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    Design of Bins and Bunkers British Steel Assoc

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
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    29 views61 pages

    Design of Bins and Bunkers British Steel Assoc

    Uploaded by

    Anagha Kunale
    Design of Bins and Bunkers British Steel Assoc

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
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    i Mi Vs t 2 THE THEORY AND PRACTICAL DESIGN OF BUNKERS BY F. W. LAMBERT, C.ExG, MILE, A.M.LSTRUCT.E. THE BRITISH CONSTRUCTIONAL STEELWORK ASSOCIATION LTD. HANCOCK HOUSE, 87 VINCENT SQUARE. LONDON, S.W.t FOREWORD ‘The object of this brochure is to set down in readily available form the basic theory necessary for the desiga of bunkers, and to give worked examples thereon. How one attempts to define a bulk storage container is a matter for personal opinion: hence various titles are commonly bestowed such as bunkers, bins, hoppers, and are used frequently jn-any context. For the purpose of this brochure the term bunker will generally be used throughout. In explanation of the underlying theory three fully worked-out examples are given showing the procedure which may be adopted when preparing the necessary calculations for rectangular frough. shallow circular and deep circular bunkers. As a guide to the practical considerations, some notes are given on factors such as filling and emptying, minimum angle of cone slope, et. Which should prove useful to those who are meeting the subject for the first time. As there is no code of practice, or British standard specification for bunker design, much of What follows must be regarded by the reader as evidence of good modern-day general practice in this field. If then, this brochure does no mote than stimulate interest, or promote a better understanding of the subject; or least of all provides scope for argument or controversy, its purpose will have been fulfilled. ‘An appendix is provided which gives angles of repose, weights of various material, and readily Calculated Rankine factors, which should prove to be of assistance. Wherever possible throughout the text, illustrations of typical bunker installations have been included, with the view to furthering the readers’ interest Generally, regard has been given to the requirements of B.S. 1991 “Letters, symbols, signs, and abbreviations, part 4: 1961, Structure, materials and soil mechanics". The author would like to express his appreciation of the co-operation given by Messrs. Huntington Heberlein & Co, Ltd, The Butterley Engineering Co. Ltd: and The National Coal Board, W. & T. Avery Lid., and the Central Electricity Generating Board, Midland Project Group, who made available photographs and product details which appear in this brochure. In par- Geular, thanks are due to D. I, Blockley Esq., B.Eng., Ph.D., for reading the proofs, and to MW. Burkert Esq. who prepared the drawings. FW. CONTENTS FOREWORD DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS General Filling the Bunker Empcving the Bunker Conuaining the material Provision of wearing surfaces Minimum slope of trough or cone Guarding against overload, Method of support Materials of construction Factors of safety and working stresses Other factors ‘Wind ‘Temperature Protection Bunkers in banks Housed in installations THEORY RELATING TO A GRANULAR MASS Symbols ‘Angles of repose and ifiction angles Hotizonal and verteal pressure—Kankine's theory (a) no surcharge (b) With surcharge ANALYSIS OF BUNKER FORCES Rectangular bunkers—shallow symmetrical (a) algebraic solution (6) graphical solution {c)_ alternative graphical solution ‘Rectangular bunkers-—shallow unsyrnmetrical ‘Strength of rectangular bunkers ‘Skin plates Trough stifeners Side walls 3, Circulae bunkers (shallow) : Pressures in shallow circular buskers Stresses in shallow circular bunkers Supporting the bunker 4. Deep bunkers (or silos) ‘Coulomb's expression Vertical and lateral pressures ‘Stresses im deep circular bunkers WORKED EXAMPLES 1 Rectangular trough bunker 2 Shallow circular bunker 3. Deep cireular bunker BIBLIOGRAPHY. APPENDIX Fable A. Weights of materials, natural angles and friction angles BL Rankine’s factors no surcharge SL Rankine’ factors with surcharge D, Bending moments in circular beams subject to radial forees 5 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS GENERAL Bunkers are vessels designed for storing, over. a temporary period of time, a predetermined material Such as coal, coke, iron ore, gravel, eic. ‘They may be square, rectangular or circular and arranged singularly or in banks. Square or rectangular bunkers usually have pyramidal Dottoms with a single outlet, but a trough bottom is sometimes used with a single elongated outlet or with two of more square of circular outlets. Very lang Nquare_ or rectangular