-0____ __

...... _.
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
;;;;;;;,,;;-;:_:-.:::..;;;.....- --- - . -. -

~ffel
4. 1 INTRODL 1 CTION

Collection of data is the most important stage of a statistical investigation. But the
[!)'ffl
W6NQKLLT86

mass of data so collected is the raw data. To make such data usable for analysis, it is
necessary that it is an-anged in some order. Orderly arrangement of data, ultimately, takes
t~e ~hap.e o~ a frequency distribution. As such the arrangement of data into frequency
~s~but~on is an equally important stage of a statistical enquiry. How is a frequency
d1stnbut10n prepared ? What are its different types ? What things must we keep in mind
while preparing it ? This chapter deals with all such questions. The answer to all these
questions w ill greatly facilitate the understanding of the contents of the chapters that
follow.
Before we study how to construct a frequency distribution let us explain a few
concepts associated with it.
Yariables
The quantity which varies in magnitude in a frequency distribution is called a
variable. For example, age, wages, prices, quantity produced. are variables forming the
basis of classification.
There are two types of variables : continuous and discontinuous ( or discrete).
Variables which are arranged in 'classes' and can take any numerical value within a
class, whether integral or fractional, are called continuous variables. Suppose there is
a class of tl0 - t20 per hour wage. Within the class wage rate can be tIO, 11, 12 and
so on or tl0.1, 10.2, 10.3 and so on.
Variables which can take only certain values, whether integral or fractional and do not
take any other value between the two variables are called discrete variables. Suppose
we classify workers earning t 10 per hour, t 11 per hour, t 12 per hour and so on. In
case of discrete variables we do not take any value between t 10 and t 11, or between
t 11 and t 12 and so on. We take only t 10, or t 11, or t 12 etc. Now suppose we
classify workers earning ~ 10.5, ~ 11.5, ~ 12.5, etc. In this case we do not take any
value between~ 10.5 and t 11.5, between t 11.5 and t 12.5, etc.
Normally, continuous variables are expressed in weights and measures and arrived
at through measuring. Discrete variables are arrived at through counting, like number
of employees, number of machines, etc.
Frequency
The number of times a value of a variable or its subgroup appears in a data series
is called "frequency" of the variable or its subgroup. The frequency indicates the
concentration of items in a series around certain values. For example, if out of data
relating to 100 workers, 30 workers earn f 80 per day, then 30 is the frequency of
workers earning f 80 per day.
Ta llying
There are two ways of arranging raw data : tallying and array. Tallying is a method
of distributing mass of raw data over different classes. In this method, first, the classes
are set up. Then each item is against the class in which it falls by a sloping or a vertical

31
 str0ke. When four such strokes have been made fifth horizont
a l Slorke is drawn through
them to represent the fifth item. It makes a bundle of five
items (\\\\ ). It makes counting in
conven ient and expendites the totalling of frequenc
ies in each class. I' Table
. 4.2' the da'1IY wage f y
o , 100 appears thrice. So frequency off 100 is 3.
An alternative to tallying is to am1nge the raw is~mg each value o_nce and noting the number of By
data into array. The method of times each value occurs, we can prepare
a requency array m the following manner (Table 4.3).
arrange ment of array is explained in section 4.2.2
below.
~~
~~
4 .2 STEPS IN CONST Rl lCT ION OF A FREQU
4 .2. l Raw Data
ENCY DI STRIBUTION
TABLE 4.3
Frequency array of data in Table 4 2
Z9Ft!RRFW85 Dail y Wage (f )
To know the various aspects of construction of a Frequency
frequency diStribution, let us take
8 simple illustration. Suppose there is a factory in whick...,2 90
0 workers 8:e employe d. I
Further. suppose that infonnation is collected about 91
the daily wages received by these I
workers . The data so collected is called raw data
and given in Table 4 .1. 94 l
95 l
TABLE 4.1
Raw data of daily wages (in ~) of 20 workers employ 96 l
ed in a factory 100 3
110 95 94 91 Ill IOI I
100 100 102 96 110 102 I
120 105 122 100 107 103 l
90 125 10 1 103 105 105 2
107 I
4.2.2 Raw O:,ta Ar r angl'd into an Ar rny 110
The raw data is an unomanised data. It is extremely 2
difficult to draw any conclusion 111 l
from this data. lt is. theref~re. necessary to arrnnge 120
the data in ~ome o_rderly manner. 1
We can give some order to this data by placing the 122
highest _magmtude (1.e., wage rate) 1
first followe d by other wage rate in descending 125
order. Or it ~an be ot~1er way round. I
Put the lowest magnitude first followed by other
magnitudes m ascendi ng order. Such Total frequen cy
an arrange ment o{data is called array. The row 20
data in Tobie 4.1 is arranged into an I
array in Table 4.2. Frequen cy array now gives somewhat better idea
of concent ration of items than a
TABLE 4.2 simple array . But, it has a limitation. lt gives an
idea of concent ration of individual
Arrays of daily wages (in ') of 20 workers employe ite~s, say number of workers earning a daily
d in a factory wage of ~ 100. But it fails to give
Array In descending order an idea of concentration of items of a group. say
Array In ascending order the number of workers earning daily
wage between ~ 100 and ~ I05, etc. This limitatio
125 110 102 96 90 100 n now leads us to the construction
103 110 of frequency distribution.
122 107 IOI 95 91 100 105 111
105 100 94 94 4.2.4 A Frequen cy Array Arrung~ d into a F~quen
120 100 105 120 ~~- Distrib ution
111 105 JOO 91 95 101 In a frequency distribution. instead of listing a single
107 122 daily wage, we list a range of daily
110 103 100 90 96 102 wages. For example, instead of listing how many
110 125 workers are earning ~ \00 per day, or
, 101 per day, etc., we list that how many workers
From the above arrays, we get information about are earning daily wage say between
the lowest doily wage (~ 90) ' 100 and , 109. In statistics such a range is called
and the highest daily wage (f 1!5). We can als~ a "class". For examp le,, 100 -
have_ some idea of the concentration ' \09 is one class. \' 110 - , 119 is another class
of magnitu des. In our illustration we arc dealing and so on. Table 4.4 and 4.5 arc
with only 20 items. Suppos e, the cxnmpl es of frequency arrays converted into fn..-quen
number of items is 200 or 2000 or 20000 or ~ven cy distribution. Let us note a few
more. If the number of items in an things about class.
array is very large, preparin ~ an ~rray may itself
be a difficult task (unless we take
4.3 CLASS
the help of the comput er). Even ,r
we a~e able_ to prepa_re on array, can we really
draw any conclus ion about the concent ration of 4.3. l l\h-uning of Class
1tcm11. It is, therefore, necessa ry thl\t
we conden se the data. This leads us to frequen A class represtnts a range of values. Daily wage
cy array. between , 100 to , \09 is a:
4 2 3 Arrav Re11rran~ed into a Fr"•1ucncy Array clnss. We write it us "l00-10 9". Like this there
can many classes of daily wage
· ·,reque·ncy mean• the number of time■ a valut appear■ In how muny classes the duta is to be divided '?
In a ierl F What should be the size of each elm
ea. or exumplo, Should every cluss have the same size'?
J2 -

