Coop, M. R. (1990). Geotechnique 40, No.
4, 607-626
The mechanics of uncemented carbonate sands
M. R. COOP*
The mechanical behaviour of a typical biogenic
carbonate sand was investigated using triaxial
testing at standard and also at high pressures up to
8 MPa. The test results show that despite the parti-
cle breakage which is characteristic of these soils,
their behaviour is still qualitatively similar to that
observed for more commonly encountered soils,
and is consistent with the principle features of criti-
cal state soil mechanics. The higher stresses used in
these tests were an order of magnitude greater
than are generally used in soils testing, and the
values of some individual soil parameters were
found to be outside the range of normal experience.
Micrographic and gradings analyses were used to
examine the influence of isotropic and shear
stresses on particle breakage. Triaxial test
results illustrate the influence of this breakage on
the mechanical behaviour of the soil.
KEYWORDS: fabric/structure of soils; offshore geo-
tecbnics; research; sands; soil properties; triaxial tests.
INTRODUCTION
Carbonate soils may be defined as those in which
carbonate minerals, most commonly calcium car-
bonate, predominate and they are therefore fre-
quently referred to as calcareous sediments. A
comprehensive introduction to the engineering
geology of these soils has been given by Fookes
(1988). They have a variety of organic origins,
coral reefs perhaps being the most obvious.
However, they may also be formed by non-
organic means, for instance through chemical pre-
cipitation from carbonate-rich water.
Carbonate soils have received considerable
attention in recent years (Demars & Chaney,
1982; Jewell & Andrews, 1988; Jewell & Khor-
shid, 1988) largely prompted by the exploitation
of the mineral reserves in tropical, shallow sea
environments such as the Australian North-West
Discussion on this Paper closes 5 April 1991; for further
information see p. ii.
• Geotechnical Engineering Research Centre, City Uni-
versity, Northampton Square, London EClV OHB.
607
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Le comportement mecanique d'un sable carbonate
biogenique typique a ete etudie par des essais tri-
axiaux a pression normale et aussi a des pressions
elevees jusqu'a 8 MPa. Cet article presente les re-
sultats des essais indiquant que malgre la rupture
des particules qui est caracteristique pour ces sols,
Ieur comportement reste du point de vue de qualite
semblable a celui observe dans le cas de sols plus
frequemment rencontres et s'accorde avec les
caracteristiques principales de la mecanique des
sols dans l'etat critique. Les contraintes les plus el-
evees employees au cours de ces essais etaient
superieures d'un ordre de grandeur a celles genera-
Iement utilisees dans les essais effectues sur Jes sols
et on a trouve que les valeurs de quelques para-
metres individuels du sol se trouvaient hors des
valeurs normalement enregistrees. Des analyses
micrographiques et granulometriques pour etudier
l'influence exercee par les contraintes isotropes et
de cisaillement sur la rupture des particules. Les
resultats des essais triaxiaux illustrent l'influence
de cette rupture sur le comportement mecanique su
sol
shelf and the Bass Strait. The soils most com-
monly encountered in these regions are of bio-
clastic origin, largely formed by the deposition of
skeletal bodies such as the shells of small
organisms.
The nature of their particles results in these
soils exhibiting some unusual mechanical features
and Semple (1988) has made a survey of current
knowledge. In particular they have high friction
angles, a feature which has been attributed to the
interlocking of their angular shelly particles. Go-
lightly & Hyde (1988) have observed that friction
angles decrease at high stresses, and Datta et al.
(1979) suggested that this is a result of particle
crushing. High initial void ratios are frequently
quoted and these are often attributed to the angu-
larity of particles and to the frequency of intra-
particle voids. Carbonate sands of biogenic origin
tend to crush at high stresses as their delicate,
shell particles fracture. This, together with the ini-
tially loose state, leads to very high compress-
ibilities as the soil is loaded.
Under isotropic stresses Carter et al. (1988)
identified that if taken to high pressures, beyond
 608 COOP

about I MPa a normal compression line could be al. (1988) as around 88 94% . The soil was gath-
identified for cemented carbonate sands, which ered by Evans (1987) from a dune environment
was straight in specific volume (v): log mean effec- and the particles are therefore relatively
ti ve stress (In p') space. Isotropic compression unbroken, as shown in Fig. I. The samples were
data from Airey er al. ( 1988) indicate that a prepared by pouring the soil through water and
similar normal compression line might exist for this has resulted in a distinct layering of the par-
uncemented carbonate soils at elevated stresses, ticles, many of which are elongated. Some hollow
but since their tests were conducted only at stan- particles are also evident. A typical gradings
dard laboratory pressures this could not be curve for this sand is given in Fig. 2.
clearly identified. During shearing the high com- Dogs Bay sand was extensively used by
pressibility of the soil results in a transition from Houlsby et al. (1988) in a series of laboratory
dilatant to compressive shearing behaviour at model pile tests and by Golightly & Hyde ( 1988)
relatively moderate stresses (Datta et al. 1980) in their study of the mechanical behaviour of a
and the compression which accompanies shearing variety of carbonate soils. Its plentiful supply
at higher stresses has been found by Carter et al. ensured repeatability of test samples throughout
and Golightly & Hyde (1988) to continue to very the extensive programme described in this
high axial strains, often beyond the point where Paper- an important factor because, due particle
the test was terminated. Few attempts have there- crushing, each sample could only be tested once.
fore been made to identify the critical state line in
v: lnp' space and consequently Burland (1988)
suggested that while critical states could be EXPERIM ENTAL PROCEDURES
defined well in terms of stresses, their definition in Thin sections and gradings analyses
terms of void ratio was less clear. Thin sections were made of a variety of Dogs
Carbonate soils are frequently naturally Bay sand specimens both before and after triaxial
cemented, a process which is often coincident
with deposition. This is a feature which modifies
their mechanical behaviour and complicates the
interpretation of triaxial test results, since it is
impossible to separate the effects of cementing
from those of particle breakage. The work
described in this Paper has therefore concentrated
on uncemented soils, as the behaviour of these
must be clearly understood before the influence of
cementing may be assessed.
These features have resulted in carbonate sands
often being considered as special soils, with a con-
sequent unwillingness to rationalize their behav-
iour. The lack of knowledge of their fundamental
stress~strain behaviour has created difficulties in
understanding the behaviour of foundations in
these soils. The purpose of this research has been
to examine the fundamental behaviour of
uncemented carbonate sands by means of triaxial
testing. This formed the initial phase of a larger
research programme sponsored by BP aimed at
understanding t he behaviour of frictional piles in
carbonate soils.

MA TERI AL USED
The triaxial tests were conducted on Dogs Bay
sand, from the west of the Republic of Ireland.
The sand was identified by Evans (1987) from a
search initiated by BP into sources of carbonate
sand of appropriate quality and availability for
gcotechnical research at UK laboratories. It is a 1mm
biogenic carbonate sand, consisting largely of
foraminifera and mollusc shells. Its calcium car- Fig. I. Thin sectioa of Dogs Bay sull as set up for tri-
bonate content has been reported by Houlsby er axial test

