FLAVOUR AND FRAGRANCE JOURNAL

Flavour Fragr. J. 2000; 15: 100±104

The essential oils of wild and cultivated Cymbopogon

validus (Stapf) Stapf ex Burtt Davy and Elionurus
muticus (Spreng.) Kunth from Zimbabwe
Lameck S. Chagonda,1* Christopher Makanda1 and Jean-Claude Chalchat2
1Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Zimbabwe, PO Box MP 167, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe
2
Laboratoire de Photochimie MoleÂculaire et MacromoleÂculaire, UMR CNRS 6505, Chimie des Huiles Essentielles, Universite Blaise
Pascal de Clermont et ENSCCF, Campus des CeÂzeaux, 63177 AubieÁre CeÂdex, France

Received 11 May 1999

Revised 26 October 1999
Accepted 4 November 1999

ABSTRACT: The steam-distilled oils from wild and cultivated Cymbopogon validus (Stapf) Stapf ex Burtt Davy
(Gramineae) and Elionurus muticus (Spreng.) Kunth (Gramineae) were analysed by GC and GC±MS. The major
components from C. validus in the wild were: myrcene (23.1±35.6%), (E)-b-ocimene (10.3±11.5%), geraniol
(3.4±8.3%), linalol (3.2±3.7%) and camphene (5.2±6.0%). Cultivated mature plants contained myrcene (11.6±
20.2%), (E)-b-ocimene (6.0±12.2%), borneol (3.9±9.5%) and geraniol (1.7±5.0%) and camphene (3.3±8.3%) as
the major components. Young nursery crop/seedlings (20±30 cm high) contained oil with myrcene (20.6%),
geraniol (17.1%) and germacrene-D-4-ol (8.3%) as the major components. Geranyl acetate (4.5%), linalol (4.5%)
and borneol (2.9%) were notable minor components. The major components from wild and cultivated E. muticus
were geranial (40.1±44.8%), neral (26.0±35.4%) and geranyl acetate (1.8±8.6%). Dried lower parts from
cultivated E. muticus contained oil rich in geranial (29.6%), neral (20.2%) and geranyl acetate (18.8%), whilst the
upper aerial parts contained geranial (41.9%), neral (26.4%) and geranyl acetate (4.7%) as the main
components. Copyright # 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

KEY WORDS: Cymbopogon validus (Stapf) Stapf ex Burtt Davy; Elionurus muticus (Spreng.) Kunth;
Gramineae; GC±MS; essential oil composition; Zimbabwe; myrcene; (E)-b-ocimene; geraniol; borneol;
geranial; neral; geranyl acetate

Introduction
Cymbopogon validus (Stapf) Stapf ex Burtt Davy and
Elionurus muticus (Spreng.) Kunth (Gramineae) are
southern African grasses with some medicinal value.1
C. validus, commonly known as giant turpentine grass,
is a robust, tufted, aromatic, perennial and largely
unpalatable grass, whose volatile oil and decoction are
often used as an anti-rodent, fermifuge, emetic, anti-
infective, antispasmodic or to treat morning sickness. It
is widespread in eastern and southern Africa, where it is
used as a durable thatch. It is often included with
C. nardus but kept separate pending generic revision.
Moody2 reported that trans-geraniol (29.8%) and
geraniol formate (8.8%) were the major components
in wild C. nardus (L.) Rendle from Zimbabwe.
E. muticus is a tufted grass found in open grassland
and high rainfall areas. It is often referred to as lemon
* Correspondence to: L. S. Chagonda, Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of
Medicine, University of Zimbabwe, PO Box MP 167, Mount Pleasant, Harare,
Zimbabwe.
Contract/grant sponsor: IDRC, Zimbabwe.
Contract/grant sponsor: University of Zimbabwe Research Board.
grass, wire grass or sour grass. Its roots are chewed to
treat toothache, colic or stomach ache and to `make
young men strong and true'. The grass is unpalatable
and is locally felt to be of low grazing value; however,
its nutritive value to grazing cattle has been reported in
Argentinian grass by Bernardis.3 Crude protein, and
®bre and mineral elements (P, K, Na, Ca, Mg, Zn, Fe,
Cu and Mn) were found in the dried organic matter.
Citral (geranial and neral) (78.7%) was reported to be
the major component in the volatile fraction from
Uruguayan E. muticus.4 The combined value of the
mineral ash, crude protein and ®bre, and of the volatile
components, has potential implications to the health
and nutritional status of both grazing animals and
humans.5
Experimental
Plant Materials
Plant materials collected in the wild were authenticated
and voucher specimens were kept at the National

