neonates A REVERENCE GRMBAR OF OSETIDONCA WLth the collaboration of SMKARIA STROMA AFRICAN STUDIES OF "SE ACADEMY \VOLIME NO 1 OF HE DEPARIMENT OP AFRICAN LANGUAGES mu acabaPLesy7 N44 F3g 1986 © 1986 Derek Fivaz ISBN 0-947433-06-6 Printed in Windhoek SWA/Namibi. STAR BINDER & PRINTERS P.0. Box 56 VINDHORK 9000 by 1 Professor 0.7. Ole ‘Through whom I vas first introduced to ‘Gmparative Bantu stulies and to © Language of South West Africa/Namibia a‘The present reference granmar is the introductory publication in a catering for research into the peoples and cultures of Namibia. The African Studies of the Acadeny is intended to prasent scientific publications in. book format on Namibian languages, Literature, history, archaeology, anthropology, sociology, polities or related disciplines. Te purpose of tho series is to bring into focus neglected areas of inquiry, ‘and_to create an opportunity for scientific publications with a linited and hence non-profitable market. The series is meant to serve international Scholarship with research into Namibian topics ‘This series will not confine itself to the publication of research results but could also include rare historic documents and other original materials of amportence to research. The series aime to provide an open forum, and views expressed by authors need not be shared by the editors of the series The present publication by Derek Fivar ie the resume of research which he Genducted in collaboration vith Sakariah shikonba at the Academy during the first semester of 1964. Professor Fivar did thie work aa a guest lecturer at the Anvitation of the Academy, with the specific brief of providing the Linguistic “materiel for a first-year course in Ndonga. This material was Compiled in the form of a reference qranmar to be used mainly by students ond their teachers, but also by the layman. The scope of this book is, therefore, largely determined by its particular ein. Similar publications are envisaged in the hope that they may benefit undereradvate studies and post-graduate research, se voll as general inquiry. M- Maacke (esociate Professor) ow1 wish to thank the Senate of Rhodes University, Grahamstown, for the period fof long and study leave granted, during which time this analysis of Monga hes been produces. I acknowledge with appreciation the housing and other hosting facilities, together with sone financial support, provided by the Acadeny of Tertiary Blucation in Windhoek for the time in which I worked on Nionga ae a Viaieing lecturer at the Academy in 1984, Professor Wilfried Haacke, tlead of African Languages at the Academy, aid much to make my time at the Acadeny both fruitful and congenial. To hin end his vite Iengard my warm and sincere thanks for 20 much given and shared in’ open friendship with myself and my family. ty thanks are also due to my colleagues in the Bantu typology Project, Professors A.P. Hendrikee and G. Poulos, for their support. We are grateful, to the Chairman's Pducational ‘Trust Pund of Anglo Mwerican for financial Support for the Project through which wa have been greatly assisted in” the purchase of a micro-conputer which was initiated in the production of this Stamar 2a ihe speech on which this qramar is based is that of the lete Me 5. Sikonba, “a particular expression of my thanks is due to him. The material eygred in this work suggests the many houre of elicitation, somet ines Eediously endured.” ‘wr Shikeaba war throughout a most patient and willing Sxilebecator, and his contribution was therefore @ most significant one. Hig expected death carly in Decenber 1905 has frustrated my personal Teinowledgement to him for his part in thie work, now brought to completion. Mey AErseeing this indebtedness to him, I must retain the responsitility for ‘omiasions or shortcomings reflected in the work. : People helped with matters orthographical: Mr W Zimerman, wa a eiij00n, and Me P deckali.” Mr Maakalis Mise Martha Namands ard gene YEE very, ingly checked somo of the examples afd filled some “of Pe: Te ail these Tan grateful. the support from Dr Viljoens sy Predecessor in Ndonga grammatical enquizy, has been much i Prapaies in the first chapter vore produced fron the speech of | Mie me equipment used was a Model 6096 Viei-Pitch (produced by Kay cor.) interfaced with an Apple micro-conputer, and Tae grateful machines, ae well as for. his of, thanks ie due to Mrs Helen Murdoch vho entered the tonal ad cu ung alFeedy fairly complex manuscript, “and who’ aevers! "WP