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 MECHANICS OF CARBONATE SANDS
100
Ol
C
·u5
V)
"'"-
1i, 50
"'
1=
<l)
~
<l)
(L
0L-----'------.L...--~=-----L-----'------L--
0·0001
F M
Clay t---~s,..,,1.,.-t~--+--.._,S,....a_n..,.d~--+-_._G,,..,-a-ve_,.l.__-----1 Cobbles
Fig. 2. Grading curves for Dogs Bay sand
testing. The samples were dried and then impreg-
nated with an epoxy casting resin diluted with
acetone to improve its penetration. A slight
vacuum was used to help draw the mixture
through the soil. Thin sections were then cut ver-
tically through the hardened samples. Drying and
impregnation were carried out on a triaxial ped-
estal for the loosest samples. Those which had
been subjected to high stresses were found to
show a limited amount of cohesion, even after
drying, which may have resulted from inter-
locking of the angular particles. These samples
could withstand gentle handling and could there-
fore be immersed in a resin bath. The thin sec-
tions were examined under cross-polarized light,
but the three photographs presented in this Paper
were all taken under plain white light.
The particles in Dogs Bay sand are easily
crushed and gradings had to be conducted with
great care. A wet sieving technique was employed
and the only means used to encourage the sand
through the sieves was to play water over it.
Triaxial tests
Triaxial tests at confining stresses up to
700 kPa were conducted in a microcomputer-
controlled stress path cell at City University
(Atkinson, 1985; Atkinson et al., 1985). A second
automated cell, capable of cell pressures up to
8 MPa was constructed to investigate the soil's
behaviour under elevated stresses. The standard
stress apparatus was a Bishop & Wesley (1975)
hydraulic triaxial cell and a suction cap was used
to connect the top platen directly to the internal
axial load cell (Atkinson & Evans, 1985). The
connection of the sample throughout isotropic
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609
/
/
.
After high i
i
pressure i
test D ;
I
I
i
i
10 100
C F M C F M C
Particle size: mm
compression enables axial strain measurements to
be made during this stage and ensures that there
is negligible bedding error upon subsequent axial
compression. The axial strains were measured by
a transducer mounted outside the cell and a cor-
rection was therefore made for the compliance of
the internal load cell. The axial strain measure-
ments are accurate to about ±0·02% during the
initial stages of shearing, and to about ± 0· 1% at
large strains. The stresses were measured to an
accuracy of about ± 2% of the maximum reading
for a particular test in this apparatus.
The high pressure apparatus used a more stan-
dard type of axial loading arrangement, with a
loading ram passing through the top of the cell
and connected to an external load cell. The mea-
sured axial force was corrected for the friction
between the ram and its 0-ring seal at the top of
the cell. This correction was checked before and
after each test and was found to be repeatable.
The axial force could therefore be measured to an
accuracy of about ± 3%. The tip of the axial ram
was machined flat, loading on to a flat-surfaced
top platen. Thus in both apparatus the top
platens were non-rotating and strains were
assumed to be uniform within the sample. Other
tests were carried out with a ball joint connection
allowing the top platen to rotate; these tests gave
inconsistent data due to tilting and instability of
the samples.
Axial strains for the high pressure system were
again measured externally, a correction being
made for the expansion or contraction of the cell
under changing cell pressures. The accuracy of
these measurements is similar to those from the
standard apparatus. Axial strains were not mea-
sured during isotropic compression stages in the
high pressure apparatus, but the new length of
 610
the sample at the start of shearing could be esti-
mated to an accuracy of about ±0· 2 mm from the
protrusion of the axial loading ram after bringing
it into contact with the top platen. When mating
the ram with the top platen the ram was pushed
into the cell by means of a hydraulic cylinder, the
pressure in which could be controlled by the com-
puter. Use of such a stress-controlled system for
this operation minimized the disturbance to the
sample. Although axial strains were measured
accurately the possibility of non-alignment
between the ram end and top platen at the start
of loading may have had some small effect on the
stress-stain data during the initial stages of shear-
ing.
The cell pressure and pore pressure measure-
ments for the high pressure system were of similar
accuracy to those for the standard system. Both
apparatus used Imperial College volume gauges,
and the accuracy of volumetric strains is similar
to that for the axial strain.
Samples of 38 mm diameter were generally
created at as loose a state as possible by slowly
pluviating the sand directly into a membrane held
in place on the pedestal as described by Bishop &
Henkel (1962). After positioning the top platen a
burette was used to apply about 8 kPa suction to
the pore water while the mould was removed. For
the high pressure tests two additional standard
membranes were placed over the sample to
prevent puncture by the angular grains.
The sand was de-aerated prior to setting up the
sample by submerging it and subjecting it to a
vacuum for about 30 min. Back pressures of up to
500 kPa were used to maintain saturation. In all
cases B values (Skempton, 1954) of greater than
95% were obtained before the isotropic compres-
sion stage was started.
Both of the systems were capable of performing
drained axial compression tests which follow a
path with constant mean normal effective stress
p', where
p' = ½(u; + 2u;)
q' = ua' - a/
in which q' is the deviatoric stress, u; is the effec-
tive axial stress and u,' is the effective radial
stress. A constant p' stress path was achieved by
decreasing the cell pressure at half the rate of
increase of axial stress. Constant p' paths were
found to be a particularly useful type of test. For
all types of axial compression test, control of the
rate of change of axial stress was maintained
during the early, stiff part of the stress-strain
curve--the loading was switched to conventional
axial strain control for the later stages.
An estimate of the specific volume (v = 1 + e)
of the soil was made at the setting up stage from
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COOP
the measured volume of the sample and the
weight of dry soil used. The moisture content was
measured after each test and, accounting for the
measured volumetric strains, an average value of
these two specific volumes has been used in the
data analysis. The specific gravity of the soil was
found to be 2·71 using the method outlined by
Golightly & Hyde (1988).
In the calculation of axial stresses during shear-
ing, the current cross-sectional area of the sample
was calculated from the measured axial and volu-
metric strains making the usual assumption that
the sample maintains a right cylindrical shape.
For some types of triaxial test on carbonate sand,
very large axial strains are required to bring the
soil to an ultimate failure or critical state. These
samples therefore showed distinct barrelling
towards the end of shearing, introducing some
uncertainty into the calculation of axial stress. It
will be seen later that confidence in the data
obtained is improved by the good consistency of
data between those tests where barrelling was a
problem and those which required smaller strains
to reach an ultimate state. In all cases, natural
strains f:n have been used in the presentation of
the test data. These have been calculated from the
measured linear strains e1 using
(3)
COMPRESSION AND SWELLING
Table 1 gives details of each of the triaxial tests.
Most samples were compressed isotropically
before shearing and data from the high pressure
tests are shown in Fig. 3(a). For the initially loose
samples which constitute the majority of those
tested, the soil starts at a specific volume v of
about 2·7 and there is an abrupt change of slope
at around 800kPa (i.e. lnp' = 6·7). For initially
denser samples the initial specific volumes were
smaller and the change of slope occurred at a
higher stress. This emphasizes the need for high
(1) pressure testing to examine both parts of the
(2) curve.
The data indicate a clear, straight, normal com-
pression line in v: lnp' space. This behaviour is
very similar to that which might be expected for
more commonly encountered soils. Table 2 gives
a comparison of the line's gradient (A.) and loca-
tion (N) with those of other soils (see Fig. 4). The
high value of N reflects the very loose structure of
the soil. The value of ,1. of 0·335 is also high, the
result of the breakage of soil particles under iso-
tropic loading which will be demonstrated later.
For spherical particles of uniform diameter, a
change in their size would not affect the overall
density. The normal compression line cannot
therefore result from the reduction in particle size
 MECHANICS OF CARBONATE SANDS 611
Table 1. Summary of triaxial tests

Test Sample Isotropic (I) p' after Type of sheart

preparation* or K 0 consolidation consolidation:
kPa
l L I 400 u
2 L I 100 D
3 L I 200 u
4 L I 100 u
5 C I 100 D
6 L I 400 u
8 L I 500 u
9 L I 50 u
10 L I 200 p
11 L I 100 p
12 L I 300 p
13 L I 500 p
14 L I 50 p
18 L I 600 p
19 L I 150 p
20 L I 350 p
23 p I 550 p
24 p I 200 u
29 p I 150 u
30 p I 450 u
33 L I 150 p
Kl L Ko 572 u
K2 L Ko 530 -
K3 L Ko 284 u
K4 L Ko 393 u
B L I 5895 u
C L I 3241 -
D L I 6450 D
E L I 3980 D
F L I 1950 D
G L I 7000 p
H L I 3286 p
I L I 1500 p
J L I 7422 u
K C I 7500 -
L L I 4020 D
M p I 2491 -
N p I 5646 p
0 p I 1243 p
p C I 486 u
Q 0 I 495 u
R L I 5031 -
s L I 5089 p
T L Ko 1170 -
u L Ko 4864 -
V L Ko 3359 u
* L = loose; C = compacted; P = precrushed; 0 = overconsolidated.
t D = drained; U = undrained; P = constant p' drained.

per se, but from the reduction in particle angu-
larity and an increase in the proportion of finer
particles. The loss of intra-particle voids is likely
to provide only a small proportion of the total
volume decrease because, as Golightly & Hyde
(1988) showed, they constitute only 4-6% of the
void space of this soil. The )., of 0·335 is signifi-
cantly higher than the value of 0· 18--0· 24 mea-
sured by Carter et al. for cemented soils of the
Australian North-West shelf. This is perhaps
because of the more uniform grading of the Dogs
Bay sand which results in higher initial specific
volumes.
In contrast, the unload-reload swelling lines
indicate very stiff, elastic behaviour, with a gra-
dient K of only 0·0075. There appears to be little

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 612 COOP
3
Normal compression
Isotropic
compression
line

2-5
K

,. 2 Swelling line
Q) x = 0-0075
E
::,
0
>
" \
-=
·u
Q)
a.
(/)
1·5
P = test number

100 1000 100 1000

I I I I
1
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
In p': kPa In p'· kPa
(a) (b)

Fig. 3. (a) Isotropic and (b) one-dimensional compression data for Dogs Bay sand

vanat10n in the K values measured for various of the normal compression line N is affected by
carbonate sediments. Airey et al. obtained a value the speed of testing.
of 0·006 for uncemented Bass Straits sands while Creep moves the state of the soil below the
Carter et al. found a K of 0·0065 for their normal compression line so that even samples
cemented soils. Table 2 shows that these are which are currently at their maximum consoli-
somewhat lower than K values for clay soils. The dation stress start shearing at slightly over-
low values are clearly a function of the fact that consolidated states. This creep also means that
particles cannot be 'uncrushed'. shearing should not commence until several days
At the end of each compression line there is a after isotropic loading is complete. The problem
small vertical tail representing creep after the is particularly severe for undrained tests. Since
completion of primary consolidation. The iso- the soil is so rigid in unloading, a small degree of
tropic compression stages were each conducted creep results in a large increase in pore pressure if
over several days and this feature cannot result the sample drainage is closed.
from incomplete primary consolidation. As for Figure 3(a) shows some scatter in the isotropic
other soils (e.g. see Leroueil et al., 1985), the exis- compression data, which results from the diffi-
tence of significant creep means that the location culty in accurately measuring moisture contents

Table 2. Comparison between carbonate sand and other soils

Soil M <t>: ;_ K N r A/K N-r Ko

Dogs Bay sand 1·65 40·3 0·335 0·0075 4-80 4·35 44·7 0-45 0·51
Cowden Till* 1-10 27·7 0·077 0·015 1·915 1·885 5·1 0·03 0·59
London Clayt 0·890 22·8 0·157 0·0068 2·710 2·620 23·1 0·09 0·66
Chattahoochee 1·33 32·9 0·175 - 3·25 3·09 - 0·16 -
River sand+
* Lau (1988).
t Richardson (1988).
+ Atkinson & Bransby (1978) and Vesic & Clough (1968).