Copyright # 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

 ESSENTIAL OILS OF CYMBOPOGON VALIDUS AND ELIONURUS MUTICUS 101

Figure 1. Chromatogram of the essential oil of Cymbopogon validus (Stapf) Stapf ex Burtt Davy from Zimbabwe

Figure 2. Chromatogram of the essential oil of Elionurus muticus (Spreng.) Kunth from Zimbabwe

Herbarium and Botanic Gardens in Harare. C. validus Analysis

was collected from Nyanga in the Eastern Highlands of
Zimbabwe and propagated through splitting at the
project site at the University of Zimbabwe farm.
E. muticus was collected near the project site in Harare
and propagated through splitting at the farm. Both
plants were organically cultivated (without the applica-
tion of inorganic fertilizers) and harvesting was done on
mature grass in the summer.
Plant material from the aerial parts was collected and
steam distilled for 1.5 h within 3 days of collection in a
laboratory custom-built distillation still, capable of
holding 8 kg of wet mass. The distilled oils were
collected and stored in a cool place at 48C.
The GC analysis was carried out on a DELSI 121C
chromatograph ®tted with a 25 m  0.25 mm (df:
0.15 mm) CP wax 52CB capillary column with temp-
erature programming from 408C (5 min) to 2208C at
38C/min. The injector and detector temperatures were
set at 2208C and 2408C, respectively, and the split ratio
was 1/60. The relative proportions of the essential oils'
constituents were expressed as percentages obtained by
peak-area normalization, all relative-response factors
being taken as one.
The GC±MS analysis was performed using a SIGMA
3000 chromatograph coupled to an HP 5970 mass

Copyright # 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Flavour Fragr. J. 2000; 15: 100±104
102 L. S. CHAGONDA, C. MAKANDA AND J.-C. CHALCHAT

Table 1. Percentage composition of the oil of wild and cultivated Cymbopogon validus (Stapf) Stapf ex Burtt
Davy
No. D/collected component KI Wild Cultivated
(Nyanga) (UZ Farm)

