AGPT04A-08 Guide To Pavement Technology Part 4A Granular Base and Subbase Materials

Guide to Pavement Technology Part 4A:
Granular Base and Subbase Materials
Sydney 2008
Guide to Pavement Technology Part 4A: Granular Base and Subbase Materials
Publisher
First edition project manager: David Hubner
Austroads Ltd.
Level 9, 287 Elizabeth Street
First edition prepared by: Binh Vuong, Geoff Jameson, Kieran Sharp and Sydney NSW 2000 Australia
Barry Fielding
Phone: +61 2 8265 3300
Abstract austroads@austroads.com.au
This Guide contains advice on the selection, testing and specification of www.austroads.com.au
crushed rock and naturally occurring granular materials for use in pavement
base and subbase construction. About Austroads
Austroads is the peak organisation of Australasian
road transport and traffic agencies.
Austroads’ purpose is to support our member
organisations to deliver an improved Australasian
road transport network. To succeed in this task, we
undertake leading-edge road and transport
research which underpins our input to policy
development and published guidance on the
design, construction and management of the road
network and its associated infrastructure.
Keywords Austroads provides a collective approach that
specification, gravels, unbound granular material, aggregate, crushed rock, delivers value for money, encourages shared
characterisation, material testing, laboratory testing methods, field knowledge and drives consistency for road users.
performance, flexible pavements Austroads is governed by a Board consisting of
senior executive representatives from each of its
Edition 1.1 published August 2018 eleven member organisations:
Incorporating errata from April 2013 replacing Figure C1 in Appendix C and • Roads and Maritime Services New South Wales
updating formatting. • Roads Corporation Victoria
Edition 1 published September 2008 • Queensland Department of Transport and Main

Roads
• Main Roads Western Australia
• Department of Planning, Transport and
ISBN 978-1-921329-84-5 Pages 64 Infrastructure South Australia
Austroads Project No. TP1159 • Department of State Growth Tasmania
Austroads Publication No. AGPT04A-08 • Department of Infrastructure, Planning and
Logistics Northern Territory
• Transport Canberra and City Services
© Austroads Ltd 2008 Directorate, Australian Capital Territory
This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the • Australian Government Department of
Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced by any process without Infrastructure and Regional Development
the prior written permission of Austroads. • Australian Local Government Association
• New Zealand Transport Agency.
This Guide is produced by Austroads as a general guide. Its application is discretionary. Road authorities may vary their practice
according to local circumstances and policies. Austroads believes this publication to be correct at the time of printing and does not
accept responsibility for any consequences arising from the use of information herein. Readers should rely on their own skill and
judgement to apply information to particular issues.
Contents
1. Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Scope ....................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Background .............................................................................................................................................. 2
1.2.1 Improved Pavement Design Procedures .................................................................................... 2
1.2.2 Improved Understanding of Durability ........................................................................................ 2
1.2.3 Increased Heavy Vehicles .......................................................................................................... 3
1.2.4 Improved Quarry Plant ............................................................................................................... 3
1.2.5 Improved Construction Plant ...................................................................................................... 3
1.2.6 Uniformity of Practice in Specification ........................................................................................ 3
2. Role and Function of Granular Materials in a Pavement.................................................................... 4

2.1 Function of a Road Pavement .................................................................................................................. 4
2.2 Requirements of a Pavement Material ..................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Function of Granular Base and Subbase Materials ................................................................................. 6
2.4 Operating Environment ............................................................................................................................ 7
3. Behaviour of Granular Pavement Materials in Service ...................................................................... 8

3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 8
3.2 Shear Strength ......................................................................................................................................... 9
3.2.1 Particle Shape and Surface Texture ........................................................................................ 10
3.2.2 Percentage Fines and Fines Plasticity ..................................................................................... 10
3.2.3 Particle Size Distribution ........................................................................................................... 11
3.2.4 Density and Moisture Content .................................................................................................. 11
3.3 Modulus .................................................................................................................................................. 11
3.3.1 Particle Size and Shape ........................................................................................................... 11
3.3.2 Particle Roughness and Shape ................................................................................................ 12
3.3.3 Fines Content and Fines Plasticity ........................................................................................... 12
3.4 Permanent Deformation ......................................................................................................................... 13
3.4.1 Particle Shape .......................................................................................................................... 14
3.4.3 Fines Content ........................................................................................................................... 14
3.5 Durability................................................................................................................................................. 15
3.6 Permeability ............................................................................................................................................ 15
3.6.2 Fines Content and Fines Plasticity ........................................................................................... 16
3.7 Compaction (Density and Moisture) ....................................................................................................... 16
3.7.2 Maximum Size .......................................................................................................................... 18
3.7.3 Particle Shape .......................................................................................................................... 18
3.7.4 Fines Content ........................................................................................................................... 18
4. Production of Granular Materials ....................................................................................................... 19

4.1 Methods of Production ........................................................................................................................... 19
4.1.1 Crushing Plant .......................................................................................................................... 19
4.1.2 Additives ................................................................................................................................... 24
4.2 Production of Naturally Occurring Granular Materials ............................................................................ 24
4.2.1 Methods of Production .............................................................................................................. 25
4.2.2 Assessment .............................................................................................................................. 27
4.3 Production of Crushed Rock .................................................................................................................. 29
4.3.1 Methods of Crushed Rock Production ...................................................................................... 29
Austroads 2008 | page i

5. Crushed Rock Properties Requiring Specification ........................................................................... 31

5.1 General ................................................................................................................................................... 31
5.2 Specification Types ................................................................................................................................ 31
5.3 Source Rock ........................................................................................................................................... 32
5.4 Product Requirements ............................................................................................................................ 32
5.4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 32
5.4.2 Maximum Size .......................................................................................................................... 33
5.4.4 Particle Shape .......................................................................................................................... 35
5.4.5 Nature of Fines ......................................................................................................................... 36
5.4.6 Example Test Limits for Crushed Rock .................................................................................... 36
6. Properties of Naturally Occurring Granular Materials Requiring Specification ............................37

6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 37
6.2 Particle Size Distribution ........................................................................................................................ 37
6.3 Clay and Silt Content .............................................................................................................................. 37
6.4 Particle Shape and Texture .................................................................................................................... 38
6.5 Maximum Particle Size ........................................................................................................................... 38
6.6 Particle Strength and Durability .............................................................................................................. 38
6.7 Compacted Density and Moisture Content ............................................................................................ 38
6.8 Example Test Limits for Natural Gravels ................................................................................................ 39
7. Tests For Quality .................................................................................................................................. 40

7.1 General ................................................................................................................................................... 40
7.2 Source Rock Tests for Crushed Rock .................................................................................................... 43
7.3 Product Tests ......................................................................................................................................... 44
7.3.2 Particle Shape .......................................................................................................................... 44
7.3.3 Particle Density and Absorption ............................................................................................... 44
7.3.4 Consistency Limits .................................................................................................................... 45
7.3.5 Soil Fines .................................................................................................................................. 46
7.3.6 Contaminants............................................................................................................................ 47
7.3.7 Unsound Stone Content ........................................................................................................... 47
7.3.8 California Bearing Ratio ............................................................................................................ 48
7.3.9 Repeated Load Triaxial Test .................................................................................................... 49
7.3.10 Permeability .............................................................................................................................. 50
References ...................................................................................................................................................... 52
Unified Soil Classification System ........................................................................................ 53
Example TEST Limits for Crushed rock ................................................................................ 55
Example Test Limits for Natural Gravels .............................................................................. 61
Tables
Table 2.1: Pavement material requirements (Lay 1981) ............................................................................ 5
Table 3.1: Relationships between granular material properties and requirements of
unbound layers.......................................................................................................................... 9
Table 7.1: Australian Standard Test Methods for Product Assessment ..................................................41
Table 7.2: New Zealand Standard Test Methods for Product Assessment .............................................42
Figures
Figure 2.1: Components of a road pavement.............................................................................................. 4
Austroads 2008 | page ii

Figure 2.2: Rutting of granular base induced by trafficking......................................................................... 6

Figure 2.3: Stress distribution within a granular pavement ......................................................................... 7
Figure 3.1: Shape of aggregate particles .................................................................................................. 10
Figure 3.2: Effects of material grading on modulus .................................................................................. 13
Figure 3.3: Typical crushed rock particle size distributions ....................................................................... 18
Figure 4.1: Jaw crusher ............................................................................................................................. 20
Figure 4.2: Gyratory crusher ..................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 4.3: Cone crusher........................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 4.4: Impact crusher ........................................................................................................................ 22
Figure 4.5: Vertical shaft impact crusher (courtesy Boral ACM) ............................................................... 23
Figure 4.6: Some natural granular pavement materials ............................................................................ 25
Figure 4.7: Plant for mixing and breaking down oversize materials .........................................................26
Figure 4.8: Production of crushed rock ..................................................................................................... 29
Figure 5.1: Compacted crushed rock with n ≈ 0.45 .................................................................................. 34
Figure 5.2: Particle size distribution and workability (Ingles and Metcalf 1972) .......................................35
Figure 5.3: Compacted crushed rock with deficiencies of some sizes .....................................................35
Figure 7.1: Assessment of unsound stone content using reference samples ..........................................47
Figure 7.2: Laboratory measurement of California Bearing Ratio (CBR) .................................................48
Figure 7.3: In situ measurement of California Bearing Ratio .................................................................... 49
Figure 7.4: Repeated load triaxial test equipment .................................................................................... 50
Figure 7.5: Permeability apparatus ........................................................................................................... 51
Austroads 2008 | page iii

1. Introduction
1.1 Scope
Part 4A of the Guide to Pavement Technology presents Australasian practice in the selection and testing of
unbound granular materials for base and subbase pavement construction. This includes the following
generic material types:
• Naturally occurring granular materials (natural gravels/sand-clay/soft and fissile rock), which do not
require costly extraction or crushing processes. They are an important source of material used in the
pavement (base and subbase) and shoulder construction of flexible pavements in Australia.
• Crushed rock, which is produced by the crushing and screening of hard source rock (igneous,
metamorphic or sedimentary rock), which would typically need to be excavated by the use of explosives,
and river gravels. It is used in the pavement (base and subbase) and shoulder construction of flexible
pavements.
Recycled materials are discussed in Part 4E: Recycled Materials of the Guide to Pavement Technology.
Part 4A of the Guide to Pavement Technology supersedes two of the five parts of the NAASRA publication
series ‘Pavement Materials’ which was published during the 1980s:
Part 2 – Natural Gravel, Sand-Clay and Soft and Fissile Rock
Part 3 – Crushed Rock.
Relevant sections of Part 4 of the NAASRA publication series Pavement Materials – Aggregates will be
incorporated into Part 4J: Aggregate and Source Rock of the Guide to Pavement Technology.
Relevant sections of Part 5 of the NAASRA publication series – Quality Description and Assurance – will be
incorporated into Part 8: Pavement Construction Assurance of the Guide to Pavement Technology. This
Part introduces the basic properties of quality assessment and discusses the significance of variability and
sampling risks to the specifications and assessment of quality.
The Guide addresses the factors which lead to the appropriate selection and specification of unbound
granular materials by reference to:
• the role and function of granular materials in a pavement, including factors such as the intrinsic or
manufactured properties and their relationship to in-service behaviour and performance
• the physical properties affecting material requirements, including the properties that affect structural
adequacy, serviceability, durability, volume stability, permeability, compaction, and workability
• the production of naturally occurring granular materials, crushed rock and recycled materials
• the different methods of specification, quality management, attaining required performance
characteristics, and quality control and assurance (refer Part 8: Pavement Construction of the Guide).
This Guide should be read in conjunction with the other parts of the Pavement Technology series:
• Part 1 Introduction to Pavement Technology
• Part 2 Pavement Structural Design
• Part 3 Pavement Surfacings
• Part 4 Pavement Materials
– Part 4A Granular Base and Subbase Materials
Austroads 2008 | page 1

– Part 4B Asphalt
– Part 4C Materials for Concrete Road Pavements
– Part 4D Stabilised Materials
– Part 4E Recycled Materials
– Part 4F Bituminous Binders
– Part 4G Geotextiles and Geogrids
– Part 4H Test Methods
– Part 4I Earthworks Materials
– Part 4J Aggregate and Source Rock
– Part 4K Seals
– Part 4L Stabilising Binders
• Part 5 Pavement Evaluation and Treatment Design
• Part 6 Unsealed Pavements
• Part 7 Pavement Maintenance
• Part 8 Pavement Construction
• Part 9 Pavement Work Practices
• Part 10 Subsurface Drainage.
Further details on all available Austroads documents can be found at www.austroads.com.au
1.2 Background
Since NAASRA published Pavement Materials – Part 3 (Crushed Rock) in 1976, a much better
understanding of the performance and characterisation of granular materials has been developed. Factors
that have influenced these developments include the following.
1.2.1 Improved Pavement Design Procedures
The introduction of mechanistic pavement design procedures in 1987 has resulted in an improved
understanding of how unbound pavements perform under load which led to improvements in the tools for the
structural design of new pavements (Part 2 of the Guide to Pavement Technology).
Recent research into the performance of unbound materials has also assisted in the development of
performance based material characteristics based upon dynamic load laboratory testing and the
development of standardised equipment and test procedures for the characterisation of these materials.
1.2.2 Improved Understanding of Durability
As a result of a number of significant pavement failures due to the use of non-durable source rock for the
production of crushed rock base, national and international research has resulted in the development of new
or modified test procedures for the characterisation and specification of source rock and crushed rock
product. As a result, and without underestimating the value of testing the final product, a better
understanding of the part played by the inherent mineralogy of the source rock in the long-term durability of
the manufactured product has been obtained.