33
 lions. u uu .,.._t""_ •• _.., "'" ' U l~ nature
I these ques ·cal details of all the
. answer to ol_ to the technl nings of the termsquestion s re\ an4 . .
There is no un1Q~e will no_t go ';,_plain the mea associated at,ng (I ) Exclusi ve Cta,~e, : An 1llustrat1on of frequency distribution with exclusive classes
compositio~ of
to "classes ' bu
~a~:,~will definite!)' . asses and frequencies a~sociated .
With is as under:
F reque ncy d·stribu
I tion with e,i:closi ve classes
. Table 4.3) ,nto ~lstribution as an 1l\ustrat1on
classes. . he datll (1n . frequenc)' to ex ~''.h Class I Freque ncy l
Let us organise \i then use ~11s
These classes are exclusive ct a,n
these classes. We wt t rn1s associate d with class~S-f n is explain ed in the section ~sse, .
The distioc to 50 - 100 I 5
the meanin_gs of :~~11 ~nclusive classes. .3.3
100 - 150 7
as distingUJshed
f th. chapter. 4 4 150 - 200 8
o ,s
Ti\BLE · 2 o worker s
f in factory
"bution of dail)' wages o No of Worker
Frequen cy distr•
s I 200 - 250 10
I
(i.n t) . 3 How do you identify? Note that upper limit
oailY Wages of a given class lS equal to the lower ~ t
90 - 95 of the next class. This is identification. Also
note that item with value 100, ~ an '=;amp
2 is included both in class ' 50-100' and class
' 100-15
~d
double counting item with value I 00 is not counted 0'. This is double countm g. ~ avm
95 - JOO 6
100 - J05 in class •50- 100' and counted only m c ~
' 100-150 '. So, any item equal to the upper
limit
J05 - JIO is why such classes are called exclusive classes. value is exclude d from cl~- This
Now we can define an exclUS1ve class.
110 - 115 0
115 - 120 The class which includes items with values
2 greater than or equal to the
lower limit but less than the uper limit is
120 - 125 l called an £.1dus ive Cbss.
125 - 130 ----
20~ - - - 1 For example, class 50-100 includes items
with value 50 or greater than 50 but
than 100. less
(ii) Inclusi ve Classes : An illustrat ion
. f Classes of frequency distnlru tion with inclusiv e
. 'bution should have? The basic principle is as under: classes
4.3.2 :\umber o classes a frequency d1st'.1h
be very large nor very small. If it~ Frequen cy distribu tion with inclusiv e
. H~wt h::~ber of classes ~hou~d- nei~f e;t daMes
15 is very small we loose_ details which
thalar e we tend to loose s!IDP! 1c1~~eren ces. Class Freq11ency
Anothe r factor which we should
: ; be \ery important ~o~ drawmgt \he JO - 19
numbe r of classes is that there should 3
k y •n mind while dec1d10g abou fr 20 - 29
cies For examp le, as we move from 4
:~\~ too many big jumps in th e,, ;:ueieq 30 - 39 5
u~ncy sudden ly falls from 3 to O.
~lass " 110 - ll5" t~ "ll5 - : 40 - 49
~g :e classes . Instead of 8 classes (as in
We can remove these Jump~ by 1 £ ii .
4.4) we can have 4 classes m the o owm g manner (as in Table 4.5) .
iabk Note that the upper limit of a class differs
This is how you can identify the inclusiv
from the lower limit of the nex.t class.
e class. There is no double countin g of items.
TABLE 4.5 Unlike exclusi ve classes, an inclusiv e class
include the item with value equal to the
Frequ ncy distribution of daily wages of 20 upper limit of the class. This is why such
e worke rs in a factory classes are called inclusiv e classes. Now
can define an inclusive class. we
No. of Workers
Daily Wages ~) \
The class which include s items with values
equal to or greater than the lower
90 - 100 5 limit but 'less than or equal to' the upper
limit is called an Inclusive C\ass.
100 - llO
110 - 120
120 - 130
Total

4.3.3 Inclusive Classes vs. Exclusive Classes

9
3
3
20

.
1
Althou gh inclusiv e classes do not lead to
betwee n one class and another. For examp
jump from l 9 in the first class to 20 in the
what happen betwee n \ 9 and 20. How
calcula ting certain types of averag es like
_J
types of diagram s, like bar diagram . For
classes . We need equalit y betwee n upper
double countin g, it lead to discont inuity
le take classes \0-\9 and 20-29. There
second class. No inform ation is given about
is the roundi ng done. This creates proble
median and mode and also in drawin g certain
this we need continu ous classes as in exclusi
limit of a class and lower limit of the
d'fferentt class. For making inclusi ve classes usable for calcula
m
is

in

ve
next
There are two types of classes : Inclusive and ting
exclusi ve. Let us explain the 1
avemg es and diagram s, there is a need certain types of statisti cal
between the two. for conver ting inclusi ve classes into exclusi
classes . The method of doing so is explain ve
ed below.
34 35
 lu\i\ e cla.,, es.
¢ into e,c
. clu\i' t c1a,
~h:th od of con,e .
r1inl! in
\\'hich equals: Uftc: t 1,n Ca ltul~ ti,,n ,,f \•tra
1bc main sicps arc- _,. ... ,..,,eo i'='
( 1) [)ctefl tllOC th( auJ=u ..
~
t ,-atue

\ ~~c~~
er IUT111 of 1ll:P!)Cf
lunit of-1
- lhc fu,t c\a!>S
Only da\\ limits chan ie .,.hen
There fore, calculation of ,.111Jy
inclu<,1ve c\a<,o;e<; are conv erted
tlv11oe a-.er ai~ is affoc ted v.-hk
mto exc l~-~ cla!.!>.
h use cl.a» lmnt s _as_a
varia ble in calcu lation . f,,r a.am
~2 ple. calculati'.111. of m'".Aian a~.d
as a variable. There fore. i11du\i,·c mode use claM limit s
d:tff n 111~ be ~er ted i•to
. ed. from
tower limits of ~It the c\a.,;Sl,. f..~ calcu lating medi an and mode n dmn·c daH el ia
usunenl ,·atue. so obta~ elusive classes . Same applie\ 10 bar diagr ams
become true lo....-e r lirnt eu:.
C!I Subtract adJthe tower tunits Calcu lation of mean de~ not
of the ~ t of all the classes. After u,;e c~s limi~ as a "·anab tc.
adjustmc,-nt ,.• I need to convert inclu sh·c clafl lbere fore. dleff ii -
adJusunen1 . lue ft i11to nch nin cm. n ia cakw
13) Add ad~.c nnent , a to the upPCf •rrue u pper limit s'. latiol l of meaa.
J...,-- -. tusi\·e etas ¢ t,ecOllle v,.,,. 4.3.4 Cla\\ Limi t
limits of the roe Class limits repre sent the lowe
st and the highe st value of an
[\arr .pit class. In an inclu sh·e clas1
a class
itan inc\n ded in that
;ne table.
Refer to the follO\\ - Derh ·ed Ei clush·e Cla\\t\
limit but less than or equal to the ir.c l~ all "'aiue-; equal to or greau :r than kw-er
UppeT limit. In ao ndm
values equal to or great er than n-c daM . a class inclu des all
5ffi2I ~o. of cbSS (adjustme nt ,·alue =IJ.s, the k,,,.er limit but ~ mao
the exclu sive class is 10-20, the upper- limit. Suppose
it should be read as -1t}- unde
9.5 - 19.5 r 1Jf'.
If a frequ ency distributioo is in
19.5 - 29.S inclu sive claMes. il may beco
to conv ert it into exclu sive me oec.e ssary some times
c~sc . by maki ng adjustmem
29.5 -395 (Sect ion 4.3.3 J. Such a coir,e in the mann er exp\ained ~ e
rsion chang es the limit of the
in calcu lating certa in avera ges class es.
39.5 - 49.S like merlian, mode, qoartiles., e:le. Tiris oeces.sity arises
\ • __ __ an essential pan of meth od ,-her e class limiis are
o_ __ of calculation .
ds inclusive classes. ~e ri~t ban~
Toe left band side of the table ~ecor side ttu.x<:t 4.3.5 .'.\lid-point of a Class
adjustment. Tue derivation 1s done
dem·ed exctusi\·e classes after roakiJ m thre e~ Why do we need to calculate
lg mid-p oint? We can explain ,ith
In our illustration {Table 45), the the help of an exam ple.
find adjustment value class ·too - lfJIT bas a frequ ency
fa) To means 9 workers get daily wage of 9 'iiOIXers. h
. . lt:ppcr limit of1 rangi ng from t 100 tot lf.J9.
f u,v;er hJTUt possess any other detai l abou t this ~ we do not
l second classof 1 - first class getting t 101, and so on. In this
range . i.e_ bc,v.- many are g
~ t \ 00, bow many
Adjusunent •;alue == situation there is no ahan ame
2 workers are evenly spread in but to as.some that
the range oft \00 to t 109.
~ rate we take the mid-point of As a representative 'lll>"olge
- ==0.5 the class -100 - 109. h is also
calle d -..v alae ' . TIie
- 2 mid-point is needed for drawing
graph s and cakularing a·verage
. How do we calculate a mid nlue s.. etc.
ent OS from lower limit of a\\
(b l)educ:t value of adJustm · the classes. of a class'! We ooorin the mid
J • by adding the lower limit and nlue of a class
u limit of all the classes. the true upper limit and ifuid ing
(cJ .Add value of adJustment 0.5
(Sou: If lower limit of_~ m~lu
.'° I>:is zero and if value of adjlJSIJld
by 2.