10/96 6/97 3/95 3/96* 2±6/96 5/97 2/98

n ˆ (1) (1) (1) (1) (4) (2) (3)
1 Tricyclene 1005 1.6 2.1 1.1 0.7 1.3±3.0 2.6±2.8 1.2±2.1
2 a-Pinene 1032 4.2 5.4 3.0 2.3 3.3±6.6 4.9±5.4 3.0±3.9
3 Camphene 1083 5.2 6.0 3.3 2.6 3.8±8.3 6.6±7.1 3.6±5.4
4 b-Pinene 1124 0.1 ± 0.1 0.1 0.1±0.2 0.1 0.1
5 Sabinene 1130 0.2 ± 0.1 0.1 0.1±0.2 0.2 0.1
6 Myrcene 1164 35.6 23.1 15.7 20.6 11.9±19.2 11.6±11.7 15.4±20.2
7 Limonene 1204 0.8 ± 0.5 0.9 0.7±1.2 0.8 tr±0.9
8 b-Phellandrene 1215 0.3 ± 0.2 0.3 0.2±0.5 0.2±0.4 tr±0.4
9 (Z)-b-Ocimene 1240 10.3 11.5 8.6 6.8 6.9±11.2 6.9±7.0 6.0±12.2
10 g-Terpinene 1248 ± ± tr 0.1 ± 2.8 tr±5.7
11 (E)-b-Ocimene 1260 4.7 5.3 4.0 3.3 3.0±5.0 0.1 tr±2.8
12 p-Cymene 1273 ± ± tr tr tr 0.2 tr
13 Terpinolene 1290 0.3 1.1 0.2 0.2 0.2±0.4 ± 0.2±0.3
14 b-Bourbonene 1530 ± ± 0.2 0.2 0.3±0.8 1.1±1.3 0.1±0.8
15 Undecan-4-one 1540 ± ± 0.1 0.1 0.1±0.2 0.2±0.3 0.4±0.6
16 Linalol 1557 3.2 3.7 2.5 4.5 2.6±3.7 0.3 tr±1.3
17 Bornyl acetate 1584 0.6 tr 0.1 0.8 0.7±0.9 2.6±2.8 2.8±3.1
18 b-Caryophyllene 1596 0.4 ± 0.3 0.9 0.2±0.9 1.0±1.1 0.4±0.9
19 Elemicine 1605 ± 1.9 1.1 0.6 0.4±1.9 1.2±1.3 1.8±2.7
20 a-Humulene 1675 0.3 1.3 0.3 0.4 0.5±1.1 0.7±1.3 0.5±1.2
21 Neral 1682 0.7 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.1±1.8 2.3±2.5 0.1±1.4 o
22 Borneol 1698 2.4 2.6 5.6 2.9 3.9±8.9 6.1±6.6 6.4±9.5
23 Germacrene-D 1708 0.8 ± 0.8 0.5 0.4±1.2 1.1
24 a-Muurolene 1730 0.8 ± 1.3 0.8 1.6±3.4 ± tr±0.3
25 Germacrene-A 1740 ± ± 1.3 0.2 0.1±0.3 3.6 1.9±2.1
26 g-Cadinene 1750 0.6 3.8 0.3 0.2 0.2±0.7 ± tr±1.0
o
27 g2-Cadinene 1761 1.5 3.0 2.2 2.9±5.3 6.3 8.8±12.3
28 d-Cadinene 1761 3.7 ± 6.1 2.0 5.6±12.3 12.8
29 Geranyl acetate 1768 0.1 2.2 0.4 4.5 0.7±1.3 1.1±1.4 0.2±0.7
30 a-Cadinene 1775 0.7 ± 0.4 1.3 0.6±1.0 0.8±1.0 0.1±0.5
31 Geraniol 1847 3.4 8.3 2.2 17.1 2.0±5.0 4.4±4.5 1.7±3.2
32 Not identi®ed 1890 0.5 ± 0.8 0.6 0.5±0.7 0.3±0.4 0.6±1.1
33 Not identi®ed 1935 0.7 ± 0.8 1.7 0.5±0.7 0.4 0.8±1.0
34 Methyl eugenol 1995 0.1 ± 0.2 0.2 tr±0.2 0.2 0.2±0.3
35 Germacrene-D-4-ol 2010 3.4 2.0 9.4 8.3 2.2±6.2 0.8 1.6±6.6
36 Elemol 2086 0.6 ± 0.6 0.9 tr±0.4 0.1 0.2±0.3
37 b-Cadinol 2165 1.2 ± 2.8 0.6 0.8±2.4 1.0 1.1±1.9
38 T-Muurolol 2190 1.5 ± 3.8 0.5 1.0±2.6 1.1 1.0±1.9
39 Torreyol 2205 0.4 ± 1.1 ± 0.3±0.8 0.4±0.8 0.3±0.6
40 a-Cadinol 2224 3.6 1.3 9.5 1.0 1.7±5.2 1.9 1.9±4.2
41 Dill apiole 2310 0.1 1.8 0.2 ± tr±0.1 ± 0.2±0.3
42 Apiole 2380 ± 1.4 0.1 0.3 tr tr±0.2 0.1
Totals
Monoterpene H/C 63.3 54.5 36.8 38.0 31.5±55.8 36.8±38.4 29.6±54.1
Oxygenated H/C 10.4 17.8 12.4 30.4 11.1±21.8 17.0±18.4 11.6±19.8
Sesquiterpene H/C 8.8 7.0 15.1 9.3 12.8±28.9 38.6±40.8 13.6±21.8
Oxygenated S/T 10.7 3.3 27.2 11.3 6.0±17.6 5.3±5.7 6.1±15.5
Others 1.4 3.2 2.1 2.8 tr±1.7 tr±1.4 1.9±2.8
Total 94.6 85.8 93.6 91.8

n ˆ no. of samples tested during month; 3/96* ˆ seedlings.