1.2.3 Increased Heavy Vehicles
The gross vehicle mass, axle loads, tyre pressures and number of heavy vehicles have been steadily
increasing. High pavement loading together with diminishing reserves of economically available naturally
occurring granular materials of appropriate quality, combined with the environmental damage associated with
the winning of natural gravels, have resulted in the need for increased use of crushed rock products in
pavement construction, particularly in the rural areas of Australia. In some instances however, local deposits
of quarry material may be suitable for road base application and may be more economical and cost effective
both financially and environmentally.
1.2.4 Improved Quarry Plant
Improvements in the design and operation of quarry plant have led to better consistency in production of
crushed rocks. This is commonly achieved by blending a number of crushed components and, in some
cases, a fine additive or filler to provide a material that has the desired characteristics of strength, workability,
cohesion and permeability.
1.2.5 Improved Construction Plant
There has been steady and significant improvement in the plant available for the placement, spreading and
compaction of pavement materials. This, together with tight quality control testing, has enabled materials to
be placed with much higher compaction levels, greater uniformity in density and to finer tolerances in finished
level.
1.2.6 Uniformity of Practice in Specification
One of the strategic goals of Austroads is to work toward national uniformity of practice with respect to the
specification of road construction materials and to encourage the use of appropriate National Standards. A
number of Australian Standards have recently been published which provide a basis for the preparation of a
works specification for aggregates and rock for engineering purposes (Australian Standard AS 2758 series).
Test Methods for the sampling and testing of aggregates have also been developed (Australian Standard AS
1141 series) which are referenced in AS2758. These Standards are being progressively adopted by road
agencies and industry, supplemented, where appropriate, by modification or by methods developed to
address specific local requirements. The test methods are discussed in more detail in Section 7.

2. Role and Function of Granular Materials

in a Pavement
2.1 Function of a Road Pavement
The basic function of a road pavement is to support the traffic loading with acceptable ride quality and
without undue deterioration over the period for which it is designed. To do this, the pavement must attenuate
the traffic-induced stresses in all pavement layers and the subgrade sufficiently to prevent significant
pavement distress. This is normally achieved by a structure consisting of several layers of differing quality
material, with the highest quality materials in the upper portion of the pavement where load induced stresses
are higher, and lesser quality materials in lower layers where stresses have reduced.
The terms used to describe the various components of a road pavement are shown in Figure 2.1. Further
details are provided in Part 1: Introduction to Pavement Technology of the Guide to Pavement Technology.
Figure 2.1: Components of a road pavement
The wearing surface is the top layer which covers all structural elements of a pavement. The base consists
of one or more layers of material on which the surfacing is placed. It may be composed of fine crushed rock,
natural gravel, broken stone, stabilised material, asphalt or Portland cement concrete. The subbase is laid
on the subgrade below the base either for the purpose of making up additional pavement thickness, or to
provide a working platform.
The purpose of the shoulder is to provide:

• lateral support for the pavement layers
• an impermeable barrier to protect the base and subbase against the lateral infiltration of moisture
• a trafficable surface for non-motorised traffic or occasional traffic (errant or stopping vehicles) and/or
maintenance vehicles.
General pavement configurations that incorporate granular pavement layers include:

• full depth granular with sprayed seal surfacing
• full depth granular with thin asphalt surfacing
• bound or unbound granular subbase with asphalt base and surfacing
• thin asphalt or sprayed seal surfacing with unbound granular base and bound subbase.

This Guide addresses issues associated with unbound granular materials used in the base and subbase of a
pavement. Bound materials are addressed in Part 4B: Asphalt and Part 4D: Stabilised Materials of the
Guide to Pavement Technology whilst concrete is addressed in Part 4C: Materials for Concrete Pavements
of the Guide to Pavement Technology. Requirements for source rock to produce granular materials are
described in Part 4J: Aggregate and Source Rock.
The required thickness of granular material to support the design traffic loading can be determined either
empirically or mechanistically using the procedures detailed in Part 2: Pavement Structural Design of the
Guide to Pavement Technology.
2.2 Requirements of a Pavement Material
The requirements of a pavement material are generally as follows:

• sufficient strength to withstand the applied traffic and environmental stresses
• sufficient hardness to withstand applied loads without inducing particle breakdown
• ability to be placed and compacted to meet specification requirements
• durable and not degrade or disintegrate significantly over the life of the pavement
• quality that is fit-for-purpose.
The basic properties that satisfy these requirements and their operative range are listed in Table 2.1 and
each will be further discussed in this Guide. Figure 2.2 shows an example of traffic induced rutting of a
granular base layer.
Table 2.1: Pavement material requirements (Lay 1981)
Property Definition Range

workability the ability to be placed, compacted and formed to the required construction
condition and shape
economy the material must be available and workable at an acceptable cost
strength/stiffness the ability to resist loads without unacceptable deformation or in-service
induce tensile fatigue in surfacings
hardness the ability to withstand load without fracture and particle in-service
breakdown
durability the ability to maintain its characteristics with time in-service
volume stability the ability to resist significant changes in volume as conditions, in-service
such as moisture content, change
wear resistance the ability to resist erosion, abrasion and polishing surface* in-service
course
surface finish the ability to accept and maintain a bituminous surfacing surface* in-service
course
impermeability the ability to resist moisture penetration and resultant loss of load surface* in-service
bearing capacity and stiffness course
Note: There are some other cases where impermeability is needed, e.g. basecourse layers.

Figure 2.2: Rutting of granular base induced by trafficking
2.3 Function of Granular Base and Subbase Materials
The functions of a granular base layer in a pavement are to:

• Provide sufficient stiffness to reduce stresses in the subbase and subgrade so that the pavement surface
does not deform excessively.
• For unsurfaced pavements, provide a layer which has high durability (wear resistance) under tyre/surface
contact stresses.
• Provide sufficient stiffness to support a bituminous surface without its cracking due to tensile fatigue or
the sealing aggregate penetration under heavy wheel loads.
• Provide a layer which will not excessively deform under repeated loading.
• In most locations, provide a layer with sufficiently low permeability to inhibit the ingress of water into the
underlying subbase and subgrade layers. However in some circumstance base material with high
permeability may be considered. Environments where water entry into the base is inevitable may be
more suited to using a permeable material. In such case the permeable layer will allow for more rapid
drainage. In addition, locations where freeze/thaw is expected may be more suited to highly permeable
material which allows for expansion of the water on freezing without causing damage. Regardless of
which approach is used, careful consideration of sub-surface drainage design and permeability of
underlying and adjacent materials is necessary.
The functions of a granular subbase layer in a pavement are as follows:

• provide sufficient stiffness to distribute traffic loads transmitted through the pavement base, reducing their
intensity to a level which will not cause excessive permanent deformation of the subgrade
• provide a working platform on which base materials can be transported, placed and compacted to the
required standards
• depending on the pavement design requirements, drain the base and/or protect the subgrade from
moisture infiltration, e.g. the lower subbase may be relatively impermeable whilst the upper subbase may
be more permeable provided it is constructed in conjunction with appropriate sub-surface drainage.
The stress distribution within a granular pavement is illustrated in Figure 2.3.

In all cases, the selection of the most appropriate granular material can have a profound affect on the
structural and functional performance of the pavement.
Figure 2.3: Stress distribution within a granular pavement
2.4 Operating Environment
The operating environment of the pavement includes loading, moisture and temperature. The traffic loading
environment, in terms of the spectrum of vehicle classifications and volumes, will normally influence the
choice of materials used. For example, heavy traffic situations may preclude the use of an unbound granular
pavement layer.
The moisture environment under which a granular pavement material must operate will have a major impact
on its performance. All granular materials lose strength, to a greater or lesser extent, with increasing
moisture content and this needs to be taken into account in their selection.
In particularly cold environments, temperature may also be a consideration. Where freeze/thaw occurs,
damage to the pavement structure may arise through cycles of expansion and contraction (freeze/thaw) of
water within the void space.
Details regarding the selection of the most appropriate granular material are presented in Part 4: Pavement
Materials of the Guide to Pavement Technology.

3. Behaviour of Granular Pavement Materials in Service
3.1 Introduction
This section of the Guide discusses some of the factors which influence the performance of granular base
and subbase materials in service, and the reasons for the selection of tests which are indicative of the ability
of a material to perform satisfactorily. The physical properties of bound materials which affect material
requirements are discussed in Part 4B: Asphalt, Part 4C: Materials for Concrete Pavements, Part 4D:
Stabilised Materials, of the Guide to Pavement Technology.
The behaviour of granular materials in service is governed by many factors which are related to the following:
• the intrinsic properties of coarse particles, including hardness, surface friction and contamination, and the
geological origin and history of the source rock from which the material is derived
• manufactured aggregate properties such as particle shape, size and surface texture, particle size
distribution, fractured faces, nature and quantity of fine particles, and fillers – these factors are related to
processes used during manufacture to produce the final product
• compacted layer properties such as density, moisture content and particle orientation, which are in turn
related to the construction and compaction processes
• boundary conditions such as in situ moisture and temperature regimes, and the stresses applied at the
boundaries of the constructed pavement – these are external influences that will influence both short and
long term behaviour.
These factors can be highly variable because of their random nature within space and over time. For
practical reasons, the physical properties (intrinsic, manufactured and compacted properties) are often
described by simple index tests and test result limits so that:
• material attributes associated with structural adequacy (such as stiffness, shear strength, and permanent
deformation), serviceability adequacy (such as micro texture), durability (hardness and wear resistance),
volume change, permeability and workability can be quickly assessed
• material requirements can be readily amendable to acceptance testing at the time of work.
Standards of compliance assessment based on these physical properties are often applied to material
manufacture and construction in a quality control environment, which essentially includes a set of activities
performed by a supplier.
Table 3.1 summarises the significant physical properties of granular materials for pavement layers that can
influence the material requirements. The potential suitability of a granular material for an unbound pavement
layer is inferred from the physical properties of both the source rock and the end-product. However,
requirements differ depending on the application.
Basic properties currently adopted in specifications for the production and supply of granular materials for
pavement construction and quality assessment are further discussed in Sections 5 and 6.

Table 3.1: Relationships between granular material properties and requirements of unbound layers
Requirement of material physical property to produce the specified layer property requirement
Long term performance

Structural adequacy requirements Construction requirements
requirements
Physical
property High
Low
High High durability Low Good Good
Permanent
strength stiffness or volume permeability compaction workability
Deformation
stability
particle
hardness and
– – – tough – tough tough
crushing
strength
particle
surface rough – rough – – smooth rough
texture
rounded to rounded to rounded to
particle shape angular angular – –
angular angular angular
particle size well- well-
well graded well-graded - well-graded well-graded
distribution graded graded
large small nominal
large d10
particle size – nominal – - – size
size
size (<20 mm)
medium medium
fines content* – low high low high
(6-12%) (6-12%)
fines plasticity
medium medium
(Plasticity – low – low high
(2-8%) (2-8%)
Index)
density high high high high high – –
moisture
low low low low low high –
content
* percentage passing the 0.075 mm sieve

- questionable or insufficient supporting evidence
Note: terms such as ‘low’, ‘high’ etc are indicative only, see road agency specifications for actual values
3.2 Shear Strength
Shear strength is defined as the resistance to shear stress, at failure, on a surface within a soil mass.
Laboratory testing methods used to study the shear failure of granular materials and subgrades include the
direct shear test, triaxial shear test and simple shear test. Triaxial shear testing (including the Texas triaxial
shear test) has been accepted as the standard laboratory method for determining the shear strength of
unbound granular materials (Austroads 2007).
The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test (Figure 8.2 and Figure 8.3) provides an indicator or index of the
shear strength.
Rutting and shoving are the major surface defects that depict shear failure in base layers. Shear failure in
the base can lead to thinning of the pavement layer (rutting within the base) and disruption of the surface
seal. If due to lack of base shear strength the aggregate in a spray seal penetrates into the base leaving a
flushed surface, the surface may be hazardous in rainy conditions as surface skid resistance is reduced due
to the loss of surface texture and aquaplaning related to the channelling of water in wheelpaths can occur.

Figure 3.1: Shape of aggregate particles
Source: VicRoads 1998, Technical Bulletin 39
Some significant properties that may affect the shear strength of compacted unbound pavement materials
are as follows.
3.2.1 Particle Shape and Surface Texture
At fixed porosity, the stone shape (refer Figure 3.1) and surface texture (friction and roughness) can affect
the shear strength of granular materials. Particles which are angular and have a rough surface texture are
superior, in terms of shear strength, to river gravel gravels which are rounded and have a smooth surface
texture. Flaky and elongated particles may cause workability and compaction difficulties and tends to break
down during compaction and in service. Particle shape testing is conducted on coarse material with >10%
retained on the 9.5 mm sieve. Thus the shape of material < 9.5 mm should be considered by adopting other
means, possibly Average Least Dimension.
3.2.2 Percentage Fines and Fines Plasticity
The percentage fines passing the 0.425 mm sieve (this is the fraction from which Consistency Limits are
determined (refer Section 7.3. 4)) and fines-plasticity have a marked affect on shear strength. Generally, the
presence of too many fines prevents interlock between larger particles whilst too few fines reduces the
compacted density. The presence of highly plastic fines results in a loss of shear strength of compacted
material because of the reduction in friction between interlocking particles. For crushed rock (20 mm
maximum size), the materials are most stable below a critical fines content between 8% and 12% depending
on the material type. The effect of fines plasticity on shear strength at fines contents below the optimum
level (say below 8%), is relatively small. However, for higher fines contents, high fines plasticity has a
greater influence. In some instances, plasticity is controlled or reduced by blending. Notwithstanding the
above, materials with a wide range of plasticities have been successfully used in the past. The success of
one material over another is a case of the environmental conditions, especially moisture, material and
pavement design.