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 MECHANICS OF CARBONATE SANDS
r sion was achieved under computer control of the
0
Lnp':kPa
Fig. 4. Normal compression line and critical state line in
v: lnp' space
for these soils. To reduce this scatter in the
analysis of the subsequent shearing stages, the
specific volume of each sample which has reached
the normal compression line has been adjusted so
that at the end of primary consolidation it lies on
the chosen, ideal normal compression line. An
allowance has then been made in each case for
the measured reduction in specific volume
resulting from creep after primary consolidation.
Two of the isotropic compression curves shown
in Fig. 3(a) (K and P) are for compacted samples
created by gentle tamping during pluviation.
Their isotropic compression lines show a signifi-
cant decrease in volume before the preconsolida-
tion pressure is reached, and they eventually
become asymptotic to the normal compression
line of the initially loose samples. Similar behav-
iour has been observed for silica sands by Vesic &
Clough (1968) and the behaviour of compact sand
can be considered analogous to that of over-
consolidated clays (Atkinson & Bransby, 1978).
The normal compression line results from par-
ticle breakage, so the particles of the compact
samples fracture before the soil reaches the
normal compression line because they are larger
than is appropriate for the swelling line that the
soil starts on. The first loading compression lines
of the compacted samples are therefore quite dis-
tinct from the very rigid, elastic unload-reload
lines of truly over consolidated samples. The ini-
tially loose samples also show distinctly curved
compression lines for first loading similar to those
of the compacted ones, but the normal compres-
sion line is reached at lower pressures making the
curvature less pronounced. It is clear that the
onset of particle crushing during first loading is
gradual with no clear yield stress. On reloading
there is always a very clear yield stress when the
normal compression line is reached and particle
breakage begins again.
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613
As indicated in Table 1, some of the triaxial
tests investigated the one-dimensional compres-
sion behaviour of Dogs Bay sand. K 0 compres-
tests by adjusting the cell pressure as the axial
stress was increased, thus keeping the measured
volumetric strain equal to the axial strain. The
K 0 compression data are illustrated in v : In p'
space in Fig. 3(b). They lie below and parallel to
the isotropic normal compression line as they
would for clay soils.
Standard and high pressure K 0 compression
data in q' : p' space are given in Fig. 5. Golightly
(1989) had found that the K 0 value of some car-
bonate soils increased with the stress level.
However, the data presented in Fig. 5 cover a
much greater range of pressures and the K 0 value
obtained over the entire stress range tested was
0·51, the same value being obtained for first
loading whether or not the soil had reached the
normal compression line. Table 2 shows the K 0 of
0·51 to be low by comparison with other soils
and this results from the high friction angle for
this soil demonstrated later in this Paper. Equa-
tion (4) is that presented by Jaky (1944) for the
values of K 0 for normally consolidated soils.
K0 = 1 - sin</>' (4)
where K 0 is the ratio of horizontal to vertical
effective stresses and cf/ is the friction angle of
soil. This equation yields a K 0 of O· 35 for Dogs
Bay sand and the measured value is therefore
unusually high.
At the end of each K 0 compression stage the
axial stress was held constant while the soil was
allowed to equilibrate before undrained shearing.
During this stage the cell pressure was again
adjusted to maintain true K 0 conditions. In each
case the resulting creep took the soil towards
failure and the K 0 values obtained from triaxial
tests is likely to be affected by the speed of testing.
SHEARING BEHAVIOUR
Isotropically compressed samples
Following isotropic compression three different
types of compressive triaxial test were investi-
gated. Standard drained and undrained tests were
used, but for most of the drained tests a constant
p' path was followed, as discussed earlier. Stress-
strain curves for typical tests are given in Fig. 6
and the corresponding volumetric strains or pore
pressure changes (.'\u) are shown in Fig. 7. For
details of these tests refer to Table 1. In each case
the data have been plotted against shear strain e,
( =e. - ½i;.).
In the initial stages of the research it had been
thought that the particle degradation which
occurs for these soils might never allow them to
 614 COOP
8000

800
6000

600

/ X
""
a..
4000 /

0-
X
"'
a..
400
0-

2000
200 Ko= 0-51

200 400 600 2000 4000 6000

p'· kPa p': kPa
(a) (b)

Fig. 5. K0 compression paths at (a) standard and (b) high pressures

reach an ultimate or constant volume state
because continued shearing would always cause
more breakage. However, these test data indicate
that critical states can be achieved for these soils.
Even at high pressures test H showed only small
volume changes towards the end. The data show
a definite trend towards a constant volume state
and, correspondingly, towards a constant devi-
ator stress. In the same way as for clay soils, as
the effective confining stress for a test increases
and the initial soil state changes from over-
consolidated to normally consolidated, higher

600 -5 11
0

400
"'
~ if'-
10

0- ;f
200 11 H
20

x (see text)
0 30
(a) (a)

16000 0
L 8
12000 co 2000
a..
X
"'
a..
X 8000 ::i
"'I 4000
0- H
4000
6000

40 50 60 0 10 20 40 50 60

(b) (b)

Fig. 6. Typical stress-strain data for (a) standard and (b) Fig. 7. Typical volumetric strain and pore pressure data
high pressure tests from (a) drained and (b) undrained tests

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 MECHANICS OF CARBONATE SANDS 615
strains are required to bring the soil to an ulti- 2·5
mate state. For the high pressure drained tests (H
and L) both the final volumetric strains and the 2
shear strains required to reach that state were
very much higher than is usual. Test L reached - - - - -
the highest values of p' and in this case significant 1·5 M = 1·65
from Fig. 10
volume and stress changes were still occurring at :e.
0-
the end of the test.
Figure 8 shows the stress ratio (q'/p') for each
of the tests plotted against the product of the
shear strain and the specific volume (vi:,). For 0·5
conventional soils stiffness depends both on the
overconsolidation ratio and the stress level. This
method of normalizing stress-strain data yields 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
similar curves for one type of test, whatever the Vt's

stress level, for samples which have similar over- Fig. 8. Normalized stress-strain data
consolidation ratios. Two of the tests shown (8
and 11) were at standard pressures where the
samples had not reached the normal compression
2·5
line. As expected, the normalized stiffnesses of
both the undrained test (8) and the constant p' Critical state chosen
2 Test
test (11) are considerably greater than those of the cDc ocP:.;.,.c
.
/from Fig. 10
10 0
corresponding high pressure tests on normally
compressed samples (J and H respectively). The
~
1·5
C

:;~..,. ....
. t
"'"+•+.. . +• •
11
H
D
+
data from both of the standard pressure tests
indicate distinct peaks in the stress ratio, suggest-
0- .. L 6

ing dilative behaviour, which is confirmed by the 0·5

•.
.. +

....
volumetric strain data for test 11 (Fig. 7(a)). • # : o•
However, if all the tests had been continued to 0
+
+ C

sufficiently high strains the data on Fig. 8 indicate
that the ultimate stress ratios might be similar,
and this is confirmed by the stress-dilatency data
for the drained tests on Fig. 9. For conventional
soils equation (5) might typically be used to rep-
resent these data.
q'/p' = M - rx.(&v/&,)
where M is q'/p' at critical state and rx. is a con-
stant.
The data are scattered, particularly at small
strains where the rates of compression of around
unity reflect the very high volumetric strains
which result from particle breakage during shear-
ing. As for other soils, as the initial soil state
moves towards normal compression the behav-
iour on shearing changes from dilatant to com-
pressive, and for the high pressure tests (H and L)
the stress ratio q'/p' rises monotonically and the
rate of volume change tends to zero as the critical
state is approached. The volume change data for
low pressure drained tests, such as test 11, show
the soil to compress initially followed by dilation.
From equation (5) one therefore expects that at
their minimum volumes, the stress-dilatancy data
for the lower pressure tests (10 and 11) should
pass through the &v/&, = 0 axis with a stress
ratio equal to the ultimate value obtained from
the higher pressure tests. Although there is some
-0-5 0 0·5 1-5
Dilation Compression OE,)OE,
Fig. 9. Stress--dilatancy data for drained tests
data scatter, this appears to be so. As also pre-
(5) dicted by equation (5), the data for the lower
pressure tests broadly indicate a peak stress ratio
at the maximum rate of dilation and towards the
end of the tests the points appear to return
towards the ultimate state previously identified.
At the higher stress ratios where the data are less
scattered, tests over a wide range of pressures
define the same straight line on Fig. 9.
For drained tests on dense dilating samples an
estimate of the ultimate q'/p' ratio can therefore
be obtained from the value of this ratio at the
minimum sample volume. This works well, for
instance, in test 11 shown on Fig. 8. Fig. 10 shows
best estimates of the ultimate states for all the
drained tests conducted at standard pressures.
For tests on compressing samples the minimum
volume state has been used. Peak states are also
shown for the tests on dilating samples: that for
test 5 is particularly high as it was a compacted
sample. A critical state line has been chosen from
the ultimate state data which has a gradient M of
1·65, corresponding to a constant volume friction
angle angle of 40°, slightly higher than that

