Data into Information

Duration: 3 Hours per week (Week 3)

INTRODUCTION

Processing data into information is a marvelous wonder of technology gifted

to man. It centered on conveying information and communicates it to the user for
information usefulness benefiting humanity. It is also focused on relevant data
storage processing to be used for the intended purposes. Some examples are bank
customers’ identification and profile, company technology profile, academe’s
instructional materials, etc.
Information today is vast that everything in our life surrounds by it. Some
people say without information, no one survives. It is right in the sense that a lack of
knowledge (information) can destroy or harm man. The other side of the coin,
controlled and processed information for a useful purpose, can bring lots of benefits
to man.
The processing of data by any computing device also requires data to
understand it. In this lesson, the learners have the right to understand data and
information processing. It will be useful for him to prepare his/her career, especially if
it will be the technology of information. The lesson also prepares the learner in the
programming world. As he/she understand completely how a computer process data,
the learner will develop in his critical thinking ways of manipulating and controlling
those data and information, including the internal and hidden processes of a
microcontroller unit.
May the learner’s intuition be developed in the area of data processing,
manipulation, control, storing, and use of computer information.
OBJECTIVES/COMPETENCIES:

● Explain how computers process data and transform it to information.

● Understand how computers represent data and make it useful to the
users.
● Understand the different terms and technology in reference to data and
information processing.
● Analyze the different ways a computer transform an input data into useful
information.
● Understand how computer communicates and represent between different
internal devices using machine language and machine cycles.
● Understand how a computer stores data information in any storage
devices.
● Understand the basics of Data Science.

A pre-test of your Data and Information knowledge…

● How do you describe a world of computers that communicates to each other

without a common standard? Can you describe in your own words (at least
500 words or more) how chaotic it is if all computer companies of the world
have its own protocol for their manufactured input-output devices?
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Lesson 3.1 - TRANSFORMING DATA INTO INFORMATION
Computers cannot understand anything, though they seem that they know us
because we understand the information it produces. Computers recognize two
distinct physical states produced by electricity, magnetic polarity, or reflected light.
Essentially, they understand whether the switch is on or off. The CPU, which acts as
the ―brain‖ of the computer, consists of several million tiny electronic switches, called
transistors. A computer appears to understand information only because it operates
at such phenomenal speeds, grouping its individual on/off switches into patterns that
become meaningful to us.
In computing, data is the term used to describe the information represented
by groups of on/off switches. In the strictest sense, data consist of the raw numbers
that computers organize to produce information. Some of the objectives of data
processing are:
● To provide mass storage for relevant data.
● To make easy access to the data for the user.
● To provide prompt response to user requests for data.
● To eliminate redundant data.
● To allow multiple users to be active at one time.
● To allow for growth in the database system.
● To protect the data from harm like physical and unauthorized access.

3.1.1 Some data definitions to ponder: 1

● Data bank - a store of a large amount of information, esp. in a form that can
be handled by a computer.
● Data capture - any process for converting information into a form that can be
handled by a computer.
● Data dictionary – in computing, it is an index of data held in a database and
used to assist in the access to data, also called data directory.
● Data pen - a device for reading or scanning magnetically coded data on
labels, packets, etc.
 ● Data processing - a sequence of operations performed on data, esp. by a
computer, to extract information, reorder files, etc. When used as a modifier, it
is a data-processing center. It is also mean to safeguards for individuals
relating to personal data stored on a computer.
● Data set - another name for a set of computer files.
● Data structure - an organized form, such as an array list or string, in which
related data items are held in a computer.
● Big Data – a massive collection of digital data whose analysis allows us to
predict patterns and behaviors through inductive reasoning.
● Data diddling - fraudulent changing of data before or during entry into the
computer system.
● Digital archive - virtual storing of data.
● Interactive Databases System - is a process of storing data in files based on
the interaction between pieces of data.
● Cyber Terrorism - the attack on computers, networks, and interconnected
infrastructures with the intent to intimidate or coerce a national, international,
groups of people or organizations in furtherance of political, social, or
personal objectives.
● Digital Footprints - is a track left by users in the form of data in the process
of transmission of information online.
● Digital world - an electric spectrum of data creation, storing, retrieving, and
synchronizing.
● Doxxing - publishing personal data about people, especially on the internet,
to threaten or blackmail them. Other terms for Doxxing is cyber bullying with a
threat of blackmail.
● Software proposal - a detail-oriented document clearly outlining the
objectives of the project like technical, terms, and financial aspects of the
software project. These software proposals help Business Professionals to
automate routine tasks.
● Software piracy - intentional copy and use of a software product without the
permission of its owner.