3.2.3 Particle Size Distribution
The particle size distribution or ‘grading’ of a granular material that, for a given compactive effort, achieves
the highest density, is often specified i.e. ‘maximum density principle’, viz Fuller’s principle (refer Section
3.7). At high density, mechanical interlock (and hence shear strength) is at its strongest and permeability is
at its lowest, thereby reducing moisture sensitivity to shear strength.
3.2.4 Density and Moisture Content
The effects of compacted layer properties, i.e. density, moisture content and particle orientation on shear
strength, are very significant. Generally, material strength will increase as a result of increased density and
reduced moisture content. At a higher density (or a lower voids content), more energy is required to
overcome frictional resistance between particles and to densify the granular material against the confining
stress. The presence of a small amount of water can slightly reduce the inter-particle friction, but also
introduces an apparent cohesion between particles by capillary attraction. However, a high degree of
saturation may produce high pore pressure (or low effective stress) and, consequently, low shear strength.
3.3 Modulus
Modulus is the elastic response of a material to imposed loading at loads below that which would cause
shear failure. It is calculated from the measured strain in material under an applied load. It can be
determined either under static or dynamic loading conditions.
Static loading tests include triaxial shear and Texas triaxial tests and field plate bearing tests. In these tests
the static modulus (Young’s modulus) is determined.
Dynamic loading tests are limited to the repeated load triaxial test. In this test the resilient modulus is
determined as the ratio of dynamic (resilient) stress/dynamic (resilient) strain. The repeated load triaxial test
(refer Figure 7.4) has been accepted as the standard laboratory method for determining the resilient modulus
of unbound granular materials.
It is important to realise that the moduli derived from the static and dynamic loading tests may differ.
Laboratory studies have indicated that the overall modulus of granular materials will be partly the result of the
deformation of individual particles and partly the result of relative sliding and rolling between particles
(dilation). Generally, individual particles are very rigid, with Young’s moduli exceeding 104 to 105 MPa.
However, it is the inter-particle movement and resultant rearrangement that causes granular material to have
an overall modulus of well below 1,000 MPa and a non-linear stress-strain behaviour accompanied by
permanent deformation.
No study has quantified all the effects of the intrinsic and manufactured crushed rock properties, and
compacted layer properties, on the modulus of granular materials and further work is required. Based on
limited studies of the modulus of crushed aggregates in Australia and overseas, the following significant
properties that may affect the modulus of granular materials have been identified.
Aggregate interlock that produces high shear strength should also produce high to moderate stiffness
(modulus) if it has been placed and compacted adequately to a required in situ density.
3.3.1 Particle Size and Shape
The effect of these two intrinsic properties on modulus is similar to those described for shear strength.

3.3.2 Particle Roughness and Shape
The effects of particle roughness (as defined in AS1726) and shape on stiffness are not quite clear. Rough
particle surfaces provide higher inter-particle friction which, when combined with angular and sub-angular
aggregate shapes, provides high aggregate interlock resulting in higher stiffness. Conversely, smooth
rounded particles have low inter-particle friction and poor interlocking properties, resulting in lower stiffness.
3.3.3 Fines Content and Fines Plasticity
As plasticity and fines content influence soil suction, it is reasonable to assume that stiffness is also affected
by these factors. This is particularly so when suction is the primary stress that binds particles together (e.g.
at unconfined or low confining stress conditions and/or in a dry condition). In this case, higher fines content
and higher cohesive fines will result in higher suction and, hence, higher stiffness. However, when suction is
very small compared to confining stresses (e.g. as in the saturated condition), higher fines content and
higher cohesive fines may result in lower stiffness due to the effects of particle size and lubrication as
discussed above. It has been reported in a number of studies that, for a fines-content between 2-10%, the
influence of fines-content on the stiffness was not well defined and can be dependent on aggregate type.
For a given confining area and for similar effective grain size, there is no marked difference in stiffness
between uniform-graded and well-graded materials. It has been shown in a number of studies that the
particle size distribution, or grading, of granular materials seems to have some influence on granular
modulus, although it is generally considered to be of minor significance. For crushed limestone with angular
shape, a uniform-graded material was only slightly stiffer than a well-graded material. For slag, however, the
results were the opposite and the denser grading tended to give a higher modulus. When a crushed rock
has less fines (finer than 0.425 mm) it is generally defined as ‘boney’ and the load transfer is through point-
to-point contact of aggregate fractions, resulting in high modulus and low moisture sensitivity. In contrast, a
material with high fines content relies more on the strength of the fine matrix material surrounding the
aggregate fractions to achieve modulus. Where aggregate particles are flat or flaky, mechanical interlock is
reduced.
The relationship between the resilient modulus of five source products with four different gradings is shown
in Figure 3.2 (Andrews, 1996).

Figure 3.2: Effects of material grading on modulus
800 MEAN
700 COARSE
Resilient Modulus (MPa)
GAP
600
FINE
500
400
300
200
100
0
ne
e
ss
te
ne
et
zi
to
ei
to
cr
rt
gn
lts
s
al
ua
ilt
Si
C
tic
Q
/s
ni
ne
ra
to
G
es
lim
c
iti
om
ol
D
Source: Andrews, 1996
The effects of compacted layer properties (i.e. density, moisture content and particle orientation or degree of
anisotropy) on granular modulus are very significant. For low plasticity crushed rocks, moduli increase
significantly with density up to 100% of Modified Maximum Dry Density (MDD) (Vuong, 1992). However, at
higher densities, there is little change in modulus, particularly at low moisture contents. At high degrees of
saturation (say above 80%), the combination of a high degree of saturation, poor drainage and low
permeability could produce high pore pressure (or low effective stress) and, consequently, low modulus. It
should be noted that these effects may vary according to material type and further studies on the effects of
manufactured layer properties for different materials are required, particularly at different stress levels.
In the design of a flexible pavement it is imperative that the layers have adequate modulus to spread
(reduce) the applied stresses and strains to the subgrade without unacceptable permanent surface
deformation. Part 2: Pavement Structural Design of the Guide to Pavement Technology includes a
relationship to estimate the allowable loading in terms of total permanent deformation of unbound granular
materials and subgrade.
3.4 Permanent Deformation
Permanent deformation is the irrecoverable deformation of a compacted granular material upon unloading of
applied stresses. Laboratory testing methods which are used to study the permanent deformation of
pavement materials include the triaxial test, hollow cylinder test and the simple shear test. These tests
involve the application of different stress conditions which simulate actual stress conditions likely to occur in
a pavement layer under a rolling wheel load. The Repeated Load Triaxial (RLT) test has been accepted as
the standard laboratory method for determining the permanent deformation of granular materials.

Permanent deformation of the granular materials under applied loads results in rutting of the pavement
surface. This may be accompanied by an increase or reduction in base modulus, depending on whether the
material becomes denser and stronger, or more unstable and weaker. The former may lead to a more stable
pavement surface condition; whereas the latter can lead to shear failure in the base layer or increased rutting
in the subgrade with increasing loading cycles as discussed previously.
Permanent deformation results from densification, local shear deformation and rearrangement of particles.
Densification is the process of volumetric decrease through reduction of pore spaces. Shear deformation
and dilation is the process of volumetric expansion through shear failure and rearrangement of particles. As
in the case of stiffness, the permanent deformation of granular materials can be affected by many factors
related to manufactured crushed rock and layer properties, stress level, uniformity of construction and
loading history. As axle loads, load repetitions and tyre pressures increase, the potential for excessive
rutting in the granular base of unbound pavements with thin bituminous surfacings becomes a major
concern. As the thickness of the granular layer increases base rutting becomes the primary deterioration
mode.
There is little information available on the effects of intrinsic and manufactured crushed rock properties and
compacted layer properties on permanent deformation. Because of the difficulties in conducting long term
laboratory permanent strain testing, only limited studies on permanent deformation have been conducted.
Some significant properties which may affect the permanent deformation of compacted granular materials,
are as follows.
3.4.1 Particle Shape
When different materials are compacted to the same density, angular materials such as crushed rock
produce lower deformation compared to gravel with rounded and elongated and/or flat shaped particles.
The effects of particle size distribution or grading on permanent deformation depend on the level of
compaction. When uncompacted, specimens with uniform grading have the least permanent strain. The
permanent strain induced in heavily compacted specimens is similar for all gradings. For a given compactive
effort, materials having a grading producing the highest density will exhibit the lowest permanent
deformation.
3.4.3 Fines Content
Permanent deformation increases when the fines content is above a critical fines-content (about 8-12%
depending on material type). The effects of fines content on permanent deformation are insignificant in the
elastic zone (i.e. stress is much lower than shear strength), but it become more significant near the failure
zone, indicating that excess fines prevent interlock between the larger particles.
The effects of manufactured layer properties (i.e. density, moisture content and particle orientation or degree
of anisotropy) on permanent deformation can be very significant. As in the case of resilient modulus,
resistance to permanent deformation in these materials under repetitive loading appears to be greatly
improved as a result of increased density. However, at densities above an optimum dry density (say 100%
Modified MDD), there is little change in permanent deformation with increasing density. At low moisture
contents (or low degrees of saturation), the rate of permanent deformation is relatively small and governed
by the lubricating effect of water in a granular assembly. At a high degree of saturation, the rate of
deformation increases and is governed by the combination of a high degree of saturation and low
permeability, which induces high pore pressure (or low effective stress) and, consequently, low deformation
resistance.

3.5 Durability
Durability is the abrasion and weathering resistance of a material. It is related to changes in the performance
of a material under repeated loading and long-term weathering. Durability is often measured by physical test
procedures (e.g. wet/dry strength variation, Los Angeles value and degradation factor tests) of the final
crushed or blended products. The purpose of specifying durability limits is to ensure that materials will not
significantly break down, resulting in a change to the particle size and shape, and increases in the fines-
content and fines-plasticity during construction or during the life of the pavement. As discussed previously,
these factors strongly affect the engineering properties of unbound materials (shear strength, stiffness and
permanent deformation) and, hence their long term performance.
Durability requirements comprise:

• Abrasion and crushing resistance: Aggregates must be able to withstand abrasion and crushing under
traffic. Specifications may take into account traffic loading in determining an appropriate test limit.
• Soundness and durability: The durability of rock depends upon its ability to resist weathering agents.
Physical and chemical changes in rocks, produced at or near the surface by atmospheric agents, result in
disintegration and decomposition and are commonly grouped under the general name of weathering.
The action of physical agents is called disintegration and results in the rock breaking into smaller particles
without destroying its identity.
The process by which mineral particles are changed into new compounds of less desirable characteristics
is known as decomposition. Disintegration and decomposition usually occur together but one process is
generally dominant. The incidence of decomposition is higher in humid and warm areas, while
disintegration is more likely in regions of large temperature range.
The rock-forming minerals can be classified as either primary or secondary. The alteration or
reconstitution of primary minerals produces secondary minerals, which can be considerably varied by a
range of geological conditions including deuteric alteration, hydro-thermal alteration, low grade
metamorphism, action of groundwater and weathering. The greater the proportion of clay or clay-like
secondary minerals, the more the internal bond between the minerals of the rock is weakened.
Major studies of the effects of secondary minerals on the performance of crushed rock products used as
pavement materials have been carried out overseas and in Australia (Minty 1960, Nyoeger 1964, Scott
1955, Weinert 1960). Igneous and metamorphic rocks derive their hardness and strength from the tough
constituent minerals and the strong interlock between multitudes of small, angular crystals. Even a small
amount of decomposition affecting only the margins of the crystals can seriously weaken some of these
rocks. Some rocks, even though strong and tough when freshly quarried, degrade rapidly after exposure
to air and water. Microscopic examination generally reveals that these rocks are deeply weathered.
Another feature that is often associated with degradation of weathered rock is increasing permeability.
Generally, durability requirements for aggregates obtained from uniform rock sources can be inferred from
mineralogy tests that describe the geological origin and history of the source rock. However, uniform rock
sources may produce a range of products, which have different durability properties depending on the
manufactory processes used to control durability. Part 4J of the Guide to Pavement Technology discusses
source rocks in detail.
3.6 Permeability
Permeability is a measure of the amount of water which flows through a mass of soil for a given pressure.
Standard methods used in the laboratory to determine the permeability of granular materials include the use
of falling-head and constant-head permeameters (refer Figure 7.5). These standard permeability tests
usually consider permeability in a saturated condition. However, trapped air has a significant effect on
unsaturated permeability in an in-service condition. Permeability is specified by some authorities to ensure
that the permeability gradients required in the pavement structure are met and to ensure that base layer
material directly under a surface seal is of low permeability.

