Highway Research

Journal
Volume : 8 - 1 January - June, 2017
Indian Roads Congress
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 Effect of Temperature on Response of Falling
Weight Deflectometer (FWD)

Dr Praveen Kumar1 Shobhit Tiwari2 Nikhil Saboo3

ABSTRACT
The Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) is an excellent device for evaluating the structural
capacity of pavements in service for rehabilitation designs. Because the FWD test is easy to operate
and simulates traffic loading quite well, many state highway agencies utilize it widely for assessing
pavement conditions.
This paper gives information regarding the effect of temperature on the deflection values obtained
at the sensors using FWD. Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) was used to analyze 12 different
locations at IIT Roorkee. Measurements were taken in different months to simulate the effect of
temperature on deflection values. Dynamic loading was used to replicate the physical significance
of a moving vehicle. For all the test locations, deflections at first two sensors near the load cell
were found to be significantly affected by temperature. Variations were found to be less for sensors
3,4,5,6 and 7. End sensors were not affected by temperature. In some cases deflections obtained at
the last two sensors were lower at higher temperature, indicating that they need not be corrected
for standard temperature, rather should be corrected for monsoon.

1. INTRODUCTION axle (usually 40 kN) [4]. The magnitude of the

Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) is a load, duration and area of loading are adjusted
highly accurate Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) accordingly. As the load is applied instantaneous
device which is used for structural evaluation of deflections on the road surface are obtained and
pavements. It imparts dynamic load on pavements are sensed by the geophones stationed at a number
and obtains deflections of different layers of of points on the road surface at different distances
pavement using data acquisition software. It radially outward from the center of the falling
also has temperature sensors which helps in weight. These deflections are acquired by data
measurement of air and pavement surface acquisition software and the shape of deflection
temperature. Deflections obtained are used to find bowl is obtained. Fig. 1 presents a schematic
in-situ material properties of different layers of diagram of a FWD.
the pavement which give accurate condition of the
layers of pavement which helps in calculation of
remaining service life and overlay [2].
1.1 Operating Principle of FWD
Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) test works
on the principle of applying a dynamic load whose
magnitude is similar to that applied by a standard Fig. 1 Operating Principle of FWD
1
Professor, E-mail: pkaerfce@iitr.ac.in
2
M Tech Student, E-mail: shobhit0611@gmail.com Dept. of Civil Engineering, IIT Roorkee, India,
3
Research Scholar, E-mail: niks.iitkgp88@gmail.com

Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017 1

 Dr. Kumar, Tiwari & Saboo on
Effect of Temperature on Response of Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD)
Deflection bowl obtained can be used to analyze
the condition of pavement [4]. The outer
deflections away from the center give the
information regarding the stiffness of subgrade
layer of the pavement. As we go towards the center
where the load is applied, we get the information
regarding the stiffness of upper layers and
deflection sensor close to the center gives the
stiffness of the bituminous layer. Shape of the
bowl also helps in determining the weak layers in
the pavement. A broad bowl with little curvature
suggests that that the upper layers of the pavement
are stiffer w.r.t to the subgrade. A bowl with the
same maximum deflection but high curvature
around the loading plate indicates that the upper
layers are weaker with respect to the subgrade.
After weaker layer is identified requisite measures
can be adopted for the same.
Fig. 2 Deflection Bowl
1.2 Testing Equipment
Testing equipment used for this purpose was
GEOTRAN FWD. It is mounted on vehicle
itself. It is highly convenient to operate on
heavily trafficked highways. It is capable of
producing impulse load up to 500 kN. All
the operations are automated. Due to its high
mobility the equipment can be taken to long
distances. Loading plate has a diameter of
300 mm with reinforced rubber plate. It has
seven geophones for measuring surface deflection.
It has two temperature sensors for air temperature
and surface temperature. It has a laptop with
DC4000S High speed data Acquisition System,
acquiring data of geophones, load cell and
temperature.
2 Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017
Fig. 3 Geotran Fwd
2. FIELDWORK AND ANALYSIS
Bituminous layer is susceptible to changes in
temperature therefore it is important to analyze
the behavior of bituminous material in different
temperatures so that the effect can be understood
and information obtained can be used in pavement
design [1].
For analyzing the effect of temperature on
pavement layers FWD test was conducted on 12
locations in IIT Roorkee campus in the months of
January, March and May so that sufficient change
in temperature can be observed.
FWD was calibrated and dynamic load was applied
3 times at each location in different months.
Average reading of the 3 set data was considered as
deflection data for the location at the dynamic load
applied [3]. Deflection readings were then adjusted
to a standard load of 40 kN so that variation can
be understood with different temperatures for
the same dynamic load applied. IIT Roorkee
road sections were considered because there is
no commercial vehicle traffic on these roads so
changes in deflection values will only be due to
temperature and will not be affected by traffic
load. Readings were taken at all the locations and
behavior of different layers of the pavement with
temperature was understood by plotting graphs
between deflections values obtained at different
sensors in different months. Also graphs were
plotted showing individual variation of deflection
at a particular sensor with change in temperature.
As understood from the deflection bowl, sensor 1
and 2 represent the behavior of bituminous layers
and as we move away from load cell other sensors
represent behavior of lower layers. Last two sensors
represent the behavior of subgrade layer.
 Dr. Kumar, Tiwari & Saboo on
Effect of Temperature on Response of Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD)

Table 1 Deflections Data of Different Months at Location 1

MONTH SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR ºC

1 (mm) 2 (mm) 3 (mm) 4 (mm) 5 (mm) 6 (mm) 7 (mm)
JANUARY 0.246 0.1052 0.0569 0.0311 0.0247 0.02625 0.0213 23.8
MARCH 0.347529 0.165019 0.108238 0.044867 0.03929 0.023828 0.02 27.9
MAY 0.373636 0.217576 0.10303 0.05303 0.036364 0.031515 0.027576 30.1

Fig. 4 Graph between Deflections at Sensors in Fig. 5 Graph between Deflection at Sensors for
different Months at Location 1 different Temperatures at Location 1
Table 2 Deflections Data of different Months at Location 2

MONTH SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR ºC

1 (mm) 2 (mm) 3 (mm) 4 (mm) 5 (mm) 6 (mm) 7 (mm)
JANUARY 0.1909 0.154 0.1184 0.071 0.0457 0.0432 0.0293 24.1
MARCH 0.28 0.192199 0.122145 0.098024 0.048499 0.038 0.03 28.4
MAY 0.309717 0.198394 0.111031 0.061943 0.036523 0.017823 0.034186 29.9

Fig. 6 Graph between Deflections at Sensors in Fig. 7 Graph between Deflection at Sensors at
different Months at Location 2 different Temperatures at Location 2

Table 3 Deflections Data of different Months at Location 3

MONTH SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR ºC

1 (mm) 2 (mm) 3 (mm) 4 (mm) 5 (mm) 6 (mm) 7 (mm)
JANUARY 0.260528 0.15981 0.095934 0.087321 0.035885 0.03134 0.02512 24.3
MARCH 0.33578 0.204893 0.112844 0.067584 0.052905 0.02844 0.025994 28.3
MAY 0.559936 0.312179 0.213 0.092628 0.072756 0.051603 0.04391 30.6

Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017 3

 Dr. Kumar, Tiwari & Saboo on
Effect of Temperature on Response of Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD)

Fig. 8 Graph between Deflections at Sensors in Fig. 9 Graph between Deflection at Sensors for
different Months at Location 3 different Temperatures at Location 3
Table 4 Deflections Data of different Months at Location 4

MONTH SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR ºC

1 (mm) 2 (mm) 3 (mm) 4 (mm) 5 (mm) 6 (mm) 7 (mm)
JANUARY 0.175194 0.126467 0.095 0.054042 0.039646 0.033223 0.044518 24.2
MARCH 0.238607 0.164317 0.108763 0.0705 0.062919 0.031586 0.024763 28.6
MAY 0.264592 0.196709 0.113723 0.061572 0.054951 0.027586 0.021627 30.4

Fig. 10 Graph between Deflections at Sensors in Fig. 11 Graph between Deflection at Sensors for
different Months at Location 4 different Temperatures at Location 4
Table 5 Deflections Data of Different Months at Location 5

MONTH SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR7 ºC

1 (mm) 2 (mm) 3 (mm) 4 (mm) 5 (mm) 6 (mm) (mm)
JANUARY 0.398 0.22 0.18 0.0718 0.0446 0.0408 0.033 24.5
MARCH 0.469 0.316 0.23 0.0816 0.0516 0.0496 0.0379 29.2
MAY 0.61 0.359 0.26 0.0918 0.0579 0.0501 0.0399 30.6

Fig. 12 Graph between Deflections at Sensors in Fig. 13 Graph between Deflection at Sensors for
different Months at Location 5 different Temperatures at Location 5

4 Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017

 Dr. Kumar, Tiwari & Saboo on
Effect of Temperature on Response of Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD)

Table 6 Deflections Data of Different Months at Location 6

MONTH SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR ºC

1 (mm) 2 (mm) 3 (mm) 4 (mm) 5 (mm) 6 (mm) 7 (mm)
JANUARY 0.275 0.161 0.088 0.047 0.027 0.029 0.024 22.3
MARCH 0.289504 0.142796 0.083868 0.057216 0.049881 0.037166 0.024696 27.7
MAY 0.353887 0.210903 0.121239 0.068811 0.048555 0.042895 0.037236 30.8

Fig. 14 Graph between Deflections at Sensors in Fig. 15 Graph between Deflection at Sensors for
different Months at Location 6 different Temperatures at Location 6
Table 7 Deflections Data of Different Months at Location 7

MONTH SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR ºC

1 (mm) 2 (mm) 3 (mm) 4 (mm) 5 (mm) 6 (mm) 7 (mm)
JANUARY 0.219 0.17798 0.12183 0.075983 0.055377 0.052544 0.034257 23.5
MARCH 0.43 0.23827 0.097801 0.068313 0.031945 0.023099 0.021133 27.8
MAY 0.66303 0.329394 0.16303 0.09697 0.058182 0.039091 0.048182 30.6

Fig. 16 Graph between Deflections at Sensors in Fig. 17 Graph between Deflection at Sensors for
different Months at Location 7 different Temperatures at Location 7

Table 8 Deflections Data of Different Months at Location 8

MONTH SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR ºC

1 (mm) 2 (mm) 3 (mm) 4 (mm) 5 (mm) 6 (mm) 7 (mm)
JANUARY 0.38099 0.252937 0.165281 0.096106 0.053597 0.041452 0.041716 23.5
MARCH 0.511474 0.301366 0.157846 0.083035 0.057302 0.038997 0.03263 28.1
MAY 0.568333 0.322333 0.169 0.082667 0.051667 0.034 0.035333 30.3

Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017 5

 Dr. Kumar, Tiwari & Saboo on
Effect of Temperature on Response of Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD)

Fig. 18 Graph between Deflections at Sensors in Fig. 19 Graph between Deflection at Sensors for
different Months at Location 8 different Temperatures at Location 8
Table 9 Deflections Data of Different Months at Location 9

MONTH SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR ºC

1 (mm) 2 (mm) 3 (mm) 4 (mm) 5 (mm) 6 (mm) 7 (mm)
JANUARY 0.4452 0.1667 0.1314 0.0793 0.0476 0.0437 0.02525 23.8
MARCH 0.458162 0.186806 0.110986 0.104751 0.038409 0.030677 0.02943 25.6
MAY 0.513889 0.193889 0.066944 0.041389 0.026667 0.026667 0.01 30.7

Fig. 20 Graph between Deflections at Sensors in Fig. 21 Graph between Deflection at Sensors for
different Months at Location 9 different Temperatures at Location 9
Table 10 Deflections Data of Different Months at Location 10

MONTH SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR ºC

1 (mm) 2 (mm) 3 (mm) 4 (mm) 5 (mm) 6 (mm) 7 (mm)
JANUARY 0.188 0.1326 0.0781 0.04459 0.04 0.035 0.02248 23.8
MARCH 0.272 0.186 0.09787 0.0785 0.037 0.031 0.0176 28.5
MAY 0.316 0.246 0.099 0.0648 0.05 0.0479 0.0207 30.6

Fig. 22 Graph between Deflections at Sensors in Fig. 23 Graph between Deflection at Sensors for
different Months at Location 10 different Temperatures at Location 10

6 Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017

 Dr. Kumar, Tiwari & Saboo on
Effect of Temperature on Response of Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD)

Table 11 Deflections Data of Different Months at Location 11

MONTH SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR ºC

1 (mm) 2 (mm) 3 (mm) 4 (mm) 5 (mm) 6 (mm) 7 (mm)
JANUARY 0.260984 0.197442 0.122215 0.075958 0.045039 0.029945 0.025 24.2
MARCH 0.314587 0.213011 0.0.1385 0.083053 0.049892 0.034058 0.025693 28.7
MAY 0.3265 0.236 0.146 0.0865 0.034 0.0286 0.024 30.4

Fig. 24 Graph between Deflections at Sensors in Fig. 25 Graph between Deflection at Sensors for
different Months at Location 11 different Temperatures at Location 11

Table 12 Deflections Data of Different Months at Location 12

MONTH SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR SENSOR ºC

1 (mm) 2 (mm) 3 (mm) 4 (mm) 5 (mm) 6 (mm) 7 (mm)
JANUARY 0.371577 0.159676 0.09405 0.051531 0.072328 0.0513 0.027961 23.5
MARCH 0.487 0.256 0.0978 0.0679 0.0584 0.0795 0.0647 29.3
MAY 0.504015 0.298911 0.156451 0.078544 0.053422 0.045155 0.032117 30.4

Fig. 26 Graph between Deflections at Sensors in
different Months at Location 12
3. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION
FOR FURTHER STUDY
The results prove that bituminous layers are
susceptibility to temperature. Deflections in
bituminous layers increases due to increase in
temperature. The deflection values at different
sensors are varying with temperature difference.
It shows that the effect is different at different
distances from the load. A Logarithmic distribution
was found best to explain the behavior with change
Fig. 27 Graph between Deflection at Sensors at
different Temperatures at Location 12
in temperature. Granular layer and subgrade are
not much affected by temperature.
While calculating Fatigue Life and Rutting Life,
temperature is a significant factor and it should
be decided after taking the experimental results
from various studies in India. It is recommended
to conduct similar studies in different parts of the
country having varying temperatures and arrive
the optimum values of Temperature Correction
Factors and other weathering effects.

Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017 7

 Dr. Kumar, Tiwari & Saboo on
Effect of Temperature on Response of Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD)

REFERENCES 3. IRC:115-2014. Guidelines for Structural

1 AASHTO. (1993). Guide for Design of Evaluation and Strengthening of Flexible Road
Pavement Structures. American Association of Pavements Using Falling Weight Deflectometer
State Highway and Transportation Officials, (FWD) Technique. Indian Roads Congress, New
Washington, D.C. Delhi, India.

2. IRC:37-2012. Guidelines for Design of Flexible 4. Ministry of Road Transport & Highways
Pavements, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, (MORT&H) – 2013, Specifications For Road and
India. Bridge Works (Fifth Revision).

8 Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017

 Laboratory Characterization of Modified and
Unmodified Asphalt Emulsion Residue Using
Dynamic Shear Rheometer

Abhishek1 Dharamveer Singh2

ABSTRACT
Selection of test methods to characterize performance of emulsion residue is critical to ensure long
last pavements. The present study was undertaken to evaluate performance of emulsion residue
obtained from modified and unmodified emulsions using the tests recommended in different
standards: IS8887, AASHTO M208 and AASHTO M316. In addition, advance rheological
performance testson emulsion residue was obtained using Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR). Two
different emulsions, polymer modified emulsion, CSS-1P and an unmodified emulsion CSS-1 were
selected in this study. The residue was recovered using oven evaporative method in accordance
with IS 8887:2004. The following conventional tests: penetration, softening point, ductility, and
elastic recovery were conducted on both modified and unmodified emulsions residue. Further,
force ratio test was conducted for residue obtained from CSS-1P. The advance rheological tests
include estimation of shear modulus and phase angle, rutting performance using multiple stress
creep recovery (MSCR), aggregate retention ability using strain sweep test. The high temperature
performance grade of emulsion residuewas obtained using Superpave rutting parameter. The
results show that softening point test may be introduced for unmodified emulsion. In addition,
force ductility test can be a good tool to characterize modified emulsion residue, and it may be
considered for Indian condition to better control the quality of emulsion. The high temperature
performance grade of emulsion residue obtained from CSS-1 and CSS-1P was found to be 76oC
and 94oC, respectively. The non-recoverable creep compliance (Jnr) for CSS-1 and CSS-1P
was found to be 4 kPa-1 and 1.85 kPa-1, respectively, indicating that CSS-1P had a higher rut
resistant ability compared to CSS-1. The MSCR test can be quite informative for modified and
unmodified emulsion residues. The strain sweep test showed that CSS-1P had high ability to retain
aggregates.