and reproduced the manuscript‘The ere of comprehensive reference grammars on the Southern Bantu Languages probably reached its peak in the 1950's, and the appearance of this work "on Ndonga at 2 time when such non-theoretical interpretations of gramatical aystans is no longer fashionable will probably raise som eyebrove. While explanatory kinds of Linguistic investigations are in focus (and these are of course the wost exciting to those who produce then!), there remains a. reel need for the possibly more “superficial kinds of documentary stateaents of basic grammatical information vhich are of the "reference gramar" type, In the last hundred years Oshivanbo, mainly in two of ts several disiects, han been quite extensively studied, although not to anything like the extent of the South-Eastern Bantu languages. A perusal of the biblicgraphy of Rubliahed works on the language reveals the following in the way cf several Geacriptions of one kind or another ‘rive /sunsecr pare prauscr aumon 18 Kwanyana, Brincker 1892 Ndonga’ Seidel a910 Kwanyana Tonjer 1960 Ndonga ‘Tirronen 1978/80 Ndonga Viljoan and Anakald 1897 venyona and Brincker Ndonga as10 Yovenyana, Tonjes 1365 Kvanyana, ‘Tobias and survey 1975 Ndonga, Viljoen and Anakalé 1984 aonga Viljoen and Anakali 1965 Ndonga (in Néonga) Tixronen 1977 Ndonga (in Ndonga) Tirsonen 1978 Nong, Viljoen and amakals.. torn of nore specialised and/or technical descriptions, the follow : . sa/or tech pt the following 1966 ‘idonga and van vouren Kanyon wn Keanyana Zimmerman “2 Naoage wiljoen (PhD theese) 1979 Ndonga and Viljoen KwanyenaArticles Voiceless nasels 2 Ndonga Panconcelli-calzia Phonology 1955 Ndonga ‘Tirronen Semantic’ tone 1957 Neonga Tirronen biteriar tote Historical 1974 wanbo Baucom Aeknovledgenents ‘phonology 1975, Wambo Bavcon Preface Vowel assimilation 1975 Ndonga vidjean, Introduction Stctrom one -~ pHononocy ‘rirronen‘s gramar of Ndonga ie designed as a school text, and Viljoen Jmakeli'e "Hendbook" waa intended to be what ite title indicates. Maktohonsive grammar of the type in commen use for most of the South-east Genguagea Ras yet. been produced. This fact, together with the obv; importance of @ language whose ereakers constitute approximately half of total population of the country, provides the justification for the pret work. 1s therefore offered as a contribution towards the meeting Ghat could fairly be called a basic need in Ndonga gramatical studies. Title of the work hints at its scope, and T anticipate the day Acadeaically trained Ndonga speakers thenselves will be eble to compile Adequate reference material on their om language. ‘thie gramar i Derek Fivaz oo OMPrER OWE ~ PHONOLOGY THVENTORY Introduction onan snventory and phoneme clusters voweie Tones “Rllotonic* conde {tioning of tones Intonational.conditionig of Contrastive tone patterns on worse Lanieal tone contrasts sytiabi, ‘CHRPTER TWO — PHONOLOGICAL, RULES Phonological rules (*Morphophonesies") Vowel + vowel sequen. Coalescence Dasint lation Complete hasinidetion vowel harmony‘: "¥ autfix in verbs Yotm Conder tunber Prefix Satore stems Gaba before v-ccmmencing verb Toot ernatlvon canto first porson Singular eubject concord Imperative plural surfin nial Partial Aasint lation Fast conpletive verb ouffix ~i ied Extension ~el— . Gsstive Beeanaon “ik ‘Sive Extension ul ‘Consonantalisation ~ stmber prefixes in no Pron demonstratives and Possess ive ene | Genderonnter vis wv 2 2 22 23 23 23 2 u 25 25 25 6cender-nunber prefixes sn pronouns. demonstratives and possessives Nasal + Consonant sequences Noun/adjective Clase 9/10 X Demonstrative Ne Past completive -ile Miscellaneous Rul ‘Conder number prefixes of classes 1 and 3 mu~ Gnperative suffix -eniv loss of a ‘and agin lation Subject concord first person singular ‘oss of nd Perticipial and subjuntive ha-, lose of h 25 © before object gender number markers 29 @ before certain verb roots secTION TWO - GRAMMAR (CHAPTER TREE: REFERENTS Of “THINGS” Introduction Noune - naming referents Tidenga Noun Gender-nuaber markers Noun ‘tones, Qnelyeie of tone changes fron singular to plural Referents without naming ~ “Pronouns” Concoras ~ gender nunber prefixes (GNP*s) Referente as renbers of “sets” absolute pronouns” set identity information Quantitatives - menbership of set information penonstratives ~ locatiorel /time specification ‘cunpTes POUR: QUALITIES, WOMBERS AND STATES OF BEING introduction pajectives| ‘Conceptual significance Structure Rajectives without the referent Dajectives a8 vocative Causative adjective predication Baunerative Numerals Munber specification by neune - 9. 