250 Prof.

Maxwell on Reciprocal Figures

Tyndall suggests a different reason to account for my not suc-
ceeding in getting the same result as he. This he expresses
by means of a comparison *, viz. that he weighs on a balance
which weighs to the milligramme, whilst I on one which can
only weigh poundst.
I must leave it to others to judge how far Dr. Tyndall is right
in making such a comparison between his work and mine. I
think it is certain that the apparatus which I employed, both
the thermo-pile and the galvanometer, were at least as sensitive
as his ; and my method, to which all the objections raised by
him do not apply, I must regard as better, inasmuch as I dis-
pense with the employment of hygroscopic plates of rock-salt,
which, even if they remain dry, interfere with the sharpness of
the observations, since they let through only a part of the heat
which falls upon them. Notwithstanding Dr. Tyndall's protest,
I believe that I can deduce with certainty from my experiments
that air containing aqueous vapour lets through the rays of heat
only a little less readily than air in the dry state.

XLV. On Reciprocal Figures and Diagrams of Forces. JBy J.

CLERK MAXWELL, F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
King's College,London ~.
E C I P R O C A L figures are such that the properties of the
first relative to the second are the same as those of the
second relative to the first. Thus inverse figures and polar reci-
procals are instances of two different kinds of reciprocity.
The kind of reciprocity which we have here to do with has refer-
ence to figures consisting of straight lines joining a system of
points, and forming closed rectilinear figures ; and it consists in
the directions of all lines in the one figure having a constant rela-
tion to those of the lines in the other figure which correspond to
them.
In plane figures, corresponding lines may be either parallel,

* Phil. Mug. S. 4. vol. xxvi. p. 53.