As discussed previously, the engineering properties of unbound materials (e.g. modulus, shear strength,
permanent deformation) are very dependent upon moisture content, and the permeability may influence the
moisture regime in which a material operates. Other factors that can affect the moisture condition of a
pavement material include sources of water entry, sub-surface drainage design, type of surface seal,
pavement shape and the presence of impermeable layers in the pavement structure.
It is not uncommon in Australasia for thin surface seals and unsealed shoulders to be quite permeable. Past
experience indicates that, for this pavement type, it is preferable for the granular base layer to have lower
permeability than the lower subbase or subgrade capping layers. This promotes the drainage of moisture
away from the higher stressed areas near the surface. It is for this reason that, for base material under a
surface seal or a thin asphalt layer, a minimum Plasticity Index (PI) value of 2 is specified by some road
authorities. This results in the presence of cohesive fines within the base material and hence, provided there
is an adequate fines content as discussed below, generally a less permeable material.
Various drainage design and stage construction options have been applied for different environmental
conditions to reduce the risks of early pavement failure due to water penetrating into the pavement layers. In
these cases, the function of the unbound granular layer will determine the suitable range of permeability for
the layer concerned. For example, if the material is to be used in a drainage layer, higher permeability is
required, viz. open-graded. However, this may contradict the requirements for higher strength or modulus.
It is well known that the permeability of a granular material is most influenced by the size, shape and
connectivity of the water passages of the material and its degree of compaction. Some significant intrinsic
and manufactured properties that may affect the permeability of compacted granular materials are briefly
described below.
Permeability varies as the square of the effective particle size. For a given maximum grain size, a uniform-
graded (or single size) material will produce higher effective grain size, and higher permeability, than a well-
graded (or broader range of grain size) material.
3.6.2 Fines Content and Fines Plasticity
Permeability is sensitive to the fine components of a well-graded material. As a first approximation,

permeability is inversely proportional to the square of the D10 particle size (i.e. size such that 10%, by mass,
of the sample consists of particles having a smaller size). An increase in plasticity will similarly reduce
permeability. More specifically, a well-graded material with less than 5% fines (i.e. passing the 0.075 mm
sieve) will be relatively permeable. As the percentage of fines increases, the permeability decreases until
20% fines, after which no further effects occur. However, as discussed previously, the use of more than 10%
fines creates other plasticity-related performance problems.
Permeability also varies as the cube of the void ratio (volume of voids/volume of solid). Therefore,
permeability can also be reduced by heavy compaction to reduce voids. The degree of saturation also has
an important influence on permeability, i.e. the higher the degree of saturation, the higher the permeability.
3.7 Compaction (Density and Moisture)
Compaction is the process by which the air void ratio of the granular material is reduced. There is an
optimum moisture content (OMC) at which the maximum dry density (MDD) will be achieved for a particular
compactive effort. It is usual to specify the density required for a material as a percentage of that achieved in
a laboratory compaction test. The Standard Compaction test produces MDD and OMC values equivalent to
field values produced with a medium mass-vibrating roller, and hence some road agencies restrict its use to

subgrade. The Modified (heavy) Compaction test produces densities equivalent to those achieved with the
use of heavy rollers, and hence some road agencies consider it more appropriate for granular bases and
subbases than the
Standard Compaction test. Note that may be difficult to achieve modified compaction of fine-grained base
and subbase material which are commonly used on low volume roads in arid areas.
Compaction is achieved in the field through application of a static or vibratory roller of sufficient mass and
energy for the particular material.
As discussed previously, it is clear that the compacted layer properties (density, moisture content and degree
of anisotropy) have a very high impact on material performance. A high level of compaction will result in a
material having high strength, high modulus and low deformation under imposed traffic loading. However,
caution must be exercised not to over-compact some materials as high levels of compaction can induce high
particle breakdown which can lead to a reduction in strength and an increase in moisture sensitivity.
A high compactive effort is required if the required dense packed structure is to be achieved. Generally, the
resistance of a material to compaction depends on internal friction, cohesion, and permeability. As both
internal friction and cohesion increase with density, the necessary compactive effort increases as density
increases until no further compaction is possible. Permeability is also a factor as air and water can be
trapped within the granular mass, and this can prevent the achievement of a higher density with additional
rolling. A material exhibiting the required properties with respect to strength, modulus, resistance to
deformation and permeability can be difficult to compact and a compromise is sometimes needed between
satisfactory materials properties and compactability.
For low-permeability, high-plasticity unbound materials, from which water is not displaced during
construction, it is critical that the moisture content at placement is as close as possible to the OMC value if
the MDD value is to be achieved. For highly permeable and non-plastic materials, from which water can be
readily displaced during construction, the moisture content at placement is not so critical. In both cases, a
dry-back period is required to reduce the base moisture content to an acceptable level before sealing.
Different specifications of moisture condition at sealing are adopted for different material types to maximise
the performance of both the seal and the base.
Other intrinsic and manufactured properties that need to be controlled in a compaction process include the
following.
The performance of an unbound granular layer is enhanced by low permeability and high load-bearing
characteristics. The particle size distribution (grading) achieves these desirable attributes through the
provision of maximum density (minimum voids) and mechanical interlock. A grading with the exponent n =
0.5 (refer Equation 3-1) is historically known as Fuller’s maximum density curve. However, for most crushed
rocks the value of n varies between 0.3 and 0.45.
P = (d/D)n x 100 (3-1)
where P = percentage passing sieve size d

d = nominal sieve size (mm)
D = nominal maximum particle size (mm)
n = the exponent (n = 0.5 for maximum density)
The above relationship is a useful approximation to the maximum density (i.e. minimum porosity) grading for
a large range of materials. However, others have advocated that an exponent as low as 0.4 be used to
produce a maximum density because of the shape of the particles. Figure 3.3 shows two typical crushed

rock particle size distributions, the size 20 mm material has an exponent n = 0.43 and the size 40 mm
material has an exponent n = 0.46.
Figure 3.3: Typical crushed rock particle size distributions
3.7.2 Maximum Size
It is usual to limit the maximum particle size so that the material can be laid by machine and a smooth finish,
suitable for traffic or for sealing, achieved. For high quality crushed rock base materials, a maximum nominal
size of 20 mm is considered suitable to provide for ease of compaction, minimisation of particle segregation
and a smooth surface finish. However, larger maximum size (e.g. 30 mm and 40 mm) natural materials can
be handled satisfactorily.
The particle shape of material will affect compaction as particles tend to pack more efficiently when better
shaped. Long, thin particles may fracture during placement and compaction and also affect the workability of
the material, making it difficult to achieve satisfactory compacted density. Some micaceous fines
components may meet normal grading requirements but, because of their plate-like and flake-like shape and
elastic properties, interfere with the compaction process.
3.7.4 Fines Content
The proportion of fines in a pavement base is a major factor affecting stability. Granular materials with little
or no fines (and equally those with excess fines) may compact poorly, and be difficult to handle during
construction.

4. Production of Granular Materials
This section contains advice on the production and supply of granular materials from various material
sources for pavement construction including the factors that lead to the appropriate selection and
specification of natural granular materials, crushed rocks and recycled materials.
4.1 Methods of Production
The common methods used to produce a granular material to meet specified requirements are:
• crushing and screening by means of a crushing plant
• the use of additives to improve their characteristics.
4.1.1 Crushing Plant
A crushing plant controls particle size distribution. Different crusher types and crusher settings are used
depending on the characteristics of the parent rock. The particle size distribution of the end-product is
mainly controlled by screens. Screen variables that can be controlled include aperture size and shape,
screen angle, vibrating speed and direction. Once the system is set up and is stable, the plant generally only
requires resetting daily.
Crushing
Massive hard rock deposits must be broken by blasting or ripping to reduce the rock to a size that can be fed
to the crusher. Any new crushing operation requires consideration of the size of rock likely to be won initially
by the blasting or ripping, as secondary blasting, if required, is costly.
The range and distribution of the particle sizes and shape of aggregate are largely determined by the
relationship between the rock type and the crusher types and settings. Therefore, it is necessary to select a
crusher suitable for the particular application. The South Australian Department of Mines and Energy,
Handbook on Quarrying and relevant publications of the Institute of Quarrying are considered appropriate
references for those wishing to specify the types and number of crushers to be used to produce a nominated
aggregate from a particular source rock.
In terms of crushing, there are six principal types of rock crushers used in the manufacture of road
construction materials viz:
• jaw crushers
• gyratory crushers
• cone crushers
• impact crushers
• hammer mill crushers
• vertical shaft Impact crushers.
All crushing relies on either compressing rock particles between two metal surfaces or by the high speed
impact on or by rock particles against hard surfaces. Rock crushing can also be achieved by rock on rock
contact to improve shape. Rock on steel contact promotes fracture whereas, rock on rock contact tends to
promotes shape. Depending on the type of material being crushed, there are some characteristics, like
particle shape and Atterberg Limits, which can be influenced by the inherent nature of the rock. The
selection of the appropriate crusher type etc can modify these characteristics to some extent in the final

product. Quarry plants are designed and established to provide efficient and cost-effective extraction,
processing and sale from a given deposit and are usually built as a one off.
Jaw Crusher
The Jaw crusher (see Figure 4.1), which is the basic style of crusher has 2 hardened metal plates with a
tapering gap between. One metal plate is fixed (fixed jaw) and the other (swing jaw) oscillates causing the
taper to alternately open and close. In simple terms, the feed particles fall into the taper to the point where
the open jaw separation matches their size; as the taper then closes, the particle is compressed and
fractures. The broken particles then drop further down the taper either to be caught again or eventually fall
through the gap at the bottom of the taper. The eventual maximum size of the material is controlled by the
gap. Some particle on particle crushing occurs in the process; this is more likely to occur if the crushing
chamber is kept full.
Figure 4.1: Jaw crusher
Gyratory Crusher
The gyratory crusher (see Figure 4.2) uses an eccentrically mounted tapered spindle rotating within an
inverted static cone; the rotary oscillation of the spindle causes a progressive rotary closure of the gap
between the cone and the spindle. The profile between the crushing surfaces is similar to that of the jaw
crusher and the crushing process is likewise similar.

Figure 4.2: Gyratory crusher
Cone Crusher
Cone crushers (see Figure 4.3) operate in a somewhat similar fashion to the gyratory crusher but with a
significant difference in the shape of the crushing surfaces (cone and mantle) and the crushing chamber.
The longer chamber shape and flatter lying orientation causes a higher degree of stone on stone contact
which results in the production of finer particles by grinding actions rather than breakage by direct particle
compression. This type of compression crusher is considered as more suited for the production of more
material in the fine particle range as well as more equant shaped particles. A variety of cone and mantle
profiles are available to suit the properties of various rock types and perhaps modify their inherent crushing
characteristics according to product requirements.

Figure 4.3: Cone crusher
Impact Crushers
Impact crushers rely on the high speed impact of rock particles against a hardened metal surface. This can
be either as a hammer (or bar) striking the rock particle or the particle having been accelerated striking a
static anvil. According to the strength and structure of the particles, the impact causes fracture or (partial)
pulverization of the particle. Pulverization tends to cause the rounding of particles with finer sized material
being the result of the breakdown. Impact crushers are particularly susceptible to abrasive material and can
suffer high wear rates.
Figure 4.4: Impact crusher
Hammer Mill Crushers.
The hammer mill has a series of hammers or bars attached to a rapidly rotating horizontal shaft. Particles
fed into the crusher are struck by the hammers and, consequently accelerated by the impact, will strike a
static anvil. The impacts can cause breakage or pulverization of the particles; particle size control can be
adjusted by controlling the size of a discharge aperture.

Vertical Shaft Impact (VSI) Crushers.
The VSI crusher has a rapidly rotating vertically mounted rotor into which rock material is fed; the rotation
accelerates the particles horizontally through discharge ports in the rotor to impact against an anvil surface.
With high speed rotation, the rock discharge from one port will strike rock that has been discharged from a
previous port causing a high level of rock on rock impact. A modified version of the VSI can have feed rock
cascading through the impact zone and will achieve a similar end result.
Figure 4.5: Vertical shaft impact crusher (courtesy Boral ACM)
Improving particle shape
There are a number of ways that particle shape can be improved by the operation of the crushing plant.
1. Choke fed crusher: If the crusher is kept full then, due to the interlocking of particles, all dimensions of
the rock have the opportunity to be stressed and broken, thereby improving the shape. Choke feeding
of crushers is important to provide consistent sized feed product to the next crusher in the plant.
Commonly the Jaw is used as the Primary (1st) crusher, Gyratory the Secondary (2nd), Cones as Tertiary
(3rd) and VSI the Quaternary (4th) stages. However, plants vary in design.
2. Mixed feed: The crusher should be fed with different sizes mixed together; for similar reasons as choke
feeding, the shape is improved.
3. Multiple stages: The more crushing stages that are used, the better the shape of the stone because
reduction ratios (size of stone in, to size of stone out) can be kept lower.
4. Orientation of stone: If possible, the stone should be fed into the crusher in such a way that the particles
are not orientated on their smallest dimension. Rather than feeding directly off a belt, it is better that a
delivery chute is used which will mix the orientation of the stone when it is introduced into the crushing
chamber.
Screening
The purposes of screening are to:

• grade the product, from crusher or source, into the required ranges and distribution of sizes
• remove deleterious material from feed to a primary crusher (primary scalping)

• separate material between steps in the crushing phase, in order to:

– return material for re-crushing, if over-size, in closed-circuit crushing
– discard, short-circuit or stockpile small sizes
– feed the next crusher-stage.
The types of equipment commonly used for screening are as follows.
Grizzlies
Grizzlies are normally made from bars or rails set longitudinally without cross-bars. They are used to remove
material that is too large for any particular crushing stage or to eliminate contaminating overburden and fines
from run-of-quarry stone.
Screens
Screens are used to separate particles into sizes between specified limits or for scalping fines to prevent
them unnecessarily passing through a crusher.
Rotary screens or trommels are normally on an inclined axis, and consist of one or more rotating cylinders
with apertures of various sizes. Material is fed in at the upper end where the smallest apertures are
positioned. Trommels are used for 50 mm and larger sizes.
Vibrating or oscillating screens handle small-size material. When arranged in banks, they produce a number
of sizes. Over-loading is a common cause of faulty product grading. Washing of the product is sometimes
specified to remove deleterious materials, e.g. fines and salts; it is usually done as part of the screening
process. There are a number of factors which affect production gradings, such as the correct orientation of
screens, material bed depth, screen angle, correct aperture etc as they all have a bearing on the final
product.
4.1.2 Additives
Depending on the characteristics of the source rock, fines generated through normal crushing processes
may contain excessive amounts of deleterious material which require removal through a scalping process, or
may lack the required cohesive properties, or particular size fractions. These deficiencies may influence the
structural performance, durability, workability and permeability of crushed rock materials.
The controlled blending of suitable additive sands or sand-clays during the crushing process can be used to
overcome these deficiencies. Additive holding bins equipped with calibrated discharge gates or computer-
controlled load cells and conveyor systems are used to accurately control the proportion of additive in the
product.
4.2 Production of Naturally Occurring Granular Materials
Naturally occurring granular materials, which do not require costly extraction or crushing processes, are an
important source of material used in the construction of flexible pavements in Australia. These materials
include fine grained materials such as sand-clays, medium and coarse grained materials such as gravel, and
materials produced by ripping or rolling soft or fissile rocks (Figure 4.6).
An understanding of the factors controlling the performance of these materials, when used for pavement
construction, is a necessary preliminary to their evaluation and to the consequent determination of selection
criteria appropriate to their intended application e.g. subbase in a wet environment.

