Introduction:

Continental movement or drift is defined as the movement of earth's continents over time. This
speculation was first put forth by in 1596 by Abraham Ortelius and developed in 1912 by Alfred
Wegener. Now this theory is subsumed by plate tectonics theory i.e continents ride earth's
lithosphere plates. According to Wegener, earth's continents were prevously part of a big single
landmass known as Pangaea.
Tectonic Activity:
The continental drift theory by Wegener was not accepted by scientists. The mechanism of how it
worked was missing. Why did they drift and patterns followed by continents. It was suggested by
him that they might moved due to earth's rotation. (It does not). We know today that continents
stand on enormous rock slabs known as plate tectonics. The continents move even today.
Examples of tectonic activity are big rift valleys and zone of seafloor spreading. Seafloor
spreading causes rise of molten rocks within earth and creates new a new seafloor at the top of
old one.It is clearly visible along great mountain ranges underwater called ocean ridges. As
oceanic crust (seafloor) gets wide, the continents on both sides move away from each other. The
places where continental landmass ripps itself apart are called rift valleys. A single continent
would emerge as two. When two plates meet and one moves below the other, this is called
subduction. Ocean crust (made of basalt) is denser then continetal crust (made of granite) so
ocean crust moves below continental crust.These three forces were significant geographic forces
behind continental drift. They were not well researched until 1960's.

Divergent Plate Boundaries:

Divergent boundaries are scattering boudaries where oceanic crust is formed in order to fill the
spaces as the plates move away from each other. These boundaries are mostly created along
ocean ridges in middle of ocean. This ridge system is a great mountain range under sea. It is
65,000 km longand 1000 km wide. It is the greated geological feature and covers 23% of surface
of earth. The crust crated at the boundary is oceanic in character (gabbro or basalt,
ferromagnesian minerals rich) formed from magma extracted from melting of mantle partially
due to decompression as mantle rock moves from bottom towards the surface. The crust forming
at seafloor scattering centres:

 Age of the crust:

Analyzing the age of oceanic crust shows that the crust is younger at the spreading centre and
gets older as we move away from the boundary in any direction.

 Sediment Thickness:
We can see through seafloor sediments and map the crust thickness and bedrock topography. The
sediments are thick near continents and almost non existent near the ocean ridge.

 Heat Flow:
The rate of heat flow is higher along ridges and lower in trench area. The higher heat flow is
correlated with convection of hot mantle upward and lower heat flow with downward
convection.

 Magnetic Reversal:
The magnetic field is not stable. It decays periodically and is re-established.

Transform Plates Boundaries:

Transfor boundaries are formed when two plated slide past one another without destruction or
production of crust material. Som of these faults connect parts of ocean ridges and some connect
continental parts of plate. They are distinguished from from strike slip faults as sense of
movement is opposite in direction. The grinding movement between the plates results in minor
earthquakes. An example is Alpine fault of New Zealand.

Convergent Plate Boundaries:

Convergent plate boundaries are formed where lithospheric plates move towards each another.
The collision of plates in this area can cause volcanic activity, earthquakes and crustal
deformation. There are three types of convergent boundaries:

i) oceanic continental boundries: When continental and oceanic boundaries collide. In this the
denser plate (oceanic) is pushed under less dense plate (continental).

ii) continental continental boundaries: When two plates with continental crust collide.The
material colliding is not subducted as it is very light. The root of the plate breaks off eventually.

iii) oceanic oceanic boundaries: When plate boundaries of oceanic plates collide. The colder
and denser plate subducts under the other.

Each of these is unique because of density of colliding plates involved.

Subduction:

Subduction is a geological process when one tetonic plate pushes under the other plate and
combines into earth's mantle. This process is not smooth in fact it causes earthquakes when
tetonic plates collide against each other. When the plates collide, heat is produced and there is
natural heat of mantle so plate melts and turns into magma. There are key characteristics of
subduction zones which help seismologist and geologists identify them.

Effects and Examples

 The mountain formation: These zones have mountain ranges due to plates subduction. e.g
Zagros mountains.

 Volcanic activity: The subduction of plate causes heat and pressure to turn it into magma.
e.g subduction area in Chile.
 Marine trenches: They indicate the creased formed by plate suduction e.g Mariana
Trench.

References:

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/continental-drift/.

https://geology.com/nsta/divergent-plate-boundaries.shtml

https://rwu.pressbooks.pub/webboceanography/chapter/4-5-divergent-plate-boundaries/

https://rwu.pressbooks.pub/webboceanography/chapter/4-7-transform-plate-boundaries/

https://geology.com/nsta/convergent-plate-boundaries.shtml

https://www.universetoday.com/43822/subduction-zone/