Lesson 3.2 How Computers Represents Data

 To a computer, everything is a number. Numbers are numbers; letters and
punctuation marks are numbers; sounds and pictures are numbers. Even the
computer’s instructions are numbers. When you see letters of the alphabet on a
computer screen, you see just one of the computer’s ways of representing numbers.
For example, consider the word G R O W. This word may look like a string of
alphabetic characters to you, but to a computer, it seems like a string of ones and
zeros as shown in the figure below:

Data as represented in switches

In a computer, all data is represented by the state of the computer’s electronic

switches. A switch has only two possible states –on and off—so it can mean only
two numeric values. To a computer, when a switch is off, it represents a zero (0);
when a switch is on, it means a one (1). Because there are only two values, the
computer functions in base 2, which is also known as the binary number system.
Binary numbers are made of bits. A bit represents a switch. A byte
comprises 8 bits and represents one character. With one byte, the computer can
mean one of 256 different symbols or characters because the eight 1s and 0s in a
byte can be combined in 256 different ways.

The value 256 is more than the number of symbols; it is the number of
patterns of 0 and 1 that can be created using eight bits. This number can be
obtained using a calculation. There are only two possible states for a switch, on and
off. In a byte, there are eight switches. To calculate the number of patterns, raise 2
to the number of bits: 28 = 256.

3.3 How is an image stored on a computer?

An image is a matrix of pixel values. Virtually, every image can be

represented as a matrix of pixel values. An image below shows how pictures
transform into ASCII codes and then to bits readable by the computer. 2
3.3.1 Text Codes
The text codes are standard codes necessary for data transfer, like converting
letters into binary. The famous text code systems are the following:

● ASCII. This stands for American Standard for Information Interchange. Today,
the ASCII character set is by far the most commonly used in computers for all
types.

● Extended ASCII. This is an eight-bit code that specifies the character for
values from 128 to 255. The first 40 symbols represent pronunciation and
particular punctuation. The remaining signs are graphic symbols.

● Unicode. This provides up to four bytes – 32 bits – to represent each letter,

number, or symbol. With four bytes, enough Unicode codes can be created to
represent more than 4 billion different characters or symbols. This total is
enough for every unique character and symbol in the world, including the vast
Chinese, Korean, and Japanese character sets.
3.3.2 How Data Is Represented In the Computer

To include strings, integers, characters, and colors. This should consist of

considering the space taken by data, for instance, the relation between the
hexadecimal representation of colors and the number of colors available 3.

● Integer
Each integer is represented in binary, where a single number
will usually be expressed in one byte.

● Characters

Each character is usually one byte (8 bits), represented in

binary.

● Unicode
 It is a standardization of assigning values to a specific character;
this is needed as there are hundreds of different characters in different
languages. If done by each community, there would likely be overlaps.

● Strings
Strings are a concatenation of characters and were represented
in binary, as each 8-bit character following each other. Each word will
be around 16-32 bits.

● Colors
Colors are represented in the hexadecimal number system. It
will be six hexadecimal values 2 for each prime color, in the order of
Red, Green, Blue (RGB.) For example, the color red will be FF 00 00.
When viewed on a display screen, it will usually have a hashtag before
the value, e.g., #FF 00 00. A maximum of around 16.8 million different
colors may be input. (16 to the power of 6 or 2 to the power of 24.).