Particular attention must be given to the sampling of natural deposits to ensure that representative material is
tested and the natural variability of the material properties established so that appropriate selection limits can
be defined.
Figure 4.6: Some natural granular pavement materials
Red Sand Clay River Shingle Limestone Gravel
4.2.1 Methods of Production
Generally, natural granular materials do not require costly extraction or crushing processes. Earthmoving
equipment, including bulldozers and hydraulic excavators, can be used to rip, raise and mix naturally-
occurring granular materials without additional processing. However, granular materials which are
unsuitable for use as pavement materials in their natural condition may be improved to meet specified
requirements by crushing and screening, and/or using additives to improve their characteristics.
Crushing
Where a material contains oversize particles, they may be crushed until reduced to the desired maximum
size then recombined with the material (Figure 4.7). Alternatively, the oversize material may be broken down
on the road by mobile crushing plant or by rolling, provided the rock is not too tough. Generally, a
considerable improvement in the particle size distribution and thus in the stability of the material will result.

Figure 4.7: Plant for mixing and breaking down oversize materials
Screening
Where pit conditions are suitable it may be practical to remove a portion of the coarse material by screening.
It may also be practical to remove excess fines by screening.
Stabilisation
Depending on the deficiencies of the original material, improvements may be achieved by modification or
stabilisation. In general this consists of the controlled addition of one or more materials to the gravel. The
principal types of stabilisation are:
• granular
• cementitious (Portland cement, lime, lime/fly ash/slag blends, etc.)
• bituminous
• chemical (polymer, lignin or ionic based products).
The selection of the most appropriate method of stabilisation requires consideration of the deficiency of the
material to be improved, the effectiveness of the different methods of stabilisation in achieving an
improvement, plant availability, and relative costs. All methods require adequate laboratory investigations to
determine the proportions of materials to be mixed, and strict quality control throughout construction.
Thorough dispersion of the stabilising binder is required, and in the case of clayey materials, pulverisation
will be required to achieve this.
a. Granular stabilisation
Commonly termed mechanical stabilisation, this is the process of improving the particle size distribution
and/or the plastic properties of a material by blending with it one or more selected materials. A common
example is the addition of fine material of low plasticity to a coarse granular material deficient in fines. The
addition of material can usually be carried out at the pit or on the road and this often provides an economic
method of obtaining suitable pavement material.
b. Cementitious and bituminous stabilisation

Portland and blended cement or lime or slow-setting blends of finely ground lime/fly ash/slag or bitumen may
be added to a granular material to improve its tensile and compressive strength, and to reduce the
permeability of a material and its sensitivity to changes in moisture content. A more detailed description of
these methods is contained in Part 4D: Stabilised Materials in the Guide to Pavement Technology.
It should be noted that materials are considered to have been modified if sufficient amount of stabilising
binders have been added so as to improve the performance of the materials without causing significant
increase in tensile capacity (i.e. producing a bound material). There are no firmly established criteria to
differentiate between modified and bound materials. However, Part 2 of the Guide considers modified
materials to have a 28 day Unconfined Compressive Strength greater then 0.7 MPa and less than 1.5 MPa.
c. Chemical stabilisation
Chemical stabilisation using polymer, lignin or ionic-based proprietary products is an emerging development
in material stabilisation. These products act to improve material properties through waterproofing, binding of
fines or by flocculating clay particles. Use of these products may be appropriate for improving the in-service
strength of moisture sensitive materials or for reducing dust emissions and gravel loss on unsealed roads.
However, with all proposed applications of chemical stabilisation, it is necessary to carry out investigations
for each pavement material type proposed to be stabilised to ensure that the dosage rates applied are
optimal and will result in the design aim of the treatment.
4.2.2 Assessment
The suitability of a natural granular soil for use as a pavement material is usually assessed using a series of
relatively simple tests. Attributes such as stability, wear resistance, permeability and workability may be
inferred from the results of these routine tests, which include the following:
• particle size distribution
• plastic limit
• liquid limit
• plasticity index
• linear shrinkage
• maximum dry compressive strength
• ball mill value
• static triaxial shear tests (including Texas triaxial test)
• repeated load triaxial (RLT) test
• California Bearing Ratio (CBR).
In addition to these tests, the rapid methods of field assessment and classification outlined below are also
used.
It is not usually necessary to use all the tests listed. Engineering judgement should be used to determine
which tests should be employed, according to circumstances. The tests themselves are only discussed
briefly in this Part, and standard test procedures should be consulted.

Pre-treatment
The application and interpretation of test results is based on an assumption that the samples are tested
under similar condition to that those likely to be applicable in the field. As some materials may require
mechanical breakdown before use, or be prone to excessive chemical or physical degradation, either during
handling or subsequently, pre-treatment of material samples may be necessary before testing.
Generally pre-treatment is not required if the particles are rounded, hard and weather resistant, or if the
amount of fines exceeds that required to fill the voids in the coarse particles. Soft rock that requires
crushing, and other materials prone to mechanical breakdown or weathering, should be pre-treated.
The laboratory pre-treatment procedures available generally simulate mechanical breakdown, weathering or
a combination of both. The form of pre-treatment depends on the nature of the particular materials. For
example, materials such as conglomerates, concretionary laterites and limestones may be broken with a
hammer, or subjected to a compactive effort equivalent to the crushing action expected from field
construction plant. Materials such as shales, on the other hand, may be subjected to cycles of wetting and
drying in an attempt to simulate any breakdown likely to occur under field weathering conditions.
Field assessment and classification
A preliminary assessment of the need for comprehensive testing of a material can be conducted using field
procedures. The techniques available generally rely on visual observations of the material and its reaction to
a variety of simple treatments. Experience is the most important guide.
A simple assessment of a material may be gained by wetting the material and squeezing it in the hand. For
example, with well-graded materials, if a portion with particles smaller than about 5 mm is wet and then
squeezed in the hand, the following characteristics may be observed:
• the material feels extremely gritty
• the material can be formed into definite shapes that retain their form even when dried
• the hands may be slightly discoloured because of the adherence of clay; if more than enough material to
slightly discolour the hands adheres, examination should show that it consists of both sand and clay and
not clay alone
• when the wet sample is patted into the palm of the hand it will compact into a dense cake that cannot be
penetrated readily with the blunt end of a lead pencil.
The grittiness of the sample indicates the presence of sufficient granular material. Development of some
strength on drying indicates the presence of a sufficient amount of binder material. Resistance to the
penetration of the pencil-size stick, even when the sample is thoroughly wetted, indicates interlocking of the
grains and the presence of sufficient internal friction.
The presence of too much sand will cause the sample to fall apart when dried whilst the presence of too
much clay will leave the hand muddy after the wet sample is squeezed. As a result, the wet sample, after
being patted, will offer little resistance to the penetration of the stick.
The Unified Soil Classification System (Appendix A) provides a more formal method of assessing a material
with simple field tests that may be confirmed by subsequent laboratory procedures. This system of
classification is useful because the properties of the various material groups are known, and have been
tabulated in engineering use charts.
This system divides materials into two major divisions: coarse-grained and fine-grained. Highly organic
materials are also described. Identification in the field is accomplished by visual assessment of the coarse
grains, and by a few simple hand tests of the fine grained materials or fractions.

4.3 Production of Crushed Rock
4.3.1 Methods of Crushed Rock Production
General
Crushed rock may be produced in a single crushing operation (crusher run) or its production may involve a
number of crushing and/or screening processes. In addition, some separation and recombination of different
aggregate sizes is required to produce a material to tight tolerances.
Commercial hard rock quarrying operations can generally result in a variety of products, ranging from base
crushed rock, produced to tightly controlled tolerances, to by-products such as overburden, ripped rock and
scalpings, which may have a use as a lower subbase or selected fill material used to enhance the bearing
capacity of the subgrade.
A general view of the production of crushed rock is shown in Figure 4.8.
Figure 4.8: Production of crushed rock
Crushing and screening
The crushing plant controls particle size distribution through adjustments to the crushers and screens.
Different crusher types and crusher settings are used depending on the characteristics of the parent rock.
The particle size distribution of the end product is mainly controlled by the screens. Screen variables that
can be controlled include aperture size and shape, screen angle, vibrating speed and direction. Once the
system is set up and is stable, the plant generally only requires resetting daily.
A crushing plant generally consists of a primary jaw crusher and up to four or more secondary crushers,
which are usually gyratory (cone) crushers. These types of crushers work by applying force to the rock and
crush in one direction only, which tends to produce elongated and flaky particles of stone. Impact crushers,
which have the capacity to break the rock in all directions, produce much better shaped particles because
the rock is broken on impact and breaks randomly rather than along cleavage planes producing a more
cubical stone. However, impact crushers are very expensive to operate so their use is limited.

Through suitable adjustment to the crushing plant it is often possible to produce ‘crusher-run’ crushed rock
which has a particle size distribution within the specified tolerances. However, with some types of rock and
some types of crushing plant, and for situations where only a narrow range of tolerances can be allowed, it is
necessary to screen or separate the ‘crusher-run’ crushed rock into various fractions and then to recombine
calculated portions of these to produce the specified product.
Additives to crushed rock
Some source rocks, due to hardness or mineralogical texture, do not produce sufficient fine and cohesive
particles during normal crushing processes to make graded crushed rocks which have good handling
properties. To improve the characteristics of the product, a fine plastic component may be added to the
crushed rock to provide a more suitable grading in the fine sizes, to impart greater cohesion and workability
to the material, and to reduce the permeability of the compacted product.
Crusher fines from sources other than that from which the product is being crushed, and fine-grained and
plastic sands (e.g. granitic-derived sand) are commonly used as an additive to crushed rock. More recently,
clayey fillers have been produced by drying, crushing or grinding the filler into a fine free-flowing powder
which, when added to a hard crushed rock, produces a material with satisfactory cohesive properties. This is
particularly important for granular pavement bases surfaced with a sprayed bituminous seal.
It is important when selecting suitable additives to ensure that the principal components are composed of
non-cementitious, durable material that will not significantly change in particle size or form during the design
life of the pavement. To enable the additive to be effectively blended with the crushed rock it should be dry,
friable and free flowing, free of vegetable matter, lumps and balls of clay and over-size particles of rock, and
be sized such that it can be uniformly distributed throughout. If the additive material at the source is variable
then it is important that the material is carefully selected from the pit or mixed to provide a product of
consistent grading and plasticity. Typically, fine plastic sands (say Plasticity Index in the range 8-15) may be
added to the crushed rock in proportions of 5-15% by mass. The success of such a material derives from
the way in which the inert sand and silt-sized quartz particles act as a carrier to the relatively plastic clay
fines, thus enabling the additive to be uniformly blended with the crushed rock.
Some industrial waste products, such as cement works flue dust, are inherently cementitious and should not
normally be used as a fines additive component to crushed rock. If such cementitious additives are used to
modify the grading of crushed rock then an excessive cementing action may occur, resulting in poor
compaction characteristics and excessive deformation and shrinkage cracking of the pavement.
Cementitious additives should be avoided in crushed rock products used for pavements where cracking of
the pavement cannot be tolerated.
Other means of achieving desirable handling characteristics where hard, tough rocks are used and the
gradings are on the coarser side of the grading envelope is by the addition of cohesive fines and fine
aggregates derived from a quarry source operating in a ‘softer’ (but durable) rock type. In this case, up to
30% by mass of imported crusher fines may be required to be added to produce a material which conforms
to the crushed rock base specification and has desirable handling characteristics.
In some cases, weathered rock and quarry overburden material is added to a crushed rock product to impart
specified characteristics of plasticity, grading and permeability. This practice should not be condoned for
quality crushed rock production as there is a probability that degradation and disintegration of particles will
occur during handling and compaction and during the service life of the pavement.

5. Crushed Rock Properties Requiring Specification
5.1 General
In order to adequately specify a product it is necessary to have a very clear understanding of its functions
and required performance characteristics. While notionally the desire may be to specify that the product is
durable, workable, etc. this in itself is not sufficient. The required performance characteristic has to be
defined by a test method or set of methods. Each test method has its own limitations, ranging from its
application, repeatability, reproducibility, sample size, particle size, time to complete test, etc. In the end,
products are judged not so much by their desired performance characteristics but by their compliance with a
specified test method limit. This in turn requires a sound understanding of the available test methods and
their application and limitations.
It should be noted that the divergence in the specification requirements between the various road agencies,
especially with respect to durability requirements, is related to their experience and practice. It is in part
associated with the types of rock used in each State, or region within that State, and in part with the tests
adopted to solve rock durability problems. For the most part, all of the tests now specified in road agency
specifications are incorporated into Australian Standards.
Specifications have to be practical: the selection of the appropriate test method is central to practical
outcomes (timeliness, sample size, frequency, etc.). The specification has to work for all the major parties
involved (viz. the customer, the road contractor and the product supplier). The principal interests of these
parties will commonly be as follows:
• the customer wants to be assured that the completed product performs as required and fully complies
with the specification and provides value for money
• the road contractor wants to be assured of the supply of a uniform, workable and cost-effective pavement
material that will produce the specified product
• the crushed rock supplier wants to ensure cost effective production (appropriate use of rock source and
plant) without rejection of the product at its point of delivery.
5.2 Specification Types
It is possible to specify requirements in three distinctly different ways, by defining either:

• processes and products to be used, e.g. roller passes to compact base (method based specification)
• the performance/functional characteristics of a pavement as a whole without reference to the properties of
the constituent part (performance specification)
• the properties of each and every constituent part ‘used’ and the required end-product state of each part
(end-product, attribute specification).
Each method has the following advantages and disadvantages.

