance and repair – трудомісткість
виготовлення, технічного обслуговування (ТО) та ремонту – трудоемкость
изготовления, технического обслуживания (ТО) и ремонта;
267. a verifiability – контролепридатність – контролепригодность;
268. a diagnosing level, material marks – рівень діагностування, марки
матеріалів – уровень диагностирования, марки материалов;
269. GTE automatic control system – система автоматичного керування (САК)
ГТД – система автоматического управления (САУ) ГТД;
270. an engine technical condition – технічний стан двигуна – техническое
состояние двигателя;
271. an introduction in a serial production – впровадження в серійне
виробництво – внедрение в серийное производство;
272. an experimental development – експериментальна доробка –
экспериментальная доработка;
273. the continuous stand tests – тривалі стендові випробування – длительные
стендовые испытания;
274. the special tests – спеціальні випробування – специальные испытания;
275. a special high-altitude stand (bench) – спеціальний висотно-швидкісний
стенд – специальный высотно-скоростной стенд;
276. a research aircraft – випробувальний літак – испытательный самолет;
277. an administration state testing – державні випробування – государственные
испытания;
278. the labour and time expenses – витрати праці і часу – затраты труда и
времени;
279. an experimental engine – дослідний двигун – опытный двигатель;
280. an airframe – планер – планер;
281. an industrial and operational effectiveness – виробнича та експлуатаційна
технологічність – производственная и эксплуатационная технологичность;
282. a labouriousness of production and operation – трудомісткість виробництва і
експлуатації – трудоемкость производства и эксплуатации;
283. a diagnostics and failure warning system – система діагностики та
попередження відмов – система диагностики и предупреждения отказов;
284. gas dynamic and thermal calculations – газодинамічні та термічні
розрахунки – газодинамические и термические расчеты;
285. computer-assisted design systems (CADS) – система автоматизованого
проектування (САПР) – система автоматизированного проектирования
(САПР);
286. the designing terms – терміни проектування – сроки проектирования;
287. the absolute parameters of engine – абсолютні параметри двигуна –
абсолютные параметры двигателя;
288. mass of the engine M eng – маса двигуна – масса двигателя;
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289. engine’s fuel consumption per hour G f – годинна витрата палива двигуна –
часовой расход топлива двигателя;
290. engine’s mass air flow rate Ga – масова витрата повітря двигуна – массовый
расход воздуха двигателя;
291. an area of midlength cross-section Fmid – площа міделевого перерізу –
площадь миделевого сечения;
292. engine’s cost C eng – вартість двигуна – стоимость двигателя;
293. engine’s life time – наробіток двигуна – наработка двигателя;
294. engine’s specific parameters – питомі параметри двигуна – удельные
параметры двигателя;
295. engine’s specific thrust R  R / G – питома тяга двигуна – удельная тяга
sp a

двигателя;
296. engine’s specific weight γ eng  М eng / R – питома вага двигуна – удельный вес
двигателя;
297. engine’s specific fuel consumption c sp  G f / R – питома витрата палива
двигуна – удельный расход топлива двигателя;
298. engine’s front thrust RF  R / Fmid – питома лобова тяга двигуна – удельная
лобовая тяга двигателя;
299. engine’s specific cost C eng sp  C eng / R – питома вартість двигуна – удельная
стоимость двигателя;
300. thrust of primary R I and secondary RII flows – тяга (створювана в) першого і
другого контурів – тяга первого и второго контуров;
301. an air flow rates through primary G aI and secondary G aII flows – витрати
повітря через перший і другий контури – расходы воздуха через первый и
второй контура;
302. a bypass ratio m= G aII / G aI  – ступінь двоконтурності – степень
двухконтурности;
303. a specific thrust of primary RspI  RI / GaI and secondary RspII  RII / GaII flows –
питома тяга першого і другого контурів – удельная тяга первого и второго
контуров;
304. the primary and secondary flow jet nozzles – реактивні сопла першого і
другого контурів – реактивные сопла первого и второго контуров;
305. an effective efficiency – ефективний ККД – эффективный КПД;
306. a propulsion efficiency – тяговий ККД – тяговый КПД;
307. a total efficiency – повний ККД – полный КПД;
308. an effective power – ефективна потужність – эффективная мощность;
309. an equivalent power – еквівалентна потужність – эквивалентная мощность;
310. specific effective and equivalent powers – питомі ефективна і еквівалентна
потужності - удельные эффективная и эквивалентная мощности;
311. specific effective and equivalent engine masses – питомі ефективна і
еквівалентна маси – удельные эффективная и эквивалентная массы;
312. a front power – лобова потужність – лобовая мощность;
313. a total engine’s specified life – сумарний назначений ресурс двигуна –
суммарный назначенный ресурс двигателя;