1. INTRODUCTION which makes it cost effective and environmental

Asphalt emulsions are used for various road
construction activities ranging from tack coat,
prime coat, cold mix recycling, and micro-
surfacing. Emulsion is produced by mixing asphalt
and water along with a surfactant agent in a high
shear colloidal mill (James.A, 2006).Application
of emulsion does not require any prior heating
friendly product. Furthermore, use of emulsion
is preferred in remote and on high attitude areas
where setting up a production plant for asphalt
mixes is difficult. Therefore, considering cost,
environment, and application benefits, emulsions
are given preference. However, there are certain
challenges to control quality of emulsion

1
M.Tech. Student, E-mail: abhishekalive@hotmail.com Department of Civil Engineering,
2
Assistant Professor, E-mail: dvsingh@iitb.ac.in Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, India

Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017 9

 Abhishek & Dharamveer Singh on
Laboratory Characterization of Modified and Unmodified Asphalt Emulsion Residue Using Dynamic Shear Rheometer

and selection of test methods to characterize Kadrmas (2007) used penetration test to compare
performance of emulsion residue for a long various evaporative recovery procedures followed
last pavement. Gueit et al., (2007) reported that in United State and found no trend between them,
performance of emulsion is governed by its therefore, several DOTs included additional tests
residue. Indian standard for emulsion, IS8887, like low-temperature ductility, elastic recovery,
recommends recovery of emulsion residue by force-ductility, and other tests with the aim to
heating it at 163oC for 3 hours. The performance target specific polymers (Hazlett, 2007). In recent
of residue obtained from unmodified emulsion is
time, there has been a shift from traditional
evaluated by conducting penetration, ductility, and
tests to performance based tests like complex
solubility in trichloroethylene (Table 1). Similar
modulus (G*) and phase angle (δ) test, Multiple
tests are also recommended by ASTM D2397
Stress Creep Recovery (MSCR), strain sweep
and AASHTO M208 for residue obtained from
unmodified emulsion (Table 1). Similarly, as per and other advance rheological tests to evaluate
IS8887 method, performance of residue obtained performance of emulsion residues (Hazlett, 2007).
from modified (latex or polymer) emulsion is MSCR test has been found capable of predicting
determined by conducting, penetration, ductility, residue’s rutting behavior (King et al., 2007) and
softening point, elastic recovery, and solubility strain sweep test has shown promising capability
in trichloroethylene tests (Table 2). However, in determining aggregate retention property of
AASHTO M316 includes few additional tests: residues (Vijay kumar et al., 2013). Citing these
force ratio and polymer solid content, and excludes benefits researchers recommends DSR for
softening point test (Table 2). Thus, one of the aims characterization of emulsion residue .Further they
of the present study was to evaluate performance insists that performance based grading should be
of emulsion residue obtained from modified adopted for emulsion residues, like it is applicable
and unmodified emulsions using test methods for asphalt binders (Hoyt et al., 2010; Hanz
recommended in IS8887, AASHTO M208 and et al., 2009; Hazlett, 2007). Shuler (2011) have
AASHTO M316.
recommended Surface Performance Grading
Table 1 Recommended Tests on Unmodified (SPG) system for recovered emulsion residues.
Cationic Emulsion
Further, a project lead by Texas A & M University
S. No. Tests IS ASTM AASHTO: (TAMU) has developed performance based
8887 D2397 M208 specifications for chip seal binders (Hoyt et al.,
2010).Even though DSR has been suggested
1 Ductility   
for residue characterization, cost require for its
2 Penetration   
installation can be a major obstacle, especially
3 Solubility in    in developing country like India. Thus, a force
trichloroethylene
ductility test was introduced which can be a
Table 2 Recommended Tests on Modified Emulsion new and alternative way for characterization of
S. No. Tests IRC: SP:100 AASHTO: emulsion residue (AASHTO : M316).
M316
Thus the present study was undertaken to (1)
1 Penetration  
characterize modified and unmodified emulsion
2 Ductility  
residues using conventional tests recommended
3 Softening point  ×
various international standard, as listed in
4 Elastic recovery   Table 1 and Table 2 and (2) evaluate rheological
5 Solubility in   performance of emulsion residue using DSR by
trichloroethylene
conducting shear modulus and phase angle, rutting
6 Polymer solid content × 
performance MSCR, aggregate retention ability
7 Force ratio ×  using strain sweep test.

10 Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017

 Abhishek & Dharamveer Singh on
Laboratory Characterization of Modified and Unmodified Asphalt Emulsion Residue Using Dynamic Shear Rheometer

2. METHODOLOGY AND used for characterization of unmodified as well as

EXPERIMENTAL PLAN for modified emulsion residue (Tables 1 and 2).
2.1 Collection of Emulsions In the present study ductility of emulsion residue
was measured at 25 ± 0.5ºC with rate of loading of
In this study a polymer modified emulsion, CSS-1P
5 cm/min ± 5.0 % as per IS 1208:1978.
and an unmodified emulsion CSS-1 were collected
and stored in plastic containers away from any 2.3.1.2 Softening point
direct exposure to heat or sunlight. Both the Emulsion residue is viscoelastic by nature and
emulsions were slow setting types. The CSS-1 type on heating they gradually become softer and less
emulsion is generally used in tack coat application viscous. Softening point determines stiffness
while CSS-1P is used for micro-surfacing. failure at high temperature and susceptibility of
2.2 Recovery of Emulsion Residue binder to permanent deformation (ASTM D36).
It is a recommended test for polymer emulsion
In the present study, oven evaporative method
residue (Table 2), however, this test is not been
was used in accordance with IS 8887:2004. In this
considered for unmodified emulsion residue by
method, 50 grams of emulsion sample is taken in a
any of the standards (Table 1). In the present study,
glass beaker of 1000 ml capacity. At first weight of
softening point of emulsion residues obtained
empty glass beaker along with glass rod are taken
from both modified and unmodified emulsion was
and then emulsion sample is poured into it. The
estimated in accordance with IS1205. Fig. 1.
emulsion sample is heated at 163ºC for 2 hours in a
forced air draft oven. At the end of 2 hours, sample
is stirred with a glass rod to bring the homogeneity
in heating of sample and then it is heated again
at 163ºC for another 1 hour. This method gives
sufficient amount of residue to conduct various
tests along with high repeatability and consistency
in percentage of residue obtained.
2.3 Experimental Plan
Figure 1 shows the flowchart of experimental
program adopted in this study. The emulsion
residue obtained from two types of emulsion was
tested for conventional and advanced tests. The
conventional test include: penetration, softening Fig. 1 Test Matrix
point, ductility, and elastic recovery. In addition
2.3.1.3 Elastic recovery
to, a force ratio test was conducted for polymer
modified residue. The advance rheological tests Elastic recovery indicates capability of a binder to
were conducted using DSR on a sample of diameter recover back to original shape after unloading. It is
25 mm with1 mm thickness. The tests include a recommended test for polymer emulsion residue
shear modulus and phase angle, MSCR and strain (Table 2), however, this test is not been considered
sweep test for residue obtained from both modified for unmodified emulsion residue by any of the
and unmodified emulsions. A minimum of three standards (Table 1). A plausible reason for it,
samples were used for each of the above mentioned could be as unmodified emulsion are manufactured
tests. from unmodified type of base binder. In the present
study, elastic recovery was determined for both
2.3.1 Conventional Tests
modified and unmodified emulsions residue in
2.3.1.1 Ductility accordance with ASTM D6084. In this test, a mold
It is one of the widely used conventional tests is pulled to a distance of 10 ± 0.25 cm, then it is cut
recommended in international codes like ASTM into two halves. Thereafter it is allowed to recover
and AASHTO. Ductility is an indicator of tensile the shape in 60 minutes. The recovered length is
property of asphalt binder (ASTM D113). It can be reported as percentage elastic recovery. The test

Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017 11

 Abhishek & Dharamveer Singh on
Laboratory Characterization of Modified and Unmodified Asphalt Emulsion Residue Using Dynamic Shear Rheometer

temperature requirement is of 25 ± 0.5ºC and rate higher recovery indicates presence of polymer.
of pull is 5 cm/min ± 5%. The rut resistant property is governed by Jnr
2.3.1.4 Penetration (King et al., 2007).A better rut resistant binder
will have a lower Jnr value and higher R. In the
It is one of the conventional tests which has been
present study, MSCR test was conducted at 64ºC
recommended by various international standards
on emulsion residue obtained from modified and
for characterization of modified and unmodified
unmodified emulsions. A residue performance can
emulsion residues (Tables 1 and 2). The penetration
be ranked based on Jnr and R values.
value a binder is an indicator of its consistency
(ASTM D5). In the present study, the penetration 2.3.2.3 Strain sweep
tests were conducted on the emulsion residues in Vijaykumar et al., (2013)evaluated aggregate
accordance to IS 1203:1978, at 25ºC. retention property of emulsion residue (i.e.,
2.3.1.5 Force ductility raveling failure) using strain sweep test. In
The force ductility test is recommended by this study, a strain sweep test was performed
AASHTO: M316 for polymer modified emulsion by varying a strain level from 1% to 80% in
residue (Table 1). This test is conducted at the 150 seconds at 64ºC. The angular frequency of
temperature of 4ºC ± 1ºC.In this test a bitumen test was kept constant at 10 rad/s. The test was
sample is pulled at a rate of 5 cm/min ± 5.0 %. The conducted for emulsion residue obtained from
load and deformation are measured using a load modified and unmodified emulsions.
cell. The measured load and deformation are used Table 3 Summary of Test Results
to estimate maximum stress which a binder can
Parameters CSS-1 CSS-1P Standard
resist. In the present study the force ductility test
was conducted at 5ºC. Ductility value (cm) 46 59 ASTM D 11
Softening point (oC) 43.7 58.3 ASTM D 36
2.3.2 Rheological Tests
Elastic recovery (%) 6.8 16.9 ASTM D6084
2.3.2.1 Complex shear modulus and phase angle
Penetration value 69.7 46 ASTM D5
The complex shear modulus (G*) represents
stiffness of a binder. The phase angle (δ) is a lag Force ratio NA 0.13 AASHTO:
M316
between applied shear stress and resulting strain. A
Shear modulus (G*) 4.53 5.11 ASTM D7175
higher value of δ indicates that a binder is viscous (kPa)
and vice versa. In this test, a 25 mm diameter and
Phase angle (δ) 83.1o 77.6o ASTM D7175
1 mm thickness sample was subjected to a strain of
12% at frequency of 10 rad/s. In the present study, Performance grading SPG70 SPG88 ASTM D7175
G* and δ values for modified an unmodified Jnr – MSCR (kPa-1) 4 1.85 ASTMD 7405
emulsion residues were determined at multiple R - MSCR (%) 6.94 -0.69 ASTMD 7405
temperature starting at 58ºC and ending at
LVE Range (%) 62 80 ASTM D717
temperature when the G*/Sin δ value is less than
1. This G*/Sin δ is needed to estimate Surface 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Performance Grading (SPG) of binders (Hoyt et
The test parameter which were evaluated in this
al., 2010).
study has been summarized in Table 3. In the
2.3.2.2 Multiple stress creep recovery (MSCR) succeeding parts, the observation made from each
The rutting resistant of a binder can be evaluated test results has been discussed.
using multiple stress creep recovery test (MSCR). 3.1 Conventional Tests
In this test, a binder sample is loaded for 1 second
3.1.1 Ductility
and then allowed to recover for next 9 seconds.
The test is performed at two stress levels 100 Pa The Fig. 2 shows ductility value for emulsion
and 3200 Pa. In this test two parameters non- residue recovered from CSS-1P and CSS-1
recoverable compliance (Jnr) and percent elastic emulsions. The ductility value was found to be
recovery (R) are estimated. A binder showing a approximately 59 cm and 46 cm for CSS-1P and

12 Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017

 Abhishek & Dharamveer Singh on
Laboratory Characterization of Modified and Unmodified Asphalt Emulsion Residue Using Dynamic Shear Rheometer
CSS-1 emulsion, respectively. As expected, residue
from polymer modified emulsion had a high value
of ductility. As per IS 8887:2004, a minimum
ductility value should be 50 cm. The CSS-1P
satisfies the minimum ductility requirement,
however, it did not match residue of CSS-1.
Fig. 2 Ductility Test Result
3.1.2 Softening Point
The Fig. 3 shows softening point value for
residue obtained from CSS-1P and CSS-1
emulsions. Softening point of CSS-1P was
found to be higher (58.3ºC) than that of CSS-1
(43.7ºC). The CSS-1P was a polymer modified
emulsion, therefore, it had ability to sustain higher
temperature and hence a high softening point
value. The CSS-1P satisfies a minimum value
of softening point as 57ºC as per IRC:SP:100.
A significant difference was observed between
softening point of CSS-1 and CSS-1P, and it could
be concluded that this test is also sensitive to
predict whether an emulsion is modified or
unmodified. Currently, this test is not being
considered for unmodified emulsion residue
(Table 1). Inclusion of this test can be helpful to
characterize unmodified emulsion residue.
Fig. 3 Softening Point Test Result
Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017 13
3.1.3 Elastic Recovery
This test was performed on both modified and
unmodified emulsions. However, this test is only
recommended for modified emulsion residues
(Table 2). As expected, the result obtained showed
a higher recovery for CSS-1P than CSS-1 (Fig.
4). Their typical values of elastic recovery were
found to be 16.9% and 6.8% for CSS-1P and
CSS-1 emulsion residue, respectively. The elastic
recovery for CSS-1P was found to be lower
than minimum desired value of 50% as per
IRC:SP:100-2014. This can be attributed to
damage of polymer network due to exposure to
higher temperature (163ºC) in oven recovery
method. Interestingly, unmodified type CSS-1 also
shown little recovery. This could be due to high
temperature exposure which could be resulting
into stiffening of residue. Elastic recovery test is
sensitive enough to differentiate between modified
and unmodified emulsion residue.
Fig. 4 Elastic Recovery Test Result
3.1.4 Penetration
The Figure 5 shows plot of penetration value for
emulsion residue. The penetration value obtained
for CSS-1P and CSS-1 were estimated to be
46 and 69.7 respectively. The penetration value for
modified emulsion residue should lie in range of
40-100 (IRC:SP:100-2014), while it should be in
range of 60-350 for unmodified emulsion residue
(IS 8887:2004). The penetration value for CSS-
1P was found to be lower than CSS-1, indicating
that polymer structure can offer higher resistance
to penetration. This test also proves to be able to
differentiate between modified and unmodified
emulsions residue.
 Abhishek & Dharamveer Singh on
Laboratory Characterization of Modified and Unmodified Asphalt Emulsion Residue Using Dynamic Shear Rheometer

3.2 Advance Rheological Tests

3.2.1 Shear Modulus (G*) and Phase Angle (δ)
Fig. 7 shows shear modulus (G*) and phase angle
(δ) value for emulsion residue. The G* of CSS-1P
and CSS-1 emulsion residue was found to be 5.11
kPa and 4.53 kPa, respectively. A higher stiffness
of CSS-1P can be attributed due to presence of
polymer structure. Salomon et al. (2008) reported
that a higher shear modulus value indicates
stiffening of binder during recovery procedure.
The δ value for residue recovered from CSS-1
Fig. 5 Penetration Test Result than CSS-1P was found to be 83.1º and 77.6º,
3.1.5 Force Ductility respectively. A lower value of phase angle was
obtained for CSS-1P which can be due to presence
Force ductility test is based on the theory that an
of polymer structure. The emulsion residue
asphalt must be able to relax under the applied
grading was performed based on G*/Sin δ
load, but possess enough tenacity to maintain a
limiting to 1. The value of G*/Sin δ < 1 was found
proper matrix (Anderson & Wiley, 1976). The
at temperature of 76ºC and 94ºC for CSS-1 and
Fig. 6 shows a load and deformation plot obtained
CSS-1P emulsion residues types respectively
from force ductility test for CSS-1P emulsion
(Fig. 8). Therefore, CSS-1P and CSS-1 can be
residue. It can be seen that two peaks are visible
graded as SPG-88 and SPG-70 respectively. A
in force and displacement curve. The initial peak
similar grading has also been reported by Hoyt et
could be due to binder properties while later one
al. (2010).
depicts the polymer network under the pulling
force (AASHTO M316). The maximum load value
obtained for peak 1 (f1) and peak 2 (f2) was found
to be approximately 113.72 N and 14.72 N,
respectively. AASHTO M316 recommends a
minimum ratio of f2 to f1 as 0.30 for rapid setting
emulsion. In the present study, a force ratio of
0.13 was estimated for CSS-1P. Since the selected
emulsions in the present study was a slow setting,
a lower force ratio was observed, and however,
additional research is required to confirm this
trend. Fig. 7(a) Shear Modulus

Fig. 6 Force - Ductility relation for CSS-1P Fig. 7(b) Phase Angle

14 Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017

 Abhishek & Dharamveer Singh on
Laboratory Characterization of Modified and Unmodified Asphalt Emulsion Residue Using Dynamic Shear Rheometer

Fig. 9 (b) Recovery

3.2.3 Strain Sweep
The strain sweep test was performed by varying
Fig. 8 Binder Grading strain level from 1% to 80%. The test is used
3.2.2 Multiple Stress Creep Recovery to determine linear visco-elastic (LVE) range
of emulsion residues which is typically a 10%
The MSCR test was performed at 64ºC subjecting
decrease in initial G* value. This decrease in
100 Pa and 3200 Pa stress levels with loading
G* value demarcates the initiation of failure of
period of 1 second and rest period of 9 seconds in
binder i.e., it begins to lose its aggregate retention
accordance with ASTM D7405. Qi et al., (2004)
property (Hanz et al., 2009). The Figure 10 shows
reported that Jnr at 3200 Pa have higher correlation
result obtained from strain sweep test. The LVE
to rutting performance than Jnr at 100 Pa. Thus
for CSS-1 and CSS-1P residue was found to
in this study, Jnr value at 3200 Pa was compared
be 62% and 80%, respectively, indicating that
to analyze rutting performance of residue. The
CSS-1P had high ability to retain aggregates.
Fig. 9a & b shows result of MSCR test. The Jnr was
The test can be also used to differentiate between
found to be 4 kPa-1 and 1.85 kPa-1 for CSS-1 and
modified and unmodified type of emulsion.
CSS-1P, respectively, indicating that CSS-1P had
Fig. 10.
higher rut resistant ability compared to CSS-1.
The recovery was found to be 6.94% and -0.69%
for CSS-1P and CSS-1, respectively, showing
negligible recovery for unmodified residue.
However, the recovery observed for modified
emulsion CSS-1P was also low, due to damage
of polymer network at high temperature (163ºC)
exposure during recovery procedure. This test can
be quite informative for modified and unmodified
emulsion residues.
Fig. 10 Strain Sweep Test Result

4. CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be made based on
the results and discussion presented in this paper.
1. The conventional tests like penetration,
ductility, softening point, and elastic recovery
were found to be sensitive enough to
differentiate between modified and
unmodified emulsion residue. The softening
point test may be introduced for unmodified
Fig. 9(a) Non- Recoverable Compliance
emulsion.

Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017 15

 Abhishek & Dharamveer Singh on
Laboratory Characterization of Modified and Unmodified Asphalt Emulsion Residue Using Dynamic Shear Rheometer
2. The force ductility test recommended by
AASHTO M316 can be a good tool to
characterize modified emulsion residue. This
test may be considered for Indian condition
to better control the quality of emulsion.
3. The advanced rheological tests G* and δ
provide vital information. The G* of CSS-
1P and CSS-1 emulsion residue was found
to be 5.11 kPa and 4.53 kPa, respectively.
Similarly, δ value for residue recovered
from CSS-1 than CSS-1P was found to be
83.1o and 77.6o, respectively.
4. The high temperature performance grade of
emulsion residue obtained from CSS-1 and
CSS-1P was found to be SPG-70 and SPG-
88, respectively.
5. The non-recoverable creep compliance (Jnr)
for CSS-1 and CSS-1P was found to be 4 kpa-1
and 1.85 kPa-1, respectively, indicating that
CSS-1P had higher rut resistant ability com-
pared to CSS-1.
6. The LVE for CSS-1 and CSS-1P was found
to be 62% and 80%, respectively, indicat-
ing that CSS-1P had high ability to retain
aggregates.
The present study indicates that inclusion of
additional conventional tests and advanced
rheological tests can enhance quality control
process of modified and unmodified emulsions.
Further, performance based specification be
linked with field observed behavior of pavements
to strengthen the proposed methodology. Also,
different types of emulsions may be tried to
understand application of performance based
specifications.
REFERENCES
1. Anderson, D. I., & M. L.Wiley, (1976). Force
Ductility--An Asphalt Performance Indicator. In  Preservation, (2010): 247-267.
Chemical Abstracts (Vol. 45, No. Proceeding).
2. ASTM International. 2007. Standard Test Method
for Ductility of Bituminous Materials, ASTM D
113-07(2007). West Conshoocken, PA: ASTM.
3. ASTM International. 2013. Standard Test Method for
Elastic Recovery of Asphalt Materials by Ductilometer,
ASTM D6084 (2013).West Conshoocken, PA: ASTM.
4. ASTM International. 2008. Standard Test Method
for Penetration of Bituminous Materials, ASTM
D5-13(2013). West Conshoocken, PA: ASTM.
5. ASTM International. 2008. Standard Test Method for
Residue by Evaporation of Emulsified Asphalt, ASTM
D 6934-08(2008). West Conshoocken, PA: ASTM.
16 Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017
6. ASTM International. 2008. Standard Test Method
for Softening Point of Bitumen (Ring-and-Ball
Apparatus), ASTM D 36-12(2012). West Conshoocken,
PA: ASTM.
7. Gueit, C., M. Robert, and G. Durand. “Characteriza-
tion of the different Phases in the Life Cycle of the
Binder in a Bitumen Emulsion: Recovery Methods.”
Transportation Research E-Circular E-C122 (2007).
8. Hanz, A., Z. Arega, and H. U. Bahia. “Rheological
Evaluation of Emulsion Residues Recovered
Using Newly Proposed Evaporative Techniques.”
Transportation Research Board 88th Annual Meeting.
No. 09-2877. (2009).
9. Hazlett, D. G. “Emulsion Residue Recovery
Techniques: How Do We Get Emulsion Residue
Representative of In Service Binder?.”  Transportation
Research E-Circular E-C122 (2007).
10. Hoyt, D., A. E. Martin, and S. Shuler. “Surface
Performance-Grading System to Grade Chip Seal
Emulsion Residues.” Transportation Research Record:
Journal of the Transportation Research Board  2150.1
(2010): 63-69.
11. IRC:SP:100-2014. Use of Cold Mix Technology in
Construction and Maintenance of Roads Using Bitu-
men Emulsion, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.
12. IRC:SP:81-2008. Tentative Specification for Slurry
Seal and Micro surfacing, Indian Roads Congress,
New Delhi.
13. IS:1205-1978. Determination of Softening Point,
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
14. IS:8887-2004. Bitumen Emulsion for Roads (Cationic
Type) – Specification, Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi.
15. IS:1203-1978 Determination of Penetration, Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi.
16. IS:1208-1978 Determination of Ductility, Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi.
17. James, A., “Overview of asphalt emulsion.” In
Transportation Research Circular E-C102: Asphalt
Emulsion Technology, Transportation Research
Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C.,
(2006):1-15.
18. King, G., H. King, L. Galehouse, M. Voth, L.
Lewandowski, C. Lubbers, and P. Morris. “Field
Validation of Performance-Based Polymer-Modified
Emulsion Residue Tests: The FLH Study.” Proc. 2010
First International Conference on Pavement
19. Qi, X., T. Mitchell, K. Stuart, J. Youtcheff, K. Petros, T.
Harman, and G. Al-Khateeb. “Strain responses in ALF
Modified-Binder Pavement Study.” 2nd International
Conference on Accelerated Pavement Testing. (2004).
20. Salomon, D., M. Thompson, G. Durand, C. Gueit, C.
Deneuvillers, M. Robert, and A. Lebon. “Comparison
of Rheological Properties for Recovered Residue
from Emulsified Asphalt obtained by Three
Recovery Procedures.” International Symposium on
Asphalt Emulsion Technology (ISAET), Virginia.
21. Shuler, S. (2011).  Manual for Emulsion-Based
Chip Seals for Pavement Preservation  (Vol. 680).
Transportation Research Board.
 A Mechanistic Analysis of Bonded Concrete Pavements

Swarna Suryateja1 Dr. M. A. Reddy2 Dr. B. B. Pandey3

ABSTRACT
The current practice in design and construction of concrete pavement in India involves placement
of Pavement Quality Concrete (PQC) over Dry Lean Concrete (DLC) with a debonding layer of
the125-micron plastic sheet in between DLC and PQC to eliminate possible reflection cracks from
DLC to PQC. Concrete pavements can also be constructed when PQC is laid over another Layer of
Concrete (LC) made of recycled concrete/marginal aggregates by two pavers or a specially made
single paver when both the layers are laid one after the other when still wet. PQC gets bonded to
the lower concrete layers. This type of pavement is known as two lift concrete pavement. Joints
have to be provided with deep saw cut in the bonded pavement to avoid random cracking. This will
result in a thinner concrete pavement resulting in lower construction cost. IRC:58-2015 gives an
approximate method for design of bonded concrete pavements using equivalent flexural stiffness
method. But the main drawback is that stresses in the bottom of PQC and DLC as well as at the
interface cannot be computed accurately under the load and temperature gradient acting at the
same time. This paper presents a method of analysis of stresses in two layer bonded concrete
pavements since ready-made solutions are not available for pavement design. Bonded concrete
pavements can offer a low-cost solution for an equally strong conventional concrete pavement.
1. INTRODUCTION of stresses and the pavement thickness can be
The pavement design guidelines on rigid reduced. There would be a reduction in the time
pavements commonly recommend placing of and cost of construction of the concrete pavement,
Pavement Quality Concrete (PQC) over Dry Lean but, there is no ready-made solution available
Concrete (DLC) with 125 microns thick polythene for the analysis of such monolithic pavements.
sheet over DLC. The debonding layer prevents IRC:58-2015 guidelines do give an approximate
propagation of cracks formed due to shrinkage and method of design of 2LCP but stresses in PQC and
construction traffic to the PQC slab. The two layers DLC cannot be computed precisely for wheel and
act independently in resisting the applied loads due thermal loads, for the examination of the safety
to the plastic sheet and complete bending strength of both layers. Therefore, a thorough analysis of
of both the layers are not utilized effectively. If the monolithic pavements is needed for the accurate
polythene sheet is eliminated between PQC and the design of cost-effective pavements.
DLC layer, and placing the concrete one over the Two-lift Concrete Paving (2LCP) involves placing
other (“fresh-on-fresh” or “wet-on-wet”) i.e., two two layers of concrete (“fresh-on- fresh” or “wet-
lift concrete pavements (2LCP), it will result in a on-wet”). The bottom layer of Lean concrete (LC)
monolithic action, which will result in lowering is generally thicker and consists of lower quality
1
Masters Student, E-mail: ssurya.547@gmail.com;
Department of Civil Engineering,
2
Associate Professor, E-mail: manreddy@iitkgp.ac.in;
3
Indian Institute of Technology
Advisor, Sponsored Research and Industrial Consultancy Kharagpur, West Bengal, India
and former Professor, E-mail: bbpandey40@gmail.com;

Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017 17

 Suryateja, Dr. Reddy & Dr. Pandey on
A Mechanistic Analysis of Bonded Concrete Pavements
aggregate, in many cases recycled aggregate or
local aggregates that are not suitable to use in
surface courses. 2LCP will reduce material costs
by being able to consume more local materials
including low-quality aggregates, recycled
concrete aggregate (RCA), and Reclaimed Asphalt
Pavement (RAP) that would not be suitable for
wearing surface.
Maximum flexural stresses need to be determined
when wheel load acts on a curled slab both during
the day as well as during the night hours for design
of cost-effective pavements.
2. Literature Review
2.1 Two Lift Concrete Pavements Construction
Aspects
The existing 102-year-old bonded concrete
pavement at San Antonio, Texas in the USA
(Suryateja et al., 2016) in which two-lift
construction had good quality aggregates in the
upper 50 mm and softer aggregates in the lower
150 mm. In such a construction it is necessary
to have two slip form pavers separated by about
150 m to lay lean concrete and Pavement Quality
Concrete (PQC) so that full bonding is ensured
when both the layers are still wet. Joint cutting is
to be done at 1/3rd depth of the total thickness of
the pavement to prevent random cracking. Single
slip form pavers are also available for such
construction. Dowel bars are to be placed in the
lower layer for heavy traffic before laying of the thin
surface layer of the pavement quality concrete.
2.2 Performance
Greene et al., (2011) evaluated a 30-year-old
2LCP three test sections for performance, which
showed that there were no significant differences
in performance between subsections with differing
econocrete strength and 2LCP is a feasible
sustainable pavement alternative with long lasting
service life. A high-quality top lift provides better
durability, skid resistance, better bonding between
the layers and it also reduces the differential
shrinkage problem.
Brand et al.,(2013) showed that the bottom lift
with recycled aggregate had a higher effective
failure stress than the full-depth conventional
concrete slab even the fracture energy of recycled
concrete and conventional concrete were proven to
18 Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017
statistically similar. 2LCP with the use of Fractured
Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (FRAP) concrete
appears to be cheaper than single-lift pavement
with conventional concrete (Rao et al., 2013).
2.3 Environmental
Bentsen et al., (2013) stated that the two-lift paving
is possible and practical. Economic paving sections
can be achieved using econocrete bottom layer.
Cackler (2012) and Taylor, P (2013) presented
the benefits of 2LCP, which includes: (i) low
environmental impact and special environmental
friendly materials can be used such as TiO2 at
Missouri, USA in 2011 and (ii) though initial
cost of 2LCP construction is higher, maintenance
free leading to a lower life cycle costs. Lack of
experience and design specifications are two major
reasons that hinder the implementation of 2LCP
over the globe. The primary objective of this paper
is to overcome the above-mentioned research gap
in 2LCP.
Al-Qadi et al., (2015) carried out Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA) of 2LCP to quantify the
impact of global warming, depletion of non-
renewables, depletion of ozone layer, acidification,
eutrophication, summer smog, aquatic echo
toxicity, terrestrial echo toxicity, human toxicity,
energy, non-hazardous waste, and hazardous
waste. Three different pavement types were used
in a project: traditional, two-lift, and optimized
two-lift. No Supplementary Cementitious Materials
(SCMs) were used with Portland cement. For
two-lift pavement, recycled aggregate was used in
Cement Treated Base (CTB), and fly ash was partly
used in both CTB and top lift. Optimized 2LCP
had similar material use as 2LCP; in addition,
recycled aggregate and fly ash were used in the
bottom lift. Optimized 2LCP performed best in
LCA analysis followed by 2LCP and conventional
Jointed Concrete Pavements (JCP).
2.4 Sustainability
Hu et al., (2014 a & b) stated that since sustainability
was becoming increasingly important in such
pavements, it became an effective tool to address
environmental challenges. 2LCP opens up
opportunities not only to use local and/or recycled
materials that in the past have not been suitable
for concrete pavements but also to incorporate
surface techniques to address the noise and safety
 Suryateja, Dr. Reddy & Dr. Pandey on
A Mechanistic Analysis of Bonded Concrete Pavements
challenges and public demands. Case studies of
recently constructed projects in the USA showed
that 2LCP projects can be a viable alternative from
both sustainability and economy.
Several full-scale demonstration projects by Cable
et al., (2004), Brand et al., (2014), report that a
two layer bonded concrete pavement offers an
economic solution with almost similar performance
as the conventional pavements.
2.5 Bonding of Layers
Additional care has to be taken on bonding
between two layers in the construction of 2LCP.
Bonding between two layers depends on the time
gap for the laying of surface layer over econocrete
layer. The time lag between two layers placement
is very important in terms of achieving a good
bond. But there are other factors that should be
considered while selecting time lag. These factors
include wind speed, temperature, relative humidity,
and requirements of the contractor. Although 2LCP
is becoming a technically feasible technique,
successful implementation of the technique will
require more demonstration projects to promote the
practice and to eliminate difficulties and challenges
for 2LCP implementation demands laboratory
and field studies to determine optimum time lag
between the two lifts under different conditions,
minimum bond strength and debonding issues and/
or thermal deformation.
2.6 Analysis and Design
Huang (1993) gave equations for the computation
of stresses in bonded concrete pavements using the
principle of equivalent stiffness method adopted
in IRC:58-2015. Published literature on the
analysis of two-lift concrete pavement system is
very scanty. From this available literature review,
it is observed that the available theories have
Fig. 1 Finite Element Model Created in ANSYS
Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017 19
not adequately addressed the combined effect of
Loading and temperature, only a few models are
available. The effect of non-linear temperature
gradients was neglected. Considering the present
thrust of Ministry of Road Transport and Highways
(MoRTH) to adopt concrete pavement for major
roads, the concept of two lift bonded concrete
pavement needs to be examined from the climate,
axle loads and traffic prevalent in India.
3. Modeling
3.1 Elements and Properties Considered
ANSYS Package is used for the analysis of concrete
pavements using finite element analysis. Both PQC
layer and Lean Concrete (LC) layer are modeled
as SOLID185 (8 noded brick) elements with an
element technology of Simple Enhanced Strain
using incompatible elements capable of modeling
bending also. These elements are capable of taking
tension, compression, torsion under conditions
like expansion during the rise in temperature. The
subgrade together with granular base is modeled
as a Winkler foundation, which consists of closely
spaced independent linear springs. These springs
are modeled using COMBIN14 elements with an
input of modulus of subgrade reaction.
Table 1 Properties Considered for Analysis of
Two Lift Concrete Pavements
Properties Top Layer Bottom
layer
Modulus of Elasticity 30000MPa 15000MPa
Poisson’s ratio 0.15 0.25
Coefficient of thermal 1x10 /ºC
-5
1x10-5/ºC
expansion
Reference Temperature 35ºC 35ºC
Density 24kN/m3 20kN/m3
 Suryateja, Dr. Reddy & Dr. Pandey on
A Mechanistic Analysis of Bonded Concrete Pavements

Here green colored elements represent upper

concrete layer while bottom elements in pink
representing lower concrete layer are of violet
color and Winkler foundation showed in Figure
1. Material properties that are considered for
both Pavement Concrete and LC are shown in
Table 1. Two critical loading conditions are
considered initially for the analysis of two lift
concrete pavements.
3.2 Critical Loading Conditions
3.2.1 Transverse Bottom up Cracking
The first critical condition is in daytime when the
flexural stress at the bottom layer of the 2LCP is
maximum during curl down condition because of
positive temperature gradient while the axle loads
act midway on the edge of a pavement slab as
shown in Fig. 3.2.
Fig. 2 represents that plan and side view of
loading condition to represent Transverse Bottom
up cracking with a positive temperature gradient.
Here, crack occurs in transverse direction due to
a combination of positive temperature and single
axle dual wheel load. The temperature varies non-
linearly over the depth of the slab (Subramanian,
1964 and Hete, 2016).
Table 2 Variation in Parameters Considered for Daytime Loading Condition
Fig. 2 Daytime Loading Condition
Higher axle loads are very common in India and
hence axle loads of magnitudes (120, 160 and
200 kN) are considered for the present stress
analysis. Temperature differentials of 0ºC, 9ºC,
15ºC, and 21ºC were considered which may
represent maximum temperature differentials in
different regions of India. Variations in parameters
considered for daytime loading condition are shown
in Table 2. The temperature variation is considered
to be linear in each layer and the difference in
temperature between the top and bottom fiber of
concrete is taken to be double of that between the
top and the bottom of the LC layer as found by the
authors for a single layer concrete slab.