• The method based specification method allows better control (lower risk) on the final outcome, but may
prevent innovation and not encourage commitment to the best outcome.
• The performance specification method has much in its favour because it encourages innovation and
commitment, but there are currently considerable risks and difficulties in the definition of short-term and
long-term performance characteristics of the pavement as a whole.

• The end-product specification method is the most common approach as it places no restriction on the
processes which can be adopted by the road contractor or product supplier and hence provides more
opportunities for innovation. However, it does place restriction on end-product requirements of the
constituent parts, which can be in terms of either:
– composition (e.g. particle shape and texture, particle size distribution, Atterberg limits, etc.)
– behavioural or performance-based characteristics (e.g. skid resistance, strength, stiffness,
permeability, etc.).
Many current specifications are hybrids of all three specification types, but the future is seen to be in the
increased specification of performance characteristics. The following sections describe specifications for
typical granular products currently used in road construction in Australia.
5.3 Source Rock
The source rocks used to produce crushed rock pavement materials must possess characteristics which will
ensure that the product will have the necessary strength and durability, both immediately and in the long-
term, to withstand handling during construction, weathering agents and traffic stresses.
Knowledge of the geological origin and history of rocks used in the production of crushed rock may give
some indication of the likely quality of the product. The engineering properties of a rock are influenced by a
number of factors, principal amongst these are:
• primary mineralogy
• grain size
• rock structure
• quantity and type of secondary mineralisation
• degree of weathering.
The classification of rock used in the production of crushed rock is based upon the mineralogy and
petrographic description of the rock. It is important for the source to be correctly identified and classified in
accordance with a recognised classification system. Correct identification of rock type is a task that requires
geological training and experience.
Part 4J: Aggregate and Source Rock of Guide to Pavement Technology details the classification and
description of source rocks and properties that require specification.
5.4 Product Requirements
5.4.1 Introduction
A product specification should relate to those properties of the crushed rock material which have a bearing
upon its performance (Section 3). It should include requirements for the following:
• maximum size
• particle shape
• nature of fines (cohesive fines content and fines plasticity).

5.4.2 Maximum Size
As the maximum size increases, so do the problems associated with segregation, and achieving the surface
finish necessary for the application of the surfacing and good riding quality. Often 40 mm nominal size is
specified for subbase and lower base layers and 20 mm for the upper base layer. A maximum size of 20 mm
is commonly specified for all base layers and even upper subbase layers because such material is less
prone to segregation and is easier to place and hence achieve compacted density.
It is impractical to determine the size of every particle in the crushed rock product. In practice,
determinations are made of the quantities of particles, the sizes of which lie between sets of defined size
limits, usually related to a fixed series of sieves. The material within a size range defined by any two limits is
referred to as a fraction of the crushed rock. Often all the material retained above the 4.75 mm sieve is
termed the coarse fraction, while that passing the same sieve is termed the fine fraction. Material passing
the 75 µm sieve is referred to as fines.
Ideally, for high quality crushed rock used as a base material in road construction, the value of the exponent
n in Equation 3.1 (Section 3.7) should be between 0.45−0.50, as this generally produces a maximum density
grading (i.e. minimum porosity), and provides a material of maximum stability and strength.
The characteristics and performance of a crushed rock are influenced by the proportions of fine and coarse
material in the particle size distribution as follows:
• If the crushed rock contains an excess of coarse particles it will be difficult to handle during construction
and will require lateral confinement to maintain strength. When compacted it will have a relatively low
density and be highly permeable to water. Because of stone-to-stone contact, the material will be less
likely to suffer a loss of strength or stability in the presence of moisture.
• If the crushed rock contains an excess of cohesive fines it will not be difficult to handle during
construction, provided it is not over-wet, and also not require lateral confinement. When compacted it will
have a relatively low density and low permeability. It is likely that the material will be very susceptible to
loss of strength and stability with low resistance to deformation at higher moisture contents.
• Between those extremes, a crushed rock with a particle size distribution represented by Equation 3.1,
with a value of n near 0.45 will be workable and will not require lateral confinement to maintain strength
(refer Figure 5.1). When compacted, it will have relatively high density and low permeability. Depending
upon the nature of the fines it will be less susceptible to loss of strength and stability due to the presence
of excessive moisture.

Figure 5.1: Compacted crushed rock with n ≈ 0.45
The particle size distributions specified should provide for the requirements of specific situations (refer Figure
5.2). For example, relatively high permeability may be required in the subbase, low permeability in the base,
and very low permeability in unsealed shoulders. Laboratory or field testing methods can be used to
determine permeability.
To achieve the desired particle size distribution after compaction it is necessary to choose an initial particle
size distribution which takes account of any particle breakdown resulting from compaction. If a standard
specification is being prepared to cover a wide range of source rock then it may be possible to specify a
number of initial particle size distributions to cover rocks classified into groups according to, say, the Los
Angeles Abrasion value. Some indication of the probable extent of breakdown can be obtained from a
laboratory test on a sample of material involving pre-treatment using repeated cycles of compaction.
As well as specifying the initial target particle size distribution, practical upper and lower tolerances should
also be fixed to allow for normal production fluctuations.
Whilst it is possible for the particle size distribution of a crushed rock to be within the tolerances, or grading
envelope as it is commonly termed, this alone does not ensure that the product is acceptable. For example,
when the particle size distribution moves from the coarse limit to the fine limit, or visa versa, as it moves
through the sieve sizes, the result is a material that s deficient in some fractions, i.e. it has ‘gaps’ in those
size ranges, and has excess amounts of other fractions (refer Figure 5.3). To avoid this problem the
specification could set limits on the percentage of material to be retained between each consecutive pair of
sieves.

Figure 5.2: Particle size distribution and workability (Ingles and Metcalf 1972)
Figure 5.3: Compacted crushed rock with deficiencies of some sizes
It is generally accepted that it is desirable for aggregate particles in the coarse fraction to be cubical and
angular in shape. Flaky stone will not pack properly, resulting in a matrix with low density, high voids and
low strength. Cubical particles withstand higher levels of loading than flaky particles. Angular particles are
preferred to rounded particles because of their better mechanical interlock and, therefore, superior stability
and strength. The specification can set maximum allowable percentages for flaky and elongated particles.
Tests are available to assess the percentages of such particles. Angularity is frequently assessed by visual
inspection only.

When using rounded river gravel or spalls as the source rock, it is common practice to specify that a
proportion of particles in the crushed product should have a minimum number of fractured faces as
determined by AS 1141.18 – 1996, Method 18: Crushed particles in coarse aggregates derived from gravel.
The shape of the particles in crushed rock depends on the crushing methods used and on the characteristics
of the source rock. Some source rocks have a tendency to produce flaky particles and this requires that
more effort be put into the design of the plant to ensure that the aggregate particle shape is satisfactory.
Generally a maximum Flakiness Index of 35 should be specified for base material.
5.4.5 Nature of Fines
The stability of the product will be influenced by the nature of the fines. Fines consist of materials crushed
from the source rock, which will have the inherent properties of that rock, together with any overburden
contamination, the properties of which may be very different from those of the rock fines. Generally,
contamination can be reduced to an acceptable level by proper production practices.
If the fines, whether from the source rock or from overburden, have a high clay content, problems are likely
to arise with the field performance of the crushed rock (e.g. instability and rutting), especially in situations
where excess moisture exists.
Fines containing a significant proportion of clay are said to be plastic. The most common method of
specifying requirements relating to clay content is the Plasticity Index (PI). Most specifications for crushed
rock set maximum allowable values of PI and liquid limit (LL) values although, in some situations where the
crushed rock must be able to withstand ravelling and erosion, e.g. unsealed pavement surface and unsealed
shoulders, both a maximum and a minimum value of PI are specified.
5.4.6 Example Test Limits for Crushed Rock
Examples of test limits for the properties described in the previous sections are presented in Appendix B. It
lists requirements about which there is general agreement and for which there is general application
throughout Australia. However, there will be occasions and locations for which none of the materials
specified in this Guide is applicable, either due to technical suitability, availability, cost or some other reason.
Test limits listed in Appendix B are provided to illustrate the relationships between material characteristics.
These limits are not intended or recommended for adoption nationally. Test methods are described in
Section 8.
The specification sets out material requirements for base and subbase materials manufactured from sources
of hard rock and river gravel intended for use in the construction of pavements. It is not applicable to
naturally-occurring pavement materials or to soft materials that are altered significantly during construction,
or to bound or stabilised materials. The use of uncrushed fine material as part of the base and subbase
materials is permitted.

6. Properties of Naturally Occurring Granular Materials

Requiring Specification
6.1 Introduction
The majority of the sealed roads in Australia and New Zealand were constructed in the 1950s and 1960s as
light-traffic rural and urban roads (with a design traffic loadings <106 ESA). Extensive experience in building
rural roads resulted in typical pavements of full width construction (i.e. single carriageway with crown cross-
section and unsealed shoulders) and also boxed construction with earth shoulders. The pavement
commonly comprised 200 to 300 mm thickness of locally-won natural gravels or quarried and crushed
materials to support a sprayed seal surface. The component quality and construction standards (based on
index tests and test result limits) for local natural gravels or quarried and crushed materials that have been
successfully used in the past have been published in manuals, guides and publications issued by individual
road authorities.
The following properties have been often considered to affect the behaviour of a naturally-occurring granular
material:
• clay and silt content
• particle shape and texture
• maximum particle size
• particle strength and durability
• compacted density and moisture content.
6.2 Particle Size Distribution
The values of many of the properties controlling the performance of a natural gravel as a pavement material
vary with changes in the distribution of the particle sizes. Ideally, favourable properties of high internal
friction, low void content and low permeability can be expected from a distribution of particle sizes which,
after compaction, allows each size to fit into the voids created by the inter-particle contact of the next greater
size in the range. A material with a range of particle sizes which approaches this ideal case (i.e. well
graded), and a favourable grain shape and texture, can be easily compacted to a condition in which it has
adequate stability, low permeability and good wear resistance. A material without an appropriate range of
particle sizes could be difficult to compact into a stable condition, and may be permeable and prone to wear.
6.3 Clay and Silt Content
The clay and silt content of a material has an important influence on much of its behaviour. The structure
and large surface area of clay particles means they can absorb large quantities of water per unit mass of
material and this leads to the characteristically large volume changes associated with moisture variations in
clay.
There are three main groups into which clay minerals can be classified: Kaolin group, Illite group and
Smectite group. Kaolins tend to be less active, and exhibit less change in volume with change in moisture
content, whereas Smectites are extremely active. Illite clays possess properties between these two
extremes.

Given that the type and quantity of clay affects the magnitude of the cohesive component of a material’s
shear strength, it is desirable for a pavement material to contain some clay. This is particularly applicable to
materials to be used in unsealed roads, where clay helps ensure adequate strength and resistance to wear.
However, the amount of clay must be limited, since materials with high clay contents exhibit large volume
changes as a result of changes in moisture content. This can lead to undesirable changes in the shape of a
pavement.
Clayey gravels also suffer a considerable loss in strength with relatively small increases in moisture content,
and they are also difficult to work. Nevertheless, clayey materials are used in shoulders because of the
requirement for relatively impermeable material to shed surface run-off. However, as detailed in Part
6:Unsealed Pavements of the Guide, shoulder materials should have an appropriate particle size distribution
to provide a safe surface when wet and adequate resistance to ravelling and rutting.
Silty materials tend to be more permeable than clayey materials, and suffer considerable loss in shear
strength with relatively small increases in moisture content. This is because the shape of the particles
results in a predominance of small-sized voids. A high proportion of silt creates a condition that will allow
positive pore-water pressures to develop at relatively low moisture content levels, with a consequent
reduction in the frictional component of the material’s shear strength. Therefore, pavement materials should
not have a high silt content.
6.4 Particle Shape and Texture
The shape and type of surface texture of the particles affects the ease of compaction and the stability
achieved. A compromise is necessary to resolve the conflicting needs of a rough texture to give high internal
friction and thereby stability, and a smooth texture to reduce the difficulties of compaction.
Ideally, the shape and texture of the particles should not be too flaky, elongated or have smooth polished
surfaces such that there is sufficient internal friction to resist re-orientation and volume change at the final,
as-compacted density.
6.5 Maximum Particle Size
Maximum particle size affects both workability and stability. The maximum particle size of a material should
be as large as possible, consistent with the need to provide the necessary level of workability for the
thickness of the layer to be constructed. Workability is critical with base materials that are required to be
finished to a standard necessary for a sprayed bituminous surfacing.
6.6 Particle Strength and Durability
The strength of individual particles affects the stability of a material. Individual particles should have
sufficient strength and durability to resist breakdown in service.
6.7 Compacted Density and Moisture Content
The relative density of a pavement material is expressed as the ratio of the in situ density to the maximum
laboratory density obtained by standard laboratory procedures. This provides a practical method of
controlling the void content of the material during construction.
When the content and size of the voids is small, a slight increase in moisture content can lead to significant
loss of strength due to the development of positive pore-water pressures. High void contents resulting from
inadequate compaction can cause loss of pavement shape and low resistance to wear. In general, a
satisfactory void content is obtained when a pavement material is compacted to specified density.

The effect of moisture change is generally more significant to the performance of a granular material than is
a variation in density. A material’s sensitivity to moisture changes should be judged from results of strength
testing at different moisture contents as determined from laboratory RLT testing at varying saturation levels.
Materials that suffer large variations in strength following small changes in moisture content are referred to
as moisture-sensitive and should be avoided wherever possible.
6.8 Example Test Limits for Natural Gravels
Example test limits for the properties described in the previous sections are presented in Appendix C.
Although the limits outlined have been used in some specifications, they are intended as a guide only and
are not intended to be adopted nationally. Many local factors such as climate, drainage, material availability
and economics can affect the selection of appropriate limits. Provided adequate experience and expertise is
available, it may be possible to successfully use materials which have properties that do not conform with the
specified limits.
Where applicable, the same test limits apply for natural gravels, soft and fissile rock and sand-clays. Where
different limits apply and are known, they are stated. Where possible, the limits provided allow for
differences in service conditions. Different limits are therefore provided, if possible, if the material is to be
used in a sealed or unsealed situations, or in a base or subbase. Allowable variations due to climatic
conditions are also given where appropriate. A fairly arbitrary climatic division into regions receiving less
than 400 mm (semi arid-arid) and more than 400 mm of annual rain was made for this purpose.