Please see the EXCELLENT chart below to understand better how hexadecimal is
used to express colors. The image below shows the equivalent data of colors in text
and numbers4:
Let’s have an exercise…

Try this with your computer: Identify the different Unicode equivalent of each
character in the world by inserting symbols in your MS Office Word application.
Construct a one or two sentences and write the equivalent ASCII and Unicode of the
sentence. Could you understand the equivalent codes of your sentences? Why?
Lesson 3.3 How Computers Process Data

Two components handle

processing in a computer: the Central
Processing Unit (CPU) and the memory.
Both are located on the computer’s
motherboard. The memory is called
RAM, random access memory, which is
a volatile memory. Both are performing
processes to achieve data
transformation and instruction execution.
Below are components of the computer systems that gives the detail how

does a computer process data.

● CPU or Central Processing Unit

The CPU is the ―brain‖ of the computer, the place where data is manipulated. In
the average computer, the entire CPU is a single unit, called a microprocessor.
Every CPU has at least two essential parts: the Control Unit and the Arithmetic Logic
Unit.

● Control Unit
All the computer’s resources are managed from the control unit. Think of the
control unit as a traffic signal directing the flow of data through the CPU, as well as to
and from other devices. The CPU’s instructions for carrying out commands are built
into the control unit. The instructions, or instruction sets, list all the operations that
the CPU can perform.

● Arithmetic and Logic Unit

Because all computer data is stored as numbers, much of the processing
involves comparing numbers or carrying mathematical operations. Computers can
perform two types of operations: arithmetic operations and logical operations. The
arithmetic operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
 Logical operations include comparisons, such as determining whether one
number is equal to, greater than, or less than another number.

A basic diagram how a computer process data. Retrieved from

https://www.onlinesoln.com5

5
3.3.1- Types of Data Processing On Basis of Process/Steps Performed

Several methods and techniques can be adopted for processing data

depending upon the requirements, time availability, software, and hardware
capability of the technology being used for data processing. There are several types
of data processing methods.
1. Batch Processing
2. Real-time processing
3. Online Processing
4. Distributed Processing
5. Multiprocessing
6. Time-sharing
7. Batch Processing
1. Batch Processing

Batch processing is one of the widely used types of data processing, which is
also known as serial/sequential, tacked/queued of offline processing. The
fundamental of this type of processing is that different jobs of different users are
processed in the order received. Once the stacking of jobs is complete, they are
provided/sent for processing while maintaining the same order. This processing of a
large volume of data helps in reducing the processing cost, thus making it data
processing economical.
Batch Processing is a method where the information to be organized is sorted
into groups to allow for efficient and sequential processing. Online Processing is a
method that utilizes Internet connections and equipment directly attached to a
computer. It is used mainly for information recording and research. Real-Time

Processing is a technique that can respond almost immediately to various signals to

acquire and process information. Distributed Processing is commonly utilized by
remote workstations connected to one big central workstation or server. ATMs are
good examples of this data processing method. Examples include Examination,
payroll, and billing system.

2. Online Processing

The online processing method is a part of the automatic processing method.

This method, at times, known as direct or random-access processing. Under this
method, the job received by the system is processed at the same time as receiving.
This can be considered and often mixed with real-time processing. This system
features random and rapid input of transaction, and user-defined/ demanded direct
access to databases/content when needed.
This is a method that utilizes Internet connections and equipment directly
attached to a computer. This allows for the data stored in one place and being used
at an altogether different location. Cloud computing can be considered as an
example that uses this type of processing. It is primarily used for information
recording and research.
3. Real-Time Processing