Transverse Bottom Up Cracking Day Time Non-Linear Temperature Gradient

Thicknesses for Thicknesses for Wheel Loads Temperature Modulus of Subgrade
Top layer (mm) Bottom layer (mm) (KN) Differential (ºC) Reaction (MPa/m)
150 150 120 00 25
200 200 160 09 50
250 250 200 15 75
21 100
Total Number of Models = 4 x 3 x 3 x 3 =108 Models
Slab size- 3.5 m x 4.5 m
3.2.2 Transverse Top down Cracking
Another critical condition is during night hours
when flexural stress at the top layer of the 2LCP is
the maximum during curl up condition because of
negative temperature gradient when axle placement
configuration is as shown in Fig. 3.
In this negative temperature gradient, the
temperature is distributed linearly over the depth
of the slab (Subramanian, 1964 and Hete, 2016).
The various combinations of parameters used for
the computations are shown in Table 3. Fig. 3 Nighttime Loading C

20 Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017

 Suryateja, Dr. Reddy & Dr. Pandey on
A Mechanistic Analysis of Bonded Concrete Pavements

Table 3 Variation in Parameters Considered for Night Time Loading Condition

Transverse Top Down Cracking Night Time Linear Temperature Gradient

Thicknesses for Top Thicknesses for Bottom Wheel Loads Temperature Modulus of Subgrade
layer (mm) layer (mm) (KN) Differential (ºC) Reaction (MPa/m)
150 150 120 00 25
200 200 160 08 50
250 250 200 12 75
15 100
Total Number of Models = 4 x 3 x 3 x 3 =108 Models
Slab size-3.5 m x 4.5 m

3.3 Solution of FE Model 4. Results & Discussions

The symmetric globally assembled matrix method
is used in the computation considering steady state
three-dimension analysis.
3.4 Output Details
ANSYS gives the following output details
 Contour plots of Stresses in all three
directions (x, y and z directions) in a Finite
element model.
 Maximum Tensile stress value, maximum
compressive stress value and their position of
occurrences.
 Contour plots of deflections in all three
directions (x, y and z directions) in a Finite
element model.
 Maximum and minimum deflection values
and their position of occurrences.
Contour plot of stresses in the y-direction is shown
in Fig. 4 (Size of slab= 3.5 x 4.5 m).
4.1 Transverse Bottom up Cracking
Figs. 5 to 7 show variation in stress in the top
PQC layer with increased k value for the different
thickness of the lower concrete layer and three
different axle loads for a given temperature
differential of 21ºC. As expected, higher axle loads
cause higher stresses in the bottom of the PQC
layer for all values of k and LC thickness. For a
fixed thickness of 150 mm of PQC, the flexural
stresses in the PQC layer increase with an increase
in the k value of the foundation for 150 mm thick
bottom concrete layer (LC) When the LC thickness
is increased to 200 mm, there is no increase in
stress with increase in k value for a given load
as shown in Fig. 5. This is due to combined
effect of (i) lowering of neutral axis (ii) increase
in curling stress due to stiffer foundation and
(iii) reduction in load stresses due to higher
k value. When the thickness of the lower layer is
increased to 250 mm, neutral axis comes down
further and load stress decreases much more due
to increasing in k value than the increase due to
curling stresses over stiffer foundation.

Fig. 5 Flexural Stress in the Bottom of 150 mm PQC

Fig. 4 Contour Plot of Flexural Stresses in y direction Layer Placed Over 150 mm LC vs k-value

Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017 21

 Suryateja, Dr. Reddy & Dr. Pandey on
A Mechanistic Analysis of Bonded Concrete Pavements

differentials, load and thickness of different layers.

The design of two lift bonded pavements involves
consideration of all the above.

Fig. 6 Flexural Stress in the Bottom of 150 mm PQC

Layer Placed Over 200 mm LC vs k-value

Fig. 8 Flexural Stress in the Bottom of 150 mm LC

Layer Below 150 mm PQC layer vs k-value

Fig. 7 Flexural Stress in the Bottom of 150 mm PQC

Layer Placed Over 250 mm LC Vs
k-value
Fig. 8 to 11 indicate that for a given thickness of Fig. 9 Flexural Stress in the Bottom of 200 mm LC
150 mm of PQC, the stresses in the bottom LC Layer Below 150 mm PQC layer vs k-value
layer always increase with an increase in k values
for all thicknesses of LC layers due to the higher
influence of curling stresses though higher loads
cause higher stresses. In Fig. 8, it is seen that
maximum stress for 21ºC temperature differential
is about 3.05 MPa which is too high for the LC
for the safety of a bonded two layer concrete
pavement, Such a check is necessary for the
examination of the structural safety of a pavement.
In a two lift construction, it is the bottom concrete
layer that is critical for bottom up cracking and
thickness of PQC layer is important from wearing
point of view. Results for different temperature
differentials are presented in Figs. 8 to 18. Stresses Fig. 10 Flexural Stress in the Bottom of 250 mm LC
are interplay of k of the foundation, temperature Layer Below 150 mm PQC layer vs k-value

22 Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017

 Suryateja, Dr. Reddy & Dr. Pandey on
A Mechanistic Analysis of Bonded Concrete Pavements

Fig. 11 Flexural Stress in the Bottom LC Layer Below Fig. 14 Flexural Stress in the bottom LC Layer Below
150 mm PQC Layer vs k-value for 0ºC 150 mm PQC layer vs k-value for 21ºC

Fig. 15 Graph between K-value and Flexural Stress in

Top Layer at 0ºC Temperature Differential for Surface
Fig. 12 Flexural Stress in the Bottom LC Layer Below Layer of 150 mm and Bottom Layer of 150 mm for
150 mm PQC layer vs k-value for 9ºC Bottom up Cracking

Fig. 16 Graph Between K-value and Flexural Stress in

Top Layer at 9ºC Temperature Differential for Surface
Fig. 13 Flexural Stress in the Bottom LC Layer Below Layer of 150 mm and Bottom Layer of 150 mm for
150 mm PQC layer vs k-value for 15ºC Bottom up Cracking

Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017 23

 Suryateja, Dr. Reddy & Dr. Pandey on
A Mechanistic Analysis of Bonded Concrete Pavements
Fig. 17 Graph Between K-value and Flexural Stress
in Top Layer at 15ºC Temperature Differential for
Surface Layer of 150 mm and Bottom Layer of 150
mm for Bottom up Cracking
Fig. 18 Graph Between K-value and Flexural Stress
in Top Layer at 21ºC Temperature Differential for
Surface Layer of 150 mm and Bottom Layer of 150
mm for Bottom up Cracking
Fig. 19 Graph Between K-value and Flexural Stress
in Top Layer at High-Temperature Differential for
Surface Layer of 150 mm and Bottom Layer of 150
mm for Top down Cracking
24 Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017
The flexural behavior of the bottom layer is same as
top layer stresses with differential temperature as
shown in Figs. 15 to 18. That explains a monolithic
behavior of two-lift pavement system.
4.2 Transverse Top down Cracking
The values of flexural stresses in top layer
for different values of k values and various
thicknesses for top down cracking are shown in
Figs. 19 to 21.
Fig. 20 Graph Between K-value and Flexural Stress
in Top Layer at High-Temperature Differential for
Surface Layer of 150 mm and Bottom Layer of 200
mm for Top down Cracking
Fig. 21 Graph Between K-value and Flexural Stress
in Top Layer at High-Temperature Differential for
Surface Layer of 150 mm and Bottom Layer of 250
mm for Top down Cracking
Fig. 21 clearly indicates that for a PQC thickness
of 150 mm over 250 mm thick lower concrete,
the stresses on the top surface can be about
2.80 MPa for practical values of modulus of
subgrade reaction for a single axle load of
 Suryateja, Dr. Reddy & Dr. Pandey on
A Mechanistic Analysis of Bonded Concrete Pavements
20.0 ton. Thus the stresses on the top surface
due to load as per Fig. 3 due to single, tandem
and tridem axle loads may initiate transverse top
down cracking. The method of cumulative fatigue
damage given in IRC:58-2015 can be used for the
examination of the structural safety of pavements
for top down and bottom up cracking making use
of various charts given in the paper. Computations
using the approach of the paper can be used for
other pavement thicknesses.
5. Conclusions
From the analysis of stresses in two layers bonded
concrete pavements, following conclusions are
drawn.
 Two lift concrete pavements (2LCP) can
provide an eco-friendly solution at a lower
cost.
 It permits use of marginal, recycled
aggregates and other aggregates not suitable
for wearing course
 2LCP have performed satisfactory in trial
sections in developed countries. The thick
bottom layer is topped with a thinner wearing
course of concrete containing good quality
wear resistant aggregates.
 2LCP is thinner than the conventional con-
crete pavement and less material is used due
to monolithic action.
 Charts for top down cracking and bottom
up cracking are provided for different load
conditions and various k values so that a
suitable thickness of pavement can be
arrived at using fatigue damage principles
given in IRC:58-2015.
References
1. Al-Qadi, I. L., Yang, R., Kang, S., Ozer, H.,
Ferrebee, E., Roesler, J. R., Salinas, A., Meijer,
J., Vavrik, W. R. and Gillen, S. L., “Scenarios
Developed for Improved Sustainability of
Illinois Tollway: Life-Cycle Assessment
Approach,” Transportation Research Record:
Journal of the Transportation Research Board,
(2523), Washington, DC, 2015, pp.11-18.
2. Bentsen, R.A., Vavrik, W.A., Roesler, J.R. and
Gillen, S.L., 2013. “Ternary Blend Concrete with
Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017 25
Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement as an Aggregate in
Two-Lift Concrete Pavement,” In Proceedings
of the 2013 International Concrete Sustainability
Conference, pp. 6-8.
3. Brand, A., Amirkhanian, A. and Roesler, J.,
“Flexural Capacity of Full-Depth and Two-Lift
Concrete Slabs with Recycled Aggregates,”
Transportation Research Record: Journal
of the Transportation Research Board, (2456),
Washington, DC, 2014, pp.64-72.
4. Brand, A., Amirkhanian, A. and Roesler, J.,
“Flexural Capacity of Full-Depth and Two-Lift
Concrete Slabs with Recycled Aggregates,”
(No. 14-1239), 2013.
5. Cable, J. K., Frentress, D. P. and Williams, J. A.,
“Two-Lift Portland Cement Concrete Pavements
to Meet Public Needs,” Final Report, Iowa State
University, 2004.
6. Cackler, T., J. Alleman, J. Kevern, and J.
Sikkema., “Technology Demonstrations Project:
Environmental Impact Benefits with “TX Active”
Concrete Pavement in Missouri DOT Two-Lift
Highway Construction Demonstration,” FHWA
Report DTFH61-06-H-00011 Work Plan National
Concrete Pavement Technology Center, Ames,
Iowa, 2012.
7. IRC:58., Guidelines for the Design of Plain
Jointed Rigid Pavements for Highways, Indian
Road Congress, New Delhi, India, 2015.
8. Greene, J., Nazef, A. and Choubane, B., “A 30
Year Performance Evaluation of a Two Layer
Concrete Pavement System,” Technical Report
FL/DOT/SMO/10-540, Florida Department of
Transportation, Tallahasse, FL, 2011.
9. Huang, Y.H., Pavement Analysis and Design,
Second Edition, 1993.
10. Hete A, “ Evaluation of Temperature Curl
Behavior of In-service Rigid Pavements” M Tech
Thesis (unpublished), Indian Institute of
Technology, Kharagpur, 2016.
11. Hu, J., Siddiqui, M. S. and David Whitney, P. E.,
“Two-Lift Concrete Paving–Case Studies and
Reviews from Sustainability, Cost Effectiveness
and Construction Perspectives,” In TRB 93rd
Annual Meeting Compendium of Papers, 2014.
 Suryateja, Dr. Reddy & Dr. Pandey on
A Mechanistic Analysis of Bonded Concrete Pavements

12. Rao, S. P., “Composite Pavement Systems: 14. Suryateja, S., Reddy, K. S., Reddy, M. A., and
HMA/PCC Composite Pavements (Vol. 1),” Pandey, B. B., “Analysis of Bonded Concrete
Transportation Research Board, Washington, Pavements Using 3D FEM,” Transportation
D.C, 2013. Planning and Implementation Methodologies
13. Subramanian, V. V., “Investigation on for Developing Countries (TPMDC), 2016,
Temperature and Friction Stresses in Bonded Conference Proceedings, No. 151.
Cement Concrete Pavement,” Doctoral
dissertation, Ph. D thesis Transportation 15. Taylor, P., “Two Lift Paving: An Overview. In
Engineering Section, Civil Engineering Two-Lift Concrete Paving Workshop (Vol. 2),”
Department, IIT Kharagpur, 1964. Iowa State University, USA, 2013.

26 Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017

 Statistical Relationship Between Space Mean Speed and
Time Mean Speed on Multilane Interurban
Highways in India

Ashutosh Arun1 Senathipathi Velmurugan2 K. Sitaramanjaneyulu3 K. Ravinder4

ABSTRACT
Collection of Space Mean Speed (SMS) data, which find application in many traffic engineering
problems, is tedious and cost ineffective in countries like India where automatic speed detection
systems are not in vogue. In view of this issue, it was decided to express SMS as a function of a
relatively conveniently measurable mean speed measure i.e. Time Mean Speed (TMS). Review of
the already developed statistical models by using data collected under this study indicated that
those models in their present form are not applicable for heterogeneous traffic conditions which
are prevalent on Indian roads. Therefore, in this paper, appropriate modifications to the existing
SMS models were effected using data collected on multilane divided National Highways in the
National Capital Region of India.

1. INTRODUCTION SMS of vehicles over a specified trap length. As

A number of applications in the field of Traffic the country sets about developing a Highway
Engineering require the estimation of mean Capacity Manual under the national-level research
vehicular speeds. The mean vehicle speeds on project titled, “Development of Indian Highway
Capacity Manual (Indo-HCM)” being piloted by
a road are generally represented in two forms
CSIR-Central Road Research Institute (CSIR-
namely, Time Mean Speed (TMS) and Space Mean
CRRI), New Delhi, ahuge amount of traffic
Speed (SMS). Time Mean Speed (TMS) is the
volume and speed data through video recording
average of the speeds of all vehicles passing a point
method are getting collected all over the country.
over a period of time. It is the arithmetic mean of
Subsequent to collation of the above data, the
spot speeds. On the other hand, the Space Mean
capacity estimation of various types of roads in
Speed (SMS) is defined as the average speed of
the country is being carried out. However, in the
all vehicles over a given road section at an instant absence of automatic data collection systems on
of time and is found as the harmonic mean of the Indian roads and highways, which necessitates
spot speeds. manual intervention in data decoding, collection of
Capacity estimation of highways is one such traffic data in general and SMS data in particular
application that requires accurate estimation of is a tedious, expensive and error-prone process. It
1
Scientist, Traffic Engg. and Safety Div., E-mail : ashutosharun.87@gmail.com,
2
Sr. Principal Scientist, Traffic Engg. and Safety Div., E-mail : vms_04@yahoo.co.in, CSIR-Central Road Research
3
Sr. Principal Scientist, Pavement Evaluation Div., E-mail : ksitaramcrri@yahoo.co.in, Institute, Mathura Road, New Delhi
4
Principal Scientist, Transportation Planning Div., E-mail : krrcrri@gmail.com,

Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017 27

 Arun, Velmurugan, Sitaramanjaneyulu & Ravinder on
Statistical Relationship Between Space Mean Speed and Time Mean Speed on Multilane Interurban Highways in India
is therefore felt prudent to establish a statistical
relationship wherein one could express SMS as
a function of some conveniently and accurately
measurable entity such as the TMS.
Many studies were conducted in the past to assess
the relationship between TMS and SMS. The most
popular model which explains the relationship
between SMS and TMS is the model developed by
Wardrop (1952), whereby;
TMS = SMS + /SMS
where is the variance of spot speeds in Km2/h2.
However, this model was developed for
homogeneous conditions of traffic flow. As we
know that in India heterogeneous conditions
prevail in terms of flow of traffic, the applicability
of the Wardrop model was questioned by
researchers in the past. Therefore, in this study,
it was envisaged to explore the statistical
relationship between the Time Mean Speed (TMS)
and the Space Mean Speed (SMS) for interurban
sections of multilane National Highways of India.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Following Wardrop (1952), several other
researchers have also tried to establish a statistical
relationship between TMS and SMS. Drake et al.
(1967) proposed a linear relationship between the
two types of speeds as given below:
SR = 1.026 × ST – 3.042
Where, SR is SMS in Kmph and ST is TMS in
Kmph.
In developed countries, those with relatively
homogeneous traffic flow conditions and also
a strict adherence to lane discipline, automatic
collection of data using single and dual loop
detectors is quite popular. Hall and Persaud (1989)
developed a model for the calculation of speed
from single loop data based on the following
relationship:
= F / (OCC × L)
28 Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017
where is the SMS in kmph; F is the flow in
number of vehicles passing over the detector per
unit time; OCC is occupancy in number of vehicles
occupied in defined stretch of length; and, L is a
constant to convert units to similar values and is
related to mean vehicle length.
Wang and Nihan (2003) also proposed the
following SMS model for single loop detector data
considering the flow and occupancy:
... (1) (i) = N (i) / (T.O (i) g) ... (4)
where is the SMS in Kmph; i is the time integral
index; N is the number of vehicles per interval; O
is the lane occupancy in percent; T is the time per
interval; and g is a factor which is used to convert
occupancy into density as the term ‘g’ above is
calculated as a function of the mean vehicle length
per time interval :
g (i) =  ... (5)
Rakha and Zhang (2005) estimated traffic stream
SMS from dual and single loop detectors exhibiting
margin of error as low as 1%. Utilizing the variance
about the TMS ( ) for the estimation of SMS,
they derived the following relationship:-
 ... (6)
Where, is the SMS in Kmph and is the TMS
... (2) in Kmph.
Padma et al. (2011) modeled TMS and SMS for
heterogeneous traffic conditions in India. The
space mean speed measurements were conducted
through registration plate method at four sections
around the city of Delhi. Five types of vehicles
were considered in the above study, namely Cars,
Two wheelers, Buses, Auto, LCV and HCV. Model
development stage included the development of
modification factors for Wardrop (1952) and Rakha
and Zhang (2005) models so that they can be
applicable for the heterogeneous traffic conditions.
The SMS model as evolved in the above study is
... (3) given below:-
 Arun, Velmurugan, Sitaramanjaneyulu & Ravinder on
Statistical Relationship Between Space Mean Speed and Time Mean Speed on Multilane Interurban Highways in India

traffic flow data were collected on strategically

SMS = 0.694TMS – 1.343  ... (7)
The model showed a very good accuracy with an
R2 as high as 0.9; and very low Root Mean Square
Error (RMSE) values both in calibration and
validation phases.
On the basis of the literature reviewed herein, the
methodology for the present study was evolved
which is described in the succeeding section.
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 Study Area
Since the objective of the paper was to calibrate
and validate the developed models as discussed in
Section 2 for multilane inter-urban highways, the
Table 1 Details of Candidate Test Sections
located interurban sections of the Delhi-Mathura
(NH-2) and Delhi-Lucknow (NH-24) corridors.
The study stretches were so selected that they
were at optimum distance from the nearest urban
centers so as to preclude the effect of urban traffic
behavior. All the candidate test sections selected
under this study can be qualified as base/ideal
sections i.e. the sections were straight in horizontal
and vertical profile and at level gradient. Since
the traffic data were collected using video graphy
method, it was imperative to define the trap length
to be used for SMS measurements. For this study,
this trap length was fixed at 60 m. The details of
the selected study sections are given in Table 1.