s1ve (~) with br~ckets. Brackets Mid-point of a class = True Lowe

is 0.5, the derived true hm1t will indicatt iii T limit + True l'ppe r limit
derived value be ignored and taken be . 2
as zero for the purpose calculating 3\~
etc.} For example, the mid- point of
class ·100 - no- is equal to 105 ( 100 + 1\0~
Now, we can point out the signi 2
\.=- --- J·
Uftc t ,,f Con,·tni4,n
fa) The effect of conversion
· and •P~ limit of each clas1
. .
of inclusive classes mto exclusive las is tbal
c ~beCOmes c\at
'°'
it is assumed that mid-point
For example, t \ OS is taken as
ficance of mid-point. la mak ing
(or mid- nlue ) is the value
furth er comp utati ons
of each item in a clau .
change. For example, class l 0-l the daily wage of each of the 9
.. 100 - 110". This mid-point assum work er.; in the class
ption is used for calculating a,·era
9.S-19.5. etc., and drawing frequency graph ges, dispersion,
(bJ There is ao effect on daH inter . - - of true lower limits s. Rem embe r, the mid point is calculated on
val. It was '20-10 = 10' befor and not the actua the basis
e adJUS l limits. Also remember that actual limit
' 19.s-9.S .. 10 after adju!l1ment. exclusive class are the true limit
s, but the actual limits of an inclu s of an
~ true limits. In case of inclusive sive class arc not the
(c) There it no effect on mid value ~::: 14. 5bC (as expla class, actual limits must first be
of a class. It was ined in Section 4.3.3) before using conv erted into true limits
2 in calculation of averages, CIC.
. tmen and 9.S+ 19.S 14 S fter
adJus t - -- = . a .
adjustment.
2
31
36
 ~ ~--..,·---- ----- ~
., 'Cl ', "'" i•111I ' ·111--,·•
11 1
:1111•11-t•111 I l'IMNN INII duo llll'k: ~, ::~::,::;:;,, : 111
II 111111,,,. 1h11 l11 w1•MI lll' 1h11 hlf!.li1•MI ,1111""
'l\1hl11 •I ..~, lhi• 1'
1
't •;::°ii : IIO" II'
I lh1111 f I ;10·1 '1' 1111 II IHIWIII ' " 17 ' 11 11 w 1111111y w,,rk i, , . IHC llllrllllljl
f I Il l'/ '1'111• 1111NW1•1 IN 111111 1111 1h11 'i.lJ w,,,k 1,r 11 ,
1h11l y Wlll!r' ,,r lr.1111 1l11111
' .A n
iw 1i,,1h ,•11 11 I>\• lh1• ,11w11 ,•1111 ,·l11:c~1•N, ,,
• I " I1111 II' lwh• w" !11•1•111111·"' ,111 , I
, 11•11,1•111 l1•d l•l11HII, Hl11ill11 1'1 y, ,,, f!. ''"' vi"""•
" 11 1"'' ' l11•11111tll'" 11 11 11111•11 ,,11i l11d ul1111H,
I •I l ,• I 1 111 l' 1 11·1•11 111 w 11 11•,I\

1." \1'1\:~ICl'I Ill( I " I 'II 1111d 1111111'1' I I 'l'h11 lh •q111111l'l l111 111 '1'11 lil u '1.(1 111 11 e111 prt<N11i-tl on 11l,. ol11tc: h11 11111 , I lic11c c 1111 11 1•11 he
1,1',. " l .'ll t Ill" 11· t'~ l'"'~l(\1 d IIIC • 1 1•d. II '" 1t11111111111
11 1, II " llljlllHMlhl1, 111 111·11111111 h1tl Coll Jllll'(!lllll ltHll h1tNl11. Huell 1·1111111l111ivr. lrr''lllc:'111 y '" 111k r 11 ltll pc-fLt"IIIIIJlC, or .. ,,11 1
I I11
As Int' tis ,,,,~Nlb lr, ,,,,,•11• l ,. "' '
1' 11 H 1•I( " " ' "' ' ltl' IIV''
I 11v111111, or 1111 111' 1
' 11 11
111 I l\ III HH. '1'1 IIH IJl'1Jltl11H ► 1111111h1J I' 111' l\•11q1111m·lu11, 1.u., ;,O 111 ,11 1r lll 11111r11111111 , 'I h,m:lorc, c1111111l1111vc trc;,p1c:m;y I,
C'S lnbh~h 1hr llf'l'C'I' limit nnd ,•,1t11(t'q111•1,111: .,:,:~,:::, ;,, n,1 p11•H1•111111h111111<1." i.:111l'111itl l11~ IIVlll'1tp.11H, will ho 1, '¼, 111' :W, I.Ik e 111111 wu c 1111 (•1111vc r1 11 ll c1111111l111l vc rrc1j111•ndc11 into rwrt·c11t111tc, ,
""'"'t'lll~ Ill l\111h1•r 1'\llllllllllllhllllC 11ml ,",';:r ,ht':Cl' jll'llhll•tll Nlhl' Hl1t llHl(1111 I ''."'llHI1~111:11· h1tH1111 Hou 'l'11 hl o 11 ,7,
,trn win1,1 n~urm•,· 1,1m11hs, t'l1'. I\, 11 " ,, 1t il:cMl1t1,1 ll111 II 11 1 1h11l.111:cH. I 111 llll lltl tpl~
1 1111 I AIIU .l .7
t1 lll'n1t1li\'I' but 11, ;111,i..r :c~:mt' ns:c11111111 ~1,11/:,:';::111t1 uppot· 11111 11 IIHtho :c111111;1 llHor l11HI ul1tHH,
l'1•fl'l'ltl or workH• n rulna .. , ,,n tn•cl
1hr dnss" t :o lltlll nl11wt' , lht' l(lttllNlk 1111
Ill' IIIO l'I•", 11 1111 l'Hr n ltt l,I "•11N· lll1•tl o r ' """ chilly """'
. 1·1'1:n t WN C'\ IHS'l'IUII IIT ION - -
.,.,. ('l 1 \U: I \I l' .. ' ... l)ull y W tt l(II (t ) t•,·rn nt ur wurlu·r. r11r 11 111 a
,.,. I Nd"n to th,• ·~·uhh• ~-~ . . ,wi n 111111 how nttiny wot·kurH HOI u dul ly, wugo or •nln1 ,pl'cln_.d or '""
t•:11 rnh1 1( • 111·rllh·II or mu rr ~t.11r
s111 ,r,,~r.
we nrt' 111lt'l'C'~ tt'd III km ll_ h ,vo tu mid 11to l)•uq11011cloH ol tho lll'HI
'- I T ut'l lht' ll ll SWC..I WO
umkr ( I I Cl 1111d ,,c 11w, -~' ,. ..
tw\l classt's i.e .. "~0 11~0 11 11 1 100 110
~
I
Tho tolul co1110H to 14 (= 5 ·I- 9) , It 11101111"
: lll' t;ndcr If I09 nml bulow. Frol!ttun~ioll ox1iroHHo(I
90
100
100
~~ - II
- -- -
- - - - - 75 - - - ~ - - - - - 2~ · · - - -
thnl 14 workl"r.- arc itcll'.:'ll ditt ly ':~ll frl't ucnclcs". II' we go on _ndl~lllg l1·oquuncloMIn 11 0
- - -- ~ - - - _ J() 70
11111111 1
in this wny arc cn l_lcd , c.~ ~, he cuilnul utivo 1i·cquc1tcy distr1but1011. Lui us convcrl
thi s munncr wh:tt "t' get ts enlieu 1 , , •
Tuhle 4.S into II cumu lnlivc fre4uc11cy d1stnbut1on.
T,\nl,E 4,1,
.__ ___ 120
1:10 .._____
15
__________
()
----- ---
--- --
.
115
l{HI
---·---
--
Sourto : Derived rrom "f11ble 4.t>.
Workers lo • f11cCory eurnlng spcclllcd dully wugc or more, In fitcl, J)l'llHentulion on purco11111gc busis is more u~c ful for muking cumpun~on
a
nd earning less thun spccllled dully wugc purticulurl y when lotul num ber ol' frequencies is lur1:1c, II ul~o makes the cun!\tructilln
of frcqu uncy gruphMmore convenient.
Daily Number of workl•rs l'Hrnln~
,uJ?e <') - POINTS T O REMEMf\ER ...-:::::=:==========---====-----
Indicated d~ - -----.;s~ n lndlc11tcd
dully w11gc
wage or more • The main steps In the construction of a frequency distribution •~ :
20 0
90 - Arrange the raw data Into an array In ascending or descending order.
15 5
100 - Arrange the array Into a frequency array.
6 14
JI0 - Arrange the frequency array Into a frequency distribution , I.a., Into classes and the frequencies of these
3 17
120 classes .
0 20
130 • A class represents a range of values.
source : Tnble 4,5,
• The number of classes should neither be vary large nor vary small. If It Is very large we loose slmpllctty.
A cumuJative frequency distribution can be prepared on "more than" basis or on
If It Is very small we loose details.
"less than" basis.
• The class limits are the lowest and highest values th at can be Included In the class. Interpretation of 1
4.4.2 On "more than" Basis . f T0 blc class depends on whether data Is rounded off or not rounded off.
The distribution on "more than" basis is presented in the second column ° • The size of class Interval equals the distance from one lower limit to the next lower limit.
this frequencies are cumulated downwards. It answers questions like : How
4·6· In • · 6 H0 w many
many workers are earning daily wage of ~ 110 or more? The a~swer ts · • Mid-point of a class :::: True Lower llmlt + True Upper llmlt
2 .
workers are earning daily wage of~ 120 or more? The answer ts 3.
• An open-end class Is a class lacking one limit.
4.4.3 On "Jess than" Basis . . ulutcd
• Cumulative frequency distribution records frequencies on "or more" and on "less than" basis.
It is presented in third column of Table 4.6. In this, frequencies are cum f 1 ,5
O
upwards. It answers questions like : How many workers are earning daily wage es
39
38
 E R C IS E S ,:::;==--
LE X