10, 100, 1000, 1900000 way Nunber specification by syntactic construction 11-99, 101 -999.1001 -9959 Qualities and abstractions denoted by nouns Quality /abstract nouns Which are not derived Abstract nouns derived from ed jective stens Abstract nouns derived from other concrete nouns Quality/abstract nouns derived from verbs Predication of (noun) quality Posseaaive Structure Possessive compounds Conceptual significance Stative verbs ~ states of beconing/being Relative verbe ‘CHAPTER FIVE ~ VERD PREDICATION Introduction verbs Semantic contrasts: tense. aspect and mode Verb con jugational foraatives Table of Monga verb system Conjugational formatives which are Proto-Bentu reflexes Verb tone Verb roots’ phonological forn Verb reste followed by locatives Object concorde Verb oxtensions ‘Reel procal Applied Passive and Neuter causative Reversive Miscellaneous extensions ‘Bxtension compounding Won-finite predicate verb forme Infinitive Imperative Main (Principal) Verb forms Subordinate verbs Relatives Participial Subjunctive Consecutive verbs Conjunction, disjunction and other Linked sentences oat 20 a 2 3 a4 aa 7 18 49 125 125 77 7 130 13 | |14. 15. 2.6. (CHAPTER SIX - NOM VERB PREDICATION Introduction SReneificative copulatives - predication of referent jaeneiee of ponsuerion ef demic soto « tii bescripive cpulatives ~ eaeation of the « Locational predication "eophone pradication = yithout tine, aapecty and CHAPTER SEVEN ~ RELATIONALS Subjects and cbjects - Topic relation between Teferente and event Single aubject and cbject Nore than one subject Nore than one object Taentical subject and object referents ~ reflexive Causative adjectival referents applicative ~ Benefactive/applicative relation between event and referent Hentificative copulative - Bquational relation between two referents Associative copulative - Associational relstion between two referente = pesdication of attribute Deseriptive copulative ~ pei of topic referent, Potsessives ~ Posseasive/associational relation between two referents Locatives ~ Spatio-temporal relation between event, and referent. tocative inflection ef nouns/pronouns Tocative nouns’ Tocative forme of denonstratives, enumeratives, fquantitatives and adjectives Daverbe ~ Associational/Instrunental relation between referent and event Associative adverbs Comparison adverbs av? 135 135 135 Benefactive adverbs Adverbs vhich are nouns = Other qualification of events in tine, manner” intensity. frequency. etes Adverbs which are adjectives ny Ravers of diverse and/or unclear origin comparisons - Attribute comparison GUPTER EIGHT — rRUTH VALUES Questions Toeitive questions Moat general questioning Gicetioning of referent Raber qloctioning Rtribute questioning Locality. questioning leven on ven Yeo/to questions ~ questioning Coctusls ‘Truth questioning - “ ” vagetive questions Affirmation Negation Inter jections Verb predication Main (principal) verbe Subordinate verbs copulatives Héentificative copulatives Associative copalative Descriptive copulatives Predicate’ ideophones PTER NINE ~ SPEAKER ATTITUDE Introduction Inter jections Requests Perogation of referents oe) 156 437 157 357 157 159 159 359 159 ret 161 161 162 162 362 163 168 165 165 165 166 166 166 187 167 167 169 168 170"nermopucrio8 Cshindonga sone of the two literary dialects of the Oxhivarbo language of northern South West Africa/Nanibia and southern Angola. thle Laweage, hen the Largest number of speakers in SWA/Niamibia, totalling ‘son aay Se secofding to the 1981 census. There are several dialects af’ karte, At when Monga, aod Huanyana ‘are the two which have been developed’ ae ‘officreim Fecounised Literary forms of tho language. The following map indicaten it) approximate “distribution of the first-language speakers of the diaieees “te Hanbo in SWA/Namibis (with acknowledgements to” the Department. of’ dance, Biucation's Wlonga orthography tio 2, 1975). Agangjers Groatfonteta Seakoane © iadhoek SOUTN MEST arezca/ \ mate= Ntonga hes been developed as a written form since the work of the Finnish Imiselon began in 1870, and evidently gained official status in 1968 as 9 Yonguage recognised by the qoverment “or aiministration purposes. In 1971 and 1995 official terminology and spelling rules were published by the Government Department of Banty Education of the Republic of South Africa a Part of the series of such official guides on the writing