"l" It must seem strange that one cannot tell at the present time how
great, according to Dr. Tyndall, is theflifference of absorption by dry and
by moist air. In the paper, Phil. Mag. S. 4. vol. xxiv. p. 422, he says, in expe-
riments on atmospheric air (p. 426), "Aqueous vapour absorbs in certain
cases sixty times as much calorific rays as the air which contains it ;" and
Phil. Mug. S. 4. vol. xxv. p. 205, atom compared with atom, the absorption
of aqueous vapour is 16,000 times as great as that of air. In Phil. Mag. S. 4.
vol. xxvi. p. 36, Dr. Tyndall calculates, on the other hand, the absorption
of the aqueous vapour in a tube 4 feet long to be 4"2 per cent., or 6 per
cent. of the entire rays.
++ Communicated by the Author.
 and Diagrams of Forces. 251
perpendicular, or at any constant angle. Lines meeting in a
point in one figure form a closed polygon in the other.
In figures in space, the lines in one figure are perpendicular
to planes in the other, and the planes corresponding to lines
which meet in a point form a closed polyhedron.
The conditions of reciprocity may be considered from a purely
geometrical point of view ; but their chief importance arises from
the fact that either of the figures being considered as a system of
points acted on by forces along the lines of connexion, the other
figure is a diagram of forces, in which these forces are represented
in plane figures by lines, and in solid figures by the areas of
planes.
The properties of the "triangle" and " p o l y g o n " of forces
have been long known, and the "diagram" of forces has been
used in the case of the funicular polygon ; but I am not aware of
any more general statement of the method of drawing diagrams
of forces before Professor Rankine applied it to frames, roofs,
&c. in his 'Applied Mechanics,' p. 137, 8~c. The "polyhedron
of forces," or the equilibrium of forces perpendicular and pro-
portional to the areas of the faces of a polyhedron, has, I believe,
been enunciated independently at various times ; but the appli-
cation to a "frame" is given by Professor Rankine in the Phi-
losophical Magazine, February 1864.
I propose to treat the question geometrically, as reciprocal
figures are subject to certain conditions besides those belonging
to diagrams of forces.
On ReciprocalPlane Figures.
Definition.--Two plane figures arc reciprocal when they con-
sist of an equal number of lines, so that corresponding lines in
the two figures are parallel, and corresponding lines which con-
verge to a point in one figure form a closed polygon in the other.
Note.--If corresponding lines in the two figures, instead of
being parallel are at right angles or any other angle, they may
be made parallel by turning one of the figures round in its own
plane.
Since every polygon in one figure has three or more sides,
every point in the other figure must have three or more lines
converging to it ; and since every line in the one figure has two
and only two extremities to which lines converge, every line in
the other figure must belong to two, and only two closed poly-
gons. The simplest plane figure fulfilling these conditions is
that formed by the six lines which join four points in pairs.
The reciprocal figure consists of six lines parallel respectively to
these, the points in the one figure corresponding to triangles in
the other.
252 Prof. Maxwell on ReciprocalFigures
General Relation between the Numbers of Points, Lines, and
Polygons in Reciprocal Figures.
The effect of drawing a line, one of whose extremities is a
point connected with the system of lines already drawn, is either
to introduce one new point into the system, or to complete one new
polygon, or to divide a polygon into two parts, according as it is
drawn to an isolated point, or a point already connected with the
system. Hence the sum of points and polygons in the system
is increased hy one for every new line. But the simplest figure
consists of four points, four polygons, and six lines. Hence the
sum of the points and polygons must always exceed the number
of lines by two.
Note.qThis is the same relation which connects the numbers
of summits, faces, and edges of polyhcdra.
Conditions of indeterminateness and impossibility in drawing
reciprocal Diagrams.
Taking any line parallel to one of the lines of the figure for a
base, every new point is to be determined by the intersection of
two new lines. Calling s the number of points or summits, e
the number of lines or edges, and f the number of' polygons or
faces, the assumption of the first line determines two points, and
the remaining s--2 points are determined by 2(s--2) lines.
Hence if e ----2s-- 3,
every point may be determined. If e be less, the form of the
figure will be in some respects indeterminate; and ife be greater,
the construction of the figure will be impossible, unless certain
conditions among the directions of the lines are fulfilled.
These are the conditions of drawing any diagram in which the
directions of the lines are arbitrarily given ; but when one dia-
gram is already drawn in which e is greater than 2s--3, the
directions of the lines will not be altogether arbitrary, but will
be subject to e--(2s--3) conditions.
Now if d, sI, ft be the values of e, s, and f in the reciprocal
diagram
e =e', 8=/', f=s',
e=s+f--2, d=d +ft--2.
Hence if s - f , e = 2 i - - 2 ; and there will be one condition con-
necting the directions of the lines of the original diagram, and
this condition will ensure the possibility of constructing the reci-
procal diagram. If
s > f , e>2s--2, and d < 2 d - - 2 ;
so that the construction of the reciprocal diagram will be pos-
sible, but indeterminate to the extent of s--f variables.
 and Diagrams of Forces. 253
If s < f , the construction of the reciprocal diagram will be
impossible unless ( s - - f ) conditions be fulfilled in the original
diagram.
If any number of the points of the figure are so connected
among themselves as to form an equal number of closed poly-
gons, the conditions of constructing the reciprocal figure must
be found by considering these points separately, and then ex-
amining their connexion with the rest.
Let us now consider a few cases of reciprocal figures in detail.
The simplest case is that of the figure formed by the six lines
connecting four points in a plane. If we now draw the six lines
connecting the eentres of the four circles which pass through
three out of the four points, we shall have a reciprocal figure,
the corresponding lines in the two figures being at right angles.
The reciprocal figure formed in Fig. 1.
this way is definite in size and
position ; but any figure similar ~_...A_ ///~
to it and placed in any position is x
still reciprocal to the original
figure. If the reciprocal figures
are lettered as in fig. 1, we shall
have the relation

AP BQ CR

In figures 2 and II. we have a

pair of reciprocal figures in which the lines are more numerous,
but the construction very easy. There are seven points in each
figure corresponding to seven polygons in the other.
Fig. 2. Fig. II.

The four points of triple concourse of lines A B C, B D E,

H I L, L J K correspond to four triangles, a b e, b d e, h i l, lj k.
The three points of quadruple concourse A D F H, C E G K,
I F G J correspond to three quadrilaterals, a d f h , c ey k, i f # j .
254 Prof. Maxwell on Reciprocal Figures
The five triangles A D B, E B C, G J K, I J L, H I F corre-
spond to five points of triple concourse) a d b, e b c, g j k, i j l, h if.
The quadrilateral D E G F corresponds to the point of qua-
druple concourse d e g f .
The pentagon A C K L H corresponds to the meeting of the
five lines a c k l h.
In drawing the reciprocal of fig. 2, it is best to begin with a
point of triple concourse. The reciprocal triangle of this point
being drawn, determines three lines of the new figure. If the
other extremities of any of the lines meeting in this point are
points of triple concourse, we may in the same way determine
more lines, two at a time. In drawing these lines, we have only
to remember that those lines which in the first figure form a
polygon, start from one point in the reciprocal figure. In this
way we may proceed as long as we can always determine all the
lines except two of each successive polygon.
The case represented in Fig. 3.
figs. 3 and I I l . is an in-
stance of a pair of reci-
procal figures fulfilling the
~ L A