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 616 COOP

1000
I
0
1000

8 Test number
x Point referred
Critical state
line I to in text

800
/o 800
I
I
I / Critical state
; - line M = 1·65
600 600
from Fig. 10
So J
"'
a.
"'
o· "'
a.
"'
b- fj/ b-
400 0 400

r/ o Peak states
Best estimates of
gl critical states
0 End of test
o· o Minimum volume 200
200 0/ 5 Test number

cl
D
X
0
0 200 400 600 200 400 600
p': kPa p': kPa

Fig. 10. Ultimate states from standard pressure drained Fig. 11. Stress paths for standard pressure undrained
triaxial tests tests

of 39° determined for this soil by Golightly &
Hyde (1988). This is considerably higher than the
values shown in Table 2 for other soils. The data
points on Fig. 10 appear to indicate a slight cur-
vature to the ultimate failure envelope. However,
high pressure tests also gave a value for M of
1·65, confirming that stress level does not affect
<//.
Figure 11 shows stress paths for undrained
tests at standard pressures, which have unusual
shapes when compared to those of many clay
soils, but which are similar to those of some sands
(e.g. see Been & Jefferies, 1985). Considering test 8
in detail, from the initial isotropic state X the
path is initially compressive to point Y, that is,
increases in pore pressure were measured. This
initial part of the path is very stiff and point Y is
reached at a shear strain of only about 0·5%, as
indicated on Fig. 6(a). From point Y the path
slowly climbs at a fairly constant stress ratio to
point Z where the test was ended at a shear strain
of about 21 %.
By superimposing the critical state line from
the drained tests we can see that the undrained
tests reach higher stress ratios and the section of
the stress path YZ results from dilative behaviour
similar to that of an overconsolidated clay as the
path climbs up a steep Hvorslev surface towards
a critical state. For drained tests the minimum
sample volume states may be used to estimate the
ultimate stress ratio, and in the same way the
critical state line appears to pass through the
points of minimum p' or point of phase trans-
formation (Ishihara et al., 1975) on these
undrained paths.
Stress paths for all of the high pressure tests are
shown in Fig. 12. All of these samples were nor-
mally consolidated. The stress path of the
undrained test J is therefore more distinctly com-
pressive than those at standard pressures, and the
dilative section YZ is very short. Only one high
pressure undrained test was conducted because
great difficulty was experienced in achieving good
B values from saturation tests. Published data for
triaxial tests on carbonate sands often quote B
values before isotropic compression, but ideally
they should be conducted after isotropic compres-
sion since the B value is an indication of the relia-
bility of pore pressure measurements during the
subsequent shearing stage. No problem was
found for the tests at standard pressures, but for
test J the B value after isotropic compression was
only 56%. It is believed that this results from the
creep which is particularly severe at higher pres-
sures. The creep brings the soil state inside the
normal compression line so that its response to
the change in isotropic stress imposed by the B
test is very rigid, resulting in the poor B value,
because the bulk modulus of the soil is of the
same order as that of the pore fluid.

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 MECHANICS OF CARBONATE SANDS 617
14 000 3

• End of test
I, \ Critical state
· line
12 000
J Test
x Point referred
I
to in text L
Critical state
line M = 1·65--j
from Fig. 10 2·5
10 000

8000

"'
a.
"' :,. 2
b-
6000
Standard
I
pressure

j,, I
tests
4000

1·5 Isotropically compressed

samples
~
2000

-l
K0 compressed samples
End of test \
\
X
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
100 1000
p': kPa 1-i------,-~~--.----,----,---,
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Fig. 12. Stress paths for high pressure tests In p': kPa

Fig. 13. Shearing stage data for all pressure ranges

A critical state line has been drawn on Fig. 12

using the M of 1·65 obtained from standard pres-
sure tests. It agrees well with the data from the
high pressure tests and there is no evidence that
the constant volume friction angle varies with
stress level. As expected the stress path for test L
stops short of the critical state line because as
Fig. 7(a) shows, this test did not reach a constant
volume state.
The stress paths are shown for all tests in
v: In p' space on Fig. 13. The end of test points
all fall close to one unique critical state line for all
types of stress path. This is perhaps a surprising
result since the degree of breakage is likely to
depend on the stresses applied and hence on the
stress path followed.
Golightly (1989) identified a steady state line
for this soil which was very distinctly curved in
v: In p' space. However, the tests presented in this
Paper have been sheared to higher axial strains
allowing the critical state to be more clearly
determined in terms of specific volume, and iden-
tifying that the critical state line is roughly
straight in v : In p' space. It also appears to be
parallel to the normal compression line. A specific
volume of unity means that there are no voids-
clearly an impossible state to reach-and the
critical state line starts to curve at its higher pres-
sure end. This curvature may result in a slightly
longer straight portion of the critical state line if
log : log axes were used.
Figure 14 shows attempts to normalize the tri-
axial test data. The normalizing parameter p~ is
the current preconsolidation pressure, the calcu-
lation of which is illustrated in Fig. 14(a). For
conventional soils the size of the state boundary
surface varies with the specific volume of the soil,
but its shape remains the same. Normalizing the
data in this way produces one state boundary
surface for all types of test conducted at all pres-
sures.
The drained triaxial test data shown in Fig.
14(b) indicate a clear state boundary surface,
resembling those for clay soils. The nominally
normally compressed samples all start at p'/p~
values slightly less than unity because of the creep
which followed isotropic compression. Each of
these tests, at various pressures, appears to define
the same Roscoe surface. The paths of constant p'
tests quickly rise up to the Roscoe or Hvorslev
surface, depending on whether they start wet or
dry of critical, and then follow that surface round
to the critical state. Below the state boundary
surface the paths of constant p' tests are initially
vertical, resembling the elastic behaviour expected
of overconsolidated clays. In contrast the paths of

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 618 COOP

Normal compression 08
V
line

0-6 Critical
state Roscoe surface
Swelling
line

f 0·4
Hvorslev
\
I
Current
" 0-
surface

state
02
,;

0-i-------.---,-------,r---.----~
0 0-2 0·4 06 08
p'p In p'

(a)

0·8 0-8

Roscoe surface
0-6 0·6 Critical from drained
state \ __ tests

V, / -------
Hvorslev
f
0-
0-4 !3- 0-4 surface
0
0-

\
0·2 0-2
\
\
o+-~~---.~~-.~-~~---,---~
0 0·2 0-4 0·6 0·8

Fig. 14. Normalized triaxial stress paths: (a) calculation of normalizing parameter; (b) drained tests; (c) interpreta-
tion of drained tests; (d) undrained tests

standard drained tests 2 and 5 are inclined, and
the normalized paths below the boundary surface
therefore appear to be a function of the type of
test. Tests G and L reach higher q'/p~ ratios than
the others and are the tests which reached the
highest pressures. Since the critical state line has
started to curve at these pressures in v : In p'
space, the p~ values used to normalize these test
data are too low. Fig. 14(c) shows an interpreta-
tion of the shape of the state boundary surfaces,
one unusual feature being that the Roscoe surface
appears to have a peak. Chandler (1985) predict-
ed this feature by developing a plasticity theory
for granular soils which allowed for volume
changes resulting from particle deformation as
well as particle rearrangement.
In Fig. 14(d) the normalized data from
undrained tests are compared to the boundary
surfaces interpreted from the drained tests. The
undrained paths are quite different, and curve
quickly towards the Hvorslev surface. Again the
shape of the paths below the boundary surface is
shown to be a function of the type of test. Even
tests which start wet of the critical, curve away
from the Roscoe surface obtained from the
drained data, passing under the critical state
point, before reaching the Hvorslev surface. It will
be shown later that such behaviour may be
associated with particle breakage during shearing
and undrained tests cannot therefore be used to
identify the Roscoe surface.
Plastic strain increment vectors have been
superimposed, in Fig. 15, on the state boundary
surface as represented by the normalized stress
path from a high pressure constant p' test. To cal-
culate the vectors the elastic strains calculated
from unload-reload data were deducted from the
measured total strains. For many clay soils these
vectors are found to be normal to the state
boundary surface. However, for the carbonate
sand, in the later stages of the test there is greater
volumetric strain than would be expected from a
normality assumption. This is another feature
predicted by Chandler (1985), again indicating the

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 MECHANICS OF CARBONATE SANDS 619
0·8 (P) was compacted to a specific volume of about
2·4 and then isotropically compressed to 500 kPa,
0·6 while the other (Q) was normally consolidated
~ and then swelled back to a similar stress : volume
J 0·4
--0
state. The undrained stress path from the com-
pacted sample is similar to those shown in Fig. 11
1 for undrained tests on initially loose samples.
0- It will be shown in this Paper that both iso-
0·2
tropic and shear stresses can cause breakage of
the soil particles, and the initial curvature shown
0 in Fig. 3(a) of virgin compression data for both
0 0·2 0·4 0·6 0·8 1·2
loose and compacted samples probably results
from particle breakage occurring before the
Fig. 15. Plastic strain increment vectors for constant p' normal compression line is reached. It appears
test H that if a sample is sheared from such a state, some
further breakage results from the application of
influence of continued particle breakage during shear stresses. This results in large pore pressure
shearing. increases because of the low K of this soil, and
hence p' reduces. Since the overconsolidated
sample had been subjected to higher stresses than
Compacted and overconsolidated samples the compacted one, it had undergone more parti-
All of the shearing data so far considered have cle breakage during isotropic compression and
been for samples which had undergone isotropic there was less scope for further breakage during
virgin compression only. In this context 'virgin shearing. Its stress path therefore rises steeply
compression' refers to the state of a sample which with much smaller pore pressures, resembling
is currently under the maximum stresses it has that which would be expected of a conventional
experienced, whether or not that state is one the soil. The normalized path on Fig. 14(d) shows a
straight normal compression line. It was shown peak deviator stress on the wet side of the critical
earlier that the first loading or virgin compression state, and its shape shows greater similarity to
data for compacted and also initially loose those from drained tests. These data therefore
samples are much less stiff than the unload- confirm that the unusual shape of the undrained
reload loops. For this reason, it might be stress paths below the state boundary surface
expected that the shearing behaviour of com- results from particle crushing.
pacted and truly overconsolidated samples would The feature which distinguishes both loose and
differ. Fig. 16 shows this comparison: one sample compacted samples from truly overconsolidated
ones is that while the state of the soil is inside the
normal compression line, the soil has only ever
undergone virgin compression, i.e. it is currently
800 at the maximum stresses it has experienced. The
Overconsolidated term 'overconsolidation' does not accurately
test Q describe how the soil arrived at this state, and
Been & Jefferies (1985) adopted the term 'state
600 parameter' to quantify the location of the current
state relative to the critical state line. However,
this also does not take account of how the soil
arrived at a particular state and to distinguish the
"'
CL
-" 400
former type of state from true overconsolidation,
Compacted it is proposed that the new term 'virgin over-
test P
consolidated' be adopted. Since there is a unique
critical state line for this sand, the type of over-
consolidation will only affect the shape of the
200
stress path, not the ultimate state of the soil.
At low stresses it is not possible for the particle
packing to be sufficiently loose for the state of the
sand to lie on the normal compression line. Con-
o+---------~-~--~- sequently natural carbonate sands, like silica
0 200 400 600
p': kPa sands, are deposited in this v1rgm over-
Fig. 16. Comparison of behaviour of compacted and consolidated state. It is only with deep burial that
overconsolidated samples the soil state can reach the normal compression