of indigenous, Yonguages within the territories administered by that government. Parallel, Gevelopments cccurred in Keanyana, the other major Literary dialect of Wanbo, Following the early vork of the German Lutheran mission begun in 1891. ‘This reference arannar on the Ndonga dialect is designed to provide the usual Kind of reference information about the language expected in such @ work. Te hae been customary in southern Africa to organise such qramars according to. the "model" developed by the ate Professor C.M. Doke for the languages: belonging to the family known ae "Bantu", The concepts and terminology which Charecterise the stendard reference works an South-Eastern Bantu Languages Gre widely known and used, and can scarcely be avoided if @ work 1ike this i to be of greatest usefulner Dokean terminology has therefore been used i this gramaticel description of Moma, and should make this description Compatible £0 some extant with the several excellent Dokean type description® fof other languages in southern Africa, At the sane time, this grammar does represent a departure from standard Dok Gramar in its’ underlying assunpticns, apd consequently, in its overall Grgenisation. tis here asauned thet underlying the grenmatical systen, Well. as the vocabulary of a language is a rach systen of concepts speakers have of the universe they rerceive. The granmar of a lenguage Assuned to bo, to @ considerable extent, "iconic" in its reflection of Universe conceptualised by ite speakers. The grammatical structuree Monga here described are therefore outlined with reference to th conceptualisations which are assumed to underly the grammatical forms ‘This ie the first grammar of a southern Bantu language to be described in th way, and as such ean no doubt be considerably refined. Wowever, although th underlying assumption is that gresmar le "iconic", the terminology used nore or lese consistently Dokean. Hopefully the novelty of includ Conceptualisations in aramatical description will not make the descriptia Steelf unduly obscure ts those faniliar with the Doke model. ‘Quite apart fran the conceptual significance of granmatical this description of Ndonga differs from standard Dokean grenmars in Fospect. Boke argued strongly. (and successfully in most cases!) South-fastern Languages to be written conjunctively, that is constituent. elenents of what he reqarded as words to ‘be joined Tather than written as soparate words, The result is of course rather long Norde than in-a systen of writing where elements are not joined together Components of single words. Monga is officially written Gisjumetively, and therefore does not fellow the orthography design of most the South African lenguages ‘the basis of conjunctive word division, as expounded by Doke, was the phonets Feature of length-stress which oceare (in slow speech) on’ the penultsma syllable of words. He recognised tais as providing natural denarcator word boundaries, and certainly ths feature is quite noticeable in Na Gowiiid Yovever, _word-penaltimate_Iengeh-stres Gestion of ord-Siviavon in this Language ea there, therefore aeotcely be sete tthe sme grounds ao doke and other granmarians have dons for” Phe “Sete Eastern languages. If penaltinate length is the phoncloeicel’ dense Teliticteation’. or the Conjoining of eleven ining of elarente uhich were forma Phonological words, then the question of word divisi See Tack mich s feature is surely an open ne, is quite lacking in Ndonga. the ‘separate jon for Languages which As this gremar of tdonga is a general reference vork rat ‘theoretical exploration of the language. Ree Teesteies Anvestigated, ard. the current officiel, ritical enquiry. Sowe of the standard Dotean termivoloay which eepling oe word. categories’ con” therefore “aniy, be a comparable (but disjunctive) forms of Ndonga. areata 2 formal ‘the question of word division is not orthography ie accepted without, —— A Slenetine cthonrpys an api a cosutetivecshntsiy, wuld of Soe a MEE nine tate are eenan et iat cel a a Ela gamle Seti ea ee tn Spr elon a Cele Sena tat ed Sees agri teint” Tat etna ae ie eae gilt oe is Cicer ade interpretation of words. ose ina nae fem scope of this. description of seine Jenga t= of the vaual Kindy in that woleny* "(ene sound syaten), morsholoay® (eaplex wort stetices]y “tad ors teers taco tha te tnd) ate describes "ait tt in Sy molly ovelopad theereticel concert. "it must "be “somes "Sst "eh gy at ayn have not been rigidly saperoted, eawese nity bentust