conditions of possibility
and determinateness, but
presenting a slight diffi-
culty in drawing by the
foregoing rule. Each fi-
gure has here eight points
and eight polygons; but C
after we have drawn the
lines s, n, o, k, r, we can-
not proceed with the figure
simply by drawing the last
two lines of polygons,
because the next polygons
to be drawn are quadrilate-
rals, and we have only one
side of each given. The
easiest way to proceed is to
produce a b c d till they
form a quadrilateral, then
to draw a subsidiary figure
similar to t l m p q, with
a b c d similarly situated,
and then to reduce the
latter figure to such a scale
and position that a, b, c, d
coincide in both figures.
Fig. III.
 and Diagrams of Forces. 255
In figures 4~and IV. the condition that the number of polygons
is equal to the number of points is not fulfilled. In fig. 4 there
Fig. 1V. Fig. 4.

,,, ///o J
///
\\\\
\\\\\
A tt -,\.

............ xxx
........ :::::::::::::::::::::
G

are five points and six triangles; in fig. IV. there are six points,
two triangles, and three quadrilaterals. Hence if fig. 4 is given,
fig. IV. is indeterminate to the extent of one variable, besides
the elements of scale and position. In fact when we have drawn
A B C and indicated the directions of P, Q, R, we may fix on
any point of P as one of the angles of X ¥ Z and complete the
triangle X Y Z. The size of X Y Z is therefore indeterminate.
Conversely, if fig. IV. is given, fig. 4 cannot be constructed unless
one condition be fulfilled. That condition is that P, Q, and R
meet in a point. When this is fulfilled, it follows by geometry
that the points of concourse of A and X, B and Y, and C and Z
lie in one straight llne W, which is parallel to w in fig. 4. The
condition, may also. .be expressed by saying that fig. IV.. must be a
perspective projection of a polyhedron whose quadrilateral faces
are planes. The planes of these faces intersect at the concourse
of P, Q, R, and those of the triangular faces intersect in the
line W.
Figs. 5 and V. represent another case of the same kind. In
fig. 5 we have six points and eight triangles ; fig. V. is therefore
 256 ProL Maxwell on Reciprocal Figures
capable of two degrees of variability, and is subject to two con-
ditions.
Fig. 5.

. . ,!

% I " ",.

.J / ~,."., a

:.. .,. C ,:" -.~. ~...

