1)

A one-way hash function is a mathematical function that converts a variable-length text input to
a fixed-length binary sequence. It's sometimes referred to as a message digest, fingerprint, or
compression function. Furthermore, a one-way hash function is designed in such a manner that
it is difficult to reverse the process, that is, to discover a string that hashes to a given value
(hence the name one-way.) It's also tough to find two texts that have the same hash result when
a solid hash algorithm is used. All modern hash algorithms generate hash values of 128 bits or
more. Even minor changes in the input text should cause a considerable change in the hash
value. Even if only one bit in the input text is flipped, at least half of the bits in the hash value
will flip as well. This is known as the avalanche effect. Because creating a hashed document. As a
result, a one-way hash function is a basic notion in public-key cryptography. When producing a
digital signature, we no longer need to encrypt the entire document with the sender's private
key. It is sufficient to encrypt the document's hash value instead. A one-way hash function is
typically used to establish digital signatures, but it may also be used to store secure passwords,
identify files, and generate message authentication codes (MAC.)

2)

After each user selects a sub secret, the master selects the sub secret chosen by three users.

Each user will act as a leader to create shells for other users, using (2,2) Samir's secret sharing key
approach.

Keys/Users A B C

Ka Ka,b Ka,c

Kb Kb,a Kb,c

Kc Kc,a Kc,b

Shares based on a system of thresholds (2,2)

A and B, for example, will know ka, kb if they work together later. They can also reassemble kc from kc,a
and kc,b.
3)

With the exception of authorised US government agents, the Escrow Encryption Standard is
designed to shield users' communications from third-party decryption. Before a Clipper Chip is
installed in a phone, the government will permanently inscribe a unique serial number and a unique
encryption key on it. The government will keep both of these numbers on file. To reduce the chance
of the file being stolen or otherwise compromised, the chip's unique encryption key will be divided
into two halves, each kept by a different "escrow agent." The escrow agents will have to keep a
watch on the segments and only release them to people who can show they'll be used for legal
intercepts. By reassembling the components of a chip's unique key, the government may decrypt
each Clipper conversation.

4a)

In the same way as a driver's license, passport, or any other ID card authenticates the user or a
person's origin and destination, a digital certificate does the same. As a result, each company must
obtain a digital certificate in order to safeguard their sensitive information and that of their
personnel. A digital certificate encrypts data with an SSL 1024, 2048, or 4096 RSA key that is
extremely difficult to decode, preventing any hacker from gaining access to the data between the
user and the router. The certificate works in the same way as a passport in that it establishes a
government agency in which all nations may put their trust. There are also around 20 well-known
corporate suppliers, including Digital Certificate, Verizon, and others. They issue us a yearly
certificate, which we must renew and put on our website, which houses our secure data and
welcomes our clients. The digital certificate proves that the user is genuine and legitimate, as well as
that the certificate they provide is digitally signed and acknowledged by all sites throughout the
world.

4b)

X.509 certificates are commonly referred to as Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) certificates. The first
X.509 certificates were issued in 1988 by the International Telecommunication Union's
Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) under the X.500 Directory Services Standard. In
1993, Version 2 was launched, and it added two additional fields to help with directory access
control. Version 3 was published in 1996 and specifies the format for certificate extensions.

x509 digital certificates are included in the following products:

The duration of the certificate's validity

The subject's well-known name

As a topic, public key information

Extensions
 5)

Before it expires, a digital certificate might be revoked for two reasons:

AffiliationChanged: This number is supplied if the employee who received the certificate has left the
company.

When the user's information or data changes, such as his or her name, this number is delivered.

6a)
X = 1,2,3,4,5
H(1) = 5(1)^2+6(1)+15 mod 19 = 7
H(2) = 5(2)^2+6(2)+15 mod 19 = 9
H(3) = 5(3)^2+6(3)+15 mod 19 =2
H(4) = 5(4)^2+6(4)+15 mod 19 = 5
H(5) = 5(5)^2+6(5)+15 mod 19 = 18
6b)
(1,7) (3,2) (5,8)
K ={ [7(0-3)(0-5)/(1-3)(1-5)] + [2(0-1)(0-5)/(3-1)(3-5) ]+ [18(0-1)(0-3)/(5-1)(5-3)] }mod 19
={ [7(15)/(8)]+[2(5)/(-4)]+[18(3)/(8)]} mod 19
= [7(15) * inv (8,19)-2(5)* inv(4,19)+18(3) * inv(8,19)]mod 19
= [7(15)(12) – 2(5)(5)+18(3)(12)] mod 19
= [1260-50+648] mod 19
= 15
7a)
(1,4) (3,13) (5,9)
K = {[4(0-3)(0-5)/(1-3)(1-5)]+13[(0-1)(0-5)/(3-1)(3-5)]+9[(0-1)(0-3)/(5-1)(5-3)]} mod 23
= [4(15/8)+13(5/-4)+9(3/8)] mod 23
= [4(15 * inv(8,23)) -13(5*inv(4,23)) +9(3*inv(8,23))] mod 23
= [4(15*3)-13(5*6)+9(3*3)] mod 23
=[ 180-390+81 ] mod 23
=9
7b)
H(x) = [4(x-3)(x-5)/(1-3)(1-5)]+[13(x-1)(x-5)/(3-1)(3-5)]+[9(x-1)(x-3)/(5-1)(5-3)] mod 23
= [4(x-3)(x-5)/8]+[13(x-1)(x-5)/-4]+[9(x-1)(x-3)/8] mod 23
= [4(x-3)(x-5) * inv(8,23)]-[13(x-1)(x-5) * inv(4,23)]+9(x-1)(x-3) * inv(8,23)] mod 23
= [12(x-3)(x-5)-78(x-1)(x-5)+27(x-1)(x-3)] mod 23
= [12(x^2-8x+15)-78(x^2-6x+5)+27(x^2-4x=3)] mod 23
= -39x^2+264x-129 mod 23
= 7x^2+11x+9
x=4
K4=H(4)= 7(4)^2+11(4)+9 mod 23 = 165 mod 23
=4