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 620 COOP
line. This is therefore a principal difference in the
behaviour of sands and clays.

K 0 compressed samples
Stress paths for undrained shearing after K 0
compression are shown in Fig. 17. The corre-
sponding v : In p' paths are on Fig. 13 and agree
closely with the data from other tests. The most
striking feature is that a peak deviator stress is
seen at very low shear strains, typically around
0·1%, and the shape of the stress paths is there-
fore quite different to those of isotropically com-
pressed samples. Similar behaviour has been
reported by Atkinson et al. (1987) for K 0 com-
pressed kaolin, and for Ham River sand by
Bishop et al. (1965).

INFLUENCE OF PARTICLE BREAKAGE

A thin section of a sample as set up is shown in
Fig. 1. The open structure of the angular and
hollow particles is obvious, and the sample had a
very high specific volume of about 2·7. Fig. 18
shows a sample which has been isotropically
compressed to an effective stress of 5 MPa with a
specific volume of 2·01. Some breakage of the
coarser particles and the consequent loss of intra-
and inter-particle voids is apparent. A thin
1 mm
section of a similarly isotropically consolidated
sample which has then been sheared is shown in Fig. 18. Thin section of isotropically compressed sample
Fig. 19. A constant p' stress path was used and so (test R)
any changes in the fabric by comparison with Fig.
18 are due solely to shearing. The compression
during shearing severely reduced the visible voids whereas that during isotropic compression did
and the specific volume is just l ·58. As Price not.
(1988) has observed, the breakage which occurs These microscopic observations are verified by
during shearing has resulted in a matrix of fines, the gradings analysis data shown in Fig. 20. For
each tested sample D 50 has been chosen as the
parameter to represent particle size, and it is
4000 Critical state line / plotted against the maximum p' applied to the
M = 1·65 from Fig. 10 soil during a test. Some samples were iso-
7 tropically compressed only, while for those which
were sheared the p' value plotted is the maximum
3000· I during shearing. For undrained tests where p' has
decreased the start and end states of shearing are
I plotted.
"'
ll.
-" 2000
Figure 20 shows that there is particle crushing
b- even at relatively low stresses, which is in agree-
ment with earlier observations that particle

1000
I breakage affects both the isotropic compression
data and the shape of the undrained stress paths
I
at low pressures. The data also indicate that
r
0-<'-- - -- - - ~ -- - - - - ~
much of the particle breakage as measured by
D 50 results from isotropic stressing, and this is the
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 mechanism which results in the steep normal
p': kPa compression line.
Fig. 17. Undrained stress paths for K0 compressed Trend lines have been sketched through the
samples data: one for samples which had only been iso-

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 MECHANICS OF CARBONATE SANDS
1 mm
Fig. 19. Thin sectioo of sheared sample (test S)
tropically loaded and one for those which had
subsequently been sheared to a critical state. The
data for the sheared samples are scattered but
there are no obvious separate trends for particle
breakage due to different types of shearing. It
therefore appears that the value of D 50 resulting
at a given p' value on the critical state, line was
independent of the stress path taken to get there,
providing that was the maximum p' the soil had
experienced. However, for a sample which was at
a given isotropic stress, the choice of shearing
stress path influenced the degree of particle degra-
dation through the different q' and p' changes
which would be applied to the soil. Consequently
it is likely that undrained tests undergo less addi-
tional particle crushing during shearing by com-
parison with standard drained tests.
A third investigation of particle breakage was
made using maximum and minimum density
tests. These were carried out on the untested
sand: one sample that had been isotropically
compressed (K ) and one that had undergone the
same isotropic compression but had subsequently
been subjected to undrained shearing (J). The
minimum densities were determined by slow plu-
viation of the sand through a column of water
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621
and the maximum by rapid vibration of dry
samples. The data are presented in Fig. 21,
together with the ideal paths that the tested
samples would have followed in v : In p' space.
The data indicate that both isotropic compres-
sion and subsequent shearing are responsible for
a decrease in the maximum and minimum den-
sities, confirming that both types of stresses cause
particle breakage.
An interesting feature of Fig. 21 is that the
maximum density tests for both the isotropically
compressed and sheared samples gave specific
volumes greater than those achieved during the
triaxial tests. When the soil is retrieved after the
triaxial test and the particles are allowed to re-
orientate, the particle contacts where breakage
had occurred are lost, so the specific volume of
the soil is higher. The greater densities achieved
during the triaxial tests cannot be reached again
by the gentle compaction used for the maximum
density test, but would have required breakage on
the new particle contacts that had been estab-
lished.
Since particle degradation is such an important
feature of this soil, an investigation was made
into the behaviour of a finer soil which would
have Jess scope for particle crushing. This soil was
created by pre-crushing a batch of Dogs Bay
sand. Fig. 20 illustrates the D 50 in comparison
with the data from other gradings. Samples were
created and tested in the same way as those of the
uncrushed soil but, as Fig. 22 shows, the initial
specific volumes of the samples are considerably
lower, again confirming that the normal compres-
sion line results from particle breakage.
The isotropic compression data (Fig. 22) for the
pre-crushed soil resemble those of the compacted
samples, becoming gradually asymptotic to the
normal compression line of the loose samples of
uncrushed soil. As was observed for the density
tests, the specific volume of the pre-crushed soil
as set up is greater than that which the soil would
have reached to achieve the same degree of parti-
cle breakage. The new particle contacts start to
break at relatively low stresses giving large volu-
metric strains even before the soil reaches the
normal compression line. Shearing stage data for
the pre-crushed soil did not conclusively indicate
a different critical state line to that of the
uncrushed soil in either v : In p' or q' : p' space.
The most significant effect of precrushing the par-
ticles appeared, therefore, to be the reduction in
the soil's specific volume.
The high )./ K ratio for Dogs Bay sand given in
Table 2 indicates that the stiffness of its response
to drained and to undrained loading will be very
different. The low value of K for this soil, together
with the suspected small amount of breakage for
undrained stress paths, gives rise to very stiff
 622 COOP
p': kPa
10 100 1000 10

In p'
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-1

0·3
Untested sand
- - - -- .------ --
'------. ------- . +

0·2
-1·5
Pre-crushed sand
-~ ---------- . +
··---.....0
+
+
Oo xO
--..
CF--0
'-.....
---------- . ..
E ----------
E
•
J X

• Isotropically compressed
samples 0
- ·- Trend line
-2
Sheared samples
+ Constant p' drained
x Standard drained
o Undrained (showing p' after isotropic
0·1 compression and shearing if it
decreased during test)
- ·· - Trend line

-2·5

Fig. 20. Gradings analysis data for Dogs Bay sand

undrained load-deflexion behaviour. Fig. 8 shows metric strains which are superimposed on those
that for drained tests, in contrast, there is a very resulting from particle rearrangement. At high
soft normalized stress-strain curve, which is pressures particle breakage dominates, giving rise
thought to result from the high value of A. and to compressive behaviour. At low pressures parti-
continued severe particle breakage during shear- cle rearrangement is the governing factor, causing
ing. The very different drained and undrained dilation. As Chandler (1985) has identified, a criti-
loading behaviour is similar to that observed by cal state is reached when these two mechanisms
Bishop et al. (1965) from high pressure tests on cancel out.
Ham River sand. It was predicted by Schofield & The location of the critical state line in v : In p'
Wroth (1968) for Granta gravel, a theoretical soil space has been found to be independent of the
with a zero K. path taken to reach it, and so the direction of the
A second consequence of the soft response to stress path must govern the degree of breakage
drained loading is that at higher confining because of the different stress changes which are
stresses, as the sand tends towards normal con- applied to the soil. The large degree of breakage,
solidation, increasingly larger strains are required and hence the high volumetric strains which
to bring the soil to a critical state. If a drained occur during drained loading, were evident from
triaxial test is terminated at a typical axial strain the stress-dilatency data (Fig. 9) and also from
of 20%, as is common, the ultimate state will not the direction of the plastic strain increment
have been reached and any friction angle calcu- vectors in Fig. 15. During undrained compression
lated using the end of test data will be less than of a normally compressed soil, the zero total
that apparent at lower confining pressures. This volume change comprises a plastic volumetric
could be one reason why friction angles are often compression coupled with the elastic volume
said to decrease with increasing confining stress increase as p' decreases. Because K is very low for
for these soils. this soil, the elastic strains and hence the plastic
Particle breakage has been shown to be the strains should be small, indicating that very much
mechanism of plastic volumetric strain for these less particle breakage should be expected from
soils during isotropic compression. During shear- undrained tests than drained.
ing particle crushing again causes plastic volu- However, the shape of the undrained stress