As the name suggests, this method is used for carrying out real-time
processing. This is required where the results are displayed immediately or at the
lowest time possible. The data fed to the software is used almost instantaneously for
processing purposes. The nature of the processing of this type of data processing
requires the use of an internet connection, and data is stored/used online. No lag is
expected/acceptable in this type, and receiving and processing of the transaction is
carried out simultaneously. This method is costly than batch processing, as the
hardware and software capabilities are better. An example includes the banking
system, ticket booking for flights, trains, movie tickets, rental agencies, etc.
This technique can respond almost immediately to various signals to acquire
and process information. These involve high maintenance and upfront cost attributed

to exceptionally advanced technology and computing power. Time saved is

maximum in this case as the output is seen in real-time. An example is banking
transactions.

4. Distributed Processing

This method is commonly utilized by remote workstations connected to one

big central workstation or server. ATMs are good examples of this data processing
method. All the end machines run on fixed software located at a particular place and
make use of precisely the same information and sets of instructions.

5. Multi-Processing
Multi-processing perhaps is the most widely used type of data processing. It is
used almost everywhere and forms the basis of all computing devices relying on
processors. Multi-processing makes use of many parallel CPUs, which have two or
more CPUs. The task or sets of operations are divided between CPUs available
simultaneously, thus increasing efficiency and throughput. The breakdown of jobs
that need to be performed is sent to different CPUs working parallel within the
mainframe. The result and benefit of this type of processing are reducing the time
required and increasing the output.
 Moreover, CPUs work independently as they are not dependent on other
CPU; failure of one CPU does not result in halting the complete process as the
additional CPUs continue to work. Examples include processing of data and
instructions in computer, laptops, and mobile phones

6. Time-sharing

The time-based use of CPU is the core of this data processing type. Multiple
users use a single CPU. All users share the same CPU, but the time allocated to all
users might differ. The processing takes place at different intervals for different users
as per allotted time. Since multiple users can use this type, it is also referred to as a
multi-access system. This is done by providing a terminal for their link to the main

CPU, and the time available is calculated by dividing the CPU time between all the
public users as scheduled.

3.3.2 Data Processing System

IT system is a combination of machines and people that, for a set of inputs,

produces a defined group of outputs. The inputs and outputs are interpreted as data,
facts, information, depending on the interpreter’s relation to the system. A system
may involve some combination of:
● Conversion - is converting data to another format.
● Validation – Ensuring that supplied data is ―clean, correct, and useful.‖
● Sorting – ―arranging items in some sequence and/or at different sets.‖
● Summarization – reducing detail data to its main points.
● Aggregation – combining multiple pieces of data.
● Analysis – the ―collection, organization, analysis, interpretation and
presentation of data.‖
● Reporting – list detail or summary data or computed information.
● Presentation – data presentation helps make decisions
Lesson 3.4 - Machine Cycles

Machines Cycles6
Each time the CPU executes an instruction, it takes a series of steps. The
completed sequence of steps is called the machine cycle. The actions performed
by the computer processor for each machine language instruction received. The
machine cycle is a four process cycle that includes reading and interpreting the
machine language, executing the code, and then storing that code. A machine cycle
itself can be broken down into cycles such as the following:

3.4.1 - Four Steps Of Machine Cycle

1. Fetch - Retrieve an instruction from memory.

2. Decode - Translate the retrieved instruction into a series of computer
commands.
3. Execute - Execute the computer commands.
4. Store - Send and write the results back in memory.
Lesson 3.5 - Computer Memories

Computer memory is any physical device capable of storing information

temporarily, like RAM (random access memory), or permanently, like ROM (read-
only memory). Memory devices utilize integrated circuits and are used by operating
systems, software, and hardware.7

3.5.1 - WHAT DOES COMPUTER MEMORY LOOK LIKE?

Below is an example of a 512 MB DIMM RAM computer memory module. A

memory module is a circuit board that contains DRAM integrated circuits that are

installed into the memory slot on a computer motherboard. This memory module
connects to the memory slot on a computer motherboard.