.; /l

/ Y .-" .... ~ 1
f I ~ ..oo,..*'" ~ t
/ /-" ........... \ /
,.' fl ,.,- .~

..,.-:.:, .....
~S.'"
Fig. V.
The conditions are that the four intersections of corresponding
sides of opposite quadrilaterals in fig. V. shall lie in one straight
line, parallel to the line joining the opposite points of fig. 5 which
correspondto these quadrilaterals. There are three such lines
marked x, y, z, and four points of intersection lie on each line.
We may express this condition also by saying that fig. V. must
be a perspective projection of a plane-sided polyhedron, the in-
tersections of opposite planes being the lines x, y, z.
 and Diagrams of Forces. 257
Fig. 6.
In fig. 6, let A B C D E be a
portion of a polygon bounded e~
by other polygons of which the
edges are P Q R S T , one or x
more of these edges meeting ' ~
each angle of the polygon.
In fig. VI., let a b c d e be '!
lines parallel to A B C D E and
meeting in a point, and let these
be terminated by the lines
p q r s t parallel to P Q K S T ,
one or more of these lines com- tl
pleting each sector of fig. VII.
In fig. 6 draw Y through the
intersections of A C and P Q,
and in fig. VI. draw y through
the intersections of a,p and c, q.
Then the figures of six lines
A B C P Q Y and a b c p q y will Fig. VI.
be reciprocal, and y will be parallel to Y. Draw X parallel to x,
and through the intersections of T X and C E draw Z, and in
fig. VI. draw z through the intersections of c x and e t ; then
C D E T X Z and e d e t x z will be reciprocal, and Z will be pa-
rallel to z. Then through the intersections of A E and Y Z
draw W, and through those of a y and e z draw w ; and since
A C E Y Z W and a c e y z w are reciprocal, W will be parallel
to w.
By going round the remaining sides of the polygon A B C D E
in the same way, we should find by the intersections of lines
another point, the line joining which with the intersection of A E
would be parallel to w, and therefore we should have three points
in one line ; namely, the intersection of Y and Z, the point de-
termined by a similar process carried on on the other part of the
circumference of the polygon, and the intersection of-4. and E ;
and we should find similar conditions for every pair of sides of
every polygon.
Now the eonditions of the figure 6 being a perspective pro-
jection of a plane-sided polyhedron are exactly the same. For
A being the intersection of the faces A P and A B, and C that of
B C and Q C, the intersection A C will be a point in the inter-
section of the faces A P and C Q.
Similarly the intersection P Q will be another point in it, so
that Y is the line of intersection of the faces A P and C Q.
In the same way Z is the intersection of E T and C Q, so that
the intersection of Y and Z is a point in the intersection of A P
and E T.
Phil. Map. S. 4. Vol. 27. No. 182. April 1864. 8
258 Prof. Maxwell on Reciprocal Figures
Another such point can be determined by going round the
remaining sides of the polygon ; and these two points, together
with the intersections of the lines A E, must all be in one straight
line, namely, the intersection of the faces A P and E T.
Hence the conditions of the possibility of reciprocity in plane
figures are the same as those of each figure being the perspective
projection of a plane-sided polyhedron. When the number of
points is in every part of the figure equal to or less than the
number of polygons, this condition is fulfilled of itself. When
the number of points exceeds the number of polygons, there will
be an impossible ease, unless certain conditions are fulfilled so
that certain sets of intersections lie in straight lines.
Application to Statics.
The doctrine of reciprocal figures may be treated in a purely
geometrical manner, but it may be much more clearly understood
by considering it as a method of calculating the forces among a
system of points in equilibrium ; for,
If forces represented in magnitude by the lines of a figure be
made to act between the extremities of the corresponding lines
of the reciprocal figure, then the points of the reciprocal figure
will all be in equilibrium under the action of these forces.
For the forces which meet in any point are parallel and pro-
portional to the sides of a polygon in the other figure.
If the points between which the forces are to act are known,
the problem of determining the relations among the magnitudes
of the forces so as to.produce equilibrium will be indeterminate,
determinate, or impossible, according as the construction of the
reciprocal figure is so.
Reciprocal figures arc mechanically reciprocal ; that is, either
may be taken as representing a system of points, and the other
as representing the magnitudes of the forces acting between
them.
In figures like 1, 2 and II., 8 and III., in which the equation
e----2s--2
is true, the forces are determinate in their ratios ; so that one
being given, the rest may be found.
When e > 2s-- 2, as in figs. 4 and 5, the forces are indetermi-
nate, so that more than one must be known to determine the rest,
or else certain relations among them must be given, such as those
arising from the elasticity of the parts of a frame.
When e < 2s--2, the determination of the forces is impossible
except under certain conditions. Unless these be fulfilled, as in
figs. IV. and V., no forces along the lines of the figure can keep
its points in equilibrium, and the figure, considered as a frame,
may be said to be loose.
 and Diagrams of Forces. 259
When the conditions are ill|filled, the pieces of the frame can
support forces, but in such a way that a small disfigurement of
the frame may produce infinitely great forces in some of the
pieces, or may throw the frame into a loose condition at once.
The conditions, however, of the possibility of determining the
ratios of the forces in a frame are not coextensive with those of
finding a figure perfectly reciprocal to the frame. The condition
of determinate forces is e = 2 s - 2 ;
the condition of reciprocal figures is that every line belongs to
two polygons only, and e=s+f--2.
In fig. 7 we have six points connected by ten lines in such a
way that the forees are all determinate ; but since the line L is
a side of three triangles, we cannot draw a reciprocal figure, for
we should have to draw a straight line l with three ends.
If we attempt to draw the reciprocal figure as in fig. VII., we
shall find that, in order to represent the reciprocals of all the lines
of fig. 7 and fix their relations, we must repeat two of them, as
h and e by ht and e, so as to form a parallelogram. Fig. VII. is
then a complete representation of the relations of the force which
would produce equilibrium in fig. 7 ; but it is redundant by the
repetition of h and e, and the two figures are not reciprocal.
Fig. 7.