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 MECHANICS OF CARBONATE SANDS 623
3.5

Untested First loading of

uncrushed soil
\ ·
\
3 - - - - - - - - --.. ·\ - Normal compression line for
' , \ uncrushed Dogs Bay sand

K /
Ideal path for
samples J and K 2·5 '~\
2·5
\
--------=:::ii.\._ \
Isotropic
compression
line
,. 2 ~
2 \
\
J K

1-5
1·5
• Ideal end of test state

IJ Max. and min. density test data

100 1000 100 1000

1+----~---~-------~
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
In p : kPa In p': kPa

Fig. 21. Density test data for Dogs Bay sand Fig. 22. Isotropic compression data for pre-crushed sand

paths for virgin overconsolidated and normally
compressed samples indicate that the degree of
particle breakage during undrained loading may
be greater than would be expected from the
above considerations. These paths are distin-
guished by the large initial reduction in p'/pp' at
the start of shearing (Fig. 14(d)). This may result
from a small amount of breakage of particles
which because of the low K value causes the soil
to unload to a stress level at which the breakage
and corresponding plastic volumetric strains
cease. As previously discussed, the truly over-
consolidated sample did not show this type of
behaviour since the soil is less susceptible to par-
ticle breakage during shearing.
The initial compressive part of the stress path
is very brittle, as might be expected from a review
of Granta gravel. The degree of unloading is such
that even the initially normally compressed
sample moves to a state dry of critical, behaviour
which would not be seen for conventional soils.
Since the moisture content of the soil has not
changed, its ultimate state remains unaffected.
However, the soil has now reached an over-
consolidated state and its path therefore travels
up the Hvorslev surface to a critical state. This
part of the stress path is very much less stiff than
the initial compressive section, as may be seen
from test 8 in Fig. 6 which reaches the Hvorslev
surface at point Y. During this stage of the test
the small compressive elastic volumetric strains
resulting from the increase of p' are balanced by
dilative plastic strains and it is therefore unlikely
that significant further particle breakage occurs.
Undrained shearing therefore does give rise to
significant particle breakage, and this is verified
by both sieve and density test data.
CONCLUSIONS
The triaxial tests on uncemented Dogs Bay
sand described in this Paper provided clearer
insights into the mechanics of carbonate sands.
Although carbonate sands have often been
thought of as special and as displaying unusual
behaviour, the data exhibit all the principal fea-
tures expected of conventional soils.
Isotropic and K 0 normal compression lines can
be identified by the use of high pressure testing.