at eiceaaent of concoptuntincion in gramars” im enact ienets of setrct soos within a grameticel Mrorarchy ot unita has tretene nay Gefined a being of “sword” or of "vphrams” typee.” "Gbvicusly sock ot Fatety elonontary importance tn fetical 7 eyes Store foment” chectetioal est Sve oy of he me ting peng mem gma Sit te aera tae ates nae Sa ean, nda seey cole say hee Be ial geet asia Py omar aoe, ted so Te gigs eee tty Soe, nie ae’ teem te we eienaer Siete 0 Joe erate io iy ornate ese 3m particular calle for more cart aratlante fon ide for sore careful investigation than was fossibie’ in Anscrigtion of en cLen EEO" of Mona grammar interprets gramaticnl form in rect it SNA underlying conceptualiaaticns, sone brief iplanation fa sialt oPpronriate.” "the meanings of Monge utterences Tine sho c'in the vocabulary, or tatal lexicon, of the aman, Each type of Language, "an ll at 2h tanauase!seaeit,aifters from other typee ia the con "3" are atetributed between the lexicon end’ the gracar Wie oanAt more technically, languages differ in the way in which meanings SECTION ONE -~ PHONOLOGY gramaticaliced or lexicalleed. Monga being a Bantu language shares vit ‘other nenbers of this language fami-y many points of similarity, and even ‘CHRPTER ONE Mdentity, in this respect. PHowovocy ; TRVENTORY ‘wo kinds of information are presenced in this gramar. One concerns nore strictly gramatical properties of constructions. The other concern snwrrooucrrow the conceptual significance of utterances. Tr will be evident that in som places tho former is in focus, ami in other places the latter. But Sttenpt haz been made throughout to inter-relate the grammatical -ani ‘Phonology" 1a concerned with the sound aysten of the Language, a distinct Conceptual properties of constructions from the grammatical systen in the broad sense. The qrannatical system har to ‘the way in which grammatical unite of all kinds (including words. ‘and sentences) are constructed in meaningful and acceptable ‘The phonological system relates or "encodes" the grammatical fof a language to the sounds produced by the vocal organs. As far a9 the conceptual organisation of the material is concerned, the nor general differentiation of concepts (for all Languages) would appear to be th Following Referente / “things” Several Kinds of information need to be given in a comprehensive description Events / actions ff Monga phonology: Quelitics / states of being / abstractions Relations of verious kinds, between things, events and qualities 1.8 full List of the contrastive phonological entities. called "phonene ‘together with the aystem of contrasts in which the phonenes find their No Language appears to exhibit a simple "one-to-one" correlation betwsen the contrastive values. i.e. the phonenes interpreted in a systen or basic conceptual categorice and the gramatical categories distinguished “network” of contraste formal Linguistic “evence” are represented by verbs, But som verbs represent fand_sone events are represented by noun ‘e the phonenes are abstractions, the phonetic realisations of eactl tot, Safor"not ony to sehinge®, “bt aleo to sevnte”Mqauitiee™ honene as it occurs in different phonene sequences, or ‘cantexte™. Mocatione". ‘The sequences of phonenes permitted in the language. as not all possible A major assumption underlying this description of tWonga is that ‘gequences are allowed. relationships between the underlying conceptual categories and Grammatical” categories of a language are of very considerable interest ia 4. The phonane subetitutions that occur when grammatical elements ar their om right. Little hag hitierto been offered in this connection fot embined. when such combinations would produce sequences of phonenes that. Ndonga, er for any of the several other Bantu Languages of southern Arica fo! | Af not permicted by the rules of Monga phonology. that matter. This introductory reference gramar of Ndonga is therefor offered as an exploratory work in this little investigated are Uk can be inferred fro the above that descriptions of the phonological system ara concerned with the encoding of utterances in oral-aural comunication Wille grasmatical descriptions are concerned with the meaninaful lexical and Grammatical elonents unich are combined £0 produce the sentences of the enguage: 11. PHOwENE WVEWTORY AND PHONEME CLUSTERS Te simple phonenes of Monga are Listed in the tables below according to the Position of articulation of each. The three major types of phonense in Nionga