POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY

BACHELOR IN JOURNALISM
CARLOS III UNIVERSITY DE MADRID

Lesson 1.- What is politics?

1.- Notion and features of Politics

The etymology of the word 'political' derives from classical antiquity and which
meant its intrinsic relationship with the 'polis' -city-. Del Aguila explains, the
word "politics" meant for the Greeks opposed to private, personal or private,
and referred to the common and to which everyone concerned. For example, for
Aristotle’s "political" domain was nothing more than the government of free
and equal beings (Aristotle, 1999, 1255 b 62-63), thus identifying the policy with
a specific type of exercise of power (Del Aguila , 2007, 18).

It is noteworthy that this vision of politics as 'the government of free and equal'
beings, which is associated with democratic ideals, has been unlucky and has
inspired political ideologies, philosophical views, and even Constitutions
seeking summarize, an ideal of legitimate government.

These first lines of Aristotle's Politics reflect the vision of the classical world
where the individual is embedded in a community that defines -polis-
significantly in many important areas. Hence, the famous image of man as
"political animal". Sartori explains that this term, Aristotle expressed the Greek
conception of life. A conception that made the polis constituency
(indecomposable) and full size (supreme) of existence. Therefore, in living
"political" and the "politicization", the Greeks did not see one part or aspect of
life; They saw it as a whole and in its essence (Sartori, 1996, 203).

Some want to contextualize precisely this view of the "political animal" and
their community implications until the time where it emerged with in a
complex world. While there are attempts to claim the involvement and
participation in the community underlying the image of the "political animal".
One of the key points that differentiates these visions is the separation between
public and private, which characterizes the interpretation of rights as usually
being in current democratic societies.

The following characteristics on the field of politics, as specified: practice,

collective, related to cooperation and / or conflict related to Power

a) Practice

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 POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY
BACHELOR IN JOURNALISM
CARLOS III UNIVERSITY DE MADRID

The purpose of the policy is implemented. It is linked to the decision

concerning a human group. The policy can be studied and analyzed by political
philosophy or political science, who do have theoretical desire, but politics, as
such, is related to the exercise of power and its justification. In the words of
Aristotle, "the end of politics is not knowledge but action" (Aristotle, 1985, 134,
1995a 5).

One of the key issues is how policy decisions that affect various groups are
taken.

b) Collective

The policy regulates some of the most important collective dimensions of

human coexistence. The liberal vision separates the public and private sphere,
where collective decisions are taken and argued as values of justice and the
private sphere, where each individual is free to follow his conceptions of good-
life. The limits of politics in relation to the individual / collective dichotomy is
an issue that usually involves opposing views. A debate about the limits of state
intervention against individual autonomy where liberal, paternalist and
perfectionist approach are given. Another debate would come from some
feminist approaches where, claiming that "the personal is political" the public /
private distinction is criticized for serving to consolidate and legitimize the
subordination of women. Another controversial aspect of the collective
dimensions of politics is the question of the definition of the political
community. "Who are we?" This is a key question, which some consider pre-
political. One of the current debates about whether the political demos -
Community should keep a close link with the ethnic identity traits. This issue
relates to the integration of immigrants and their rights.

c) It can be linked to cooperation and / or conflict

The collective dimension of political faces to another issue that has to do with a
-more optimistic or pessimistic approach about human nature. Synthetically, in
human interaction, it can give three types of situations: a) pure Conflict; b) pure
Cooperation; c) Conflict and Cooperation.

The policy is intrinsically linked to cooperation and conflict. In fact, it seeks to

provide better management of social conflicts and promote social cooperation.
However, there are conceptions of politics. Del Aguila explains, these fit more
Maquiavelian (or conflicting) more Aristotelian (and cooperative)
understandings of politics (Del Aguila, 2003, 21).

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 POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY
BACHELOR IN JOURNALISM
CARLOS III UNIVERSITY DE MADRID

It should be noted that an influential way to justify social institutions, based on

the idea of the Social Contract, often uses the argument that it is better to
cooperate, with a guaranteed result within the Contract, to compete in the State
of Nature, with the uncertainty of an optimal or bad result. This idea is
generally known as the prisoner's dilemma. Hobbes was the first to formulate
this in his work Leviathan.

d) Relates to Power

The policy is linked directly or indirectly to the exercise of power. This is a

central element that determines human relations. Bobbio offers a definition of
power, in terms of "the means of which the active subject of the relationship is
used to condition the behaviour of the taxpayer". The power is based on the
human condition linked to the choice-freedom-autonomy behaviours, and
purpose of conditioning the freedom to certain objectives. Thus, power,
legitimacy and obligation are related in various ways. Bobbio offers
contemporary typology of the forms of power, mentioning economic,
ideological and political power (Bobbio, 1998, 1216).

The different conceptions of politics give more importance to one element or

another as predominant. The visions of Marxist inspiration focus on economic
aspects and visions of Weberian inspiration ideological aspects. It is noteworthy
that the three areas are related in various ways.

Political power is related to the exercise of the "monopoly of legitimate

violence" in the familiar expression of Max Weber. Some argue that this
coercive aspect gives preponderance against other forms of power.