Fig. VII.
$2
260 On Reciprocal Figures and Diagrams of Forces.

On Reciprocal Figures in three dimensions.

Definition.nFigures in three dimensions are reciprocal when
they can be so placed that every line in the one figure is perpen-
alien|at to a plane face of the other, and every point of eoneourse
of lines in the one figure is represented by a dosed polyhedron
with plane faces.
The simplest ease is that of five points in space with their ten
Connecting lines, forming ten triangular faces enclosing five
tetrahedrons. By joining the five points which are the eentres
of the spheres eireumseribing these five tetrahedrons, we have a
reciprocal figure of the kind described by Professor Rankine in
the Philosophieal Magazine, February 1864 ; and forces propor-
tional to the areas of the triangles of one figure, if applied along
the eorresponding lines of connexion of the other figure, will
keep its points in equilibrium.
In order to have perfect reciprocity between two figures, each
figure must be made up of a number of closed polyhedra having
plane faees of separation, and sueh that each face belongs to t~o
and only two polyhedra, corresponding to the extremities of the
reeiproeal line in the other figure. Every line in the figure is
the intersection of three or more plane faces, because the plane
face in the reciprocal figure is bounded by three or more straight
lines.
Let s be the number of points or summits, e the number cf
lines or edges, f the number of faces, and e the number of poly-
hedra or cells. Then if about one of the summits in whieh
polyhedra meet, and a edges and ~ faces, we describe a polyhe-
dral cell, it will have ~ faces and a summits and ~ edges, and
we shall have
~=~+o---2;
s, the number of summits, will be deereased by one and in-
creased by o-;
e, the number of cells, will be increased by one ;
f, the number of faces, will be increased by ~b;
e, the number of edges, will be increased by *1;
so that e+e--(s+f) will be inereased by ~ + l - - ( ~ + ~ b - - 1 ) ,
which is zero, or this quantity is constant. Now in the figure
of five points already discussed, e = l O , c = 5 , s = 5 , f = 1 0 ; so
that generally
e+e=s+f,
in figures made up of cells in the way described.
The condition of a reciproeal figure being indeterminate, de-
 On the Difference between Active and Ordinary Oxygen. 261
terminate~ or impossible except in particular eases, is
>
e = 3s--5.
<
This condition is sufficient to determine the possibility of finding
a system of forces along the edges which will keep the summits
in equilibrium ; but it is manifest that the mechanical problem
may be solved, though the reciprocal figure cannot be constructed
owing to the condition of all the sides of a face lying in a plane
not being fulfilled, or owing to a face belonging to more than
two cells. Hence the mechanical interest of reciprocal figures
in space rapidly diminishes with their complexity.
Diagrams of forces in which the forces are represented by
lines may be always constructed in space as well as in a plane,
but in general some of the lines must be repeated.
Thus in the figure of five points, each point is the meeting
place of four lines. The forces in these lines may be represented
by five gauche quadrilaterals (that is, quadrilaterals not in one
plane) ; and one of these being chosen, the other four may be
applied to its sides and to each other so as to form five sides of a
gauche hexahedron. The sixth side, that opposite the original
quadrilateral, will be a parallelogram, the opposite sides of which
are repetitions of the same line.
We have thus a complete but redundant diagram of forces
eonsistingof eight points joined by twelve lines, two pairs of the
lines being repetitions. This is a more convenient though less
elegant construction of a diagram of forces, and it never becomes
geometrically impossible as long as the problem is mechanically
possible, however complicated the original figure may be.

XLVI. On the Difference between Active and Ordinary Oxygen.

By R. CLAUSIUS*.
a paper communicated in March 1858, " O n the Nature of
I NOzone"t, I gave an explanation of this modification of oxygen,
which stood in connexion with the views I had shortly before
published as to the internal condition of bodies, especially of
gases. Our knowledge of ozone was at that time much less than
now. The antithesis between ozone and antozone had not been
discovered. It was merely known that oxygen by various pro-
cesses could be brought into an excited condition, in which its
oxidizing action is more energetic than that of ordinary oxygen ;
* Translated from vol. viii. of the VierteO'ahrschrift der naturforschen-
den Gesellschaft in Z~rich. Read October 18, 1863.
t Phil. Mag. S. 4. vol. xvi. p. 45.