bunkers are often subdivided by division walls, each compartment having its own Sutlet from a pyramidal bottom. Circular bunkers have conical bottoms with a single outlet Bunkers may be completely symmetsical or non: symmetrical about some given vertical axis. ‘The pyramid, trough or cone may be off-set. In fact, fhuany variations are possible, dependent upon plant requirements or for a particular mechanical reason, Bunker installations are to be seen at collieries, power stations, gas works, iron and steelworks, and quarries cic, In short, at any establishment where elevated bulk storage of material is deemed for some purpose 10 be desirable, FILLING THE BUNKER There are various methods by which a bunker may be filled, All are relatively simple, and are not particularly important in so far as the strength of the bunker is concerned. Often, filling is part of a flow-line process, when the rate of filing must sometimes be related io the rate of discharging, and the production involved. Because of the different manufacturing procedures. filling operations vary from intermittent to. continuous, The actual filling operation is usually by some mechanical aid; conveyors, elevators or grab cranes being frequently used. Where conveyors are em ployed it is usually necessary to provide support from the bunker in the form of beams spanning from wall to wall. These beams im turn support the conveyor framework, Multi-bucket elevators. may. also be employed. At some installations special vertical transporters are incorporated which are capable of lifting fully laden railway wagons. Grab cranes are sometimes employed to lift materials. which have initially been ground stored, into elevated bunkers. Frequently, the top of the bunker is Teft completely ‘pen, so that in effect there is no restriction on the filling procedure. Alternatively it-may be framed and covered with floor plates and used as a working platform, a small opening being left to receive the incoming materials. Bunkers may of course be housed in either to protect the contents or the mecli- jeal plant. See also Other Factors. Fig. | shows a 3,125 ton capacity coal bunker at the National Coal’ Board's Menktonhall Colliery Lothians Area, This bunker is complete wiih tipper conveyor and weigh hoppers and is fully instrumentated for automatic handling operations, EMPTYING THE BUNKER The problems concerning the emptying of a bunker are very different from those of filling. In the pre ‘vious section it was apparent that there was a good deal of space available, which made loading com: paratively easy. The operation which involves emptying is not so simple, as it requires that the material should pass through a relatively small hole ‘or outlet situated at the bottom of the conical section, or trough, of the bunker. Suppose, for example, that instead of being concerned about a bunker containing positively thousands of small particles of some solid material, the problem is one of discharging water from a tank. The material, now a freely Rowing liguid, is still required to pass through the same relatively small opening, now called an orifice, Well known formulae” are available which enables the ratc of flow and time to completely empty @ water tank to be calculated Some materials, unlike water, are not free flowing, espite the fact that they are assumed to be granular and non-cohesive. Salt, for example, contains an clement, magnesium carbonate, to assist its free flowing properties. Perfectly dry, fine silver sand, flows quite readily, as may be observed in the well tried hour glass. One of the problems, is that of the material arching over the outlet, and where this happens. rather drastic measures are sometimes. necessary. Mech- anical vibrators may be used to assist movement. Iti always important to ensure that the bunker is properly designed so that problems concerning flow are reduced (© a minimum. Coke will flow quite readily from a well designed bunker, but finely crushed limestone is capable of standing vertical without lateral assistance. Dampness may well be the cause of this inaction, but cannot always be avoided. In circular bunkers the lower part of the conical section is sometimes made slightly offset, the intention being, apparently, to induce spiral action during material flow thus improving discharge. In connection with very deep bunkers or silos much has been written, notably by Janssen and Airy at the turn of the last century, and more recently by Reimbert et alt®, Several devices exist for regulating the quantity of material to be taken from a bunker in some given time. In a coal yard or quarry a simple gate may be sufficient, where flow is of intermittent nature, say for loading lorries or wagons. The actual mechanical ‘operation of opening and closing the gate may be by hand or pneumatically, depending upon the size of the gate, and of course, the opening ‘Where the