3.5.2- VOLATILE VS. NON-VOLATILE MEMORY

Memory can be either volatile or non-volatile memory. Volatile memory is a

memory that loses its contents when the computer or hardware device loses power.
Computer RAM is an example of volatile memory. It is why if your computer freezes
or reboots when working on a program, you lose anything that hasn't been saved.
Non-volatile memory, sometimes abbreviated as NVRAM, is a memory that keeps its
contents even if the power is lost. EPROM is an example of non-volatile memory.
EPROM means Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory; EPROM is a non-
volatile memory chip invented by Dov Frohman in 1971 while at Intel that can only be
read. If exposed to ultraviolet light, an EPROM can be reprogrammed if needed, but
otherwise does not accept or save any new data. Hardware
manufacturers use EPROM when it may be
needed that the data contained on the EPROM
needs to be changed. The image shows an
EPROM, erasable programmable read-only
memory integrated circuit. An EPROM chip is
distinguishable by a small quartz crystal (not
glass) circle window that exposes the chip so that
it can be reprogrammed. The picture on this page
shows an Intel 8048 made by NEC and is an
example of an EPROM chip.

3.5.3 - What Happens To Memory When The Computer Is Turned Off?

As mentioned above, because RAM is volatile memory, when the computer

loses power, anything stored in RAM is lost. For example, while working on a
document, it is stored in RAM. If it were saved to non-volatile memory, e.g., the hard
drive, it would be lost if the computer lost power.

3.5.3.1 - Memory Is Not Only A Disk Storage

It is ubiquitous for new computer users to be

confused by what parts of the computer are
memories. Although both the hard drive and RAM
are memory, it's more appropriate to refer to RAM
as "memory" or "primary memory" and a hard
drive as "storage" or "secondary storage." When
someone asks how much memory is in your
computer, it is often between 1 GB and 16 GB of RAM and several hundred
gigabytes, or even a terabyte, hard disk drive storage. In other words, you always
have more hard drive space than RAM.
3.5.3.2 - PRIMARY AND SECONDARY MEMORIES

A primary storage device is a medium that

holds a memory for short periods while a computer is
running. Although it has a much lower access time
and faster performance, it is also about two orders of
magnitude more costly than secondary storage.
Alternatively referred to as external memory,
secondary memory, and auxiliary storage, a
secondary storage device is a non-volatile device
that holds data until it is deleted or overwritten.

Secondary storage is about two orders of magnitude cheaper than primary storage.
Consequently, a hard drive or an additional, slower SSD may be used as secondary
storage to a primary, faster, PCIe SSD. Short for solid-state drive, an SSD is a
storage medium that uses non-volatile memory to hold and access data. Unlike a
hard drive, an SSD has no moving parts, which gives it advantages, such as faster
access time, noiseless operation, higher reliability, and lower power consumption.
The picture shows an example of an SSD made by Crucial Company. 8

3.5.3.3 - HOW IS MEMORY USED?

When a program, such as your Internet browser, is open, it is loaded from
your hard drive and placed into RAM. This process allows that program to
communicate with the processor at higher speeds. Anything you save to your
computers, such as a picture or video, is sent to your hard drive for storage.

3.5.3.4 - WHY IS MEMORY IMPORTANT OR NEEDED FOR A COMPUTER?

Each device in a computer operates at different speeds, and computer
memory gives your computer a place to access data quickly. If the CPU had to wait
for a secondary storage device, like a hard disk drive, a computer would be much
slower.
3.5.4 - TYPES OF MEMORY

There are several types of memory for computers. They are listed below.

ROM – Read-only memory. ROM has three categories:

● PROM – Programmable read-only memory
● EPROM – Erasable Programmable read-only memory
● EEPROM – Electrically Erasable read-only memory

RAM – Random Access Memory. There are six types of RAM:

● EDO RAM - Short for Extended Data Out, and alternatively referred to as
hyper page mode memory, EDO is a type of memory developed in 1995 by

Micron and was first used with Pentium computers. EDO allows a CPU to
access memory 10 to 15-percent faster the compatible Fast Page memory by
not turning off the data output drivers after the memory has removed the
column address.