S. No. Name of the Road Section Chainage Type of Shoulder/Width (in m) Adjoining Land
(in km) use Details
1 NH-24 (Towards Lucknow) 50 Paved shoulder Agricultural
(1.5 m wide) (on embankment)
2 NH-24 (Towards Delhi) 50 Paved shoulder Agricultural
(1.5 m wide) (on embankment)
3 NH-24 (Towards Delhi) 57 Paved shoulder Agricultural
(1.5 m wide) (on embankment)
4 NH-24 (Towards Lucknow) 57 Paved shoulder Agricultural
(1.5 m wide) (on embankment)
5 NH-2 (Towards Delhi) 64 Paved shoulder Agricultural
(1.5 m wide) followed by earthen
shoulder (1.0 m wide)
6 NH-2 (Towards Mathura) 64 Paved shoulder Agricultural
(1.5 m wide) followed by earthen
shoulder (2.3 m wide)

3.2 Data Collection and Extraction
The data were collected as part of the ongoing
Twelfth Five Year Plan research project funded by
the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
(CSIR) titled, “Development of Indian Highway
Capacity Manual (Indo-HCM)”. A trap length
of 60 m was physically marked on the road with
retro-reflective tapes and then a video camera was
installed on a gantry setup placed across the road
at a height of about 7 meters from the pavement
surface in such a way that the whole of 60 meters
trap marked on the ground was clearly visible to
enable decoding of the traffic flow data and SMS
of different vehicle types. The video data was
collected for a period of 12 hours on a typical
working day comprising of three time periods
spanning four hours each i.e. from 08:00 AM
to 12:00 AM, 04:00 PM to 08:00 PM and
00:00 midnight to 04:00 AM. The above analogy
was followed to account for the variation in the
traffic passenger and goods traffic flow typically
seen on the inter-urban NHs.
Field data collected at the study sections were
extracted with the help of Traffic Data Extractor

Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017 29

 Arun, Velmurugan, Sitaramanjaneyulu & Ravinder on
Statistical Relationship Between Space Mean Speed and Time Mean Speed on Multilane Interurban Highways in India

software to obtain the traffic flow characteristics
namely, classified traffic volume counts and SMS
at every 5-minute time interval during the entire
duration of the survey.
Spot Speed data for the study were obtained using
Laser Guns at the sections. The spot speeds were
also collected during the above stated 5-minute
interval in such a manner that both the SMS and
TMS measurements were synchronized.
To make the data more amenable for analysis, all
vehicles in the traffic stream were divided into the
following nine categories, namely, Small Car (CS),
Big Car (CB), Light Commercial Vehicle (LCV),
Heavy Commercial Vehicle (HCV), Multi Axle
Vehicle (MAV), Autos (A), Buses (B), Motorized
Two Wheelers (TW) and Tractor (Trac). Fig. 1
depicts the classified traffic volume count at all
the locations for the duration of survey. Table 2
gives the average traffic speed and the details of
deviation at each section.
Since, the endeavor is to convert the enumerated
traffic volume in to Passenger Car Units (PCU) for
capacity estimation using the Small Car (CS) as
standard the relationships between SMS and TMS
were evolved only for small cars in this paper.

Fig. 1 Classified Traffic Volume Details at the Study Sections

Table 2 Details of Average (Avg.) and Standard Deviation (SD) of
Vehicle Type-Wise SMS at the Study Sections

Vehicle NH-2 @ Km NH-2 @ Km NH-24 @ Km NH-24 @ Km NH-24 @ Km NH-24 @ Km

Type 64, Delhi- 64, Mathura- 50, Delhi- 50, Lucknow- 57, Delhi- 57, Lucknow-
Mathura Delhi Lucknow Delhi Lucknow Delhi
Avg.# SD# Avg.# SD# Avg.# SD# Avg.# SD# Avg.# SD# Avg.# SD#
A 46.4 11.6 41.6 7.4 45.7 7.5 49.2 7.6 41.9 9.6 49.2 11.1
B 38.6 6.6 56.9 10.1 58.0 10.7 69.9 14.6 59.5 15.2 59.6 11.9
CB 60.1 12.8 64.9 13.6 70.4 16.8 88.9 20.4 76.1 21.4 72.3 14.8
CS 56.0 11.5 65.1 13.2 71.6 15.0 86.1 16.8 70.1 20.3 70.0 14.6
HCV 50.1 12.4 42.7 9.7 48.2 9.5 53.5 9.9 48.1 10.6 49.2 11.0
LCV 51.7 11.2 46.3 9.8 53.7 11.2 57.4 10.4 51.1 8.9 50.9 9.3
MAV 58.5 12.4 42.2 8.9 42.9 8.0 51.0 7.5 46.1 9.1 49.4 12.0
Trac 30.4 5.6 28.6 4.6 29.8 6.6 31.5 9.2 22.5 8.9 25.5 7.0
TW 42.7 10.4 46.4 11.6 53.0 13.3 64.2 14.4 47.3 15.0 52.5 13.3
# All the speeds mentioned above are in Kmph

30 Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017

 Arun, Velmurugan, Sitaramanjaneyulu & Ravinder on
Statistical Relationship Between Space Mean Speed and Time Mean Speed on Multilane Interurban Highways in India

3.3 Analysis of Data Table 3 Descriptive Statistics for TMS and SMS
Small Car speed data were first analyzed for TMS SMS
gaining insights into the distribution of the data.
The various descriptive statistics are givenin Mean 79.767 67.605
Table 3.
Median 80.428 67.335
The box-whisker plots for the two types of speeds
Mode 76 76.059
were investigated next as given in Fig. 2. It can
be inferred from Fig. 2 that the average and the Standard Deviation 8.266 9.276
median SMS are lesser than the average and the
Sample Variance 68.332 86.045
median TMS respectively. Also the variance of the
SMS is higher than that of the time mean speed. It Kurtosis 0.214 -0.044
is also evident that the SMS data is more negatively
Skewness -0.261 -0.324
skewed than the TMS.

Fig. 2 Box-Whisker Plot for TMS and SMS Data

4. MODEL DEVELOPMENT before, the models developed by Rakha and Zhang

First of all, the applicability of the already existing (2005) and Padma et al. (2011) were utilized for
relationships between TMS and SMS was sought this purpose. The results of this validation exercise
to be verified using the collected data. As stated are shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Validation of the Existing Statistical Models for the Estimation of Space Mean Speed

Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017 31

 Arun, Velmurugan, Sitaramanjaneyulu & Ravinder on
Statistical Relationship Between Space Mean Speed and Time Mean Speed on Multilane Interurban Highways in India

As evident from Fig. 3, Rakha& Zhang (2005)
relationship consistently overestimated the SMS,
while the Padma et al. (2011) model consistently
under-predicted the same at all TMS levels. Thus,
it was decided to recalibrate the Padma et al. (2011)
model to find new values of the parameters so that
a good fit to the data can be achieved. MATLAB
software was used for the model fitting stage. Data
for NH-24 at chainages Km. 50 and Km. 57 in
both the directions was decided to be utilized for
calibration purpose while the NH-2 data at chainage
Table 4 Details of the Statistical Models Developed in this Study
Km. 64 wasset aside for external validation of the
fitted model.
4.1 Calibration
The calibration exercise was carried out using the
Curve Fitting ToolboxTM of MATLAB® ver. 8.0.
Apart from the basic formulation by Padma et
al. (2011), a linear model and a power variation
of the Rakha and Zhang specification (Rakha and
Zhang, 2005) were also tried which is presented
in Table 4. The goodness-of-fit statistics of the
various models is given alongside.

S. No. Model Name Model Specification Coefficients (Associated Goodness-of-Fit Sample

T-Statistic given in Statistics Size
Brackets)
1 Linear Model SMS = a*TMS + b a = 0.66 (12.84) RMSE = 3.41 59
2
b = 17.08 (3.98) R = 0.74
Adj. R2 = 0.74
2 Non-linear SMS = a*TMS- a = 0.78 (30.19) RMSE = 3.46 59
Model b*(74.5308#/TMS) b = -8.54 (-3.69) R2 = 0.74
Adj. R2 = 0.73
3 Power Model SMS = TMS^a- a = 0.98 (606.16) RMSE = 3.29 59
(74.5308#/TMS)^b b = -7.22 (-10.77) 2
R = 0.76
Adj. R2 = 0.76
#-Variance of Time Mean Speed for Small Cars

It can be seen that the performance of all the
models was good and almost equivalent in terms
of both R-squared and RMSE values. However,
by a very small margin, the power model can be
called the best performing model. On investigating
the plot of the fitted models as illustrated in Fig. 4,
it can be seen that the power model in fact is very
acutely affected by the presence of outliers in the
data. The other two models seem more robust in
comparison. The validation exercise for the model
results was performed next, and the results are
presented in the next section.

Fig. 4 Plot of all the Fitted Models

32 Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017

 Arun, Velmurugan, Sitaramanjaneyulu & Ravinder on
Statistical Relationship Between Space Mean Speed and Time Mean Speed on Multilane Interurban Highways in India
4.2 Validation
For the validation purpose of obtained models,
NH-2 data collected at chainage Km. 64 in both
directions of travel was utilized. The MAE and
RMSE statistics were utilized for validating the fit
of the models. The details are given in Table 5.
From the results, it can be seen that the non-linear
Table 5 Summary of Model validation
Test Statistic Linear Model Non-linear Model
MAE 7.098
RMSE 9.300
5 CONCLUSION
TMS and SMS are two important measures of
traffic speed. Experience has shown that it is
easier to collect TMS of the vehicles in the field
as compared to their SMS. The present study
conclusively showed that the relationship between
TMS and SMS as developed by Rakha and Zhang
(2005) etc. for the homogeneous traffic conditions
are not suitable for Indian conditions. Moreover,
it was felt prudent to recalibrate the Padma et al.
(2011) model and thus arrive at the new values
of the parameters so that anappropriate fit based
on the collected data can be achieved for four-
lane interurban highways in India. Eventually,
the new models were developed in this study and
it was found that the non-linear model yielded
the best satisfactory results based on statistical
considerations for the given sample size considered
in this study.
However, it is recommended that the relationships
developed herein must be further refined based on
the data collected elsewhere in the country as part
of the ongoing Indo-HCM before they are adopted
as standard for four-lane divided Indian National
Highways.
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper is a result of the ongoing CSIR-
sponsored Twelfth Five Year Plan Project titled
Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017 33
model clearly outperforms the other two models.
Also, the non-linear formulation agrees more with
the theoretical model as derived by Rakha and
Zhang (2005) and therefore, this can be considered
as a viable model for Indian four-lane divided
interurban highways.
Power Model Sample Size
6.381 8.489 91
7.836 10.934 91
“Development of Indian Highway Capacity
Manual (Indo-HCM)”. We are very grateful to the
Director, CSIR-Central Road Research Institute
for allowing us to publish this paper. We are also
thankful to project staff of Indo-HCM project that
helped us in the collection and extraction of data.
REFERENCES
1. Wardrop, J.G.(1952). “Some Theoretical Aspects
of Road Traffic Research”, Proceedings of the
Institute of Civil Engineers, Vol. 1-2,
pp. 325-378.
2. Drake, J.S., Schofer, J.L. and May, A.D. (1965).
“A Statistical Analysis of Speed Density
Hypotheses”, Highway Research Record 154,
Highway Research Board, National Research
Council, Washington, pp. 53-87.
3. Hall, F.L. and Persaud, B.N. (1989). “Evaluation
of Speed Estimates made with Single-Detector
data from Freeway Traffic Management Sys-
tems”, Transportation Research Record 1232,
Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board,
National Research Council, pp. 9-16.
4. Padma, S., Errampalli, M., Velmurugan, S.,
Shukla, A. and Gangopadhyay. S. (2011).
“Modelling Time Mean Speed and Space mean
Speed for Heterogeneous Traffic Conditions”,
Transportation Planning and Technology, Vol. 34,
No. 8, pp. 823-838.
 Arun, Velmurugan, Sitaramanjaneyulu & Ravinder on
Statistical Relationship Between Space Mean Speed and Time Mean Speed on Multilane Interurban Highways in India

5. Rakha, H. and Zhang, W.(2005). “Estimating 6. Wang, Y. and Nihan,N. L.(2003). “Can
Traffic Stream Space-Mean Speed and Single-Loop Detectors do the Work of
Reliability from Dual and Single Loop Dual-Loop Detectors?”, Journal of
Detectors”, Transportation Research Record Transportation Engineering, Vol. 129, No. 2,
1925, Washington, DC: Transportation Research pp. 169-176.
Board, National Research Council, pp. 38-47.

34 Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017

 Traffic Risk Assessment Model Based on Behavioral
Analysis : A Case Study of Sarkhej - Gandhinagar
Highway, Ahmedabad, India

Abhijitsinh Gohil1 Kaushal Wadhvaniya2 Kuldipsinh Jadeja3

ABSTRACT
Road Safety is a multi-sectoral and multi-dimensional issue. An effective model can assess the
risk associated with traffic safety on highway. A questionnaire survey is very essential to identify
the events or activities, which are causing unsafe condition for traffic on an urban highway. A
questionnaire covering vehicular, human and infrastructure characteristics can be formulated.
Responses from the age wise group of road users can be taken in the field. Each question or an
event holds a specific risk weight age, which contributes in creating inappropriate and unsafe flow
of traffic. Probability of occurrence of an event can be calculated from the data collected from
road users through the questionnaire survey. Then risk score can be calculated by considering the
risk factor and the probability of occurrence of individual event. Summation of all risk score of
individual events will give the total risk score of a particular road. Standard values for risk score
can be developed and total risk score can be compared with it. Thus road can be categorized based
on risk associated with traffic safety on it. Using this model one can assess the need for traffic safety
improvement on a given road and qualitative data can be analyzed.