material flow needs to be carefully regulated because it forms part of some production process, a number of mechanical aids and proprietary systems are available Fig. 2 shows part of a circular bunker at the Sinter Plant of Richard Thomas and Baldwin Lid, at Red: bourne. Raw-mix is being extracted via a table feeder. Here the material is discharged on to the table which is rotating at a predetermined rate, and is then ploughed off onto a regulating belt’ feeder alongside, afterwards to be conveyed away lor subsequent processing. Fig. 3 shows the Sinter Plant dust collecting equip ment below the electrostatic precipitator at the Thy Le Chateau steelworks in Belgium. Simple gate devices are nat practical because the system is working under a partial vacuum, hence special valves are required which maintain a closed cireutt atte ieee NANETTE TT TT CRN TTI tE Fig. 4 shows drag link feeders in position under the coal bunkers installed at Ratcliffe power station. The entire feeder line is designed to deliver 18,000 tons of coal per day. CONTAINING THE MATERIAL Having loaded the material into the bunker, the next stage is to retain it there until required. For all intents and purposes, all that is necessary is to provide a bunker which is strong enough to safely carry the vertical and lateral pressures, and of course its own weight. All that is going to be said about the actual design of the bunker will be discussed later. but a few remarks at this stage will not be out of place. Bunkers fall into easily definable types, and the theory applicable to one may not be suitable for another For example, most bunkers will be surcharged as 3 result of the normal fillg process. I the surcharge is taken into account the horizontal pressure. for the general run of bunkers, will be very much over: mated. is therefore more economical to sssuitie the material to be fiat and level at the mean height of the surcharge and design the bunker is very wide in relation to its depth the effects of surcharging may need to be considered. A shallow bunker acts quite differently from a deep) bunker. In the former case the material will be supporied by the bottom or tough plates; in. the latter support will be shared, partly on the trough and partly on the vertical walls due to friction Friction introduces further problems, but these will be discussed in the next section, Containing the material is relatively easy, but what about the material itself? Generally. provided the density and angle of repose are known, calculation can proceed. If, for example, coal is to be carried, reference (0 the appendix t0 this brochure will revea ins weight and angle of repose. Some consideration should be given to the probable state of the material. A perfectly dry granular material is one condition, a completely saturated material another. It should of course be borne in mind that if the material is very wet the density will increase and the angle of repose will decrease. The likely general state of the material should therefore be established before commencing design. Sand, for example, is known to bulk when damp. Likewise, cement, another material which requires careful sideration, Hits been the subject of recent research! PROVISION OF WEARING SURFACES Generally, mast bunkers require, to some degree, additional internal skin to guard against we: by abrasion due to sliding material Where should protective linings be located? ‘This depends Jargsly upon the abrasive nature of the material and the (ype of bunker. It may only be necessary to provide lining to the trough in 3 shallow bunker, but in the case of the deep type some mesure fof protection may be thought to be advantageous 10 the vertical surfaces also. How this skin is con- structed and from what medium depends upon experience gained in operation. Various solutions have been adopted from time to time, with and without success, and the problem is, therefore, {© some extent, one of organised main: tenance A common practice is to line the bunker with a thin skin of mild steal plate, which is arranged so as (0 bbe easily removable as and when necessary. This means that each liner plate should be of such a size land weight that can be readily manhandled into and ‘out of position. A wear plate of j in. thick measuring some 3 fl. by 2 ft. would therefore weigh some 90Ib. and would be fixed to the bunker shell by at least four bolts arranged one in each corner and counter: sunk on the inside. Naturally, larger plate sizes can be used, but lifting tackle may prove to be a necessity Gunite, also employed to act as wearing surface. may be applied to the bunker shell by a spraying process, In this case it is usual to. afix small con- hectors to the bunker shell to pro Keying, and light mesh reinforcement for strength, the gunite being laid to a thickness of about 2 im ‘An interesting point of structural mechanics arises here, because the gunite being continuous and jointless, and bonded together with steel mesh and im turn keyed against the bunker shell will provide @ reasonable measure of composite action between iiself and the steel. This fact has been shown clsewhere, but it 18 questionable whether this com- posite action, which readily exists in the newly Constructed bunker, should be taken into account at the design stage?’ Bearing in mind that such a lining was provided to guard against wear, and that after some Years’ use oF less may be non-existent the answer would appear to be in the negative. If, however, it can be shown that the life of the wearing surface is also the useful life of the bunker, then there is no reason why it should not be taken into account, Each case must be judged on its merits. Yet another provision against wear, is the use of special hard tiles, of bricks, which may be fixed into position inside the bunker by bedding and jointing ‘sith cement mortar, Accrington red-brick tiles and Haunchwood blue pressed pavers are typical examples. The life ofthe lining depends upon a number of factors, namely, the dearee of use, the value of the lining as an ti-attrition medium, and the abrasiveness of the bunker material, all of which could quite conceivably be a topic for research yielding perhaps some useful information to aid design and future maintenance. MINIMUM SLOPE OF TROUGH OR CONE |A factor which should not be overlooked in bunker design is the slope of the walls in the trough or conical Section. In order to assist in the flowing of the 10 material. the cone of trough angh as possible. Where the bunker is of the circular type, and the outlet is symmetrically placed, the problem is not so difficult, provided the cone angle is reasonably steep. ‘An angle of $0°-60° should be regarded as a minimum In the case of bunkers with pyramidal bottoms the corner angle is the criterion, Whilst the sloping sides may appear to be steep enough this corner langle may present @ problem and retard How. Fhe corner angle for a rectangular bunker is given by Je should be ay steep 2 $= Tar | | vei and fora square bunker, when @ = b by ind $ stan | | 6 Where = vertical depth of cone ignoring outlet cut-off) b = the longer side @ = the shorter side @ = the corner angle measured from the horizontal Fig, $ shows in isometric a pyramidal bottom with the above symbols superimposed. GUARDING AGAINST OVERLOAD. 11 may be hard to imagine a, bunker being at any lime accidentally overloaded, but as this possibility cannot be entirely ruled out some provision may be necessary to ensure that it is unlikely to occur, Where bunker is being filled by semi-manual means and visual methods are readily available, a white line painted on the skin plate a few feet from the top may well he sullcient. As the top of the stored material will never be initially flatand level, unless some device i used to make it so, it will always be sur charged. hence the reason for placing the “Tull-up™ line Somewhere below the top of the bunker, and the surcharge making up the balance of the designed yolume, Some margin in volume is also a good idea, in order fo allow against spillage Modern bunker installations, as mentioned earlier ‘on, may form part of a flow line process and therefore be fully regulated. A measuring device called a load cell is commonly used, and is designed to support a predetermined load. “These load-cells are. placed tunder the support points of the bunker as shown in Fig 6 and ase wired up im such a way that an alarm bell or coloured light comes into operation at the control centre as soon as the bunker has reached of Js reaching its design capacity. Similarly they can also be used to indicate when the bunker is empty forces act upon the load cell when weighing, The self-aligning feature compensates for any misalign- ment between the load carrying structure and the load cells due to deflection of the structure. The free-motion feature, consisting of steel balls and cups, prevents side thrusts being communicated from the Structure to the cells. Both features are essential for precision installations, Side thrusts are created by thermal expansion of the structure and indirectly by deflections, and by vehicle movements. Whete there is a risk of shockloading or accidental overloading, overload protection ean be incorporated in each load cell assembly unit, to prevent damave to the calibration of the cell A broken view of @ load cell in common use is shown in Fig. 7 Loas [ Ee Check Pin tee! Ball Ball Cup : Load Cells Lt Fic. 6 The avcuraey of load cell installations depends much ‘on the correct method of loading the cells. Experience in mechanical weighing has led to the introduction of a special combined self-aligning and Free-motion unit which ensures that no unwanted u Load Cell Baseplate Fic. 7 METHOD OF SUPPORT Bunkers in isolation are usually self supporting, on