7. Tests For Quality
7.1 General
To ensure that a granular material will have those qualities essential for satisfactory performance it may be
necessary to specify requirements relating both to the source rock, and to the product. If it is known that the
source rock is of acceptable quality, a specification for the crushed product only may be all that is required.
Tests that may be specified for the assessment of crushed rock can be grouped generally as follows:
• source rock tests as described in Part 4J: Aggregate and Source Rock of the Guide
• product tests (material as supplied)
• product tests (material after compaction).
Road agency practice with respect to this differs; some require to be supplied with evidence of conformance
for all three groupings and will not permit production to commence without evidence of source rock suitability,
whilst others require no evidence from the source but require full testing of the material after delivery.
Test procedures are only briefly outlined in this section of the Guide and the relevant test method should be
consulted for details of the scope and procedure.
Crushed rock products may be assessed at the source of production (from quarry plant conveyor belt or
stockpile), at the point of delivery (from stockpile or roadbed prior to compaction) or from the roadbed after
compaction. For the assessment of some properties (e.g. strength, cohesion, permeability), laboratory-
compacted samples may need to be tested.
Crushed rock product sampling is carried out using AS 1141.3.1 – Sampling – Aggregates. It is essential
that the material sampled is representative of that to be supplied to the job and that products are not
sampled during the commissioning and tuning stages of the crushing and screening plant.
Product testing is carried out on the quarry-processed materials. The tests are usually carried out on
material as supplied, but some specifications may require that tests be carried out on material which has
been compacted either in the laboratory or in the roadbed (e.g. post-compaction grading and plasticity
indices tests). The results of tests carried out on materials at the point of supply or in stockpile should reflect
the properties and anticipated performance of the materials supplied to the roadbed. Various authorities in
Australia have adopted and developed test methods, or sets of test methods, for the assessment of crushed
rock products, which are commonly based on correlations between the observed in-service performance and
the results of their assessment procedures.
Methods which have been published as Australian Standards and which are suitable for the assessment of
crushed rock products (either in the ‘as supplied’ state or after compaction in the laboratory or in the road-
bed) are listed in Table 7.1. It should be noted that Table 7.1 includes a range of alternative tests and
different agencies can use different combinations that apply to particular applications. In particular, Table 7.2
lists the methods used in New Zealand.
A works specification should specify all the tests appropriate to the source rock or samples submitted during
the tender process, or both, but the whole range of tests is not necessarily applied to control acceptance of
the product during the performance of a contract.

Table 7.1: Australian Standard Test Methods for Product Assessment
Australian Standard Description

AS1141 Method for Sampling and Testing Aggregates
1141.5 Particle density and water absorption of fine aggregate
1141.6 Particle density and water absorption of coarse aggregate
1141.11 Particle size distribution by sieving
1141.12 Materials finer than 75 µm in aggregates (by washing)
1141.13 Material finer than 2 µm (by sedimentation)
1141.14 Particle shape by proportional calliper
1141.15 Flakiness index
1141.16 Angularity number
1141.18 Crushed particles of coarse aggregate derived from gravel
1141.19 Fine particle size distribution in road materials by sieving and decantation
1141.21 Aggregate crushing value
1141.22 Wet/dry strength variation
1141.23 Los Angeles value
1141.24 Aggregate Soundness – Evaluation by exposure to sodium sulphate solution
1141.3.1 Sampling-aggregates
1141.25.1 Degradation Factor – Source rock
1141.25.2 Degradation factor – Coarse aggregate
1141.25.3 Degradation factor – Fine aggregate
1141.27 Resistance to wear by attrition
1141.30 Coarse aggregate quality by visual comparison
1141.32 Weak particles (including clay lumps, soft and friable particles) in coarse aggregates
1141.33 Clay and fine silt (settling method)
1141.35 Sugar
1141.36 Sulfur in metallurgical slag, crushed rock or other pavement materials
1141.51 Unconfined compressive strength of compacted materials
1141.52 Unconfined cohesion of compacted pavement materials
1141.53 Absorption, swell and capillary rise of compacted materials
AS1289 Methods of Testing Soils for Engineering Purposes
1289.1 Sampling and preparation of soils
1289.2 Soil moisture content tests
1289.3.1 Liquid limit
1289.3.2 Plastic limit
1289.3.3 Plasticity index of a soil
1289.3.4 Linear shrinkage of a soil
1289.4.2.1 Soil chemical tests – Determination of the sulphate content of a soil and the sulfate content of
the ground water (normal method)
1289.5 Dry density/moisture content relation of a soil
1289.6.1.1 Soil strength and consolidated tests – determination of the California Bearing Ratio of a soil –
standard laboratory method for a remoulded specimen

Australian Standard Description

standard laboratory method for an undisturbed specimen
standard field-in-place method.
1289.6.7 Determination of permeability of a soil
1289.6.8.1 Determination of the resilient modulus and permanent deformation of granular and unbound
pavement materials
Table 7.2: New Zealand Standard Test Methods for Product Assessment
Standard Description
NZS 4407 Methods of sampling and testing road aggregates - Methods of testing road aggregates - Laboratory
3.6:1991 tests - Test 3.6 The sand equivalent
NZS 4407 Methods of testing road aggregates - Laboratory tests - The particle-size distribution - Test 3.8.1
3.8.1:1991 Preferred method by wet sieving
NZS 4407 Methods of testing road aggregates - Laboratory tests - The particle-size distribution - Test 3.8.2
3.8.2 :1991 Subsidiary method by dry sieving
ASTM C117 Standard Test Method for Materials Finer than 75-μm (No. 200) Sieve in Mineral Aggregates by
Washing
3.10:1991 tests - Test 3.10 The crushing resistance of coarse aggregate under a specific load
3.11:1991 tests - Test 3.11 The weathering quality index of coarse aggregate
3.12:1991 tests - Test 3.12 The abrasion resistance of aggregate by use of the Los Angeles machine
NZS Methods of sampling and testing road aggregates - Methods of sampling road aggregates
4407.2:1991
NZS 4407 Methods of sampling and testing road aggregates - Broken Faces
3.14:1991
NZS Methods of testing soils for civil engineering purposes - Preliminary and general
4402.1:1986
NZS Methods of testing soils for civil engineering purposes - Soil classification tests - Test 2.1
4402.2.1:1986 Determination of the water content
4402.2.2:1986 Determination of the liquid limit
4402.2.3:1986 Determination of the plastic limit
NZS 4402 Methods of testing soils for civil engineering purposes - Soil classification tests - Test 2.4
2.4:1986 Determination of the plasticity index
NZS 4402 Methods of testing soils for civil engineering purposes - Soil classification tests - Test 2.6
2.6:1986 Determination of the linear shrinkage
NSZ 4402 Methods of testing soils for civil engineering purposes - Soil chemical tests - Test 3.2 Determination
3.2:1986 of the total sulphate content
NZS Methods of testing soils for civil engineering purposes - Maximum Dry Density - Standard
4402.4.1.1:19
86
NZS 4402 Methods of testing soils for civil engineering purposes - Soil chemical tests - Determination of the
3.1.1:1986 organic matter content - Test 3.1.1 Standard method by titration
NZS 4402 Methods of testing soils for civil engineering purposes - Soil strength tests - Determination of the
6.1.2:1986 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) - Test 6.1.2 Standard laboratory method for undisturbed specimens

Standard Description
NZS 4402 Methods of testing soils for civil engineering purposes - Determination of the California Bearing Ratio
6.1.3: 1986 (CBR) - Test 6.1.3 Standard method for in situ tests
AS 1141.14 Methods for sampling and testing aggregates - Particle shape, by proportional caliper
:2007
AS 1141.15: Methods for sampling and testing aggregates - Flakiness index
1999
AS 1141.16: Methods for sampling and testing aggregates - Angularity number
2007
AS 1141.22: Methods for sampling and testing aggregates - Wet/dry strength variation
1996
AS 1141.32: Methods for sampling and testing aggregates - Weak particles (including clay lumps, soft and friable
1995 particles) in coarse aggregates
ASTM C88-05 Standard Test Method for Soundness of Aggregates by Use of Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium
Sulfate
ASTM C127- Standard Test Method for Density, Relative Density (Specific Gravity), and Absorption of Coarse
07 Aggregate
ASTM C128- Standard Test Method for Density, Relative Density (Specific Gravity), and Absorption of Fine
07a Aggregate
7.2 Source Rock Tests for Crushed Rock
Durability tests for aggregates generally involve one or more of the following:
• the imposition of a load on the aggregate particles – the load(s) may be imposed gradually or rapidly,
once or repeatedly, and the test portion may or may not be confined
• saturation of the sample
• the imposition of wet/dry cycles
• the imposition of hot/cold cycles (often in conjunction with the former)
• the introduction of a chemical which can penetrate into the rock and influence its mechanical behaviour
• an investigation of the mineral composition of the rock.
The distress mechanisms by which the tests operate are different, to varying degrees, from those that apply
in the field. In some cases, there is no ‘distress mechanism’ but rather a correlation between the test results
and field behaviour – the most obvious example being the Secondary Mineral Content, where the test result
is simply the proportion of a given class of constituents. This in fact represents, as an extreme case,
something that is true of all the durability tests. As none of them reproduce field behaviour exactly, an
empirical relationship has to be established between the test result and in-service performance, which will in
turn be used to set a specification limit.
Commercial quarries usually produce a range of products (commonly, concrete aggregate, sealing
aggregate, asphalt aggregate) as well as crushed rock. The durability test suite derives from all of these
applications and may involve distress mechanisms which are quite different from those occurring in
pavements (e.g. abrasion). The use of the same tests throughout the range of products reflects the facts
that durability is an inherent property of the source rock. Any test which empirically correlates with durability
in one service environment is therefore likely to correlate with durability in others, although the appropriate
specification limits may vary.
Part 4J: Aggregate and Source Rock of the Guide describes the various source rock tests required.

7.3 Product Tests
This test (AS 1141.11) is commonly used for granular materials. As it is not practical to determine the size of
every particle, determinations are made of the quantities of particles whose sizes lie between defined limits
related to a fixed series of sieves. The sieves generally used range in size from 37.5 mm to 75 μm, and the
determination can be extended into even smaller sizes by hydrometer analysis or sedimentation methods,
although this practice is uncommon for crushed rock.
The aggregate is sieved over a series of sieves arranged in order of decreasing size and the mass of
material retained on each sieve is determined. The total mass of all material passing each sieve is then
expressed as a percentage of the total mass of the sample. The particle size distribution is sometimes given
in terms of the cumulative percentages retained on sieves.
Flakiness index test (AS 1141.15) is used to determine the flakiness index of an aggregate. A flaky particle
is defined as one whose least dimension is less than 0.6 of the mean size of the pair of sieves that define the
size range in which the particle is contained. The particles are separated into size ranges by sieving and
then the particles in each size range are tested against an aperture whose width is 0.6 of the mean of the
appropriate pair of sieves. The mass of particles that pass this aperture is determined and expressed as a
percentage of the mass of particles in the size range. The overall percentage of flaky particles is calculated
and termed the flakiness index.
Particle shape, by proportional calliper test (AS 1141.14) is used for the determining, by use of a
proportional calliper, the proportion of flat, elongated, flat and elongated and misshapen particles in those
fractions of a coarse aggregate retained on a 9.50 mm sieve. Flat and elongated particles are defined in
terms of arbitrary calliper ratios for width to thickness and length to width respectively. The proportion of
misshapen particles is the percentage of flat, elongated, and flat and elongated particles in the size range
measured, determined by summing weighted percentages.
The procedure involves separating the aggregate particles into size ranges by sieving and testing each
particle in each range with the calliper set at the desired ratio. The ratio chosen is frequently 3:1 or less.
Angularity number test (AS 1141.16) is another index of aggregate shape. The angularity number is a
measure of relative angularity based on the percentage of voids in an aggregate compacted in the
prescribed manner. The least angular, i.e., most rounded, aggregates have about 33% voids. The
angularity number is defined as the amount by which the percentage of voids exceeds 33. In practice the
angularity number ranges from 0 to about 12.
The procedure involves compacting a test portion of the aggregate made up of particles from the
predominant size range, into a specified container and determining the volume of aggregate in the container
from the mass of the aggregate and its particle density. The volume of voids can then be determined and
the angularity number can be calculated. The larger the number, the more angular the aggregate.
Crushed particles test (AS 1141.18) is used to assess the proportion of particles in the crushed product.
This test is commonly used when the source rock is rounded river gravel or spalls.
7.3.3 Particle Density and Absorption
These two tests (AS1141.5, AS1141.6) are used with fine and coarse aggregates for determining the bulk
particle density on a saturated surface dry basis, apparent particle density on a dry basis and the water
absorption after 24 hours soaking.