● SDRAM - SDRAM, which is short for Synchronous DRAM, is a type of

memory that synchronizes itself with the computer's system clock. Being
synchronized allows the memory to run at higher speeds than previous
memory types and asynchronous DRAM and supports up to 133 MHz system
bus cycling. Since 1993, this is the prevalent type of memory used in
computers around the world. The picture below is an example of an SDRAM
DIMM. The original type,
named SDRAM, up to
the current variety,
DDR3, are all
derivatives of the
SDRAM memory type.

● DDR RAM - Short for double data rate, DDR is a memory that was first
introduced in 1996 and has since been replaced by DDR2. DDR utilizes both
the rising and falling edge of the system clock, potentially doubling the speed
 of memory. Today, DDR technology is found on high-end video cards and
computer memory, such as DDR-SDRAM.

● DDR2 RAM - Short for double data rate two, DDR2 is the second generation
of DDR memory that was released in September 2003. DDR2 can operate at
more incredible speeds than DDR, offers a tremendous bandwidth potential,
operates on less power, and generates less heat. Due to architectural
differences, DDR2 memory modules are incompatible with DDR slots.

● DDR3 RAM - Short for double data rate three,

DDR3 is a type of DRAM (dynamic random-
access memory) released in June 2007 as the
successor to DDR2. DDR3 chips have a bus

clock speed of 400 MHz up to 1066 MHz, range in size from 1 to 24 GB, and
consume nearly 30% less power than their predecessors. DDR3 RAM sticks
for a desktop computer have 240 pins. For a laptop computer, DDR3 RAM
sticks have 204 pins. These memory chips can only be installed on a
motherboard that supports DDR3 memory and is not backward compatible
with DDR2 memory slots.

● DDR4 RAM - Short for double

data rate four, DDR4 is a type of
system memory known as
SDRAM and was released in
September 2014 as the
successor to DDR3. DDR4 has bus clock speeds that range from 800 to 1600
MHz and range in storage capacity from 4 to 128 GB per DIMM. DDR4 is also
more efficient at 1.2 V compared to DDR3's 1.5 to 1.65 V range. These
memory chips can only be installed on a motherboard that supports DDR4
memory and is not backward compatible with DDR3 memory slots.

The above types of memory all fall into the general categories of SIMM or DIMM.
3.5.5 - The Difference Between SIMM and DIMM

SIMM
Short for the single in-
line memory module, SIMM
is a memory module
developed by Wang
Laboratories in 1983. The
SIMM circuit board that
holds six to nine memory chips per board. The ninth chip usually an error checking
chip (parity or non-parity). The SIMM was used with computers using a 486, early
Intel Pentium, and compatible processors. However, because the Pentium is 64-bit
and a SIMM is only 32-bits wide, they must be installed two at a time to work

correctly. Above is a graphic illustration of a 4 MB SIMM and a diagram pointing out

the essential features of a SIMM. DIMMs replaced the SIMM.

DIMM

Short for the dual in-

line memory module, DIMM
is a module containing a
circuit board and one more
random access memory
chips. DIMMs have a 168-pin connector and, from the advent of the Pentium
processor, a 64-bit path. Because of the new bit path, DIMMs can be installed one at
a time, unlike SIMMs that would require installation in pairs.

SO-DIMM, which is short for small outline dual in-line memory module, is
available in both a 72-pin and 144-pin configuration. SO-DIMMs are commonly
utilized in laptop computers.
Below is an example picture of a 4 GB SODIMM memory stick from Crucial.