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 624
When sheared, Dogs Bay sand eventually reaches
an ultimate or critical failure state where no
volume or stress changes are seen for continued
shearing. For standard drained triaxial tests the
strains required to reach this state are beyond
conventional practice. From these critical states a
friction angle of 40° has been identified, a value
which is significantly higher than encountered in
other soils. This friction angle has been found to
be independent of the stress level.
Particle breakage controls the plastic volu-
metric strains of carbonate sands during both iso-
tropic and shear loading, and it is perhaps
surprising that it does not cause their behaviour
to lie outside current models. However, although
the basic behaviour of carbonate sands is like
that of other soils, the values of some of the soil
parameters listed in Table 2 are outside the range
of normal experience. The actual values would of
course be different for other types of carbonate
soil. When the stresses imposed on a carbonate
sand are sufficient to cause particle breakage the
soil is very compressible, resulting in a high gra-
dient of the isotropic normal compression line A.
The critical state line and K 0 normal compression
line were also found to have the same gradient. In
contrast, when unloaded, carbonate sands are
unusually stiff and elastic with a low swelling line
gradient K.
A unique critical state line was found for Dogs
Bay sand. Since the location of this line is inde-
pendent of the type of test, the volume change of
the sample, and hence the degree of particle
breakage, depends on the stress path direction.
The work described in this Paper has high-
lighted a number of consequences for laboratory
testing and for the design and performance of
structures. In particular, combinations of param-
eters such as the ratio A/K of 45 are beyond
normal experience and give rise to unexpected
features, such as the very different stiffnesses
under drained and undrained loading. This dra-
matic difference in stiffnesses is not observed in
other soils. One consequence is that laboratory or
field tests on foundations in these soils will show
load---deflexion behaviour which is highly depen-
dent on drainage conditions. If loading is slow
enough to be drained, then the stress path fol-
lowed will govern the stiffness. Paths for which p'
increases will give a much softer response than
those for which p' decreases.
Carbonate sands are strong soils in the sense
that they have high friction angles, but large
strains are often required to develop the full fric-
tional resistance, and it is this which often causes
problems in the design and behaviour of engin-
eering structures. Semple (1988) observed that
footings of offshore jack-up rigs have experienced
large settlements in carbonate soils and that con-
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COOP
ventional settlement analyses, which only con-
sider </J' and not compressibility, will greatly
underestimate these settlements. Driven piles in
carbonate soils often have low frictional capac-
ities, and this has been a particular problem at
the North Rankin A platform of North-West
Australia (McClelland 1988). It is again the soil's
compressibility which causes difficulties since this
results in very low radial stresses acting on the
pile after driving.
In identifying those soils which will cause prob-
lems and those which will not, Semple highlighted
the importance of the in situ void ratio of the soil.
For carbonate soils such as Dogs Bay sand, with
high in situ void ratios, the stresses imposed by
foundations may be sufficient to take the soil
beyond its yield stress. Isotropic compression
data for a naturally dense carbonate beach sand
from Rottnest Island, Western Australia tested by
Boese (1989) are shown in Fig. 23. For this soil
much higher stresses are required to bring it to
yield and the soil will be relatively incompressible
under the loads exerted by foundations. However,
the in situ void ratio is not the only important
factor. The locations of the normal compression
and critical state lines relative to the in situ
stress-volume state will control the compress-
ibility of the soil. Soils whose in situ state is wet
of the critical state line will compress excessively.
The soil parameters of Dogs Bay sand given in
Table 2 are unique to that soil and Fig. 24 illus-
trates that the normal compression line for
3
\
Isotropic compression
\ line for Dogs Bay sand
2-5
\
\
>
a,
\
E
::,
0
> 2
\
~
u
a,
0.
Cf)
\
1-5
10 100 1000
1-I--L-----.-~~---"-----.--------.-'---,----.-----,
8 9
2 3 4 5 6 7
In p : kPa
Fig. 23. Isotropic compression data for a dense carbon-
ate sand (after Boese, 1989)
 MECHANICS OF CARBONATE SANDS
13
Dogs Bay sand \
isotropic compression \
1-1 \ u pore pressure
\ i: 1 linear strain
<l>
0-9
~
0
"O
g 0-7
05
0-3+---r--------,--~--r--------,----,
0-1 0-2 05 1-0 2 5 10
Isotropic stress: MPa
Fig. 24. Isotropic compression data for Rankin soils
(after Semple, 1988)
Rankin soil is significantly below that of Dogs
Bay sand. Soil compressibility will therefore be a
greater problem in the Rankin soil than in Dogs
Bay sand.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research is part of a continuing project at
City University, sponsored by BP International
to investigate the behaviour of piles in carbonate
soils. I would like to express by apprecitation to
the following steering committee members for
their invaluable discussions and comments: Mr
M. Sweeney, Mr R. I. Woods, and especially to
Dr G. T. Houlsby who also provided the Dogs
Bay sand, and Professor J. H. Atkinson for his
extensive help in preparing this Paper. I would
like to thank Dr D. M. Dewaikar of the Indian
Institute of Technology, Bombay for the use of
the data on low-moderate pressure K 0 compres-
sion tests he conducted at City University. Ms M.
Ho of Nanyang Institute of Technology, Singa-
pore, helped with the testing of isotropically com-
pressed samples and the maximum and minimum
density tests were conducted by Dr W. H. W.
Lau.
NOTATION
e void ratio
K0 ratio of horizontal to vertical effective
stresses under one-dimensional compres-
sion
M critical state line gradient in compression
N specific volume on normal compression line
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625
pp' current preconsolidation pressure
p' mean normal effective stress
q' deviatoric stress
v specific volume
en natural strain
\ i:.
i;v
shear strain
volumetric strain
\ K gradient of unload-reload swelling line
l gradient of normal compression line
\ u; effective axial stress
u,' effective radial stress
<// friction angle of soil
</>c' critical state friction angle
r specific volume on critical state line
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Airey, D. W., Randolph, M. F. & Hyden, A. M. (1988).
The strength and stiffness of two calcareous sands.
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Atkinson, J. H. (1985). Simple and inexpensive pressure
control equipment for conventional triaxial and
stress path testing of soils. Geotechnique 35, No. 1,
61-63.
Atkinson, J. H. & Bransby, P. L. (1978). The Mechanics
of Soils. London: McGraw-Hill.
Atkinson, J. H. & Evans, J. S. (1985). Discussions on
The measurement of soil stiffness in the triaxial
apparatus by Jardine, R. J., Symes, N. J. & Burland,
J. B. Geotechnique 35, No. 3, 378-382.
Atkinson, J. H., Evans, J. S. & Scott, C. R. (1985).
Developments in microcomputer controlled stress
path testing equipment for measurement of soil
parameters. Ground Engineering 18, No. 1, 15-22.
Atkinson, J. H., Richardson, D. & Robinson, P. J.
(1987). Compression and extensions of K 0 normally
consolidated kaolin clay. Proc. Am. Soc. Civ. Engrs
GT 113, No. 12, 1468-1482.
Been, K. & Jefferies, M. G. (1985). A state parameter for
sands. Geotechnique 35, No. 2, 99-112.
Bishop, A. W. & Henkel, D. J. (1962). The Measurement
of Soil Properties in the Triaxial Test 2nd Edn.
London: Arnold.
Bishop, A. W., Webb, D. L. & Skinner, A. E. (1965).
Triaxial tests on soil at elevated cell pressures. Proc.
6th Int. Conj. on Soil Mech., 170-174.
Bishop, A. W. & Wesley, L. D. (1975). A hydraulic tri-
axial apparatus for controlled stress path testing.
Geotechnique 25, 657---{)70.
Boese, R. J. (1989). The study of the mechanical behav-
iour of uncemented sand. BSc dissertation, The City
University, London.
Burland, J. 8. (1988). Closing address. Proc. Int. Conf
on Calcareous Sediments, Perth, Australia, 2, 869-
874.
Carter, J. P., Kaggwa, W. S., Johnston, I. W., Novollo,
E. A., Fahey, M. & Chapman, G. A. (1988). Triaxial
testing of North Rankin calcarenite. Proc. Int. Conf
on Calcareous Sediments, Perth, Australia, 2, 515-
530.
 626
Chandler, H. W. (1985). A plasticity theory without
Drucker's postulate, suitable for granular materials.
J. Mech. Phys. of Solids 33, 215---226.
Datta, M., Gulhati, S. K. & Rao, G. V. (1979). Crushing
of calcareous sands during shear. Proc. 11th Offshore
Technology Conj, Houston 1459-1467.
Datta, M., Gulhati, S. K. & Rao, G. V. (1980). Crushing
and shear behaviour of calcareous sands. Geotech
'80, l, 217-222.
Demars, K. R. & Chaney, R. C. (eds) (1982). Geotech-
nical properties, behaviour and performance of cal-
careous soils. Presented at the ASTM Symposium,
Fort Lauderdale, January 1981.
Evans, K. M. (1987). A model study of the end bearing
capacity of piles in layered carbonate soils. DPhil
thesis, Oxford University.
Fookes, P. G. (1988). The geology of carbonate soils
and rocks and their engineering characterisation
and description. Proc. Int. Conj on Calcareous Sedi-
ments, Perth, Australia, 2, 787-806.
Golightly, C. R. (1988). Engineering properties of carbon-
ate sands. PhD thesis. University of Bradford.
Golightly, C.R., & Hyde, A. F. L. (1988). Some funda-
mental properties of carbonate soils. Proc. Int. Conj
on Calcareous Sediments. Perth, Australia, 1, 69-78.
Houlsby, G. T., Evans, K. M. & Sweeney, M. (1988).
End bearing capacity of model piles in layered car-
bonate soils. Proc. Int. Conf on Calcareous Sedi-
ments, Perth, Australia, 1, 209-214.
Ishihara, K., Tatsouka, F. & Yasuda, S. (1975).
Undrained deformation and liquefaction of sand
under cyclic stresses. Soils Fdns 15, No. 1, 29-44.
Jaky, J. (1944). The coefficient of earth pressure at rest.
J. Soc. Hungarian Archit. Engrs 22, 355-358.
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Jewell, R. J. & Andrews, D. C. (eds) (1988). Proc. Int.
Conf on Calcareous Sediments, Perth, Australia,
March 1988, 1.
Jewell, R. J. & Khorshid, M. S. (eds) (1988). Proc. Int.
Conf on Calcareous Sediments. Perth, Australia,
March 1988, 2.
Lau, W. H. W. (1988). Stress-strain behaviour of clays in
simple shear and triaxial tests. PhD thesis. The City
University, London.
Leroueil, S., Kabbaj, M. Tavenas, F. & Bouchard, R.
(1985). Stress-strain-strain rate relation for the com-
pressibility of sensitive natural clays. Geotechnique
35, No. 2, 159-180.
McClelland, B. (1988). Calcareous sediments: an engin-
eering enigma. Opening address. Proc. Int. Conf on
Calcareous Sediments. Perth, Australia, 2, 777-786.
Price, G. P. (1988). Effect of mechanical deformation on
the fabrics of calcareous sediments from North
Rankin 'A'. Proc. Int. Conj on Calcareous Sediments,
Perth, Australia, 2, 565-576.
Richardson, D. (1988). Investigations of threshold effects
in soil deformation. PhD thesis, the City University,
London.
Schofield, A. N. & Wroth, C. P. (1968). Critical State
Soil Mechanics. London: McGraw-Hill.
Semple, R. (1988). State of the art report on engineering
properties of carbonate soils. Proc. Int. Conf on Cal-
careous Sediments, Perth, Australia, 2, 807-836.
Skempton, A. W. (1954). The pore pressure parameters
A and B. Geotechnique 4, No. 4, pp. 143-147.
Vesic, A. S. & Clough, G. W. (1968). Behaviour of gra-
nular materials under high stresses. Proc. Am. Soc.
Civ. Engrs 94, SM3, 661-688.
 Gibson, R. E., Gobert, A. & Schiffman, R. L. (1990). Geotechnique 40, No. 4, 627-631
TECHNICAL NOTE
On Cryer's problem with large displacements
and variable permeability
R. E. GIBSON,*t A. GOBERTtt and R. L. SCHIFFMANtt
KEYWORDS: analysis; consolidation; elasticity; per-
meability; pore pressures; Mandel-Cryer.
NOTATION
a initial radius of a material point
a 0 initial radius of the sphere
a 0 r final radius of the sphere
cv coefficient of consolidation
cvo coefficient of initial consolidation
e void ratio
er final void ratio
e 0 initial void ratio
E Young's modulus of soil skeleton
k coefficient of permeability
k 0 coefficient of initial permeability
t time
uw pore water pressure
u excess pore water pressure
Vr velocity of pore water
v, velocity of solids
yw unit weight of pore water
e{ radial logarithmic (Hencky) strain
e8 circumferential (Hencky) strain
~ current radius of a material point
v Poisson's ratio of soil skeleton
<J {' radial effective stress
<Jo' circumferential effective stress
INTRODUCTION
A comparison of the three-dimensional consoli-
dation theories of Biot (1955, 1956) and Terzaghi
(1943) was undertaken by Cryer (1963) who
examined the progress of consolidation under an
ambient pressure of a fully saturated porous com-
pressible sphere (an idealized soil) free to drain at
its surface. The analyses were limited to the case
of small strains and a linear elastic skeleton using
Biot's formulation. Cryer showed that during the
early stages of consolidation the pore water pres-
sure at the centre of the sphere could rise almost
Discussion on this Technical Note closes 5 April 1991;
for further details see p. ii.
* Golder Associates, Maidenhead, UK.
t University of Colorado at Boulder, USA.
+Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussees, France.
627
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60% above the applied pressure before dissi-
pation commenced. This was due to a temporary
increase in the state of the total stress in the
central part of the sphere which had the effect of
generating additional pore water pressure there
(Gibson et al., 1963). This so-called Mandel-
Cryer effect (Schiffman et al., 1969) has come to
be recognized as a distinctive feature of coupled
consolidation theories.
In a recent paper (Gibson et al., 1989) we have
sought to extend Cryer's work to take account of
large strains and displacements. Some stiffening
of the soil skeleton has been modelled by using
the logarithmic (Hencky's) strain measure (see
Hill, 1950) but, as in Cryer's analysis, the coeffi-
cient of permeability was taken to be constant: an
assumption likely to be rather wide of the mark
in the presence of large strains. It was found that
while the magnitude of the Mandel-Cryer effect
was virtually independent of the overall strain the
rate of consolidation increased substantially with
increasing strain. In this Technical Note we
extend the analysis to take into account the
change of permeability with void ratio which
invariably accompanies consolidation.
GOVERNING EQUATIONS
We quote here certain results which were
derived in the paper cited above (Gibson et al.,
1989) and adhere to the notation of that paper.
A saturated porous sphere of initial radius a 0 is
subjected to a suddenly applied normal pressure
of magnitude q on its surface at a time t = 0. At
this surface the pore water is free to escape at
atmospheric pressure. Tensile stress is taken as
positive and atmospheric pressure is taken as the
datum from which both total stress and pore
water pressure are measured. Effects arising from
the self-weight of the water and solids are insig-
nificant and will be ignored; the pore water pres-
sure uw and the excess pore water pressure u are
then equal. The problem also exhibits spherical
symmetry.
The conditions mentioned above, which must
be introduced into the analysis, hold on a bound-
ary the motion of which is unknown. The diffi-
culty to which this could lead can be avoided by
 628 GIBSON, GOBERT AND SCHIFFMAN