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314. engine’s specified life – назначений ресурс двигуна – назначенный ресурс
двигателя;
315. engine’s guarantee period (life) – гарантійний ресурс двигуна – гарантийный
ресурс двигателя;
316. engine’s first overhaul period (life) – ресурс двигуна до першого
капітального ремонту – ресурс двигателя до первого капитального ремонта;
317. engine’s overhaul period (life) – міжремонтний ресурс двигуна –
межремонтный ресурс двигателя;
318. initial engine’s specified life – початковий назначений ресурс двигуна –
начальный назначенный ресурс двигателя;
319. initial engine’s first overhaul period (life) – початковий назначений ресурс
двигуна до першого капітального ремонту – начальный назначенный ресурс
двигателя до первого капитального ремонта;
320. a specified life of element (unit, module) – назначений ресурс деталі (вузла,
модуля) – назначенный ресурс детали (узла, модуля);
321. an useful (operating, service) life (during operation (maintenance) by technical
state) – експлуатаційний ресурс (при ТО за технічним станом)
эксплуатационный ресурс (при ТО по техническому состоянию);
322. an operation by technical state – експлуатація за технічним станом –
эксплуатация по техническому состоянию;
323. failure-free – безвідмовність – безотказность;
324. a maintenance manufacturability, a repairability – експлуатаційна
технологічність, ремонтопридатність – эксплуатационная технологичность,
ремонтопригодность;
325. an engine’s logbook (history sheet) – формуляр двигуна – формуляр
двигателя;
326. life until discarding – ресурс до списання – ресурс до списания;
327. a flight cycle – польотний цикл – полетный цикл;
328. “heavy” ratings – “важкі режими” – “тяжелые” режимы;
329. a generalized flight cycle – узагальнений польотний цикл – обобщенный
полетный цикл;
330. engine’s calendar time – календарний строк служби двигуна – календарный
срок службы двигателя;
331. the bench life tests – стендові ресурсні випробування – стендовые ресурсные
испытания;
332. the tests on flying laboratory (FL) – випробування на літальній лабораторії –
испытания на летающей лаборатории;
333. an engines fleet – парк двигунів – парк двигателей;
334. engine’s dismantling and flaw detection – розбирання і дефекація двигуна –
разборка и дефектация двигателя;
335. engine’s reliability levels – рівні надійності двигуна - уровни надежности
двигателя;
336. a margin of safety – запас міцності – запас прчности;
337. obsolescent – знятий з експлуатації – снятый с эксплуатации;
338. end use – цільове призначення – целевое назначение;
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339. life working-out – виробіток ресурсу – выработка ресурса;
340. an additional life testing – додаткові ресурсні випробування –
дополнительные ресурсные испытания;
341. a standard sources – штатні засоби – штатные средства;
342. an objective monitoring – об’єктивний контроль – объективный контроль;
343. the life’s counters – лічильники ресурсу – счетчики ресурса;
344. the ground tests – наземні випробування – наземные испытания;
345. a maximum rating – максимальний режим – максимальный режим;
346. equivalently-cyclical tests (ECT) – еквівалентно-циклічні випробування
(ЕЦВ) – эквивалентно-циклические испытания (ЭЦИ);
347. the life test programs – програми ресурсних випробувань – программы
ресурсных испытаний;
348. a generalized flight cycle (GFC) – узагальнений польотний цикл (УПЦ –
обобщенный полетный цикл (ОПЦ);
349. the airworthiness requirements вимоги норм льотної придатності –
требования норм летной годности;
350. the damageability – пошкоджуваність – повреждаемость;
351. a steady-state rating – усталений режим – установившийся режим;
352. the transient processes (ratings) – перехідні процеси (режими) – переходные
процессы (режими);
353. a typical flight – типовий політ – типовой полет;
354. a typical flight cycle – типовий польотний цикл – типовой полетный цикл;
355. a test cycle – випробувальний цикл – испытательный цикл;
356. start, full and partial acceleration, chop deceleration, shutdown – запуск, повна
і часткова прийомистість, скидання газу, останов – запуск, полная и
частичная приемистость, сброс газа, останов;
357. in-line documentation – експлуатаційна документація – эксплуатационная
документация;
358. a characterization – зняття характеристик – снятие характеристик;
359. the flight recorders – бортовий накопичувач (самописець, чорний ящик) –
бортовой накопитель (самописец, черный ящик);
360. a flight profile on altitude – профіль польоту по висоті – профиль полета по
высоте;
361. an international standard atmosphere (ISA) – міжнародна стандартна
атмосфера (МСА) – международная стандартная атмосфера (МСА);
362. altitude-velocity flight conditions – висотно-швидкісні умови польоту –
высотно-скоростные условия полета;
363. an idle rating – режим малого газу – режим малого газа;
364. a nominal and cruising ratings – номінальний і крейсерський режими роботи
(двигуна) – номинальный и крейсерский режимы работы (двигателя).

65