You could accept this definition of 'policy' that Warren offers, which combines,
to a large extent, the elements analyzed. Thus, the 'policy' is defined as the
subset of social relations characterized by conflict over property, under pressure
to partner with a view to collective action, where at least one of the conflicting
parties seeking collectively binding decisions and punish decisions by the
power (Warren, 2003, 32).

This definition of politics is wide because it includes politics in democratic,

autocratic and totalitarian countries. In this sense, this point the various models
of state is delimited conceptually as this is intrinsically related to the conception
of policy to be developed within it.

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 POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY
BACHELOR IN JOURNALISM
CARLOS III UNIVERSITY DE MADRID

a) What is the difference between the rule of law and authoritarian and
totalitarian states?

For there to be a rule of law, according Viver, two conditions must apply: a) The
State shall be subject to the law (through legal mechanisms such as courts
which take control of activities of state bodies, should be normative hierarchy,
...); b) should devote a series of rights and freedoms of "autonomy" to ensure
individuals and social groups a sphere of personal and social activities free
from state interference (Viver, 1994, 31-32).

On the other hand, in a totalitarian state, the state does not accept limitations to
power, invading all areas of personal and social life impose its guidelines and
excluding violent opponents.

In the authoritarian state, the state is not subject to limits. The State does not
impose its guidelines, but prohibits private and social manifestations is to
endanger or simple criticism to the prevailing state organization (Viver, 1994,
32).

b) What is the difference between the democratic state and autocratic or

dictatorial states?

The democratic state, Viver explains, is one in which the state will is formed
through the participation of citizens expressed in the framework of political
pluralism. Where political groups and citizens have the same opportunities to
express and defend their policy options. It is important for there to be freedom
and plurality, there must be several real alternatives that reflect the various
social sectors.

Rather, in autocratic states participating, directly or indirectly, of citizens is not

accepted. In dictatorships, instead of elections, there is the violent conquest
procedures are followed, inheritance, cooptation ...etc.

In the nineteenth century, there was a system based on census suffrage

excluded from voting important part of the population. Other times elections
and universal suffrage are given, but there is no pluralism (Viver, 1994, 33-34).

c) What is the difference between the social state and the abstention State and
the "non-social" interventionist?

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 POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY
BACHELOR IN JOURNALISM
CARLOS III UNIVERSITY DE MADRID

There is another aspect that relates to the conception of politics that is related to
state intervention in economic life partner.

The abstencionist State, Viver, explains current s liberalism. XIX, he argues that
free competition of citizens, equal in rights, will arise particularly welfare and
thus social. Therefore, the state should refrain from intervening in economic
and social order. It is a police state, which should be responsible solely to
maintain public order, external defense, jurisdiction and international relations.

However, if the state intervenes in the economy, it is a fundamental distinction.

The social interventionism is not a result of a war economy or search the
development and consolidation of certain sectors. For example, the Nazi
National Socialist state.

In the social State it seeks to ensure a better standard of living for all citizens
and greater equality. By proclamation of economic and social rights, the law
obliges the state to intervene in the economic system with the aim of ensuring
that all citizens enjoy conditions sufficient life, among other consequences,
become real and effective rights and personal and public freedoms (Viver, 1994,
35-36).

2. -Conceptions of politics

This characterization of politics as practice, collective, related to cooperation

and / or conflict and related power allows a core of certainty about related
situations, allowing there are different conceptions of politics. These concepts
have budgets, conflicting values and implications about what is and what
should be the policy. Summarizing the terms of debate, the main difference lies
in the role of conflict and ways of managing it. Thus, there are more and more
cooperative conflictivists visions of politics.

These concepts are behind a series of values and views about human nature. A
strong conflictivist vision Schmitt offers with its thesis of politics as friend-
enemy relationship. Thus, he states: "the actual political distinction is the
distinction between friend and foe. She gives the acts and human reasons
political sense; it refers, ultimately, all actions and political reasons "(Schmitt
2002, 31).

This implies conceive politics as the field of conflict, which has even existential
implications, in view of the other. The schimttiana characterization of the
enemy is synonymous with an intense conflict with otherness. From this

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 POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY
BACHELOR IN JOURNALISM
CARLOS III UNIVERSITY DE MADRID

perspective, he says: "The enemy is in a particularly intense way, existentially, a

different, a foreigner, with which in extreme cases can fit existential conflicts"
(Schmitt 2002, 32).

This intense tension between friend and enemy, this strong conflictivist view of
politics, gives a role to violence and war as a solution to the problems. Schmitt
says that "the concept of friend, enemy and war acquire their true meaning
when referring to the real possibility of physical killing and service. The war is
but the realization of extreme hostility. It needs not be everyday, normal, or
appear as ideal and desirable, but it should survive as a real possibility, while
the concept of the enemy retains its meaning "(Schmitt, 2002, 42-43).