3.5.6 - Some of the advantages DIMMs have over SIMMs

1. DIMMs have separate contacts on each side of the board, which provides
twice as much data as a single SIMM.
2. The command address and control signals are buffered on the DIMMs. With
heavy memory requirements, this buffering reduces the loading effort of the
memory. When referring to memory, a buffer is a temporary storage in the
memory that stores information while processing other information.

Note:
Online buffering happens while streaming music and videos before they play.
Buffering allows you to watch or listen to media almost instantly by downloading a
small portion and then playing the file while the remainder downloads. RAMs are
important factor in the buffering of data inside a computer system.
If your Internet connection is fast enough, you should only buffer for a few
seconds when you first start playing the media and never buffer again. If your
computer or device frequently buffers, your connection is not fast enough, or there's
a problem with your connection or the streaming provider. One of the solutions to
increase buffering is to increase the size of the system memory or the Random
Access Memory (RAM).
Let us reflect…
Data transformation, to some is a phenomenon, especially when it comes to
the aspect of electrical, electronic and data conversion and communication. To some
scientist, it can be a body of knowledge of science wherein it can be harness for the
benefit of mankind. To the programmer and ICT individual, it can be a vast area of
material that can be a source of many useful tools and everyday helper for humanity.
How about you, as a student, how do you see the vastness of data and
information transformation as a powerful tool in the computer world? Can you see
the unlimited potential of the art of data transformation that can change many lives?
Reflect on these things…it will be an avatar of your technology skills in the coming
years.

How much have you learned?

POST-TEST FOR LESSON 3

Name:__________________________________________ Score:_________
Course/Year/Section:______________________________ Date:__________
Professor/Instructor:_______________________________

Complete each statement by writing the answer in each blank.

1. To a computer, everything is a _________.
2. In a computer, all _______ is represented by the state of the computer’s
electronic switches.
3. A ____________ has only two possible states –on and off—so it can
represent only two numeric values.
4. A computer is said to function in base _________, which is also known as the
binary number system.
5. _____________ codes is created to represent more than 4 billion different
characters or symbols.

6. The CPU’s instructions for carrying out commands are built into the
__________.
 7. More ___________ makes the computer faster.

8. Putting data permanently into read only memory is called

__________________, and it is usually done at the factory.
9. RAM’s job is to hold __________ and ________ while they are in use.
10. A type of memory that does not lose its data even the power supply is called
_________________.

Lesson 1 Final Requirement:

Direction: Using the Internet, research on the following and write in your own words
(minimum of 500 words) a synthesis of the topics below.
a. Determine the different CPU Architectures of modern computers.

b. What are the factors affecting the processing speed?

c. What is the significance of Data Science to data and information processing?

Suggested Readings:
● Books/Journals:
o ―Computer Data and Information‖. https://media.lanecc.edu/ users/
loftl/CS275/ ch01.pdf
o ―Computer - Data and Information‖. https://www.tutorialspoint.com
/computer_fundamentals/computer_data.htm
o Data Science for Dummies by Lillian Pierson, 2 nd Edition
o Introduction to Algorithms, 3rd Edition by By Thomas H. Cormen,
Charles E. Leiserson, Ronald L. Rivest, Clifford Stein
o Big Data – Special Issue on Visualization on Data Science by Maryann
Liebert, Volume 6, 2014, ISSN 2147-4441
o International Journal of Business Intelligence and Data Mining
o Lecture 1:The Information Processing Approach to Intelligence.
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-4406-0_6
o Data and Information Research Works and Articles, Academia.edu
● Websites
o ―Information Processing‖. https://sites.google.com/a/campioncollege
.com/it_eveningschoool/inform
o ―Information processing‖. https://www.britannica.com/technology/
information-processing
o ―Examples of Data Processing‖. https://simplicable.com/new/data-
processing
o ―DATA PROCESSING‖. https://peda.net/kenya/css/subjects/computer-
studies/form-three/driac2/data-processing
o ―Information Processing by Science Direct Journals and Books‖.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/ topics/computer-science/information-
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