S TI O N S
tl O IC E () llf .:
/\l (I J T IP U ,: C
l• t•n d of t·, ,·r
ds ,• s) :
. , (ll lt•·st io ns .
(A ns ,n•r·s nf fh . w m g
fo llo be r
{ . . , w os t• lh t• t·ctrTt't'f nl h' rn
:1 fin• in f h t•
• stn'b ut·w n ~h
·
ould have l (b ) S m al l nu m
rn;y d1 (b ) N o t m o re
th an l 0.
cl as se s a frcquL•
I. l fo w m an y
(a) ~nrge numbt:'r all number
la rg e nor very sm it
-{cJ N ci th cr very
1
s : (b ) 1lig h cr li m
cl as s w hi ch la ck nh ov e
2. A n 0pL'n en
d class is th e (d) N on e o f th e
(a ) .L ow er lim it er lim it
er lim it or hi gh
\.( C) E ith er lo w ee n :
s in te rv al is th e di st an ce be tw
J. Th~ si ze o f clas o f th e sa m e cl as s
an d hi gh er limit lim it o f th e ne xt
class
( 3) L ow er li m it class an d lo w er
(b ) H ig he r lim it o f th e
li m it o f th e ne xt
class
d lo w er
. (c ) L ow er lim
it o f the cl as s an
ab ov e
(d) N on e o f tl1e by pl ac in g th e er
rr ay ' gi ve s so m e or de r to da ta he r m ag ni tu de s in de sc en di ng o rd
4. ~A w ed by ot in as ce nd in g o rd
er
ni tu de first fo llo tu de
(a ) H ig he st m ag r m ag ni (b )
N ei th er (a ) n o r
by ot he
ow es t m ag ni tu de first fo ll ow ed (d )
(b )/ L
(b )
Jc ) B ot h (a ) an d
-1
R Q C I: ST IO ~S
S H O R T A-'.S \ \T in ab ou t 60 w or ds
.
in g qu es ti on s
ncy distribution.
e fo !l ow
A ns w er th o f a freq ue
s in constr uc tio n
1. State the step y distribution.
2. Differentiate between a frequency
ar ray and a frequenc
las&inter~al. ~
0
~ ~-TJ\I ILES
PRESE NTAT IONOF DAT .
increased from 17 to 146.3 million tonnes, i.e., by about

ln this way, tables are very useful for making comparis

5.3 TYPES O F TABLES
more than 8 times. We also fi nd
that per capita availability increased from 124 to 322 grams
per day, i.e., almoSt doubled.
ons.
~
It is also necessar y to organise a Broadly, there are two types of tables : (a) the reference iii~
RP65LGZ
5 I INTROD UCTION tables and (b) the text tables.
·s not enough . b made for analysis, for compan nd The reference tables are also called general tables.
. Simply collection of data ~at its use can eds a formal A reference table is a store
presentat ion of dat:o~ house of information. Such tables give detailed informati
resent data in such a roannfierdings. lo other wor tlc organisat on arranged for ready reference .
P . . . significant n ion of data. IS Reference tables are usually very extensive and spread
ean systeroa over many pages. These tables
for h1ghltghtmg al presentation we ID are often placed in an appendix or form a separate part
presented : (i) tables and (ii) graph of the statistical report. For
necessary. By fonn 11
. which data can rorrna ~on. example, Economic Survey (Government of India) has
s. a separate section of more than
There are two ways meal with tabular presenta 80 tables spread over 120 pages.
lo this chapter we will d Text table are also called Summary tables. Summary
tables are compara tively
5.2 WHAT IS A TA BLE? smaller in size. Such tables are usually derived from the
[!]~[!] reference tables and are confined
Meaning of a Table to only one or a few findings of the statistical study.
~ 5.2 •1 . . of data in columns and rows. Take, for Text tables are simple and easy
to understand. These are called text tables because they
2MU1COH27 A table is a systemati•c o;g amsatioD T
t Indian economy : ( abl e 5. 1) discussion. Table 5.1 is an example of text table.
form an essential part of text
example the following table a ou E 51
'
Milk Production an
TABL · ...
d Per Capita Avadab1hty
Per capita availability -
5.4 PARTS OF A TABLE
5.4.1 Introduction
There are many parts in a table. There are some parts
which must be presented in
001
'-· .
00:,
Milk production all tables. There are other parts which may or may not
HGUYSE

(million tonnes) (grams/day) be presented in a table.

Year The parts which must be presented in a table are: (l)
17.0 124 title, (2) stub, (3) box head
or caption and (4) body ·or field. The parts which may
1950 51 or may not be presented (5)
20.0 124 table number, (6) bead note, (7) footnote and (8) source
1960 61 note. Given below is a table in
112 which all the eight parts are present. Stub in this table
22.0 has been sub divided into stub
1970 71 head and stub entries.
31.6 128
1980 81 5.4.2 Format of a Table
53.9 176
1990 91 A format of a table with all the parts is given below
:
80.6 220
2000 01 5.4.3 Explanation of Parts of a Table
84.4 225 Let us now describe each part of the format.
2001 02
121.8 227 (1) Table Number : A statistica l report may contain
2010 11 many tables. Each table must
322 be clearly marked so that it can easily be identified
2014 15 146.3 . Table number is essential ly an
identifica tion mark of the table.
Source: Economic Survey, 2015-16
. (2) Title : The title of the table must be complete d
in all respects. It must answer
year. Col~ 2 re~ds ~
There are three columns in the table. Column l reads the questions what, where and when in that sequence
production during each year. Column 3 reads per capita . For example , in Table 5.2 the
availabil ity of lDllk dunng eac title answers the three questions in the followin g manner
year. There are nine rows. Row l gives informat ion :
about the year 1950-5l, row 2 What : Populatio n covered with drinking water and
about 1960-61 and so on. sanitatio n facilities .
Where : In India.
5.2.2 Use of a Table When : During 1985 to 1998.
In what ways is the table useful to us? The data in a table is ted
so systemat ically pr~s_en f (3) Head note : A head note is a statemen t below
that we can quickly locate the desired information. Suppose the title which clarifies the
, we want the latest positlo~ contents of the table. For example, the head note
in Table 5 .2 clarifies that for each

gr~:
milk productio n in India. We simply have a look at the
last row and we find that total
productio n in 2014-15 is 146.3 million tonnes and per
capita availabil ity i~ ~22
day. Now suppose, we are interested in knowing about
the change in position dunng .
last 65 years. For this, we simply compare the first and the
last row. We find that producuon
year the figure relates to 31st March.
(4) Stub : The stub is further subdivid ed into two parts
: stub head and stub entries.
The stub head describes the nature of stub entries.
A stub entry labels the data found
in the row of the table.

42 43
 •/~-, - .,, :~ "'~ "'" ,,._~-
... ~,,
,,, l"A ~ t• /,!_;,,I ~

..,: •,,,,, r,, ~.....,.~~ ' ""' ,-',e-_

,.~ ,,,, •,-,,., ,
, -~-. " -1 ..,...-w1\

.w.. ,,,,,. .... ~ ••,., •'"'

, ~.. -

. -•.-(•"'~"''"""···
,,,.,rrll

~ •• ,.... ,,,_~ ,,, ,,,,11J

J
'hJ,'4,
'f i l lt,

Htlfd
",rrr,,f~I t-t'f'9f!I 114 - \-f.a,rt It J I J J ni,tt
·- - -- - -- - - -Yi:-;t_a_r- - - - - 7 j f',(JX ff1:ad
1,.-l'nl~- -J•J'J(j- -JIJ'/5- -Jl)(J!J
(t:,timattd)
l
J
Column