Consonante: those phonanes: “hich ‘cecur ee onset to the phonological entities called ‘syllables whose phonetic realisation involves air flow constriction! and which may occur in a range of restricted combinatione clusters with each other: (xe)Vowels: those phoneme which cecur as *peaks" or nuclei of syllabi whose phonetic’ realisation does not involve air flov constriction which, being more ‘sororous' than consonants (i.e. have longer Guration of voicing than even the voiced coneonante), are stcociated with tone at the “carriers” of tones and which only cluster with each other as long vowsls, V+¥, or Giphtongs in highly restricted sequences. Tones ‘those phonemes which occur as varying and contrastive pitches on ‘tho nuclei of syllables, 11.1. consonants ‘The simple consonant system of Néonga is outlined belov, followed by the permitted ‘consonant sequences of various types. The dimensions involved in the system as set out below are the spproximate position of articulation along the “one paraneter of the chart (ive. horizontally), and the manner of articulation along the other (i.e. vertically), Tt ss noteworthy that Ndonge hae move simple fricatives than stops, and that voiced stops enly secur in compounds with nasale. Two simple conecnante are highly ‘restricted. the glottal s:op occure only in word-final position in forms associated vith deixie, vis. demonstratives of the first position, short form, and in # few locational ideophones. The palatal voiced fricative 2h it Rerginal, and is reported to occur in the speech of tom older people as a alternative to the velar voiced fricative g- ‘Te spelling of the consonante in the chart, and throughout this grammar, it that of the official orthography, vhich is phonemic with but one exception. There ere two voiceless fricatives, both spelled h in the official orthography. The one is the velar fricative x, and the other is the so-called glottal" fricative, vhich is in fact » voiceless vowel. The latter occurs in only a relstively fev lerical itane, ant tha ontrast between the tv Ericatives is therefore soneshet marginal. No cases of free alternatice between the two has been observed. [NDONGA CONSONANTS. AND CONSONANT CLUSTERS 3 3 | 3g : i SIMPLE CONSONANTS: 3 q 3 = i 4 i ; oF zs § a a8 3 stops vie P ‘ == va ® & @ Fetcatives Ves t th F o yok va . a = amg coneinuants . i y nesale : a Le msn, comromnos Stops Views = ne ae va = ™ ™ Fetcatives my onh ote Affeloates Views monte ve aj conronas Stope a o ” Fricatives vie mw wah va aw * continuante i a Nasals ™ ow a saL-wconrouns Stops vies = nee retcceiee ae naw age Atteleates vi new ve nay armntcares te PAaTAL comomes ® tore eee » Y Nesels, ae i my ny NASAL-y-conpoune apy ‘3 ay neyPhoneme an an Phonetic realisation Phonetic description Voiseless bilasial step with minimal sepiration- Voiceless alveslar stop with minimal aspiration Voiceless velar stop with minimal aspiration. Voiced bilabial stop with minimal aspiration, occurring only in nasal sonpounde, viz. mb, mbw, my. Voiced alveolar stop with minimal aspiration, occurring only in nasal compounds, viz. nd, naw, nay. Vosced velar stop with minimal aspiration, occurring only in nasal compounds, viz. ng, ngv: not to. be Confused with the voiced velar fricative written g in the official o-thography.. Giottat atop, Voiceless labio-ental fricative. Voiceless inter-dental fricative. Vosceless alveolar fricative. Voiceless alvespelatal fricative. Voiceless velar fricative - distinct from the “glottal! h below. Voiceless vowel (which occurs as eyllable onset and patterns with the consonants). Voiced 1abso-dental fricative. Voiced inter-dental fricative. Voiced alveolar fricative. Voiced elveopaletal fricative.) Voiced velar fricative, not to be confused with the voiced velar stop which occurs in nasal compounds ent which is reprerented by ng in the offieial orthography. Voiced Labio-velar continvant. WIESE SHUSISE SEbeabtentve tap.) eetvation™ Voiced, palatal continuant. "y 2 Phonetic description Voiced bilabial nasal. Voiced tabio-dental nasal, in compound av. Votcelers bilabial nasal, steps, mp, mpm, my. An compounds vith voiceless Voiced alveolar nasal. Voiced velar nasal, aw. in conpounde with velar stops, ng, Voiceless alveolar nasal, alveolar stop, nt, nts. An conpounds with vosoel Voiceless velar nasal, velar stop, nk, nk. in compounds with voiceless Voiced alveo-palatal nasal, Of the consonant compounds the folloving require specific coment on their Phonetic realisation: = we 5 b m oe a