four or more columns which are arranged in’ the form of a braced or portal tower. Where loud-cells are not provided (see previous section) the supports jin a four columm structure are frequently extended upwards and act as corner stiffeners to the vertical walls of a square or rectangular bunker. In the case of a circular bunker the supports may be attached, by suitable methods, directly to the skin plates which are usually free of stiffeners. Fig. 8 shows part of the elevated bunker line as installed at the Ratcliffe power station, Nottinghamshire. The capacity of each bunker is 4,000 tons. A bank or family of square or rectangular bunkers ‘may be supported ina fashion similar to that described for the single isolated bunker, with coluinns arranged at each division. However 2 battery of circular type bunkers requires different supporting treatment. Here the practice is to construct a framed structure, which may or may not be subsequently sheeted in, and support the bunkers at the appropriately elevated level on a systery of girders as shown in Fig, 9. The beams marked ‘A’ give immediate support, and in turn transfer the load to the main girders "B” at about the 4rd points with the obvious advantage of reducing the bending moments in these latter girders. When bunkers are within 2 building whieh is housing, a manufacturing process, the metheu! of support may bbe as mentioned above. but sometimes it is more convenient to make use of an elevsted plationm oF floor which is serving some other funetion at the same time. Use is often made of this: where bunkers form part of gravity feed syste Fig, 10 shows a modem self supporting bunkes lation at Ferrybridge power station. This bun part of the power station's reciaim plant Fic, 10 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION The bunkers described in this brochure will be designed using structural steel, The designer therefore concerned with the selection of structural steel in the form of plates and sections which will produce an economical solution to the problem in hand “The most commonly used stee! is tha whieh complies with BS. 15:96]. Mikd Stevi for General Strachwl Purposes. Shell plates and ~ffenees will voneralls be manufactured rom this gualiy maverial, but where steel liner plates are employed mild steel complying with B.S. 3706:19b4. Mild Sie! General Engineering Purposes ‘ilk suilice, This hss no guuranteed yield stress and is therefore fres of the charge for quality extra imposed on the BS. 1S tyne respects both somite In heavily loaded bunkers, where the skin plates and stiffeners are. likely to prove excessive, steel in accordance with BS. 968:1962. High Yield Stress (itelding Quality) Structural Steet i generally avail- able, and may prose 10 be more economical in both inaterial consumption and cost. The relative advan- ages and disadvantages in terms of weight and cost ing should, of course. be investigated before manufacture commences. Bunkers are frequently fabricated of riveted, con titleion, but thefe tno reason shy welding should Nalbe ued. Iris of course important to recognise that nveted and welded fabrications ave” quite. df= {eis and the design approach and choice of sections Wiould be epulated accordingly. “A corretly de Signed welded bunker should "not prove an un- economical proposition. Fits Hat ta) shows the ‘Smal method of attaching stifener to the skin laosascuming riveted construction. Joist or channel Tone an be ciployed ay requ. ACD) the Siittruction now employs welding: as the flange of the ouster channel connected to the skin plate In thpe ta) is now not required, an angle, te section OF iit “Seam “caw be elfetvely substituted with a Corresponding saving in materia Width of plate jincluded 401 ©) Fie. u FACTORS OF SAFETY AND WORKING STRESSES Xo. British Standard exists giving guidance as to Suitable working stresses in) bunker design, and Spinions must therefore vary regarding factors of exlety and stress limitation. BSAW. The Use of Syuctural Steel i Building has been available to the building designer for many years, but whilst this particularly well known specification is hot generaily concerned with bunkers, the following equirements in the reset and reprinted edition, 1963, may be regarded as applicable B Part 1, Definitions. excepting filler joists and wheel loads Part2. Materials, Pari 3. Loads, clauses 6 and 8 only Part 4, Design and details of construction, clauses 10, 11, 12, 13, 17, 24. 