~ - --- +-- --- -7 Head

footnutc:
r~m,m~ ''-';st~ \;_r,Y,l!y i Source note.
P.:ll'a1 S(,.3 73.9 isvs 92.5
! 9'1.2 ('!!,
5.4.4 Precautifln \ in (:l)n,1rul."t111n ,,fa lAn~
1!3.IS M .3
WO '.::-"'11l i 72.9
Body
There i~ no Jtrictly fixed fonr.at of a ta:-::.:. r.~...--:-~
I.') "AA .,f ~""'·•· .. t', •:u.;;o ;an be
S,an,!s-JiJf'l f ~ihhes exercised by the ,tat1stician pan1CUlarl) m the ar.-m.?~ of ~ - ~,-
l:..t~ ~ colunm
Jr llfal ,,.1 2.4 3.6 iu• heads and body. W hat paT11CUlar arrangemen t~ fof,l.,,.ed 111,11 de-;,end
-.ipon fint. die
t:r+r.sn 2l(.4 45.9 49.9# 49.3~ nature of data and 5'Ceond. the ~ of pr~tauon. T!-ic mam ;nccnoo
'-"' that ?able
must be ea-;y to fo llow by the u.-.a of data. To m.:,:t thl'.\ requirem.:m
. !he ,uau:stic\311
must keep in mind cenain points ~hile construcnng ;i tao1c. ~ 1re
JS iolLo...w~ :
~-At.0031.3.19'13.
Wrth g,,..·emmc:ot initiative under CP..SP, !vNP. JP.Y and JAY. (i) State c:learl)· and place appropriate ~ the title : Ti< ~: 1e of ~b:
ut-!e is the
first thing which user of a table r ~ . The utle coo.,~s 11ohal miormauon
-a. AHlfl 3l.3.J9'17. is contained
Foot_,. · ~ ; ,,, figurei for rural wateoupply and sanitation are b-.tsed on census If in the table. Therefore, it must be cle-MI) stated. T~n: ~ I J be no :unb,guny.
popu a ion. h must
state what (the nature o f data l, ~ hcre 1.1bout ~~-..n1 anJ "'hen ,~:me
(iiJ figure, for urtY.sn water ,upply and sanitation are based on current populauon. penod1. It must
be placed at the top o f th"· table anJ is cente red.
(II) Amid 11bbre,·iatio n1 : Do 001 u..-.c: abbrcn.llle>n s ~ ~ •all) in titles and
beadings.
Soaru i Sot,ru: Minii.trie~ 1Jf kural Development and Urban Development. (Government of For example. --pop." should not be u..'<\1 for --p._,r ulauvn" m Uk! title
of Table 5.2. Also,
"Yr." should not be used for ·-year" in Uk! b..l:\ ~Jd in the s.ame table.

l
fodiaJ . . f
aow a1> qulJtt:.d in f-..clJnomic Surv~y 1999 - 2'100, fa;~nomic Divi1;ion, Ministry 0 (lll) l Jse the singular lo be11diogs.. "'bene,er possible : Fur e:\ample,
in the box
,,f
finana, Government lnd1a, Ch. H, Page 177, fable J0.8. head of tabll: 5.2 use --year" and l\l)t -~car..". Smularl:, , in the stub
h~d use ..item"
nnd not "items" .
(h·) Do not use iuo to indic1ue that informatio n is not llvailable
: When
informutiun is Olli av.iibllk citht•r use shl,n form "n.a." or simply dash l-). Zero should
hi! used only for tcro quantity. Do not kave the space blank if the quantity
is zero,
llStl () (ll'fll) ,

44 45
 •J11•~
. 11 ,~ ;ii"<''." i,.,, ~-.1J
in """~ - ·- · ...,,.~\\ 11h 1,, ~
head ma) be funhe r , 1i,
= ~,. h<'•d . r'•'· th<: . fa.:h ,'<l 1II
11111 11 1 ,, ._ ..
Cc- • f,,r c,a111 ti-:aJ, . l\1,1t,. ~ r h<..,e f,..-,,n,,•~q -1rc
r ,~ t•ttk- • ' . ~cr1 help( ,1 fr-.,r •he ;Kh1c1I u--cr, of'. ,t,e dar.a.
,.,,Jurflll . the numerical informatio n
o .,,.,, toe rn-111~ It contains \ (JII <,otlrt"f' ft<lf~ : t\
_
all<I '.11., Vo<JrCI! "r-P'!•'•II-!~ frn,n .,,, ..,eT'! •)',c d;,)ta -.,cre ()Q'.31tlCd. f01"f
~ · icJndJ- c•ample. 1'1 r-1hle ~ 2 rt--e
·•~ ,1;i1,1 ,:r, rq,,-,,-,J ·n •h'! •ah!e ... ~~ ""t,~1r-ed
sul--~;JJ,; , . It •~ al;;..' ,al e the b<)ttom of the table. It elatifi frr,m ~1mi,;tnes 0
Rural l>e,cl,,pme n, Jnr1 I . -+.·,n r~-.-~1,,pr-;,--, , r f r ,,,•·=me-ir -,f
14'1 ~ - ~~ ,n a tat-I~ ,~ rl:i,cd ~t- fl!ncc mark is also found 1 Indra 3.0d th•~ mt1TC table
in the tn ·t\ "- ,~ picked up frr,m f:u,n--,<TJ1c <,,,r,-:--,. t"~I', _ :r1'//) <;ra1.:~e-nt
of s.nurce ~ usc,-
mc5'1 <'I th<: -. tt . fl.,.,lfl"t• t•hle- 11s f':te_ the last entry of column
of th,
c• fc,Clll'I:,. ~•rt of cbe i« also there•~ actually belongs to the Year •1ri ·"- of the data to ch~k 1he fnure« fr,,.;,
!he or ,r.ar, ,. ., 1r.;e ¥.d ~rbly ~ addiuonal
specifk it~ j-...,tn<-.ie m.1Ji. ~-ficure of 49 -Table 5.2, there are as many a\
1i1:•r :,; mfnrmat,on . The •llateme,; ,,f •he "'"Jr·:e ,.,u~; ',e cr.mo1etc m
<1il ~~ h.11.e bllc.
f.:,r ~arr.Pl-=- :1anrie5 matt lll-a table. In 5 1-.,_ ;3 ed1t1on. puhlF,her. chaprer. p:iize. table numb-!r. ~c It rict~ •he
'.J5C'I' m qutekJ-y locating

Tbl~
.-:an be
f.,._-.w,.,te .._
~ thaJ1 .~
ft)(!
tO<JtnOte
T\B
LE ~.2
'"A:,.
1 l
atilt
~
the pnmary ,ource. A ,1mple fonnat r,f a :a,,lc ., ~--!n ·n T.iole
r \P,I t 5 J . F-► rmdl •• , i
5.3
r .. :-i•~
~Urtiht,
T.thle wi

pc,p11latiOII co•~
red"';th ono
. l{iog Water a od
.
facilities in 1o d1 a.
lj lahlt
litlt
Trile
Hc:ad :v,te
5ag_iUOO■ . I 985 to J998
dDnDg Bn,H.,ltd ,_..... ,
Siub H nd 'i-- C.
H°' cc,,·ersge
as oo March 31 ) 1Head
nott
- ol_u_m_n_J_l ~-ad
- - -C.- 'tl
_u_m_A_ H-.,ad
- - -,:::...__...-_-,..- ..- H
-~- ---
C-.,..
- -- -. -n~
H id :
(Per«:f'---
Year ) BoxH~ Stub

Std
lie-'
1995 1998
(Estimated ) 1 Colu 1111
Hta11
Entries
Bocfy •~eic11

l~
Footnote
_ : [)rinking waxer supply 82 .8 92.5 Source note.
56.3 73.9
Rural 72.9 83.8 84 .3 90.2 @ 5.4.4 Preca ution \ in Con, tructioo r,f a T• hk:
5t11b C:rban There is no strictly fixed format of a table. Thae is 3 lot of :k.-ub1lit)
"'hich can be
~ . Rural
sanitation facilities
0.7 2.4 3 .6 8. 1* exercised by the statistician panicularl) 1n the .srrang1..-mcnt of ~b.
heads and body. What particular arrangemen t is
bo~ heads, column
followed w•ll de?end upon first. the
28.4 45.9 49.9# 49 .3@
nature of data and second. the purpose of pre,.ema1:un. The main
C:rbao cntenoa is that table
must be easy to follow by the u:,er of data. To m.:e1 tht5 ~ui.remen
t, the statistician
must keep in mind certain points ..-. hik con.,~tm ~ a tabk.
Thc-.e are as follows :
,: Ason3JJ.J9'JJ. JRYand JAY. (i) State clearly
; W!!h gr1vemment initiative under CRSP, MNP, and place a ppropriate ~ tbe title : ~ title of the table is the
fi rst thing which user of a table rea<ls. Tb.: title 1:00,e~s ..-.hat inil.)nnat1o
n is contained
: ~ As<.11131.3.19'/7. I d sanitationa rebasedon censuspopulm in the table. Therefore, it must~ dearl)· ,;tated fhit:rit: ,;hould ~ no ambiguity. lt must
( f' gures for rural water supp Y an state what (the nature of data), v.here laboul -.hom) and ..-,·~
f.....-U ~-: IJ ' 1
I and sanitation are based on current popu• \urne period). lt must
L (iiJ figures for urban water supp Y · be placed at the top of the table anJ is centered.
(II) A,·oid abbreviation~ : 0v 01.)t lL-.C ;1bbre.,.iations ,;:specially
in titles and headings.
For example, "pop." should not ~ lL,1..'\l tor --pupulauo n" in the
M,tlrU
S.,.ru: Mini!itries of Rural Developme nt and Urban Oeve 1opm cnl . (GovcmmClll1' title of Table S.2. Also,
" Yr." should not be u~,:J for "")'ear" in the bo, h,:aJ m the same
table.
Jr.diaJ • Division Min11U) J (Ill) U!ie thl" !linguhtr in he1ulings. "b~o~nr possibl~ : For e~ample,
~ quoted in Economic Survey J 999 - 2000, Economic ' in th e box
finance, Government of India, Ch . 8, Page 177, Table I O.S. head of table 5.2 ll"e ')'car" anJ Ullt ")ears". Similarly. in the stub bead
use "item"
and not " items".
(Iv) Do not u~t lUO to lndk11te that informati on is not a~ai\ab\e
: When
infor111a1iun is nut available eitho:r use shun fonn ~n.a." or simply dash~-).
Zero should
be ust>d only for Ll'm quantity. Do nut kave the space blank
if the quantity is zero,
use O (1cm) .