1. INTRODUCTION circle to Gandhinagar. It is total 31 kms

Road users who use the particular road daily have
precise observation towards the traffic and the traffic
engineer who is appointed to analyze the traffic
safety on that road can professionally develop the
questionnaire to elicit road user response. As such,
the questionnaire survey involves road users to
give their response for such events having risk for
traffic safety and thus results that are more precise
can be obtained. This model involves both, road
users to collect data related to traffic from and,
traffic engineer who can give technical solution for
safety improvement.
Sarkhej Gandhinagar Highway is a three lane
divided highway in its urban stretch i.e. from
Sarkhej to Vaishnodevi Circle and two lane divided
highway for rest of its stretch from Vaishnodevi
long connecting Sarkhej to Gandhinagar and
serving 3500 PCU/Hr in peak time on both side.
So many urban intersections and higher volume
of traffic makes it more vulnerable to accidents.
M2Ws (Motorized 2-wheelers), M3Ws (Motorized
3-wheelers), cars, buses, light commercial vehicles
constitute major part of traffic on it. From 2006 to
2016, there were annual average of 54 fatalities,
97 major injuries and 373 minor injuries were
recorded at nearest police stations due to accidents
on Sarkhej Gandhinagar Highway. According to
MORTH, total number of accidents caused due to
Driver/Human fault is 84.2%, Vehicular fault is
2.3% and defect in Infrastructure is 1.5% in India.
This model is developed by authors as a pure
research. Formulas of probability of occurrence

1
Abhijitsinh Hathisinh Gohil, E-mail: abhijit.gcv13@sot.pdpu.ac.in ; gohil.abhijit5896@gmail.com

Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017 35

 Gohil, Wadhvaniya & Jadeja on
Traffic Risk Assessment Model Based on Behavioral Analysis : A Case Study of Sarkhej - Gandhinagar Highway, Ahmedabad, India
and total risk score along with standard values of
total risk score are developed by authors only. The
literature has been referred to identify possible
events causing unsafe condition on a highway.
2. Literature Review
JP Research India Pvt. Ltd. (2015), included study
area of Ahmedabad and Gandhinagar for the road
accident study, covered 99 kilometers of important
roads and highways divided between Ahmedabad
and Gandhinagar districts. It included urban and
rural areas, most of the roads under the study fall
under Ahmedabad city limits. The roads covered
under the study area are as follows:
i. Sarkhej-Gandhinagar Highway [NH-8C] -
31 km approx.
ii. Sardar Patel Ring Road - 27 km approx.
iii. NH8-A – 13.5 km approx.
iv. SH-17 – 11 km approx.
v. SH-71 – 16 km approx.
Over the period of 7 February 2014 through
6 February, 2015, JPRI researchers examined 442
accidents that occurred in the study area, of which
researchers were able to study 211 accidents in
detail to determine the reasons for the occurrence
of the accidents. This research provided an in-
depth analysis of these 211 accidents and provided
information of the various factors influencing
accidents and the resultant injuries on the roads
of Ahmedabad and Gandhinagar. Some important
conclusion of their research are:
i. Cars and motorized two wheelers pose
highest risk of accidents among all road
users, each contributing 28% of accidents.
ii. M2Ws are the most affected road user as far
as injuries are concerned. M2Ws constitute
53% of road users consisting of at least one
fatal occupant and 47% with at least one
seriously injured occupant.
iii. “Collision with vehicle moving in the same
direction” and “Collision with turning or
crossing vehicles” are the most prevalent
accident types occurred in our study area,
each type contributing 22% of accidents.
iv. Human factors alone (49%) had the highest
influence on the occurrence of accidents
followed by the combination of human and
infrastructure factors (35%).
36 Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017
v. Knock-down of motorized two wheeler
occupants and pedestrians has contributed
to 44% of fatal and serious injury outcomes.
Failure to use helmets, failure to use seat belts
and overloading of occupants, the topmost
human errors together has contributed to 50%
injuries in fatal and serious injury accidents.
Angelica Batrakova and Olga Gredasova (2015),
has done research on Influence of Road Conditions
on Traffic Safety. It is shown that the number of
accidents is influenced by factors related to the
environment, traffic, road users and the vehicle.
Therefore, when addressing the issue of improving
traffic safety, it is necessary to pay attention
to research methods, studying the patterns of
behavior of the driver and allows to assess the
impact of road conditions on the probability of an
accident. On the basis of the conducted studies, the
relationship was established between the elements
of road conditions and indicators of the functional
status of the driver. Optimal speed for various road
conditions is established. The optimality criterion
is the reliability of the driver’s activity. The
obtained results are the basis for the development
of measures aimed at optimizing the elements of
the environment movement, as well as practical
methods of assessing damage from an accident in
a changing operating conditions. Some important
conclusions of their study are:
i. The criteria environment movement
requirements safety is the normal functioning
of the mechanisms of adaptation of the
driver to the conditions of the activity.
Ensuring maximum reliability of the driver’s
activity and is most likely to hold the set
speed is an effective tool for improving
traffic safety at the design stage of roads.
ii. Further research strategy at the stage of
estimation of traffic safety should be aimed at
identifying the elements of the environment
movement, which most affect the functional
state of the driver, and the communication
between the main indicators of the functional
status of the driver and statistical indicators
of road safety.
iii. The obtained results can be used as the
justification for the geometric parameters of
the road at the design stage, and in the
 Gohil, Wadhvaniya & Jadeja on
Traffic Risk Assessment Model Based on Behavioral Analysis : A Case Study of Sarkhej - Gandhinagar Highway, Ahmedabad, India
development of measures to improve traffic
safety during operation of highways.
iv. Numerous studies have proved that human
factors can improve the efficiency of the
transport process by 25–30% in 2–3 times
to reduce the number of traffic accidents on
highways.
Dinesh Mohan, Geetam Tiwari and Sudipto
Mukherjee (2016), assessed urban traffic safety in
six Indian cities- Agra, Amritsar, Bhopal, Ludhiana,
Vadodara, and Vishakhapatnam. Their study shows
that, Relative to total road fatalities, the percentage
of vulnerable road user deaths in all six cities range
between 84% and 93% and car occupant fatalities
between 2% and 4%. The largest proportion of
fatalities for all road user categories (especially
vulnerable road users) is associated with collisions
with buses and trucks, followed by collisions
with cars; however, the proportion of pedestrian
fatalities associated with M2W collisions ranges
from 8% to 25% of the total. The data indicate
that the 0–14 age group is under represented in
proportion to its share of the population, including
children riding motorcycles. M2W and pedestrian
deaths are relatively high between 8 p.m. and
11 p.m., a time frame when one would expect
traffic volumes to be comparatively low. Surveys
done in Agra and Ludhiana suggests that, due to
the lower traffic volume levels, i.e. when density
of traffic is low, vehicles drive faster at night.
Other factors include insufficient street lighting
and limited drunk-driving countermeasures.
These findings imply that design and enforcement
based speed controls, better street lighting, and
improved alcohol control would be necessary. The
involvement of young children in fatal crashes
appears to be low. The underlying reasons for these
conditions are unclear, however, and requires more
in depth study. The relative risk of M2W occupants
is the highest in India but not as high as the risk
levels in high-income countries. Based on total
involvement in fatal crashes, however, cars appear
to pose a greater risk to society than motorcycles
and three-wheeled scooter taxis do.
Yazan Issa (2016), studied about the effect
of driver's personal characteristics on traffic
accidents in Tabuk city in Saudi Arabia. This
research examined as to what factors contribute
to road accidents in the study area; and evaluated
Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017 37
statistically the effect of certain driver’s personal
characteristics on road accidents. Questionnaire
survey was conducted to know the responsibility
of drivers towards the accidents and the collected
data was analyzed in order to get results. Driver’s
responsibility towards the accidents is the function
of the driver’s age and education. Some important
conclusions of the study are as per following:
i. Young drivers (less than 30 years) are
involved in around 60% of the accidents and
more than 80% of the accidents related to
human factors.
ii. Contrary to expectation, higher driving
experience and higher educational level
involved in more accidents.
iii. The findings have shown the variables that
had significant relationships with accidents
in the city and those that did not have
significance. Among the significant variables
was age of the driver and his educational
level. It appears that young drivers are highly
participating in traffic accidents with less
responsibility. The responsibility of accidents
decreases with the high educated drivers.
iv. It is also recommended to have intensive
programs of awareness of traffic regulations
and safety should be prepared and all
information media should be utilized to
increase the traffic awareness among people
and drivers. Responsible agencies should
also organize training programmers,
induction courses and seminars for drivers
where they would be taught the art of safe
driving. Policy makers should promulgate a
law that would restrict driving in Saudi
Arabia to a certain age (18 years old) and
education level (school certificate). This is
because these two variables were found to
be significantly related with road accidents in
Tabuk city. The curriculum of driving schools
should include courses on the rules and
regulations about driving, and observance of
traffic regulations and other related matters
about driving.
3. Objectives
 To develop a model for assessing traffic safety
on a highway based on behavioral analysis.
 Gohil, Wadhvaniya & Jadeja on
Traffic Risk Assessment Model Based on Behavioral Analysis : A Case Study of Sarkhej - Gandhinagar Highway, Ahmedabad, India

 To examine current transport safety and
categorize a particular highway based on its
risk level.
 To obtain an order of frequently occurring
unsafe events on a highway by calculating
probability of occurrence and risk score.
4. Methodology
Traffic is dynamic phenomenon. The analysis of
traffic safety is more complex as this is related
with the various events occurring on a highway,
which creates unsafe conditions for traffic. Each
event contains some risk associated with the
traffic safety. Occurrence of such unsafe events in
sequence, results into an accident. A standard set
of such events can be identified and formed into
a questionnaire format for a particular highway. A
questionnaire survey can be conducted on a road,
which is required to be assessed for safety. Road
side interview of a road user can be recorded as his
response in the questionnaire form. Probability of
occurrence of individual event can be calculated
from the responses given by road users and then
the risk associated with that particular event
can be calculated by equation of risk score. The
total risk score of a highway is the summation
of all individual risk score of such events. The
resulting value of total risk score can be compared
Table 1 Questionnaire Form
with the standard values and the highway is
classified based on risk associated to traffic
on it. This model is also helpful to find out the
events, which are predominant in causing unsafe
condition for traffic. Thus, chronological order
of such events can be made and the events with
higher risk score are given first priority for their
mitigation.
5. Data Collection and
Extraction
5.1 Questionnaire
Questionnaire is a set of standard questions related
to traffic safety. Here the events that are likely to
create unsafe condition on highway are formed in
questions. Mainly, there are three major causes of
an accident,
(i) Human (Driver, Pedestrian)
(ii) Infrastructure (Road, Signs, Signals, etc.)
(iii) Vehicular (Condition of vehicles and their
type, overloading/ overcrowding, etc.) and
(iv) Other (Weather condition, stray animals,
roadside distraction, etc.)
By considering all above possible conditions, one
can develop a questionnaire form with standard
set of questions that are considered as a model
questions for analysis.

S. No. Event Causing Unsafe Condition Response

i Driver do not obey traffic signs
ii Driver seem to be going very fast
iii Driver do not yield to pedestrian
iv Driver do not look before breaking out of driveways
v Driver do not wear helmet or seat belt
vi Driver seemed to be drunk and drive
vii Driver using mobile while driving
viii People/Driver are impatient, rude or in a rush
ix Driver are overtaking from wrong side
x Pavement is not properly maintained
xi Insufficient width of Carriageway
xii Signals are not properly located and maintained at intersection
xiii Speed breakers are placed unnecessarily
xiv Road Markings are not proper
xv Median strip is not properly maintained

38 Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017

 Gohil, Wadhvaniya & Jadeja on
Traffic Risk Assessment Model Based on Behavioral Analysis : A Case Study of Sarkhej - Gandhinagar Highway, Ahmedabad, India

S. No. Event Causing Unsafe Condition Response

xvi No safe crossing points are provided
xvii Road side accident prevention infrastructure is not proper
xviii Road curvature is not proper
xix Sight Distance is not sufficient
xx Vehicles are not properly maintained
xxi Heavy and Long vehicles are creating unsafe condition
xxii Slow Moving Vehicles are creating unsafe condition
xxiii Too much traffic congestion
xxiv Encounter with stray animals
xxv Roadside distraction
xxvi Weather problems (Fog, Frost, etc)
xxvii Water drainage of Road
xxviii Pedestrian occupying major road section
xxix Traffic police ineffectiveness
xxx Penalty to be levied on disobeying the traffic rules is less
xxxi Underage Driving
xxxii Overloading/Overcrowding of vehicles

Responses of road users must be recorded on
Likert’s psychometric scale from Strongly Agree to
Strongly Disagree. These terms define the impact
of such problem/unsafe event on road user, and
their significance is as per following,
A) Strongly Agree: Driver/ Road user is facing
such problem all-time while passing from the
road or he/she observe others creating/facing
same problem.
B) Agree: Driver/Road user facing such
problem most of the time while passing
from the road or he/she observe others
creating/facing same problem.
C) Neutral: Driver/ Road user is not in a
position to give judgment due to conflicts
between agree and disagree condition in his/
her mind.
D) Disagree: Driver/Road user is neither facing
such problem majority of time nor observed
others creating/facing such problems.
E) Strongly Disagree: Driver/Road user has
never faced such problem or observed
anyone creating/facing such problem.
5.2 Questionnaire Survey
Questionnaire survey is conducted to know factual
information on site. Roadside interview of a road
user/driver must be recorded in questionnaire form.
For this model, 100 responses should be collected.
Because of the variety of human nature, everybody
has different attitude and opinion towards the traffic
and that makes traffic and safety very complex for
analysis. Teenager, youngster, adults, matures, old
aged people have different attitude towards the
traffic. So, to involve all age group and get precise
result, 25 responses from each age group must
be recorded. After conducting a questionnaire
survey, total number responses in favour of each
case (Strongly agree to Strongly disagree) for all
individual question can be calculated.
6. Analysis of Data Collected
from Questionnaire Survey
Before starting an analysis few important terms are
required to be understood. Namely they are risk
factor, probability of occurrence of an event, risk
weight-age of and event and risk score. Each term
is explained in following clauses.
6.1 Risk Factor
A risk factor is any attribute, characteristic or
exposure of an event that increases the likelihood
of developing the chances of an accident. It is a
condition, behavior or any other factor which

Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017 39

 Gohil, Wadhvaniya & Jadeja on
Traffic Risk Assessment Model Based on Behavioral Analysis : A Case Study of Sarkhej - Gandhinagar Highway, Ahmedabad, India
increases the risk. Likert’s psychometric scale
from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree shows
the risk associated with that for a particular event.
For example, if a respondent/road user is strongly
agree to some event then it shows that the more risk
is associated with that event on that highway, thus
it has high risk factor. Same way, if respondent/
road user is strongly disagree to a particular event
than it shows that the event is never happened and
it do not have any risk associated with it, so it has
risk factor equal to zero. Table 2 shows the standard
risk factor for various responses from road users.
Table 2 Risk Factor for Various Responses
Response Risk Factor (F)
Strongly Agree 2.0
Agree 1.5
Neutral 1.0
Disagree 0.5
Strongly Disagree 0
6.2 Probability of Occurrence
Probability of occurrence of an event shows the
likelihood of occurrence of an event on a highway.
For each event probability of occurrence can be
calculated by dividing numbers of responses in
favour of an event with total number of responses
recorded. Hence mathematically it can be
expressed as,
Probability of Occurence =
For example, for the case of ‘driver do not obey
traffic signs- strongly agree’. Here in this model,
total 100 responses are taken and suppose that 29
responses are in favour of this event. So probability
of occurrence for this case can be calculated as,
Probability of Occurence =
Probability of Occurence = 0.29
Same way for each event probability of occurrence
can be calculated.
6.3 Risk Weightage
Risk weightage is a factor which is multiplied with
risk factor and probability of occurrence in order to
calculate risk score. As we know that human/driver
characteristics, infrastructure facility and vehicular
condition are three major causes of an accident.
40 Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017
Out of these three, human/driver characteristics
are more likely to create risk or accident. For
example, if infrastructure facility such as pavement
is not proper but driver is good then he/she can
overcome that poor condition of pavement and
drive out safely on the road. As opposite to this
if infrastructure of road and condition of vehicle
are proper but attitude of driver towards traffic
is not proper then it will cause unsafe condition
on highway and that may lead to an accident.
So, the events related to driver characteristic
holds the higher weightage of risk with compare
to infrastructure and vehicular characteristics.
Each event has some impact at which it creates
the risk to traffic on a highway. Standard values
of risk weightage for various events are shown in
Table 5. Though driver characteristics holds a
highest risk weightage, all the events may not
have same high amount of risk. So, in a driver
characteristic its corresponding events can be
classified as events having high, average and low
risk. For example, if driver is not wearing helmet
or seat belt it will not lead to cause of an accident as
it is for driver’s safety so this event will fall in low
risk event but, if drivers are going very fast, if they
are drunk and breaking the traffic rules then it will
definitely lead to an accident, so such events hold
a high risk weightage. Same way, for the vehicular
and infrastructure characteristics also. Following
Table 3 shows the value of risk weightage for
different characteristics.
Table 3. Value of Risk Weightage for
Different Characteristics
Characteristic Impact Risk Weightage
Human/Driver High 4.0
Average 3.5
Low 3.0
Infrastructure High 3.0
Average 2.5
Low 2.0
Vehicular High 2.0
Average 1.5
Low 1.0
Other 1.0-2.0
 Gohil, Wadhvaniya & Jadeja on
Traffic Risk Assessment Model Based on Behavioral Analysis : A Case Study of Sarkhej - Gandhinagar Highway, Ahmedabad, India

6.4 Risk Score of occurrence is 1 and multiplication of risk factor

Risk score of an event is a multiplication of risk and risk weightage will give the value of risk score.
weightage and summation of multiplication of risk Sum of all risk scores for different events will give
factor and probability of occurrence of an event. a total risk score of a highway considering strongly
agree case only, so obviously it will show a more
Mathematically it can be written as,
severe condition with very high risk and low safety
on a highway. Same steps can be repeated for agree,
Risk Score = W *
neutral, disagree, strongly disagree cases and value
Where, of standard total risk score can be obtained. Based
W = Risk Weightage of an event on total risk score, a particular highway can be
assigned a Risk Level. Table 4 shows the standard
F = Risk Factor
values of total risk score and its corresponding risk
P = Probability of occurrence of an level and significance on a highway.
event
Table 4 Standard Values of Total Risk Score
Values of j vary from strongly agree to strongly and its Risk Level
disagree. It means that for each case of strongly
agree, agree, neutral, disagree and strongly disagree Total Risk Significance
its corresponding risk factor and probability of Risk Level
occurrence should be multiplied and summed up. Score
Risk score shows the contribution of an individual 120 - A Very high risk, an accident prone
event in creating the unsafe condition on highway. 160 zone. Too much traffic congestion
By calculating the risk score for all 32 events or complete breakdown of traffic
shown in table 1, one can know that which event flow. Totally disturbed and flow
is predominant in creating the risk to traffic on a less traffic. Geometric design
highway. Hence a chronological order of all events and traffic rules policy are
contributing to risk can be obtained by calculating required to be re-assessed. Strict
their risk score. Thus mitigation steps can be taken traffic rules should be made and
by traffic engineer according to the risk score of enforced.
different events and thus the risk associated with 80 - B High risk, more chances of an
traffic can be reduced and safety can be improvised 120 accident. Relatively disturbed
on a given highway. flow of traffic. Effective traffic
management should be applied
6.5 Total Risk Score
to improve safety.
Total risk score of a highway/road is the summation
40 - 80 C Moderate Risk, less chances of an
of risk score of individual events. Total risk score
accident. Relatively undisturbed
shows the total risk associated to traffic on a
flow of traffic. Traffic safety
highway after considering all the risk weightage,
awareness steps can be taken to
risk factor and probability of occurrence of all
improve safety.
events.
0 - 40 D No Risk, very less chances of an
Total Risk Scor = accident, smooth and undisturbed
flow of traffic at design speed
Where,
Wi = Risk weightage of an event. (For all 32 7. A Case Study of S.G. Highway,
individual events it is shown in Table 5) Ahmedabad.
Depending upon the value of total risk score, 7.1 Data Collection
standards for total risk score and its significance on A questionnaire survey was conducted on
a road can be made. For making a standard value 27th January, 2017 at various locations on S.G.
of risk score, it is assumed that all respondents Highway. A questionnaire form is shown in
strongly agree to each event, thus its probability Table 1. Roadusers of different age were stopped

Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017 41

 Gohil, Wadhvaniya & Jadeja on
Traffic Risk Assessment Model Based on Behavioral Analysis : A Case Study of Sarkhej - Gandhinagar Highway, Ahmedabad, India

and asked for filling a questionnaire form. There be calculated. Then, risk score can be calculated
were total 100 numbers of responses taken, from probability of occurrence, risk factor and
including 25 responses from each age group of risk weightage. Following Table 5 shows the
young, mature, adults, and old people. sample calculation of risk score for S.G. Highway,
Ahmedabad. (Note: Due to unavailability of
7.2 Data Analysis
space, the events causing unsafe condition
Total number of responses in favour of each can not be written in Table 5, they are same as
response, i.e. strongly agree, agree, neutral, per their serial number in Table 1, please refer
disagree, strongly disagree for each event can Table 1).
Table 5 Calculation of Risk Score for S.G. Highway, Ahmedabad
S. No. Probability of Occurrence (P) Σ (Pi * F) Risk Risk Score
Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Weightage {W * Σ(Pi
Agree Disagree (W) * F)}
1 0.27 0.36 0.26 0.09 0.02 1.385 3.5 4.848
2 0.14 0.53 0.26 0.06 0.01 1.365 4 5.46
3 0.18 0.33 0.39 0.09 0.01 1.29 3 3.87
4 0.22 0.29 0.32 0.17 0 1.28 4 5.12
5 0.34 0.34 0.18 0.1 0.04 1.42 3 4.26
6 0.07 0.11 0.27 0.4 0.15 0.775 4 3.1
7 0.22 0.4 0.19 0.13 0.06 1.295 3.5 4.532
8 0.22 0.38 0.29 0.09 0.02 1.345 3.5 4.708
9 0.37 0.52 0 0.07 0.04 1.555 3.5 5.442
10 0.14 0.2 0.4 0.16 0.1 1.06 2.5 2.65
11 0.09 0.28 0.29 0.29 0.05 1.035 2 2.07
12 0.13 0.32 0.24 0.26 0.05 1.11 2 2.22
13 0.17 0.21 0.23 0.29 0.1 1.03 2.5 2.575
14 0.1 0.18 0.28 0.36 0.08 0.93 2.5 2.325
15 0.07 0.26 0.32 0.29 0.06 0.995 3 2.985
16 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.16 0.04 1.28 3 3.84
17 0.21 0.32 0.27 0.13 0.07 1.235 3 3.705
18 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 0
19 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 0
20 0.1 0.43 0.28 0.13 0.06 1.19 1.5 1.785
21 0.27 0.33 0.2 0.15 0.05 1.31 2 2.62
22 0.14 0.26 0.32 0.18 0.1 1.08 2 2.16
23 0.2 0.22 0.18 0.32 0.08 1.07 1.5 1.605
24 0.11 0.32 0.25 0.21 0.11 1.055 2 2.11
25 0.25 0.35 0.22 0.12 0.06 1.305 1 1.305
26 0.07 0.12 0.11 0.42 0.28 0.64 1 0.64
27 0 0 0.1 0.15 0.75 0.175 1.5 0.262
28 0.11 0.18 0.1 0.34 0.27 0.76 1.5 1.14
29 0.11 0.28 0.26 0.28 0.07 1.04 1.5 1.56
30 0.13 0.4 0.22 0.19 0.06 1.175 1.5 1.762
31 0.17 0.32 0.26 0.19 0.06 1.175 1.5 1.762
32 0.29 0.35 0.18 0.13 0.05 1.35 1.5 2.025
Total Risk Score Σ{W * Σ (Pi * F)} 84.446

42 Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017

 Gohil, Wadhvaniya & Jadeja on
Traffic Risk Assessment Model Based on Behavioral Analysis : A Case Study of Sarkhej - Gandhinagar Highway, Ahmedabad, India
Thus, Total Risk Score for S.G. Highway,
Ahmedabad is 84.45, which lies in Risk Level B
as per Table 4. It signifies the higher risk and more
chances of an accident.
7.3 Result
The analysis of data collected from questionnaire
survey by this model gives the two important
outcomes, first the risk level of a road and second
the order of events having risk high to low.
From the above analysis, first result is clear that
S.G. Highway is having a Total Risk Score of
84.45. Hence, it can be categorized as road having
Risk Level B, which suggests high risk to traffic on
it. The analysis of this model identifies the various
events causing unsafe condition on road and risk
to traffic. So that according steps can be taken by
a traffic engineer, traffic department and traffic
police to create safe and undisturbed flow of traffic
on a road.
Secondly, analysis of this model gives an order of
various events having risk high to low. One thing
should be kept in mind that while calculating risk
value for different events to get its order from high
to low, risk weightage of that particular event is
not multiplied with risk factor and probability of
occurrence. Because, risk weightage is different
for different events so it will give higher value
for characteristics related to driver, while lower
value for characteristics related to infrastructure
and vehicular. Here we need to identify as to what
are the events which are frequently happening
on a road and creating more risk to traffic. So,
these type of frequently happening events can be
identified and first priority should be given to them
while suggesting or implementing the changes to
traffic condition.
The order of unsafe events that are frequently
happening on S.G. Highway are given below. Here
first five predominant events are indicated only.
They are as per following,
(i) Drivers are overtaking from wrong
side
ii) Drivers do not obey traffic signs
(iii) Driver seem to be going very fast
(iv) Underage Driving
(v) People/Driver are impatient, rude or in
a rush
Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017 43
8. Conclusion
From the above analysis it can be concluded that
S.G. Highway is having Risk Level of B, which is
high risky and most frequently occurring events are
of human/driver’s characteristic. Result shows that
most of the time drivers are impatient and rude to
traffic or in a rush or hurry to reach their destination.
Mainly they are travelling to their office or school
and college. This hurry to reach their destination
on time, makes them to overtake from wrong side,
drive very fast and break the traffic signals. Another
important thing observed is that underage driving,
strict rules must be formed to regulate underage
driving. Drivers without license or who are below
18 years should get highly penalized, because before
18 years they are not mature enough to judge the
speed of vehicle and corresponding distance gap
between vehicles. Mostly, students going to school
are found to do underage driving, so their parents
must give attention to this and make their children
understand not to do so. Students below 18 years
should give preference to use of bicycle or public
transport. Traffic safety awareness campaigns
should be held to provide guidance to road users and
convince them to accept right practice of driving.
If the events related to driver’s characteristic are
in control, then the safety on a highway would be
increased by 70%. For that strong enforcement
policy of traffic rules should be adopted.
This model is very simple to use and it analyzes
quantitative data into qualitative data. This
qualitative data can be easily interpreted by traffic
engineer and most suitable solution can be given in
order to achieve the safe and uninterrupted flow of
traffic on a highway.
9. Acknowledgement
We express our deep sense of gratitude and
indebtness to our guide, Mr. Manivel. M. for
his valuable guidance and continuous support
during the course of the project. We thank him for
providing us with excellent facilities and freedom
for executing the project and we are greatly
indebted to him. We would also like to express
our gratitude towards our parents. We wish to
express our heart full thanks to the Department,
B. Tech (Civil) of School of Technology, Pandit
Deendayal Petroleum University, Gandhinagar for
 Sinha, Havanagi & Kanaujia on
Chrome Slag in Embankment and Pavement Construction
providing us excellent facilities and environment
and guidelines during the course of study.
We thank to all of the people who participated in
questionnaire survey, for giving their valuable time
and response to us. We also thank to all the authors
whose research we have referred during the course
of project.
References
1. J.P. Research India Pvt. Ltd., Accident Research
Study Ahmedabad (2016).
2. J.P. Research India Pvt. Ltd.; Ahmedabad
and Gandhinagar Road Accident Study
(2014-2015).
3. Sumit Sunil Punjabi, L. B. Zala, Namita Sathe,
A. A. Amin; Road Accident Cost: A-Case
Study of Selected Stretch of S.G. Highway
Ahmedabad; IJSRD - International Journal for
44 Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017
Scientific Research & Development; Vol. 4,
March, 2016, 1034-1036.
4. Ministry of Road Transport & Highways; t. r.
(2013). Road Accidents in India. New Delhi:
Government of India.
5. Dinesh Mohan, Geetam Tiwari, Sudipto
Mukherjee; Urban Traffic Safety Assessment: A
Case Study of Six Indian Cities; International
Association of Traffic and Safety Sciences;
vol. 39, 2016, 95-101.
6. Angelica Batrakova and Olga Gredasova;
Influence of Road Conditions on Traffic Safety; 9th
International Scientific Conference Transbaltica
2015; Procedia Engineering 134 (2016) 196–204.
7. Yazan Issa; Effect of driver's personal
characteristics on traffic accidents in Tabuk city
in Saudi Arabia; Journal of Transport Literature,
Vol. 10, july/sept. 2016.
 CHROME SLAG IN EMBANKMENT AND
PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION

Dr. A.K. Sinha1 Dr. V.G. Havanagi2 V.K. Kanaujia3

ABSTRACT
Chrome slag is a waste material, generated during the manufacturing of chrome metal, which
has potential for utility in embankment and road construction. Accordingly, a research project
was under taken to study the characteristics of chrome slag for utilization in road construction.
In this study, two types of slag (A & B) along with local soil were collected from Balasore, State
of Orissa, India. These materials were investigated for their physical, chemical and geotechnical
characteristics. Both slags were blended mutually as well as with local soil in the proportion of
25 - 75% to investigate the suitability of these mixes for embankment, sub grade and sub base
construction considering the MORTH and MORD specifications. Design and stability analysis
of embankment was carried out under different conditions viz. partial saturated, fully saturated
and sudden drawdown conditions with seismic factor. Design specification have been developed
for its utility in embankment, sub grade and sub base layers. However, it was concluded that an
experimental test section may be constructed and shall be monitored for a certain period of time
before recommending the same for large scale field application.
1. INTRODUCTION (2009) reported the results of experiments to
There are different types of waste materials which use ferrochromium slag as an aggregate for
are generated as a bye product from the industries granular layers of flexible pavements. Altan and
viz. copper slag, zinc slag, jarofix, jarosite, steel Mustafa (2010) studied mechanical properties
slag, red mud, foundry sand etc. The utilization of of ferrochrome slag for use in granular layers
these waste materials in road construction industry of flexible pavement. They concluded that the
is gradually gaining significant importance in India physical and mechanical properties of air-cooled
considering the disposal, environmental problem ferrochromium slag are as good as or better than
and gradually depleting natural resources like soil those of natural aggregates. Erion et al. (2011)
and aggregates. Chrome slag is one of the waste studied possibility of recycling the ferrochromium
materials, produced during extraction of chrome industrial wastes as a substitute for conventional
from its concentrate ore. In this process, molten coarse aggregate in base layer construction.
concentrate chrome ore is poured in concrete
Sanghamitra and Reddy (2012) studied the potential
buckets, chrome metal being heavier settle at the
of chrome slag in the construction of pavement
bottom while lighter slag get separated. The slag is
crushed into sizes viz. coarser (> 10 mm) and finer layers. Das (2014) characterized the ferrochrome
slag (< 10 mm). Chrome slag is non hazardous slag as an embankment and pavement material and
material as there is no leaching of heavy metals find suitable for the construction. Presently, it is
(Lind, 2001). Kauppi and Pekka (2007) reported utilized in civil construction, land filling etc. but its
that the structure of the chrome slag is crystalline, percentage utilization is very less in comparison to
glassy chemically very stable. Yilmaz and VuralKo its generation.
1. Sr. Scientist, E-mail: sinha.crri@nic.in
2. Sr. Pincipal Scientist, E-mail: vasant..crri@nic.in GTE Division CRRI New Delhi
3. Sr. Technical Officer, E-mail: kanaujia.crri@nic.in

Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017 45

 Sinha, Havanagi & Kanaujia on
Chrome Slag in Embankment and Pavement Construction
The production of chrome slag is about
0.15 million tons per year at Balasore Alloys
Limited, Orissa, while the total accumulated slag
is about 0.50 million tons. It is estimated that
about 6.0 - 9.5 million tons generated globally
and increasing about 3 % per year (Kauppi and
Pekka, 2007). In the absence of proper standard
and technical specifications, the material remain
unutilized and is being dumped on open area
within the plant occupying costly land and
affecting the environment. To increase its percent
utilization of chrome slag, its feasibility in road
construction is investigated. The paper presents,
results of laboratory tests on two different type
of slags, different design specifications for its use
in embankment, sub grade and granular sub base
layers of road pavement.
2. MATERIALS
2.1 Chrome Slag
Chrome slag (type A and B) was collected from the
existing dump yard within the plant area. Type A
slag is coarser while type B slag is finer material.
The pictorial view of dumping yard of chrome
slag is shown in the Figs. 1 and 2. The slag is
observed to be grey in colour with gravel to sand
size particles.
Fig. 1 Type A Chrome Slag
Fig. 2 Type B Chrome Slag
2.2 Soil
Soil was collected locally near the site where
it is proposed to be constructed an experimental
test track with chrome slag waste. The material is
observed to be a coarse grained.
46 Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017
3. CHEMICAL CHARACTERISATION
Chemical characterization of chrome slag was
carried out as per standard procedure and different
chemical constituents are given in Table 1. It was
observed that chrome slag mainly contents oxides
of Mg, Si, Al, Cr and traces of Ca, Fe.
Table 1 Chemical Constituents of Chrome Slag
Constituents % Constituents %
Cr2O3 10 - 12 Al2O3 22 - 24
FeO 1-2 CaO 6-8
SiO2 28-30 MgO 26 - 28
4. GEOTECHNICAL CHARACTERIZATION
Detailed laboratory experiments were carried out
to study the geotechnical characteristics of slag
and soil, which included: (a) Specific gravity
(b) Free swelling index (c) Grain size analysis
(d) Atterberg limit test (e) Proctor compaction test
(f) California Bearing Ratio test (g) Consolidation
test (h) Permeability test and (i) Direct shear test.
4.1 Specific Gravity
The value of specific gravity was found to be 3.32
for type A slag, 3.20 for type B slag and 2.68 for
local soil. The high specific gravity of slag is due
to presence of high content of heavy metals.
4.2 Free Swelling Index
It was observed that both type A & B slags are non
expansive, but FSI value of soil (40 %) indicated
medium expansive nature.
4.3 Water Absorption Test
The value of water absorption of type A slag was
obtained as 1% which indicate that slag has very
less voids.
4.4 Grain Size Analysis
It was observed that all three materials are coarse
grained i.e. type A & B slags and soil. Type A slag
contents 98 % gravel and 2% sand size particles,
type B slag contents 41 % gravel, 57 % sand and
2% silt size particles while soil contents 12 %
gravel, 45 % sand, 21 % silt and 22 % clay size
particles. The values of coefficient of uniformity
(Cu) and coefficient of curvature (Cc) of type A
are determined as 2.0 and 1.14 respectively and
for type B are 1.5 and 0.9 respectively. The grain
size distribution curves are shown in the Fig. 3. It
was observed that type A and B slags are uniformly
 Sinha, Havanagi & Kanaujia on
Chrome Slag in Embankment and Pavement Construction
coarse graded material. However, type A slag is
coarser that type B slag.
Fig. 3 Grain Size Distribution Curves
4.5 Atterberg Limit Test
Chrome slags (both type) are observed to be non
plastic in nature. The liquid and plastic limits
of the soil were determined as 46 % and 15 %
respectively. According to IS classification, type A
slag is classified as GP i.e. poorly graded gravel
while type B slag is classified as SP i.e. poorly
graded sand. Soil is classified as SC i.e. clayey
silty sand.
4.6 Proctor Compaction Test
Proctor compaction test was carried out as per
IS 2720 (part 8). As type B slag is coarse graded
sand with 2% silt, Proctor compaction tests were
carried out to determine its MDD. The Maximum
Dry Density (MDD) and Optimum Moisture
Content (OMC) are observed to be 26 kN/m3
& 5 % for type B and 21 kN/m3 & 9 % for soil
respectively. Proctor Compaction curve along with
line of air void ratio is shown in the Fig. 4. It is
observed that compaction curve for type B slag is
flat indicating its insensitiveness of dry density to
moisture content.
Fig. 4 Proctor Compaction Curves
Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017 47
4.7 Relative Density Test
Relative density test was carried out as per IS 2720
(part 14). As type A and B slag are non plastic
granular material and according to ASTM (2006 a
& b), this test is applicable to those soil having %
fines (less than 75 μm) as 15 % (Babak et al., 2013).
Accordingly, relative density test was carried out
to know the maximum and minimum density. The
Maximum Dry Density and minimum dry density
were observed to be 19.1 kN//m3 & 16.7 kN/m3
for type A slag and 22.8 kN/m3 & 19.1 kN/m3 for
type B slag respectively. Considering the dense
criteria of cohesionless material i.e. 65 to 85%
relative density, the insitu dry density of slag which
needs to be achieved in the field was estimated at
75% average relative density. The value of insitu
density to achieve the dense conditions for type
A & B slags was estimated as 17.5 kN/m3 and
20.6 kN/m3 respectively.
Type B slag, Proctor compaction test gives higher
dry density compared to relative density test
(22.8 kN/m3). This may be due to breakage of
some of the angular particles of the type B slag
due to dynamic Proctor compaction which resulted
in higher density. Since, the MDD (Proctor
compaction test) is much higher, this density may
be taken as criteria for achieving the compaction
which results in more durable road.
As Type A slag is a granular, uniformly coarse
graded gravel material without fines. Proctor
compaction test is not found to be feasible. Relative
density test was only carried out as it meets the
requirement of ASTM (2206 a & b).
However, field trials are needed while using both
types of material to assess the suitability of different
approaches of quality assessment either by Proctor
compaction or Relative density tests.
4.8 Aggregate Impact Value Test
The Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) was obtained as
8% of type A slag. The value is observed to be less
than 30% as specified in MORTH specifications
for use in construction of granular sub base layer.
4.9 California Bearing Ratio Test
Three specimens were prepared by compacting the
sample at 97% of MDD and OMC for type B slag
and soil. However, in the case of type A slag, the
samples were compacted to achieve 75% relative
 Sinha, Havanagi & Kanaujia on
Chrome Slag in Embankment and Pavement Construction