ot aw why aw othe Cd ae oa gen me rae ate get be ww ‘compounds © compounds » pas ‘The nasal is voiceless before voiceless stops, and the stop is slightly aspirated, The h is here alvays [x], and not y. The phonetic realisation is the consonant with Lip- rounding. Voscele: ejective, alveolar affricate. ‘The phonetic realisation ie the consonant, palatalised. Voiceless, palatalised, lebio-slveolar, aftricste,1 * Exomples of Words with various consonants and consonant: conbtnatfons ask teeta saek tondoks emorace teat fold take to th thang fue ig tot Huts be grant nike sasha baptise Lx] hile shongelé Lap hotels mahais vas pive beth a ahenge evtinhded contusion onwais valulukes rest ane 8 sandja om vas wali noise of att Teoves vols rate sesh beak ek vesterday reveal cut to pleces tone play lve take oath ie ave * eotols kotols wale uke reetens sestals o 2 mb nile Consonants (continued) twealalé boast ough clean up bush a " oro Aoose teeth oe prevent ‘mt und aie tire shushaiob shed ater ree (Gpriake by band) brother/atster ‘ete Aust Compounds examples to tape catrik a oughta blew vildbees on sweets isa lye 9 barking dress * Jovetia fant rain arey hate rabbit nate velture nj smparate areness seedings ture sate slelihe nye rite yanyets onyishi nyo enkbonké onkank® Lump of porridge shane snuphlerte we ‘ntyopte sour plun tree sbyold el 8 that onchuli winced neat az onenétengé pris testinony onibin——easpising artery uncergrouné water onajoens ondjols ondjoneNagai Compounda examples (continued) | nh ity soon oninds roe my ongils whip ‘eae with aw osbvitva captured one . fo branches desert soeetale ongaid rant dls . i uniotelTigent a letter ongelé——norning persoe teh onshena flower a ortsi cow ts ontetel bill be excon be taught rmunicates W-contounds conimvl.inits oan be ailees collected pe pi be inkshes tw untuk be caught tw hvata catch se snashed eye pull ovubvitul captive dip in soup pind becese sry oe yb we came be rotten be whittled eb Fateh ‘verfull ty tvatbva be helped sw pusus be paste ‘ine Lithys be herded swab scared hv hashes be baptised aw ysis be greet Tesnn be cent fedhea slosh entinae ean be a0 oe fall oles eolur yuyu stint i vedha bark lveende journey yewi be burned pile tet ow omvlelvi ruled one ty tard gather firevose lve el 11 that one ‘yoleleha be afraid hot thieg owe arm mia cot geass moma artek ble stutt waite lest uit earn for omiivi visting drink from ingePalatal (y) Compound (contimved) ya be slew ay ayanpald ayant Aasal-Palatat Compounds ty Gondya face yy apy sy ombyepite sour plum dislike tall hot one (ad. 1° the phonetic realisation of these vowels is approximately as follove in the IPA vowel chart. There is no appreciable allophonic variation. branch enue angerous animal shoulder soft porridge bring! (pd hoe pole head of cattle zebra piano accoraian ostrich "vwok’nge hunting ‘a marked feature of Monga tonology.) it ie the premise of this analysis that, such pitches can be interpreted in terns of only the two tone antiti postulated, Wand L. one realisation rules of some complexity are therefore ed to’ account for the conditicning of these tones and. the considerable wukokute dryness woiae bitterness, sourne: importance of tone in signalling both lexical and qranmaticel contrasts ah well as in determining acceptable “accent, should not be wnderestinated 4 shoutd be noted that the vowel values ae given by both Viljoen and Meronen fen their IPA vowel charts are in sone recpocts incorrect, and disagree with ach other in soma instance: tone profiles in the examples given below give an indication of the tic realization of the tones on these words. 14.3. tones: 1.1.3.1. *AiLotonic™ type of conditioning of tone ‘Ndonga ie quite plainly @ tone language, which is to say that the pitches of ‘syllables ig significant an determining the peaning of Keene, as well as playing sone role in the distingsishing of Gramatical constructions. The variety of distinguishable pitches that occurs: VA or a “topping up. quence of L's, assimilates to a following li by gradual, Gnndonga, wtverences if here interpreted in teres of only two. contrastive oo cienente ef tone, High) and L(ow), and the ayeten is in this sense a simple ekololo (a cave) + wis “ Kanai faruli1e (x didn't explain) Bia a However, the interpretation of phonetically distinguishable pitches in term of sequences of ig and Lie ie not straightforward because of ‘simultaneous factore ine shi pangéla (he didn't repair st) bn AL, or sequence of L's, immediately following a H is