45
44
 (, I Re- ~ n'l:ktt<nl 111 ni llnJ: It nilin~ ,~
oo the .--•thcr ~11.k h,r l'\Rmrlr. Tnt>I,· ~ 1 1!- (·11,~,'tl
""•'ti 11, d1,QC' 11 t11l•k on one <:rck. 11~c II ;il,o
\'l"111l'Rlly And h1,11mnr;illy fr,,m horh
• :t-~~,:~,';.,nr rh,. IAhl c m•o•r lln•w'!T rl1rr,, •111.-, t,nn• 11) Wh~e. ,z, WheT! 61d IJ> W hat. ~ is the COITCCI

nl:'l'ci.~1111ly he dt,<:cd. 1 he nilc 1s that (a) "'-here. whm . when lh1 Whcri . whs1 whee Wben. where. what
""'~ It d,-...~ nN mran thnt t-.-.th the i.1dr!i mu<:t (e,f What. whet-e. wtien Id)
lx- l'1thl'r clo!:cd or <,pen. for C1Can1plc, "'- h1ch rah le •• ,m11 tter '" ,,,e''
wh,--i.hcr ' ck,"'-d . C\r ·,...f'l•n ·. t,,,th thr c.1dN- must I
hon7onta lly open fmm both side~. ta, -.,_ of tbc above
T~k ~ I I!- , cr,,,ntt, ,l,,<:,-d fn,m t,.,,h i-1d~ "hik / (a) fr,r rahle 1111 Rcr~r--nu rahle
le, ri=er.,J tJthle
~ _., • 1abk- ■C'<'Ordin J ft) thl' p•Jc sl7e of publicati on, • s far
as ,
t , i) Pia■ -- '-IIIHH ,,-,nf~ l)tf,fl' • '- •,r
tab le to the nc:itt f.l \ h r L., J
~ b l r : Tbett t~ 11(1 hard and fas1 rule m this n.-g11rd. Amid carrymg •t"l-111, All ~-,r- rh
the tabl e. '"''"tr f 11 ll11\'\-iO.:, 'J1t(''lfu101 '"
fht
~ ~ far ~ ~.:1t>~ It ma~ cau!iC tnconvC111C'TK'C to the u~ of ·
I. Show the format of a I.Ihle.
r,f • table"
PO:"l;T S TO R~ •. Er·seR V What mint be kepc ,n Yiew '" decoding the title
l, What is• 50UJ'ce ~ ? E:1platn ll"I Jlltmfican ce
• l'-w 8ff two ways of ~ data : tables and graphs. -'· What i, a footnote" E,cpf.un ,is 51 ~ - ·
>lumns androw s.
• A latJte 115a~o rgantSa t1or1afd atall'lex make which must be ta.ken m comtructi:ng a rablc.
• A ~ ttS usef\JI 1c ug '" many wa}'5 We
can quiocly locate the des.red infomla lion. We can 5. State six ~IOnS

CXJn1Dar1SOFIS. -..HOIH '''-\\fl< Ql f . ..,11,,...,..,._11

reference table and (b) the text tableS.
• ~ 1here . - IWC ~ d ~ (a) the \m"t'r tht' fotlo-.in!? qu.- 1,.,n, ,n Ah-,.,t -,, ..,,,rrh
rl arranged for ready refefeoCe . a ~ table
• A . . . . , _ _,_ ~ oecaaed "1formabo I. Differentiate bctwem a reference table aid
smaller '" sae.
• A IDI tata 115 a ~ lab6e and ~ These parts must 2. ~ ame the parts wluch may ~ may IIOt be
prewm m a·~-
A.ti . (3) t,ca head o,- caption and (4) body.
• There ere I par111 af a table (1 l Ille (2\ and (8) source note. These parts may J . f',jame the paru which must be prcxm ID a table
.
be,,._ . "' a tat>ee <5 • tatJ1e ,.,,-nber . (6 1 head note. (7) foolnoee
....... ..... ~ ..... ,,.__ .,,. table. 4. Differenti ate between a foocnocc and a
~ ROie.

• Table- ae.r ll5 1he tOerdl:::atlori man dthe

tat>ie. 5. Why is it necessary to gjve a table aumber"
TWe d the 1at11e. ...,. t h e ~ wta.
wr-e and when.
1.0,G '''-\H.R QI f."1110, , :4 , .. , .. . ,
danflN the Cl0l'MfflS af the table.
tteed ..... 115 a ..,,,_ . bfjcJW the tllle wt.:tl
"""""r thr follo,.ing <1utc,n•1n\ , ■ •hour
• l•ldl •·.rrt-..
• 9bAt tabea the 0 . to.,c tr1 the ro- d h table.
n tat.ie. 1. Explain the diffc:rent pans ofa tabk.
• ac. ..... .._ h a.a b,1e r. h oounna al
ion of a lable.
- 2. Explain precautio ns taken ID die COft.'ICruct
• llodJ' c:,c,,'US1I ..-ICIII ~ Annnr lo lht Multiple CIMN« ~
• , _ . . . c:tar1'ie& 90ffllt
• ao.w ... ......
•
~ ..
The p r ~ ~ 10 D e ~ "
OPlalnld.
~

~ al• tatAi■
a.a-·
IMlm or pert at hi latJle.

••:
I. (c) 2. (d) J . (c) 4. (a)

,,, ~ QNll1ly .., ~ a w , ~ .

....

i•i U. ._ W:9',MIT r hNdr,gt • ~ p,..-c.

(N) 0c, r,at . . . U,,(, lie,,.,,.,......... nr.,m"181 1oe,n.""' .,,. . . ..

1M ~ If• t6'1ing
(VI po■elt)&e .
IC, , _ ~ ■v.. al te ~.....,-" ' • flW •
M1 Pl9f, ._ _ . al ... . _ eu,l'Jrig

\,fl f 11,,1,I. ( Jff1f 1 f lfl J •, I lft'-

'
JI \ l,arl.J
'"""_.,,,. ~.,, riw ,,.,,:t ,;I •,c•n,..,, •,
'4,1.,,.._,,.,. ' f .. ''°"~'
,. ,,,,,,;1..__.,. ... "---...,_..,,,,._...,Jle"_
,._,
,,,,,,,,,,.,,,,. ,..,. ,1,rr ♦ #f J#ff1-r1t1'•, .., , ••

I lfl'le 2 ,_,., - • • • J _,....,14 "'-W 4. ( ·,,lu11111 hc11d1111

...... ,_.._u,nw .......... ,,t ...,. ,_i. 161 a.t,vl
lt.1 I. 2 J 4 (I,( 2. I. I, 4 ldJ 2, l , 4, l
(111 ... J. 2 I
1. 1~- ,,. ... ,,,,,_..,. .. *"'"' t. lq t i..,
,,, ( •du"y ..,,,.,4-id tt,1 ,.,,., I.JI) All 11.. •IN,vt
4" 47
 \'In: i\11111 111 ·111hlc t, , I 1, 1111 1t r1111p,·,I ,h,111
,,.I
[6J PRESENTATION
11rl ~11111I lor111 , S11ppo ,0, we no w 1l1
h11 N1.lll 011 cxc l1111lvc 1: 111~,c~ : (1) o lll
( Iv) '10 KO . We 111 ~11 note <111wn th e n11mhc
ench grour . Uy doltt li( "11 , we ijCt th e fllll11
I lr rc, 11111rk , 1trc i11 their
v11k the m11rk ~ 111111 4 11ro11flK
. 111 1 20 40 . (111) 40 Ml 111111
r or , 1111\i:nt • fnll1n5' Into
M1rkN
'f',\lll. li'.
oht11hml by IO •