10/96 ˆ October 1996; 2±6/96.
H/C ˆ hydrocarbon; S/T ˆ sesquiterpene.
tr ˆ trace (50.05).
KI ˆ KovaÂts indices on CP wax (52CB) capillary column.

spectrometer ®tted with a 50 m  0.3 mm (df: 0.25 mm)
CP wax 52CB capillary column with temperature pro-
gramming from 60±2408C at 28C/min with ionization
at 70 eV. All the components were identi®ed by GC±
MS and con®rmed with those reported in the literature
as well as by co-injection with authentic compounds.
Results and Discussion
C. validus produced a slightly viscous pale yellow oil
(Figure 1) with a yield of 0.2±0.3% (v/m). The major
components in the oil from plants collected in the wild
were myrcene (23.1±35.6%) and (E)-b-ocimene

Copyright # 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Flavour Fragr. J. 2000; 15: 100±104
 ESSENTIAL OILS OF CYMBOPOGON VALIDUS AND ELIONURUS MUTICUS 103

Table 2. Percentage composition of the volatile oil of wild and cultivated Elionurus muticus (Spreng.) Kunth
No. Component KI Wild* Cultivated*

Harare, 1997 UZ Farm, GS/Harare, GS/Harare, Murewa,

(Fresh) 1998 3/1999 (Dried, 3/1999 (Dried, 2/1999
(S/dry) L/parts) U/parts) (Fresh)
1 a-Phellandrene 1160 tr 0.25 0.03 tr tr
2 Myrcene 1164 0.5 0.7 1.6 1.6 3.3
3 (Z)-b-Ocimene 1240 0.1 0.1 0.1 ± 0.1
4 (E)-b-Ocimene 1260 0.1 0.1 0.7 0.1 0.1
5 p-Cymene 1273 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1
6 Hex-3-enyl acetate 1315 0.1 0.1 0.2 ± 0.1
7 6-Methylhept-5-ene-2-one 1335 2.3 1.2 0.5 0.7 0.6
8 Hex-3-en-1-ol# 1351 0.2 0.1 0.1 ± 0.2
9 cis-Linalol oxide 1415 0.2 tr 0.2 ± 0.1
10 trans-Linalol oxide 1450 0.1 0.2 1.7 ± tr
11 trans-Sabinene hydrate 1490 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.1
12 Decanol 1523 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.1
13 cis-Sabinene hydrate 1540 0.2 0.9 0.6 0.5 0.6
14 Linalol 1557 1.6 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.4
15 5-Methylfurfural 1563 0.9 1.4 1.1 0.6 1.1
16 Undecan-2-one 1610 2.7 5.3 2.1 4.0 1.4
17 Neral 1682 34.9 26.0 20.2 28.4 35.4
18 Piperitone 1730 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1
19 Geranial 1739 44.5 40.1 29.6 41.9 44.7
20 Geranyl acetate 1750 4.2 8.6 18.8 4.7 1.8
21 Methylundecylketone 1792 2.0 5.5 1.8 2.6 0.7
22 Iso-piperitone 1795 tr tr ± ± 0.1
23 Geraniol 1797 0.7 0.1 2.4 0.7 3.3
24 Geranyl-n-butyrate 1872 tr tr 0.1 0.3 0.1
25 Spathulenol 2097 0.3 0.5 1.4 1.2 0.1
26 (E,E)-Farnesol 2250 0.4 0.9 2.2 1.7 0.1
27 Not identi®ed 2253 0.3 0.4 1.1 0.6 0.2
28 (Z,Z)-Farnesol 2340 0.4 1.1 5.4 4.4 0.1

tr ˆ trace (50.05).
#Isomer not identi®ed.