density. The prepared specimens were soaked for 4
days in potable water and the specimens were tested
at the rate of 1.25 mm/min. The average values of
CBR were observed to be 10% for type A, 26% for
type B and 4% for local soil. As the type B slag
has higher MDD (By both Proctor and Relative
density tests) than type A slag, the obtained CBR
value is higher.
4.10 Direct Shear Test
The materials were oven dried and passed through
4.75 mm sieve before preparation of specimen.
Three specimens of size 60 x 60 x 25 mm were
prepared at their respective MDD/OMC. The
specimens were sheared at the rate of 0.625
mm/min. The angle of internal friction (φ) were
Table 2 Summary of Geotechnical Characteristics of Type A & B Slag and Soil
determined as 40º and 29º while the values of
cohesion are obtained as 10 kPa and 17 kPa for
type B slag and soil respectively.
4.11 Permeability Test
The samples were prepared at 95% of MDD/
OMC. The average coefficient of permeability was
observed to be 10-1 cm/sec for slag type A, 8 x 10-4
cm/sec for slag type B and 2 x 10-9 cm/sec for soil.
The value of permeability indicates that slag type
A and type B are free draining materials and have
the potential for utilization as in embankment and
granular layers of road pavement. The local soil is
observed to be low permeable.
Summary of geotechnical characteristics of type
A&B slags and soil is given in Table 2.

Material MDD OMC LL PI CBR k (cm/s) C φ

(kN/m3) (%) (%) (%) (%) (kPa) (Degree)
Type A slag 17.5 NA NA NP 10 101 0 42
Type B slag 26 5 NA NP 26 8×10-4 10 40
Soil 21 9 47 31 4 2×10-9 17 30

5. GEOTECHNICAL CHARACTERIZATION
OF MIXES OF CHROME SLAG AND
SOIL
To investigate the suitability of mixes of type A &
B and type B & soil for use in embankment, sub
grade and granular sub base layers, different mixes
were prepared and then geotechnical characteristics
were studied.
5.1 Mixes of Type A and B Slag
Type A and B slag were blended in different
Fig. 5 Grain Size Distribution Curves of
proportions in the range of 25 – 75 % to investigate Mixes of Type A & B
the improvement in the gradation of the mixes.
Grain size analysis and Relative density test were It was observed that with the increase in percentage
carried out to investigate for any improvement in content of type A slag in mix, the value of CU
increases to value of 5.4 and then decreases.
their strength.
However, the value of Cc is marginally varies with
5.1.1 Grain size analysis percentage content of type A slag in the mixes.
The grain size distribution curves of different 5.1.2 Relative density test
proportion mixes are shown in the Fig. 5. The Both slags were mixed in the range of 25 to 75 %
coefficient of uniformity coefficient and coefficient and maximum & minimum densities of the mixes
of curvature were determined and are given in the were determined. Maximum and minimum densities
Table 3. are given in the Table 3. It was observed that both

48 Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017

 Sinha, Havanagi & Kanaujia on
Chrome Slag in Embankment and Pavement Construction

the densities do not vary much for different types water and testing was carried out at the rate of
of mixes. 1.25 mm/min. The average values of CBR of
mixes are given in the Table 3. The maximum
5.1.3 California bearing ratio test
CBR value was obtained for the proportion of type
Three specimens were prepared by compacting A and B (40:60) and 50:50).
the sample at 97% of MDD and at OMC. The Summary of geotechnical characteristics of mixes
specimens were soaked for 4 days in potable of type A and B slag are given in Table 3.
Table 3 Geotechnical Properties of Mixes of Chrome Slag

Mix Designation Cu Cc CBR, % γmax (kN/m3) γmin. (kN/m3)

Type A:B (20:80) 5.0 1.25 32 --- ---
Type A:B (25:75) 5.2 1.3 34 22 19
Type A:B (40:60) 5.4 1.5 40 22 19
Type A:B (50:50) 4.4 1.5 40 21.45 18.9
Type A:B (75:25) 3.0 1.0 29 21 18.2
Type A:B (85:15) 2.4 0.8 --- --- ---

Based on different geotechnical characteristics of
mixes of type A and B, it is concluded that a mix of
type A and B slag (40:60) is well graded and high
shear strength. This mix can be tried as sub base
material in construction of road pavement.
5.1.4 Gradation of sub base
Different proportion of type A and B slag (25
to 75%) were tried for design mix of sub base
layer. It was observed that gradation of a mix of
type A and B (40:60) meeting as per MORTH
(2103) specification of type VI sub base material.
Gradation curve of the same mix is plotted along
with upper and lower limit in the Fig. 6. It was
observed that this mix is almost within the upper
and lower specified limit.
5.2 Mixes of Type B Slag and Soil
As discussed in section 4.4, type B slag is poorly
graded sand size material. Its gradation may
be improved by mixing with soil in different
proportion.
5.2.1 Grain size analysis
Type B slag and soil were blended in different
proportions in the range of 10 to 30 %. The derived
grain size distribution curves for different mixes
are shown in the Fig. 7. It was observed that value
of coefficient of uniformity increases with increase
in soil content in the mixes.

Fig. 7 Grain Size Distribution Curves of

Mixes of Type B and Soil
5.2.2 Proctor compaction test
Fig. 6 Grain Size Distribution Curve of Modified Proctor compaction test was carried
Mix of Type A & B (40:60) out on different mixes of type B and soil as per

Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017 49

 Sinha, Havanagi & Kanaujia on
Chrome Slag in Embankment and Pavement Construction

standard procedure. The content of soil in the
mixes varied in the range of 10 - 30 %. Proctor
compaction curves of slag – soil mixes are shown
in the Fig. 8.
Fig. 8 Variation of Dry Desity vs. Moisture
Content of Type A Slag and Soil
The maximum dry density varied in the range of
25.4 to 25.5 kN/m3, while the optimum moisture
content varied in the range of 7 to 8% for different
mixes.
It was observed that there is not much variation in
MDD/OMC of different slag-soil mixes. However,
it was observed that the proportion 80:20, indicated
better interlocking and compactibility during
Proctor compaction test. Considering this, mix of
type B slag and soil (80:20) can be considered for
the utilization in the construction of embankment.
To evaluate the parameters required for slope
stability and settlement analysis, consolidation
and direct shear test was carried out as discussed
below.
5.2.3 Consolidation test
Remolded samples of mix of type B slag: soil
(80:20) was prepared at 95 % of respective MDD
and OMC. The value of compression index (Cc)
was determined as 0.054.
Table 4 Summary of Geotechnical Characteristics of Mixes of Type B Slag:Soil
5.2.4 Direct shear test
Direct shear test was carried out on mix of type
B and soil (80:20) as per standard procedure. The
values of cohesion and angle of internal friction
(φ) were observed to be 14 kPa and 380.
5.2.5 California bearing ratio
To investigate the suitability of different slag:soil
mixes for sub grade construction, CBR test was
carried out as per standard procedure. Type B
and soil was mixed in dry condition in different
proportion viz. 10:90, 20:80, 30:70 considering
maximum utilisation of type B slag. California
Bearing Ratio test was carried out for the different
mixes. Three specimens were prepared by
compacting the sample at 97 % of MDD and at
OMC. The average values of CBR of mixes were
observed to be 29 % (90:10), 21 % (80:20) and
15% (70:30). The Variation of CBR with respect to
% soil content in the mixes of type B slag and soil
is shown in the Fig. 9.
Fig. 9 Variation of CBR with % Soil Content in the
Mixes of Type B Slag and Soil
CBR increases with soil content and is optimum at
10% soil. With 10% addition of soil CBR increases
from 26 to 29 because of filling of voids and
increase in the shear strength of mix (slag:soil).
Summary of geotechnical characteristics of mixes
of type B slag:soil is given in Table 4.

Mix designation γ OMC Cc C Φ CBR

(kN/m3) (%) (kN/m2) (deg.) (%)
Type B:soil (90:10) 25.6 7 -- -- -- 29
Type B:soil (80:20) 25.5 7 0.054 14 38 21
Type B:soil (70:30) 25.4 8 -- -- -- 15

50 Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017

 Sinha, Havanagi & Kanaujia on
Chrome Slag in Embankment and Pavement Construction
6. DESIGN OF EMBANKMENT
Embankment is designed as a composite structure
with type B slag alone or its mix with soil in the
proportion (80:20) in the core and with a cover of
soil (PI < 6) on either side. For the specifications
of cover soil and thickness may be adopted as
per IRC SP 58 (2001) or it is proposed to provide
2 m thick soil cover (Measured horizontally). This
would also add stability to the embankment. In
order to evolve a proper construction methodology,
it is suggested that a trial embankment of suitable
height should be constructed. On the basis of the
same, construction methodology may be evolved.
The present soil may not be suitable as PI value is
high (31%).
6.1 Stability Analysis
The slag embankment of height 3 m for a two lane
road with side slope of 2H:1V, was analyzed for
its slope failure under partially saturation, fully
submerged and sudden draw down conditions.
The traffic and other live loads on the top of the
embankment are considered as 24 kN/m2. The
basic seismic coefficients considered in the
analysis are αh = 0.05 (horizontal) and αv = 0.025
(vertical) as per IRC (2006). Different parameters
of embankment and sub soil materials for stability
analysis were considered from Tables 2 & 4 viz.
density, cohesion, angle of internal friction etc.
A typical stability analysis for 3 m embankments
is shown in Fig. 10. Factor of safety values
determined for different heights of embankments
are summarized in Table 5. It is observed that factor
of safety values for critical sudden draw down
conditions under seismic conditions is 1.64, which
is more than the minimum value of 1.25 required
as per IRC:75-2015. It was also observed that mix
of type B slag and soil in the core of embankment
increases the factor of safety in comparison to type
B slag alone.
Table. 5 Factor of Safety Values for Embankment
S. No. Condition of Type B Type B
Embankment Slag slag:soil
(80:20)
1 Partially saturated 1.97 2.01
2 Submerged 1.95 2.00
3 Draw Down Condition 1.64 1.69
Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017 51
6.2 Settlement Analysis
Prediction of total settlement is important in the
case of utilization of non-conventional waste
material in the road embankment, as strength
and deformation behavior is not much familiar.
The estimation of total settlement due to primary
consolidation has been discussed below.
6.2.1 Primary consolidation settlement
The Primary consolidation settlement was
calculated using equation 1 as given below.
S=  ... (1)
S = Primary compression occurring in the layer
under consideration, m
H = Initial thickness of the embankment = 3 m
e0 = Initial void ratio of the embankment = 0.416
Cc = Primary compression index from consolida-
tion test =0.054
σ0 = Existing overburden pressure acting at the
middle level of the embankment
Δσ = Increment of overburden pressure at the mid-
dle level of the layer, 24 kN/m2
It is observed that the primary settlement estimated
analytically for 3 m slag embankment is 100 mm.
However, this settlement is much less than the
allowable settlement of 300 mm to 600 mm
considered for Road embankment (IRC:75, 2013).
The total settlement will be uniform and shall be
completed during construction itself.
7. DEVELOPEMENT OF DESIGN
SPECIFICATION
7.1 As an Embankment Material
The suitability of type B slag and its mix for
embankment construction was evaluated by
comparing its geotechnical characteristics
with MORTH (2001) as well as MORD (2004)
specification as given in the Table 6.
It is concluded that both type B slag alone can be
used in the construction of embankment as per
MORTH/MORD specifications. However, the
slag-soil is also recommended considering the
practical feasibility for compaction in the field.
This may be decided during the field study.
 Sinha, Havanagi & Kanaujia on
Chrome Slag in Embankment and Pavement Construction
Table 6 Comparison of Specifications for Embankment Material
S. No. Properties Type B
1 Maximum particle size, mm 12
2 LL (%) NA
3 PI (%) NP
4 Density (kN/m )
3
26
5 FSI, % 2 18
Type A slag also meets the standard specifications.
But its utilization in the embankment construction
may not be economically viable and shall be treated
as a sub base material.
7.2 As a Sub Grade Material
Type B slag: Geotechnical properties of type B
slag (alone) and mix of type B and soil are meeting
the required specifications of sub grade material as
per MORTH & MORD. CBR values of both type
B slag and its mixes are more than 15 %, indicates
its suitability for sub grade construction.
7.3 As A Granular Sub Grade Material
The Gradation of mix of type A and B slag (40:60)
and CBR value meet the requirement of granular
sub base layer as per MORTH specification.
Accordingly, this mix may be tried in the
construction of granular sub base layer.
8. CONCLUSION
Two different types (A and B) of chrome slag
and soil were collected from Balasoure Alloys
Limited, Orissa to investigate their suitability in
embankment, sub grade and granular sub base layers
of road construction. To improve their properties,
the two types of slag were mixed with local soil in
different proportion and were investigated in the
laboratory for their geotechnical characteristics.
Stability and settlement analysis were also carried
out to investigate their suitability in embankment
construction. Brief summary of the conclusions
are given below:
52 Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017
Type B and MORTH MORD
Soil (80:20) Specification Specification
12 < 75 mm < 75 mm
NA < 50 < 50
NP < 25 < 25
25.4 >15.2 (< 3 m) >14.4 (< 3 m)
>16.0 (>3 m) >15.2 ( >3 m)
< 50 < 50
► The high specific gravity of slag is due to the
presence of high content of oxides of Mg,
Si, Al and Cr. Type A slag is classified as GP
i.e. poorly graded gravel while type B slag
is classified as SP i.e. poorly graded sand.
Both slags are non plastic, non expensive and
having good permeability. Soil is classified as
SC i.e. clayey silty sand and medium expan-
sive in nature. Water absorption value of slag
is low.
► The Aggregate impact value (8 %) of slag
indicates that it is a suitable material. CBR
value of slag was observed to in the range of
10 to 16 % which is much higher than con-
ventional soil. The angle of internal friction
(φ) were determined in the range of 40º and
42º.
► The results of geotechnical characteristics
of Type B slag and stability analysis (fac-
tor of safety =2.58) indicated its suitability
for embankment construction. However, as
this material is non plastic and erodible, a
cover soil of good earth (PI<10) should be
provided.
► Proctor compaction characteristics of
different slag-soil mixes indicated that
MDD values ranged between 25.4 to
25.5 kN/m3 which is more than
conventional soil. However, it was observed
that there was not much variation in
MDD/OMC of different slag-soil mixes.
The proportion of slag: soil (80:20), indi-
 Sinha, Havanagi & Kanaujia on
Chrome Slag in Embankment and Pavement Construction
cated better interlocking and compactibility
during Proctor compaction test. Considering
this, mix of type B slag and soil (80:20) was
considered as an optimum mix for the
utilization in construction of embankment.
► The direct shear tests on the optimum mix
(80:20) indicated a high angle of internal
friction of 38º, while the mix is observed
to be low compressible having Cc value of
0.054. Both these results indicated the
suitability of the mix for embankment and
sub grade construction.
► The stability analysis of a 3 m height
slag-soil mix (80:20) indicated a minimum
factor of safety value under critical sudden
draw down conditions and seismic
conditions as 2.6, which is much more than
the minimum value of 1.25 required as
per IRC:75-2015. Primary settlement was
estimated for 3m slag embankment is
100 mm which is much lower than specified
i.e. 300 mm to 600 mm (IRC:75-2013).
► The value of CBR was also more than
required CBR value (> 30 %). Mix of type
A and B slags (40:60) is well graded and
having high shear strength and meets the
requirement of granular sub base layer
(Grade VI) as per MORTH specification.
9. RECOMMENDATION
Type B alone and mix of type B & soil (80:20) are
recommended for the construction of embankment
and subgrade with soil cover on the slope. Mix of
type A and B (40:60) is also recommended for the
construction of granular sub base layer.
Before undertaking as test road construction,
slag should be tested to ensure that it does not
have heavy metal/contaminants which may leach
out and pollute the ground water. However,
the performance of these materials has to be
authenticated by construction of experimental test
track and monitoring over a period of time.
Highway Research Journal, January - June, 2017 53
10. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to the Director, CSIR-
Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi for
giving permission to publish the paper.
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 Sinha, Havanagi & Kanaujia on
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