-- M~i-"~--<.;it,-.;,,
. . .,,.-·-'
w1111t tnhl c :
,, ·t0 N 70
II Is 1hu11 or1!L111isu<l inlo tublllM lll ,
6.1 INTIU HW( I I ·urvuys t11·e rt1W tlt1l~;ho
Daill cl,\kclctl tht'I.HI\!' ~\,b1tlt1liot1 is ot1c
d of prcsc11tt1lion, DiL1gn11"~or 11,}'lc
1.\111 • fd
1"rc11u cncy ll b t rlh ut l,,n nf muk, nht•ln
.d hy ,1ut1,n h
,1
. I 1his
some ,m::11111111- o •••olllll,
,ne ,',ly un u\lcmulivc lo tubululion
·c111t11ion. II .,s no I. ncccSS lll 1/1
111
!'
h1lc<l clu\LI, \l shouIlI bu seen tis tin' lli\l II(~ ( 'hu, I
4()

is unothcr fonll 01 1'1'\:s n1 •·rtc10tncy (lli11. 11f ,tucl• nt•)

• . 10 uction ol tubu 42
a dingrotn is a grnp hicnlblrcptl 111 0 . 20
I 311
no\ n~ a subs1i1u1e 10 ta c. 20 - 40
. 33
6.2 T\'PES OF DIAGRAMS 4() - 60
) 211
. , . .
. fa Dhigra111 60 - 110
6.2.\ M~:mmg o_ a visual form for prcsc\11 t tion of st11tishc11l dnta. Thetc tire ninn 2 22
. II\, take geome tric
A diagram IS
. s There are d',u.,orams
'. w ,,c
t These are gcomc tnc
shapes like rcclt1nu1 /
.
grn11 Iis, ·rhere•atI,
Total
I 10
17
types of ~,arsmc~bes spheres, cyhndders_et:~ru The data in Table 6.2 is grouped data. ln this
phs Diagrams also use m1111s lo sho:
s~uare~sc:~:h use pi,ctures and ca~le p:~
hs which present a set of lubulutc~ dn1t1 ii! number of students falling in these groups
mar\(s are divided into group!l and the
are recorded in th:tt &roup. Note th.ll if the
d1agra h. I data. Then, there are \me g r
geograp ,ca a curve. Out of these geometnc forms line graphs are used most tn actual
frequency distribution is based on inclusive cla."U,
classed (See section 4.3.3) before used for
il m\l!t fint be converted into exclu~ ivc
a \me or as . . Let us now discuss geom etric forms in a little more detail. diagrammatic rcpr~ tation .
statistical enquines. Usually, for ungrouped data bar diagrams are
mote suitable. For grouped data line
6.2.l TYpes of GeometricDiagrams \ graphs are more suitabl e. There is no hard
'fi d into three groups : (a)bar diagram and fast rule. It is only the convenience and
. ,\bl" usefulness which determine that which form
G ometri c forms of d'1agra ms are c asstA ebar diagra of diagram is ~uitable for a set of data.
~iagrams and (c) volume di~grams\. m is one d'1mens1.ona\ chart in Let us now explain each form of diagram
area by compa ring the in some details. We will explain bar eh11rts
nencal va ues lengths of the ba~. fin in greater details .
the sense that we compare nut. I I rt 1'n which we compare the numert• 1
area diagram 1·s a two d'Imens1ona c ia dth) of the bars, squares, c1rc · Ies, t A \
ca valuci 6.3 BAI' 011\(,' R~"·l S
by comparing the areas (\ength x brea . e c. vo umt ' ""
h'ch numerical values are represented ~ 6.3. l Menninj!
diagram is a three d.imensi·ona\. chart £m w t . d Of
volumes (L x B x H) and ar~ m the orm of cubes, spheres, cylm ers, etc. · lhCl(, A bar diagram or chart is a graph
that consists of a number of rectangles
bar diagra ms are the ones which are used most. of equal width, called bars,
whose length varies with the Production of P, trolt um Produ ch
In Ind
6.2.3 Choice of Diag~am numerical value represented by I" · '
. . ? It de ends on many factors I I v
Which form ?f diagram_ts _suitable . urc:s like the fo~ ol that bar. For illustration, we
available with the statistical invest1galC1 take the bar chart relating to 1:
tabulation, the pomts to be h_1ghhgh~~d, re~o
these factors . But a small discussion ol the production of petroleum 'II
~;:u: :\~:; '~;:b ~~a~ r;~ ~n ~~~~~~ii:eo~f
diagram is necessary at this stage. Tu products in India (Hypothetical
main point is whether tabulated data ts groupe
Ungro uped vs Grouped Data
Ungrouped data are those which arc neithe
d or ungrouped.
. •ed In a {rcqucn~
r classifie_d nor arran g the other hnli
d11ta) .

F
'
distribution. In It, the values are taken
In their orlgmal form. O~b ti n Gro11~
grouped data 11 cla111lt\ed a11 well as arran~
ed In a frequency dlSlr '~ 0 ' inclushl
data can take two forms: (I) based on exclus
ive classes and (~) base °\·stinct\~
classes. In this, we no longer have the origina
l value!! of the ,t~ms, T1't:r ; \ti l~
between ungroupcd and grouped data will
be more clear to you m chnp ;\\'C \Ill
' :,\}i
chapter we take a small illu11tration to explai
about marks obtained by 10 11ludent11 in
n the distinction, Suppose,
a ch11111, The murks ure out 0
11
ond - t~oo \ \!Iii'
:1\1111I 1,
arranged in descending order.
49
4K
 •. 1
.. h11$l 'd <>II ""
lo 201~,13
d11rl1111 200 7- 0!i It records ing and Cap ital
Th<' 11h1>n:- h11r •·h11r1 "
T,\ IJ I i,: (,.. " gnp between rhcm . Gro u Dom esti c Sav
rnrt -lo!(clh er wi rh our a 6.J is a ren t Pric es in Cro
re)
In tndl ll Oar chart in rhe Figu re (At Cur
lwo v11 ri nhlcs nt n lime. two variable~. gro s, domestic
rrod ui-ts For mat ion
l!'11111 Pro dlll' lio11 Ir show s 0
Produi-rion of ri-tn1 double bur churr . ation □ Gros s Domestic Savi ng
(mi llio n tonn es ) ~ Domestic Capital Form 270
snvi ngs (OD S) nnd Gros compnre GOS and GDCf'
in a ■ Groe a Dom esllc Capi
tal Form ation
240
:?-LI (G DCF ). In ennb lcs us 10
).
240
yenr (l-lypothetieo l doto
- - --7 210
200 7 - o~ __s_2_.6~ - 210

-7 180
__s_4_.6~ -
200s - 09 58.4
2009 - IO
7~ -- 7
11 - -(i,-0-.=-
2010 -
2 6J . 7
20 II - I
----- ~-fi- ---b- -
.,012 - IJ a1 retillcs lo
to ditlc renr yen rs. The I st seco nd bnr !'el l'1i
- _1 million tonn es. The Ti·lp lc H11 r Cha rts
ditli.•~nl bnrs ~lnl ~ f 24 ,iy, th, lo..
,
,,ud o do' of 52.6 seco mm ion tmm os. Cl"" . 811 is n group of three bars repr
esenting
Jo w, "";~•,::: ~~' "" " m,g11111 t· the nd bar isb more than tw o lrn.L rn triple bar chnrts. there n in figure
P d. show s 11 gnitu o - . . One such cha n is give
,·ear 2007
• ,
-0N and
'>OOS-09 an . tho long th of fast °'·
To be '"'°t ,~ thre e vru-inbles at n time
three bars are used in prac
tice .
to <ho ><M - 1 1). By con1pao 4 6.4. Usually. not more than , reduce the usefulness of a
2. 18 times ~=-52.6/24. w, oon ' Using more thnn thre e bars
. Indi a (200 ' :,/
r,·, ,' "_"·,:;
7- 08 '~. ~~/~;·/4· long ths of d,_flon :,n bara the cha n cumbersome
and
Bar Cha rt
''." '"" ' :• . . . " ..
t yenrs. chnrtg. becnuse it makes
bar usin Figu re 6 .3 : Dou ble
Pm du« ion ofP etm t,om mag nitudes 111 d1tleren
Ii . conf
__ ,. - -;---;t·
Y I I It I J t (Figure In n bnr char t usin g
ary and Ter tiar y
ts in Prim ary , Sec ond
I bar char
In the nbo ve the
, , I' ,)'1,1
ed verticnlly. In this, y~
61 more than one bar, Gro ss Dom esti c Pro duc tage sha re)
,. .f ~/..1 , '/i'~/
bnrs arc plac different bars in a grou
p Sec tors in Ind ia ( Per
cen
~
1