phonetically | Faised, and a sequence of L's drifts downwards fron the first raised This is “in aadiezon to the intonational domerife of L'a within and ‘oween intonation terraces 1. me phonetic resiisstion of any tone (Lu. Mur 6) ts determine, in party by the tonal environment in which it occurs, that is, by its preceding of folloving tones. The veval kind of tonal influence is that of assimilation, but there ie at least one other type of influence in Nerescendo" of successive H tones. tA pangele oshihoutd the repairs scar) yw In addition to the influence ef adjacent tones on each other thus affecting the phonetic realisaticn of tones, utteranc characteristic intonation contours which also’ determine the phoretie Fealisation of pitches. Two kinde of intonaticnal prenomena need to Aistinguiahed within what aight be called an intonation span or contour: AL butween two H's is phonetically raised. tmbanbt Ce dutker) fat ‘oka pangelé canta nombili (he ruled the people kindly) ‘oie a at An intonation span consists of 2 succession of one or more *terract Contrasts between Mand L tones operate within each terrace, but 1 i Phonetic "height" of H tones in different terraces is not constant, nor fhat of L tones constant. The intonation of sentences can be interpret in terms of a typical succession of slightly dometepping terraces. exact placenent of terrace boundaries has not yet been determined. Between sentences, and within a sentence too, there may be 9 “hitching 1 before a further series of davstepping terraces. toes ‘in sequence (but not innediately following 8 domstep) “clinb* in “Stescendo fashion, y ne * Pangéla oshiiéngo (rule the country!) om ow Ne al eww 3. Within on intonation terrace there ie a tendency for tones ta drift Shi pingeia (rule itt) we ow Gounward in piteh, and this is particularly noticeable with any successil Ge't tones towards che very end of a terrace, ‘MH preceded by L and followed by H “elinbs" to the H. ine ahi pangé14 niva (he hasn't ruled it well) ~=~ Ae the above three factors are simultaneously significant in Ndonga utteratct At will be appreciated hat whole range of phanetic pitches occurs, rangi from “level Iow" to “level high", with various levels of mid tones as vell fone upward and downward glides.” (Rising and falling tonas, however, are 2 21.3.2, “Intonational" type conditioning of tones, within and Antonational terraces L'a in uninterrupted quence drift downwards in pitch. ‘ota ka pingela oshihauté (he vill repair the car) H tones in sequence may have phonetic downstep between terra place at which such downstep may occur is not yet clear: ‘okwa péngélé Seh{léngo (he ruled the country) Pm me De we ne ae syntactic. boundary. feature okwaapingela oshihauts ckuwinayi (not to repair the car 1s bad) igelé wo yi takulutha pomutale gwayé, nena ou shi shi kutya . (Ombanbi line 4, p 56)" otherwise: qvayo oa ON et oye ‘Onkee Sekulayondié ya til: Manga embanbyona othervise: ya tile (onbanbi line €, » a ee Se ytue realised ‘may be the sane phenonenon as under 3. above. (ewe Landa Sehihauts? Gen6 (okwa Landa). Did he buy a car? Yes (he dia) ee Se SMe te aes alte CE. Ch Landé Sehihauts.. He bought @ ear Bn H occurring at the end of an intonation contour may be realised as Falling glide, indicating that the sentence is continuing after a maja ‘Ts appears to be an optional intonatio ‘all gramatical contexts [A yes/no question intonation causes an intonational contour final H te ‘2 falling tone, and the final vowel i lengthened. Thi 11.3.3, Contrastive tone pattems on verbe following examples provide a useful set of contrasts between the various 8 sequenc ee a angels nut ar okupangela a ota ka pangéié Litt ‘that may occur ona three syllable verb stem, pangela (rie) to repair to rule repair! he with rule rule it (e.g. the country) he didn't repair rule! contrastive lexical items are distinguished tonally, but the fall percentage of vocabulary itens exenplifying auch sementic-tonel raste is probably fairly low. Verba gathering of things, from raiding ‘Searching rain okukinuka credit, ‘okukumuka zebra okufala ne okufula, spring hare oonkwiyu fig conku rhino Skeunyanya cheek ‘okunyanya hard porridge, scab okvkénga hornbili okvkenga lap okuahangs strength Skudhunge fog, dust Ponpkin plane okuyate okuyal ‘Tose tonal contrasts are not evidext in to break up, collapse. to doze, of ‘babie. to aig to be brave to pick out maize/aitlet: ‘seeds with the teeth to canter to look for fs gather to brew beer 0 suing to spreed be engry