25.48. SI 52, 5 Part 5, Fabrication and Erection Part 6. Tests for use in the Approval of Welders ‘There appeats to be no reason why tinpact factors should. be applied, this is because some time must clapse before the bunker is completely full to working Capacity, the application of the load being therefore gradual,” Despite the fact that feeding may be inter mittent when, for example, grab cranes are employed which obviously must create some degree of impact the effects of this will be on a very small scale when related to the total design load, Nevertheless @ bunker is structure although it is not a building in the sense implied in B.S. 449. For this Feason good practice in the past appears to lead 10 Stresses marginally lower than those contained if) the aforementioned specification. OTHER FACTORS Winp, Free standing bunker installations will of course be subject to the effects of wind. The actual forces, and the proportion in which they should be applied are fully covered in B.S. CP 3 chap. V. loading It i unlikely that a fully loaded bunker, when wind is applied, will prove to be a design criterion, but the case of the empty bunker and full wind shiould be investigated. Isolated cases, such as a light bunker mounted on a very tall tower, should not be over looked. These problems are’ similar to the well known examples in water tower design, TeaperaTune, Most materials will be at normal atmospheric temperature when stored. und for this Feason there should be no problems regarding the efiects of heat, Where, however, materials are being bunkered after a process which involves heat without subsequent cooling this fact should be taken into account PROTECTION. It is obviously desirable to provide some protective treatment io any structure, and bunkers are no exception. The use of a good painting procedure is therefore to be recommended. If the steel is properly cleaned down, so as to remove all loose millscale and rust, dirt ‘and grease, the application of several coats of good quality paint Should suffice in guarding against excessive main. tenance. Higher quality finishes can be obtained. sf required, by grit or shot blasting followed by inhubitive priming and then painting in the usual way. A wide Tange of paints, for all purposes, are available, and these include zinc chromate. red and white lead, mieaceous iron oxide ete. It is, of course, important to ensure when various types of paints! are being used that they are chemically compatible. The expert advice of the paint manufacturer should be ‘Gbiained where there is any doubt. British Standard Code of Practice CP 2008; 1966. Protectiow of Iron and Steel Siructures from Corrosion isan excellent Gocument and deals fully with this subject. It also contains many useful references ‘There is little reason for applying paint to the internat surfaces of the bunker, as the frietion set up during Row and subsequent’ abrasion will nulhly any advantages offered by the protective coating. Bunkers my BANKS, Where a quantity of one material to be stored is large, recourse is sometimes made to sub-division, either 19 the form of compart mented bunkers, or by providing completely separate Units. Supposing, however, more than one material fe being used such as coke and ironore. Unless it ig made physically impossible to interchange the loading process, there 1s the danger that the ironore 4 could be loaded into the coke bunker with clearly Ghastrous consequences. Two solutions that guard Seainst this eventuality are: firstly to provide ant Adequate control system when bunkers of different Carrying capacity ean be installed, or secondiy design feach bunker, and its supporting structure, to carry the heaviest ‘material. The economics of either of these two methods are outside the scope of this brochure Housep tn INSTALLATIONS, Certain materie's. such as ash, flue dust and other dry ponders are light enough to be blown away during the conveying process, and for this reason housing in the bunker Tistallation may prove essential. Similarly, the pro~ fess may demand that the materials should be Kept Gry. These factors are mentioned in passing although they clearly do not affect the actual! desig of the bunker. THEORY RELATING TO A GRANULAR MASS SYMBOLS ‘The following symbols, in use throughout the text, generally comply with those shown in B.S. 1191 W — Weight we — Density of fill @ — Angle of repose 1 — Prietion coefficient between material and wall ts — Friction coefficient material on material 5 — Angle of surcharge 2 — Slope of wall Ky — Rankine’s factor with no surcharge K,— Rankine’s factor with surcharge A — Depth of fill or bunker as defined d_ — Diameter of bunker, of outlet as defined 7 — Radius of bunker. outlet or radius of gyration P= Mean hydraulic radius M — Bending moment — Second moment of Arca — Modulus of section — Flexural rigidity of plate £r"/120-—¥") — Deflection — Plate thickness 1 z E — Modulus of elasticity (taken as 13,400 tons/in#y D 1} —= Poisson's ratio (sometimes given as == ¥=0:3) q.