~~
the x-ax is nnd Pclroic,~..,
i
I ,1: ,. ,~·• :, /' 'l ~,
/i,'I arc sho wn
• •
on h
prod ucti on 1s s own o~
.
y-axis. Thcsc1itii
hnv e to be dist
visu ally by shading,
ingu ishe d
or
45
l!IID Primary
Tef1iary

-· !- ·-·, '/· ,, 1.'' 1, ed horizontally. In surha r 40

plac coloring or by any othe
i ·/ ,', ;i} :,: ;; 1 cnn nlso be
ted on Y-n.,islll1 means. The method used
!
llOff-U
I : ·./ ·I, f' ,'///ii cnse. ycn rs nn: repr esen 35

i' mag nitu des on x-ax is. In Figure 6.2,lht to distinguish one bnr from
· / _ :., ' '/ // laye d 30

-,, _'·-.r· :;'.' .:i,/

tnlly. ano ther mus t be disp
;J/ bnrs are pl nee d horizon lny

1_~ +- -- -- -- -- -- -: -
of Petroleum Prod utts 1 sepurntely. Suc h a disp 25
Production -13) 1 res
India (20 07- 08 to 2012 is en/led ·'legend'. Figu
r'r·~--
;_~_ So, there can be vertical
bar chanr 6.3 and 6.4 hav e such
20

legends .
____,___ - · ·r- -- -- -- -- I
15
l bar cha rts. Usually,
and horizonta
/ __ ,,f -- -- -- -- -- -
used in llta 10
vcrticn I bn r charts are
in Econ.omk
practice. For example,
·-.~ · ·· ••,•·
:~,. ;·:. . · 1--------- ---- - 1
Sur vey s, 8
statistical repo rt pubhshtd
'•_;: - -- -: -- --
t- by Governm ent of India, neo dy all t, 2012-13
lS.
,.··;-J
;..;.. . ..
,: :.~
:;:.•;•,-./..•..,, ,
charls ore vertical bur char Figure 6.4 : Triple Bar
Chart

...:
r.-- -.., .--, -,J·, ---,- J T CII A RTS
Double Bu r Ch art 6.4 CO M PONENT PAR
ures 6.1 d 6.4. 1 Mt• 11nfn g
The above bar charts (Fig
bar charts. It rcco: le .,. shown on a single
6.2) are sin gle
There ore dou co111ponon t P•r t cha rt, subdivisions of one variab difil,rent comPonents of
only a single variable. In • but
se sub-divisions are nothing
, two bors " bar or on • slnRle circle. The
Figure 6.2 : Horizontal
Bar Chart bar charts also. In this
50 51
 bars iS i.;u 11 v - I
. rain ba~cd on explain enc,.
that varia~\e. The d,~:-diogrul1' · Lei us In ii ui.: h a c hart it i!I Gron Sa ving by Seeton (Ab11·o~l~u~t,.,
. e)==ri=;:EE!H
on circle 1s called P

!:y . ~ .- ¥_~;~:,\1\?~~t~
chorl . s of sav ing in a country : h alway !! bette r to co nn ect
6.4.2 Compo nent Par t sn r here arc l I,rce souri.:e suppose, we wan t t~ s how the Pere. OUkc)i eac h !l ubdivi 11 ion of each
Let us take an cxonip\e. T nd public sector,. . we wi II use l>id bar with it!! co unterpart in
tc sector a single bar chartcn,~gt the adjo inin g bar!I all i11 = ., ,
sector, private corporn , r chart . To shoW crccntage
(I 1 )I S, •
, i.e.,
I 00 per t · ~-
share of each through a ba ving in tcn1' oft n up into ~en . To 8ho ,1i~ don e in Figure!! 6 .5 an d
three accord ing to the K~ 11\t 6 .6.
length wi ll represent total sa each bar is bro c onent parts
arc then differentl y . ';.t W
relative share of each sector cntagcs. The cotnPd A legend {
· . is of course added / ,1dt4 6 . 4 . 3 Pl c [)I agram ..t .
sub division in tcm1s .ofI perc d by anY other ,ncthornponent • h
part bar c art •is given
. ll kh
in 1· i.,_ A pi e d iag r am
0
or colorcd or d'stingu1s
,. ,c O . such co
d colours. ne . (Hypothctica d ata given I . .in ,~~
h a ~
~
Table
these different shades an
d
6.5. It is base on
the fo\\owm
. g inforrnauon
4
TJ\ BLE 6dla (at curre nt
price!!)
(i 't
A)
ci r cle broke n d own In to
comp o nent s ub-d ivl!liou .
It is compone nt part chart
1S 1000
~
· l· 1
9."i
d,I
:~: ~·;;.•'~~~:,::::1~:".,:: ··-A·-'·'.·
mcstlc savi ng 1nl11n1~ :_:~ r - - - - - - - -- .~ - · ..

Sl'ctor
Gross Do PercentageK
Sav in g (~ Billlonn~s)'..---+ -- - - , - - ---.r--
201 2- 13 call ed pie chart or circle
.,. . ._: .·.:; t:,;:
201 3- 14 2011 - 12 2012- 13 21113~14 '---.l...- -.l...--. l...--~- ..l.-- . . l . -
- - X - ____ _• . ,
chart. Like compone nt part -- .... - ~
2011,.12 2ttt2- 13 2013-14 _ . , .,. ·
5 ~__7_9_. l_ t - _
I ___:2::5~9.:.. 74_._4 -+- 77.k
bar chart, it can be presente d -···· ___ --·-•-- ..... ____ " - ______ .... ___ . __ . ___ . .
Household~ Sector bot h on percent age and
I __4__9_5_4---__ 13_._s _ t - _1_6_.7_ +-_14.k ab:;olute basis. Percenta ges ____ .. __ ·---· _
. __-_ ~rl~~
~P~v~t.:._ ~:-::~r--:
3
. :C~o~rp~·_:S~e:ct~o:r-+- _:~
1
;-;~
252
7 247 7.I 8.9 7_4
can be presente d by circles
equal in size. On absolute
__
Figure 6 .6 : Compone nt Part Chart
Public Sector 2830 3337 basis, larger totals are represen ted by larger circln.
100 .00 100.00 IOOJMJ Pr~tat ion on absolute
Oroo JJom. Savi ng 2471 basis invo lves two dimensio nal compari son which
i5 a difficult exercise in a pie
d iagram . Usua ll y, a pie diagram is presente d on
percenta ge buis.
Gro~• Oo'."ttllc Saving• by Seeton (Percen~agu,' O ne such pi e diagram (both on pCTcentage and absolute
ba~is) is given below
lfl, Tabl e 6.4 contai ns two types of figur« (Figure 6.7 based on hypothe tical data).
abi,olute and percenta ges. Accordingly, then In Figure 6.7 , c ircle on the left is smal\CT and
re\at~ to the year 200\-02 .
can be two compon ent part bar chart~ baled T hat o n the ri ght is bigger and relates to the year
201 \-\2 . The two circles taken
16 on abf!o lute and pe rcentage basis. togethe r make possible the compari son of whole
as we\\ as of sub-divi sions both
l o n absolute basis and percenta ge basis. 1f both
10
Percen tage Buis vs Absolute Buis the circl~ wCTe of equal size,
I .., 7'1 :u 11/J T he above compon ent part chart (Figllll
o nly the compari son of sub-divi sions was possible
Exampl e
.

1"'... 6.5 ) is on percent age bas is in which 1\K

height of each bar is same because each bl
Grou Domes tic S aving in India (1011-1 1)

J repre11ents I 00%. Such a chart can also be

prepared on absolute bas is. (See Pigurc 6.61
Sectors Gross Saving
(' crores) Percent agH Angula r
• Compo nents

-
.. 10

·· a
Jn the compon ent part chart prepar~
on absolute bas is the height of each bar 1
differen t dependi ng on the numerical va~
of the variable . There is one advantage
( I)

Hou11cho lds
2001-02 2011-12
(l)

2 \ 848
(3) (4) (S)

T7 .0
(6) (T)

1uch a preKentation . In thi s we can com~

..... • ., V-. Pvt. C orporati ons
.l
Figure 6 .5 : Component Part Bar Chart differen t sub-div i s ions (i.e. sectors) : : • 4654 3755 \ \6.2 \5.8
as the whole (econom y) . ln the c a Public Sector 2284
percentage ba11i1 we can compare only \7240 7.9 7.2
sub-divi sions .
All Sectors 28786 237840 100.0 100.0

S2 53