It is known that Schmitt was linked with the Nazi regime. Perhaps his ideas
sound a far cry from current approaches. But one can think, however, of certain
actions in international politics to reflect. It is worthy of note that a version of
politics as enemy relationship friend had as a principle benefit friends and
harming enemies is far from remote.

Faced with this vision, Kelsen makes a defence of democracy and

parliamentarianism with mechanisms such as discussion, negotiation,
compromise and compromise, seeking the best way to manage conflicts that
may arise in society. Thus, he says: "Democracy needs this continuing tension
between majority and minority, between government and opposition, which
derives the dialectical procedure that uses this state form in the development of
political will. It has been rightly said that democracy is discussion. Therefore,
the result of the formation process of political will is always the transaction,
commitment. "(Kelsen, 2002, 113)

Democracy implies the existence of majorities and minorities within society and
the need to reach agreements. In this system, power has limits. Kelsen makes a
defense of democracy over other forms of government. In this sense, he says
"the autocracy can not tolerate opposition; There is no discussion or
compromise it, but taxation "(Kelsen, 2002, 116).

Kelsen is characteristic of the approach relate metaethical visions with the

approach underlying political systems. From this perspective, he says:
"absolutist metaphysical world corresponds to the autocratic attitude and
democracy corresponds to the scientific conception of the universe, critical
relativism" (Kelsen, 2002, 131).

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 POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY
BACHELOR IN JOURNALISM
CARLOS III UNIVERSITY DE MADRID

In a famous essay, Bobbio makes a praise of temperance that believes it is not a

political virtue, in the sense Schmittian. And he states that "opposed to
temperance, as I understand it, are arrogance, evil, arrogance, which are virtues
or vices, according to various interpretations, the political man. Temperance is
not a political virtue, even the most apolitical of virtues "(Bobbio, 1997, 57). And
later he adds "moderate identify with non-violent, temperance with exercise
rejection of violence against anyone. Under nonpolitical therefore temperance.
Or again, in the world bloodied by the hatred of large (and small) powerful, the
antithesis of politics "(Bobbio, 1997, 65). At the risk of being contrary to Bobbio,
one can argue that there is a cooperative conception of politics that has in
temperance and moderation of its central virtues. Certainly not the confictivist
vision of Schmitt or Machiavelli.

REFERENCIAS

Aristóteles (1985), Ética Nicomáquea, Gredos, Madrid, traducción de Julio Pallí

Bonet.

Aristóteles (1999), Política, Gredos, Madrid, traducción de Manuela García

Valdés.

Del Águila, Rafael (2007), “Los precursores de la idea de democracia: la

democracia ateniense” en Del Águila, Rafael; Vallespín, Fernando y otros, La
democracia en sus textos, Alianza, Madrid, pp. 15-31

Del Águila, Rafael (2003), “La política: el poder y la legitimidad” en Del Águila,
Rafael, Manual de Ciencia Política, Trotta, Madrid, pp. 21-34.

Bilbeny, Norbert (1998), Política sin Estado, Ariel, Barcelona.

Bobbio, Norberto (1997), Elogoa de la templaza y otros escritos morales, Temas de

hoy, Madrid, 1997, traducción de Francisco Javier Ansuategui Roig Y José
Manuel Rodríguez Uribes.

Bobbio, Norbert (1998) “Política” en Bobbio, Norberto; Matteucci, Nicola y

Pasquino, Gianfranco (eds.), Diccionario de Política, vol. 2, Siglo XXI, Madrid, pp.
1215-1225.

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 POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY
BACHELOR IN JOURNALISM
CARLOS III UNIVERSITY DE MADRID

Bobbio, Norberto (2001), Estado, Gobierno y Sociedad. Por una teoría general de la
política, Fondo de Cultura Económica, México, traducción de José Fernández
Santillán.

Bobbio, Norberto (2005), Teoría general de la política, Trotta, Madrid, 2005.

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González del Solar.

Caminal, Miquel (2006), “La política y al Ciencia política” en Caminal Badia,

Miquel (ed.), Manual de Ciencia política, Madrid, pp. 21-41.

Kelsen, Hans (2002), Esencia y valor de la democracia, Comares, Granada,

traducción Rafael Luengo Tapia.

Passerin d'Entreves, Alessandro, "Filosofía de la Política" en Bobbio, Norberto;

Matteucci, Nicola y Pasquino, Gianfranco (eds.), Diccionario de Política, vol. 2,
Siglo XXI, Madrid, pp.649-657

Sartori, Giovanni (1996), La política. Lógica y método en las Ciencias Sociales, Fondo
de Cultura Económica, México, traducción de Marcos Lara.

Schmitt, Carl (2002,), El concepto de lo político, Struhart & Cía, Buenos Aires,
traducción de Francisco Javier Conde.

Warren, Mark E. “¿Qué es la política?” en Arteta, Aurelio; García Guitián,

Elena; Máiz, Ramón (eds.), Teoría política: poder, moral, democracia, Alianza, 2003
pp. 21-48.

Viver Pi-Sunyer, Carles (1994), Constitución, Vicens Vives, Barcelona.

Spanish versión: http://ocw.uc3m.es/filosofia-del-derecho/filosofia-politica