KI ˆ KovaÂts indices on CP wax (52CB) capillary column.

*One sample each tested.

(10.3±11.5%) (Table 1). Linalol (3.2±3.7%), camphene
(5.2±6.0%), borneol (3.9±9.5%) and geraniol (3.4±
8.3%) were notable minor constituents.
The distilled oil from the cultivated plants contained
myrcene (11.6±20.2%), (E)-b-ocimene (6.0±12.2%),
and camphene (3.3±8.3%) as the major components.
Young plant seedlings (20±30 cm) contained oil with
myrcene (20.6%), geraniol (17.1%), (E)-b-ocimene
(6.8%), linalol and geranyl acetate (4.5% each) as the
major components. trans-Geraniol (29.5%) and ger-
aniol formate (8.8%) were previously reported by
Moody2 as the major components from wild C. nardus
from Zimbabwe.
E. muticus produced a pale yellow oil (Figure 2)
with a pleasant smell, at a yield of 0.1±0.2% (v/w). The
major components in both fresh wild and cultivated oil
were geranial (44.5±44.7%) and neral (34.9±35.4%)
(Table 2). Dried cultivated plant material (5±7 days
under shade) produced an oil with geranial (40.1%),
neral (26.0%) and geranyl acetate (8.6%) as the major
components. The dried lower aerial parts contained
geranial (29.6%), neral (20.2%) and geranyl acetate
(18.8%) as the major components whilst the dried
upper aerial parts contained geranial (41.9%), neral
(28.4%) and geranyl acetate (4.6%) respectively.
Bernadis3 reported the presence in Argentinian E.
muticus of crude protein (7.8%), crude ®bre (29.0%)
and mineral ash: P (0.12%), K (0.39%), Na (0.04%),
Ca (0.12%), Mg (0.22%), Zn (18 ppm), Fe (243 ppm),
Cu (13.8 ppm) and Mn (250 ppm), whilst Dellacassa4
reported the presence of citral (geranial and neral)
(78.7%) in the essential oil of Elyonurus rostratus
(E. muticus) from Uruguay. The presence of dietary
nutrient citral and mineral elements in E. muticus
could have important contributions to health and
nutrition in both humans and forage animals in
Zimbabwe.5
Acknowledgements Ð The authors would like to acknowledge the
assistance of RRETC, Ottawa, Canada, and the Department of
Pharmacy, University of Zimbabwe, for initiating this work through
the project Microwave Extraction of Flavours and Fragrances Ð
Zimbabwe with ®nance from IDRC and University of Zimbabwe
Research Board. Technical support was obtained from E. Shito, S.
Madzongwe and M. Muringayi. All laboratory pilot steam distilla-
tions were carried out in the Department of Pharmacy and all GC
and GC±MS at Laboratoire de Chimie des Huiles Essentielles,
Universite Blaise Pascal de Clermont-Ferand.

Copyright # 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Flavour Fragr. J. 2000; 15: 100±104
104 L. S. CHAGONDA, C. MAKANDA AND J.-C. CHALCHAT

3. A. C. Bernardis, Inf Tecnol J, 9(5), 227 (1998).

References 4. E. Dellacassa, P. Menendez and E. Soler, Essenze Deriv Agrum J,
58(2), 207 (1998).
1. J. M. Watt and M. G. Breyer-Brandwijk, The Medicinal and 5. L. S. Chagonda, C. Makanda, S. Mavi, M. Gundidza and J.-C.
Poisonous Plants of Southern and Eastern Africa, 471±473, E and S Chalchat, Rivista Ital EPPOS, 15, 768 (1997).
Livingstone, Edinburgh (1962).
2. J. O. Moody, S. A. Adeleye, M. G. Gundidza, G. Wyllie and O. O.
Ajayi-Obe, Pharmazie, 50(1), 74 (1995).

Copyright # 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Flavour Fragr. J. 2000; 15: 100±104