adopting a Lagrangian description where the
initial radius a of a material point of the solids is
taken as an independent variable and its sub-
sequent radius ~(a, t) as a dependent variable.
This allows these conditions to be introduced
on to the moving boundary since this is always at
a = a0 ; it is not necessary to know its actual
radial location ~(a 0 , t).
The components of skeletal strain are defined
by Hencky's relations
and these, in turn, are connected to the effective
stresses (u{, u~) through Hooke's law. Finally, the
flow of pore water through the skeleton is gov-
erned by the Darcy-Gersevanov equation which
takes the form
e 0~ k OUw
--(vc-v)-+--=0
(1 + e) ' oa Yw oa
where Ve and v, are the true velocities of fluid and
solid respectively, the other symbols having their
usual significance. Here, the coefficient of
permeability k may be any function of the void
ratio e.
In our earlier paper it was shown from the
above equations, together with the condition of
equilibrium, that the material co-ordinate ~ is
governed by the equation
where e 0 is the initial (uniform) void ratio of the
sphere. As a special case, it can be shown from a
solution of equation (3) with the appropriate
boundary conditions, that when consolidation of
the sphere is complete
~(a, CXJ) = a exp [ -q(l - 2v)/E] (7)
and this relation, together with equation (6),
allows the final void ratio (er) to be expressed in
the form
ec = (1 + e 0 ) exp [ - 3q(l - 2v)/E] - 1 (8)
(1)
but, as explained by Gibson et al., (1989), q must
not exceed [E/3(1 - 2v)] In (1 + e 0 ).
THE CENTRE PORE PRESSURE
A numerical analysis of the above equations
was developed (Gibson et al., 1989) to evaluate
(2) the variation with time of the centre pore water
pressure uw(O, t) and for the details reference may
be made to that paper. In the present extension of
the work, essentially the same explicit finite differ-
ence scheme has been followed since it has been
shown that if the procedure is stable when the
permeability coefficient k is constant, then it is
also stable when the permeability decreases, as it
does during consolidation.
Our investigation has been restricted to two
very different soils where comprehensive data are
available on the relation between permeability

oa2
2
o ~+ -2v- -1 - - - -
-
(1 - v) ~ oa
0~ [0~ ~]
oa a
and void ratio, namely: (i) copper tailings
(Bethlehem slimes) (Mittal & Morgenstern, 1976);
(ii) Florida phosphatic clay (Carrier, 1980). These
+ 2( ~ ) ! ( 0~) 2
In [~
0~] = 2_ (0~) 2
o~
data, together with the initial void ratio chosen
for each case, can be summarized as follows
1- V ~ oa ~ Oa Cv Oa Ot
(i) k = k0 exp [4·11(e - e 0 )]; e0 = 1-42 (9)
(3)
where e0 = 4·00 (10)
kE(l - v) where k 0 is the permeability at a void ratio e0 .
C =------ (4)
v yJl + v)(l - 2v) Cryer (1963), for the case of small strain and
constant permeability, showed that the magni-
E and v being, respectively, the Young's modulus tude of the Mandel-Cryer effect depended exclu-
and Poisson's ratio of the skeleton. It should be sively on the Poisson's ratio v of the soil skeleton
noted that equation (3) remains valid even when k and that the effect was greatest when v = 0. We
depends upon the void ratio e. have considered, for illustrative purposes, only
The various field quantities can all be expressed this extreme case and have adopted a skeletal
in terms of ~; in particular, the pore water pres- Poisson's ratio of v = 0 throughout.
sure The variation of the centre pore water pressure

u (a t)
w ,
=
i• o~ o~
•o
Yw
- - -
k oa ot
da (5)
ratio uw(O, T)/q with the time factor T =
Cvo t/a/, where

k 0 E(l - v)
and the void ratio CO= (11)
v Yw(l + v)(l - 2v)

= (1 + ~) 2
0~ has been calculated for a range of ambient pres-
e(a, t) e0
<-
a
-
oa
- 1 (6)
sure ratios q/E and is shown in Figs 1 and 2. For

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 CRYER'S PROBLEM 629

I=

_...... ~ """
V
' . ·,_,,
I\
I

I ~~
lb\
i
I
[\I \
,\
,, j\
I' I'
I'~
0
0.001 0.01 0.1

Time Factor T

(a)

i- +--

e
.,.,:,
e
0..
,... r
..... -
,,.
-- -
.
~

\
\
\
I'--
"-

2al',
r-- I',
\
2b\

\
\

\
I'
0
0.001 0.01 0.1

Time Factor T

(b)

Fig. 1. Variation of pore pressure with time for copper tailings: (a)
q/E = o-cn, v = o; (b) q/E = 0-1, v = o

Table I. Changes of void ratio, sphere radius and coefficient of permeability

Soil q/E eo e, ao,/ao k,/k 0 Curve k,/k 0 Curve Fig.

(i)
Copper 0·01 1·420 1·349 0·990 0·745 la 1·000 lb l(a)
tailings 0·10 1·420 0-793 0·905 0·076 2a 1·000 2b l(b)
(ii)
Florida 0·01 4·000 3-852 0·990 0·857 3a 1·000 3b 2(a)
phosphatic 0·10 4·000 2-704 0·905 0·200 4a 1·000 4b 2(b)
clay 0-25 4-000 1-362 0-779 0·012 Sa 1-000 Sb 2(c)

Downloaded by [ University Of Western Australia] on [03/06/19]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
 630 GIBSON, GOBERT AND SCHIFFMAN

0 L--...l--'--_j__L_L...LL..LL__-----L_J..-.,~_.L.L_L.U_ _...__~~~_.__._.~

0.001 0.01 0.1

Time Factor T

(a)

~ - ----

~----
,- H- I
--e-~ ---

-- --
~

- ---

:----..
...----- f,.--L :-:__ -
~----
r-----·
- ,__ - =----::-: 1--·- "'' -~

r
-- -~-\ \ •-

l~-tif
'\
--- - --- -- -
t ,- \

I \
I~

- - ,- - ----
I
4b \
\ "l's
'\
I
~

0
0.001
i 0.01
I
0.1
I,,
I l
Time Factor T
(b)

•-
-4==t-= I

--~
-

---

- -~-
'/
--- ~

"~ - f--
.... \
\
~

"-r "- ~ ~- ~-r

>- . I '- I
---
"'
~t 11I
--+-· ·-
"
Q.
' I
sb\
\
Sa
I {!
) I

~" \
~ ~- +
\ I

.,
C: '
u \

0
0.01 0.1
' I'-. jI I
0.001

Time Factor T

(c)

Fig. 2. Variation of pore pressure with time for Florida phosphatic clay: (a)
q/E = 0-()1, v = 0; (b) q/E = 0·I, v = 0; (c) q/E = 0·25, v = 0

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 CRYER'S PROBLEM
each case the changes of void ratio, sphere radius
and coefficient of permeability due to consoli-
dation are given in Table l.
The influence of both large strains and the
change of permeability with void ratio have been
taken into account in those calculations which
lead to curves la-5a. For curves lb-5b only the
effect of large strains has been allowed for. Fur-
thermore, as may be noted from Table l, the
change in radius of the sphere during consoli-
dation when q/E = 0·01 is only l % and so curves
lb and 3b are virtually identical and indistin-
guishable from Cryer's original solution which
ignored changes of permeability and assumed the
strains to be infinitesimal.
CONCLUSIONS
When a finite strain analysis is employed and
account is taken of the dependence of the coeffi-
cient of permeability on the void ratio, it will be
seen from curves la-5a that both the magnitude
of the Mandel-Cryer effect and the rate of dissi-
pation of pore pressure diminish with increasing
stress q.
It was established in an earlier study (Gibson et
al., 1989) where finite straining alone was con-
sidered, that the Mandel-Cryer effect was vir-
tually unaffected by stress and the rate of
consolidation actually increases with increasing
stress, presumably because the length of the
drainage path (the current radius of the sphere)
then becomes shorter.
These results taken together demonstrate that
it is the (differential) decrease of permeability
during consolidation that is of dominant impor-
tance. This is, no doubt, because the throttling
effect of a sudden and early drop in the skeleton
permeability close to the drainage surface on the
flow of pore water there, reduces the rate of con-
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631
solidation much more than the reducing drainage
path length increases it, and this effect persists.
However, even with appreciable loading (curves
2a and 5a) the Mandel-Cryer effect itself is still
more than 30% for a Poisson's ratio of zero.
The above results are, of course, of illustrative
value only because of the idealizations implicit in
the treatment, but they do indicate that the
Mandel-Cryer effect is likely to be greatest in stiff
soils subject to small stress changes-a result
which might have been anticipated on the basis of
purely physical reasoning.
REFERENCES
Biot, M. A. (1955). Theory of elasticity and consoli-
dation for a porous anisotropic solid. J. Appl. Phys.
26, 182-185.
Biot, M. A. (1956). Theory of deformation of a porous
viscoelastic anisotropic solid. J. Appl. Phys. 27, 459-
467.
Carrier, W. D., III (1980). Bromwell and Carrier, Inc.,
Lakeland, Florida. Private communication.
Cryer, C. W. (1963). A comparison of the three-
dimensional consolidation theories of Biot and
Terzaghi. Q. J. Mech. Appl. Math. 16, 401--412.
Gibson, R. E., Knight, K. & Taylor, P. W. (1963). A
critical experiment to examine theories of three-
dimensional consolidation. Proc. European Coef.
Soil Mech., Wiesbaden, I, 69-76.
Gibson, R. E., Gobert, A. & Schiffman, R. L. (1989). On
Cryer's problem with large displacements. Int. J.
Numer. Analyt. Meth. Geomech. 13, 251-262.
Hill, R. (1950), The mathematical theory of plasticity.
Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Mittal, H. K. & Morgenstern, N. R. (1976). Seepage
control in tailings dams. Can. Geot. J. 13, 277-293.
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