-— Intensity of uniform pressure J ~ Working stress p ~ Allowable stress or pressure V— Vertical pressure or Volume L N k T Lateral pressure Normal pressure Resultant pressure or Reaction Tangential pressure — Horizontal reaction uw x) ¥ —}Other forces sal p L (Factors of J | eanear dimensions, as defined gles as defined ANGLE OF REPOSE AND FRICTION ANGLE If a wall retaining material such as earth is removes. the material will collapse by sliding through som curve shown as BC in Fig. 12. Due to weathering and other factors further material will fall away unt finally approximating to the line BC’ as indicated in the same Fig. 1 Fig. 12 The angle that the material finally makes measured relative to the horizontal is generally rel the angle of repose, and sometimes as the angie of internal friction, For a granular material where the cohesion may be ignored these 10 an said to be equal red 10 8s HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL PRESSURE— RANKINE’S THEORY Rankine 01 shows the relationship between the SSitieal and horizontal pressures set up in a mass which, WySumed to be incompressible. iomogeneous, of franular form and free from cohesion, and that the Particles of the mass hold together by friction on Beth other. He also assumed that the mass was of Indefinite extent. fa) No SeaCHARGH Comider firstly the state of stress at some depth, in Stas which has a level upper surface. See Fig. 13, This is Known os Mud presine and may be proved as follows: OTE Fic. 13 Fig. 14 at (a) shows an element acted upon by two Eamipressive, stresses of equal magnitude. It is Shubred to find the direction and magnitude of the Tine me aeting on the inclined plane 22. Produce the prisin aad as shown in Fig. 14 (), whieh will peak equilibrium under the action of the stresses Py, peand p.., Now complete the Foree diagram at (e) Chere A "> pyao, ¥ = pzbo and N= pa. Evidently ribo bo wa = X po ao because 1s Hence the angle @ made by the forces X and Y equals the angle of the prism oab, so that the force is normal to the plane ab. Equally Mewar = pit (aol? + pi (ho pe [Ca0}* + (bo) but (ao)? > {ho}? = (aby? sothat N= (ah) however N= 7, (ah) whence py = Py = Pz Which proves the case. Fig. 1 Supposing now one stress is compressive andi the ther tensile Dut of equal value. ot will be readily Seen that & before Y psbo bo tn—-= = XN po ao but the angle 4, whilst of the same value, is nos on the opposite side from the previously described ease ig I illustrates this condition. Now sax pet att but S =p. (ab) whence ps =P & | © Fic. 15 Proceeding further, fet if now be supposed that both stresses ave compressive (they could be tensile) and Tat py is gceater than pz. Ie will be seen that this Condition is similar fo the fluid pressure case, except Chat the resultant stress may no longer be normal to the inclined plane. By algebra, it may be shown that a a and Mm ‘Assume now that the term ——— is the ease for Py Ps fluid pressure, and the term ig the case for shear. Then the horizontal plane will be at rest under a Pe 2 pair of stresses = and the vertical mt Pe Ps plane at rest under a pair of stresses “=< = as illustrated in Fig. 16. “The stresses acting on the inclined plane ah in Fig. 17 (2) may now be determined. AU (a) in Fig. 17 the perpendicular stress is by the principles already outlined. It will also be seen that the angle between p, and pis 28. Fie, 16 a bee /?, a > ° o Fis. 17 By constructing an ellipse of stress the normal, tangential and fesultant stresses may be found. rt Pe Let or = pop = Pe then og = 2 =P and qr = = as og’ = pa the normal stress sg’ = pi the tangential stress now of = 09 +49 or — ar + qs.c0s 26 Pi— Ps also sq’ = sqsin 26 = ——— sin 26 2 Hence the resultants os is inclined at an angle « Gf Pe where @ = tart — = tar? — og Pe ‘The angle @ will have a maximum value when s coincides with s' Whence gs’e is a right angle. sf Qi ~ Ps) cate eee of in P: Granting Rankine’s assumptions it would appear that Torided nthe angle between the perpendicular and Fisultant pressure, does not exceed. @, the angle of epose, there wil exist a state of equilibrium. PP: Consequently sin @ = sine = pV —sin And transposing — = — mo t+ sing “This may be written in she form pe = Ky Py = Ki wh Values of K, are given in table B of the appendiv (b) Warn SuacHarce Consider now the ease where the mass has an inclined: upper surface, The angle which this free surface makes to the horizontal is referred to as the surcharge angie. From Fig. 18 let the free upper surface have an Engle of surcharge equal to 6 and fet p, and p: be the fesultant pressures (of the principal stresses p20 p.) on the faces ch, ad, and ab, ed, respectively ‘The weight of material in the prism chbe is wh Gb cos 9 and the pressure on thie plane cb is pi cb: hence p; = wh cos 8 Fig. 18 Construct the ellipse of stress ay. before, Sone. or and or represent py and po. Set off sey or’ at an angle & normal to the plane. Bisect or and produce « perpendicular to eut ogg at ¢, and Home draw the auviliary circle. By the same reason ie that given in the previous case, evidently 8 cannot ‘SReced ¢ in order to produce equilibrium. Fig. 19. now

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