7.3.4 Consistency Limits
Consistency limits are based on the concept that a fine-grained cohesive soil can exist in four states,
depending upon its water content. Thus a soil is solid when dry, and with the addition and incorporation of
water will proceed through the semi-solid, plastic and liquid states. The explanation for these changes lies in
the interaction of the soil particles. The greater the amount of water a soil contains, the less interaction there
will be between adjacent particles, and the more the soil will act like a liquid. The water contents at the
boundaries between adjacent states are termed the shrinkage, plastic, and liquid limits respectively.
These limits are defined in an empirical manner, and determined by standard test procedures. They give an
indication of the amount and activity of the clay present in a soil.
Plastic limit
The plastic limit is defined as that moisture content at which a thread of soil (comprised of material passing
the 425 µm sieve) can be rolled without breaking until it is only 3 mm in diameter. It is dependent on both the
type and amount of clay present. At the plastic limit sufficient water is required to wet all the surfaces and
reduce cohesion so that the particles can move past one another under stress, but maintain a new moulded
position. For pavement materials, a high plastic limit may indicate the presence of an undesirable amount or
type of clay.
Liquid limit
The liquid limit of a soil is usually defined as the moisture content at which the soil passing the 425 µm sieve
is sufficiently fluid to flow a specified amount when jarred 25 times in a standard apparatus. It is dependent
upon both the type and amount of clay present, but is more sensitive to the type of clay than is the plastic
limit. At the liquid limit, a soil is water-saturated, and the distance between particles is such that the force of
interaction between the soil particles is sufficiently weak to allow easy movement of the particles relative to
one another. The liquid limit of a soil generally increases with an increase in the amount of flaky, fibrous or
organic particles present. It therefore often gives a useful warning of the presence of undesirable
components which may affect packing, interlocking and cohesion of the soil particles, leading to poor stability
of the compacted soil mass and indicates the magnitude of the range of moisture contents over which the
soil remains plastic.
Except where a clay has unusual properties, the plasticity index generally depends only on the amount of
clay present. It gives a measure of the cohesive qualities of the binder resulting from the clay content. Also
it gives some indication of the amount of swelling and shrinkage that will result from wetting and drying of
that fraction tested.
As some soils do not have sufficient mechanical interlock, they require a small amount of cohesive material
to give satisfactory performance. A deficiency of clay binder may cause ravelling of gravel wearing courses
during dry weather, and excessive permeability. An excess of clay results in softening of the binder and loss
of stability when the gravel becomes wet. Materials with an excess of clay may also be difficult to work.
Plastic index determination
The plasticity index is a commonly used test to assess the quality of granular material fines. Its value is the
numerical difference between the liquid limit and plastic limit values.

Linear shrinkage
The linear shrinkage is the percentage decrease in dimension of the fine fraction of a soil when it is dried
after having been moulded in a wet condition, approximately at the liquid limit. Like the plasticity index it
gives some indication of the volume change that is likely to occur in a soil when the moisture content
changes. It is a useful test for soils with low clay contents on which the liquid and plastic limits, and hence
the plasticity index, are often difficult to measure. An approximate estimate of the plasticity index can be
made by measuring the linear shrinkage. The plasticity index is then approximately two and a half times the
linear shrinkage.
7.3.5 Soil Fines
Material finer than 75 µm in aggregates (by washing) (AS 1141.12): This test is used to determine the
percentage by mass of material finer than 75 µm in an aggregate, by washing.
Material finer than 2 µm in aggregates (by sedimentation) (AS 1141.13): This test is used to determine
the percentage by mass of material finer than 2 µm in an aggregate, by sedimentation. The test portion is the
wash water obtained in AS 1141.12. The solid matter is separated from the wash water by evaporation and
then dispersed in a specified solution. The dispersion is allowed to settle and after a set time, a pipette is
used to sample liquid from a particular depth. The mass of solid matter in the sample of liquid is determined
and from this the percentage of material finer than 2 µm can be calculated.
Clay and fine silt (settling method) (AS 1141): This test can be used in the field as a guide to the total
amount of silt, clay and similar materials in fine aggregates. It is not generally applicable to crushed rock
products. A sample of the aggregate is mixed vigorously in a transparent cylinder with water containing
common salt until all adherent particles have been dispersed. The mixture is allowed to settle for three hours
after which the volume of sand and the volume of settled clay and silt are noted.
Sand equivalent test: The sand equivalent test provides an empirical measure of the quality and quantity of
fines in an aggregate. A sample of the fraction that passes a 4.75 mm sieve is placed in a transparent,
graduated cylinder, containing a specified solution including a flocculating agent. The sample and solution
are shaken in a standardised manner. Solution is then passed under pressure through an irrigator tube thrust
to the bottom of the cylinder, washing the clay upward out of the sample into suspension as the cylinder is
gradually filled. After a 20-minute settling period the top levels of the flocculated-clay column HC and the fine
aggregate column HA are measured.
The sand equivalent SE is then calculated from the expression:
SE = HA/HC x 100
This gives a scale of values from 0 to 100. The less clay that is present, the higher will be the sand
equivalent value. Although the sand equivalent value depends upon the plasticity and the particle size
distribution of the fine aggregate, no general mathematical relationship has been found to link these three
quantities.
The sand equivalent test is useful as a control measure during production of aggregates because it is
relatively quick to perform and requires only simple, portable apparatus.
Clay Index Test: The Clay Index test (NZS 4407:1991 Test 3.5) is used to estimate the percentage of
expansive clay in natural fines or rock powder. A sample of fines is placed in a flask and then suspended in
distilled water. Hydrogen peroxide and sulphuric acid are added and the suspension gently boiled. The
suspension is then titrated using methylene blue solution until the solution reaches the end point as identified
by a colour change in a drop test. The clay index is a measure of the volume of methylene blue solution
absorbed by 1 g of the material.

7.3.6 Contaminants
Organic impurities other than sugar: This test is used for the approximate determination of the amount of
organic material, other than sugar, present in fine aggregates. A liquid is formed by mixing a sample of the
aggregate with a solution of sodium hydroxide and this mixture is allowed to stand for 24 hours. The colour
of the liquid is then compared against that of a standard reference solution. The test result indicates whether
or not further tests are required to assess the effect of the presence of organic materials on the concrete-
making or other properties of the aggregate.
Organic impurities other than sugar (AS 1141.35): This test uses Feeling’s solution to detect the
presence of sugar in aggregates.
Sulphur in metallurgical slag (AS 1141.36): This test determines the amount of sulphur in metallurgical
slag. It covers both total sulphur and acid soluble sulfate.
7.3.7 Unsound Stone Content
This test is used to determine the amount of unsound rock present in the aggregate. Necessary prerequisites
are that unsound rock has been defined and that it is distinguishable from sound rock according to colour or
texture. The test is performed on a sample from the fraction of aggregate retained on the 4.75 mm sieve.
The sample is washed and then visually examined and compared with a prepared set of reference materials
which have been sampled from the quarry face and classified according to the specified laboratory test
criteria (see Figure 7.1). Unsound particles are removed and their total mass is expressed as a percentage
of the total mass of the fraction.
This is not strictly a ‘test’ in itself but rather a procedure which classifies aggregate particles by visual
comparison with reference specimens. High proportions of unsound stone are correlated with poor durability
in service.
In principle, the procedure can be applied to any source for which visual distinctions can be made reliably, on
the basis of the reference specimens.
Figure 7.1: Assessment of unsound stone content using reference samples

7.3.8 California Bearing Ratio
The California Bearing Ratio test (CBR) (AS 1289.6.1.1) was originally devised to provide a method of
comparing natural granular materials and crushed rock base, and subsequently developed as a means of
assessing subgrades for pavement design purposes.
In the laboratory test a cylindrical plunger is penetrated at a standard rate into a compacted, confined sample
(refer Figure 7.2). The CBR is calculated by expressing the load required to cause a specific penetration as
a percentage of 13.344 kN, the load required to cause the same penetration in a standard material. The
standard material, which was a crushed Californian limestone, is defined as having a CBR of 100%.
The CBR is an empirical value, and does not accurately relate to any of the fundamental engineering
property. Since the material in the test is predominantly subject to shear deformation, the test can be
regarded as an indirect measure of the shear strength. The advantage of the test lies in the confidence that
can be placed in its application as a result of its successful use in the field over a long period of time, and a
wide range of conditions.
Although the standard laboratory test (AS 1289.6.1.1) is usually carried out on soaked specimens, the
procedure allows samples to be tested at whatever moisture content and density is considered appropriate to
field conditions (AS 1289.6.1.2). The value of the CBR will vary according to the conditions of test.
Essentially the same procedure may be performed in the field on in situ material (AS 1289.6.1.3) (refer
Figure 7.3). The test is normally carried out on material passing the 19 mm sieve. The repeatability of CBR
results on medium to coarse grained soils is not as good as on fine grained soils. Pavement materials must
satisfy certain minimum CBR requirements, depending upon the use to which they are to be put in the field.
Figure 7.2: Laboratory measurement of California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

Figure 7.3: In situ measurement of California Bearing Ratio
7.3.9 Repeated Load Triaxial Test
Granular material resilient modulus and ability to resist permanent deformation are important characteristics
that influence pavement performance. The behaviour of a granular material under dynamic wheel stress is
complex as it depends not only on the soil type but also on the moisture/density condition and the way in
which the stress is applied. Ideally, in a repeated load triaxial (RLT) laboratory test (Figure 7.4), a
compacted cylindrical specimen of the granular material is placed in a triaxial cell in which both the lateral
stress and vertical stress are applied dynamically until failure occurs. However, to simplify the testing
process for routine use, the Austroads standard RLT test method (Austroads 2007) specifies a static
confining pressure and uses dynamic vertical stress.

Figure 7.4: Repeated load triaxial test equipment
The same sample preparation and loading apparatus are utilised to determine both the permanent
deformation and resilient modulus properties from a single specimen prepared to a specified density and
moisture condition. The permanent deformation measures the vertical permanent strain at three stress
conditions using three levels of repeated vertical stress and a static lateral stress. Each stress condition
consists of 10,000 repetitions of vertical stress application.
The resilient modulus determination characterises the vertical resilient strain response over 66 stress
conditions using combinations of applied repeated vertical and static lateral stresses. Based on the test
results, stress-dependent characteristics of both permanent strain and resilient modulus for the specimen
can be determined.
7.3.10 Permeability
The permeability characteristics of a material depend upon the particle size distribution, the nature of the
material, the particular state of density and moisture content, and the method of compaction. The coefficient
of permeability k is defined by the expression:
Q=kiAt
where Q volume of water which will flow in time t

i hydraulic gradient
A total area of material perpendicular to the direction of flow.
In a permeability test a sample of crushed rock is compacted in a cylinder to a selected density and a
particular moisture content and the flow of water through the compacted sample is measured under the
influence of a particular hydraulic gradient (Figure 7.5).

Figure 7.5: Permeability apparatus
(a) Constant head for high permeability range (b) Falling head for low permeability range

References
Andrews, R 1996, Influence of particle size distribution on performance of pavement materials. Materials
Technology Research and Development Program Project Number MT 71 (unpublished).
Austroads 2007. Determination of permanent deformation and resilient modulus characteristics of unbound
granular materials under drained conditions. Test method AG:PT/T053, Austroads, Sydney.
Department of Mines and Energy, South Australia 1993, Handbook on quarrying, 5th ed, Department of
Mines and Energy, Adelaide, SA.
Minty, EJ 1960, The physical properties of aggregates used for roadworks in New South Wales in relation to
their petrological characteristics. Thesis submitted to the University of New South Wales for the award of
the degree of Master of Science in the School of Mining Engineering and Applied Geology.
NEPM 1999, National Environment Protection (Assessment of Site Contamination) Measure, National
Environment Protection Council Service Corporation, Adelaide, SA.
NHMRC 1992. Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for the assessment and management of
contaminated sites. National Health and Medical Research Council, Canberra.
Nyoeger, E 1964. Petrological investigation into the secondary minerals of an older basalt flow north of
Melbourne. Proceedings of the 2nd Australian Road Research Board Conference, 1964, Melbourne, vol.
2, part 2, Australian Road Research Board, Vermont South, Vic., pp.997-1007.
Scott, LE 1955. Secondary minerals in rock as a cause of pavement and base failure. Highway Research
Board proceedings, vol. 34, Highway Research Board, Washington DC, pp.412-417.
Vuong, BT, 1992. Influence of density and moisture content on dynamic stress-strain behaviour of a low
plasticity crushed rock. Road & Transport Research, vol. 1, No. 2, June 1992.
VicRoads 1998. General requirements for unbound pavement materials. Technical Bulletin No.39.
VicRoads, Kew Victoria.
Weinert, HH 1960. Determination of the soundness of weathered basic igneous rock (dolerites) in road
formations, report RS/6/60. National Institute of Road Research, Pretoria, South Africa.
Australian Standards
AS1141 – Methods for Sampling and Testing Aggregates.
AS1289 – Methods of Testing Soils and Testing Aggregates.
AS 2758 – Aggregates and Rock for Engineering Purposes.
New Zealand Standards
NZS 4402 - Methods of Testing Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes.
NZS 4407 - Methods of Sampling and Testing Road Aggregates.

Unified Soil Classification System

Field Identification Procedures
Group
Major Divisions Typical Names (Excluding particles, larger than 75-0 mm
Symbols
and basing fractions on estimated mass)
1 2 3 4 5
(appreciable (little or no fines)
fraction is > 4.75 mm sieve size
Wide range in grain sizes and

Clean gravels
Well-graded gravels, gravel s and

More than half of coarse
GW substantial amounts of all intermediate

mixtures, little or no fines.
particle sizes.
More than half of material is larger than 75 µm sieve size
Poorly-graded gravels, gravel- Predominantly one size or a range of sizes

Gravels
GP
sand mixtures, little or no fines. with some intermediate sizes missing.
Gravels with
Silty gravels, gravel. Sand-silt Non-plastic fines or fines with low plasticity
amount of
GM
mixtures. (for identification procedures, see ML below).
fines)
fines
Coarse-grained soils
Clayey gravels, gravel sand-clay Plastic fines (for identification procedures see
GC
mixtures. CL below)
The 75 µm sieve size is about the smallest particle visible to the naked eye
(little or no fines)
More than half of coarse fraction is
Well graded sands, gravely Wide range in grain size and substantial
Clean sands
SW
sands, little or no fines. amounts of all intermediate particle sizes.
<4.75 mm sieve size
Poorly-graded sands, gravely Predominantly one size or a range of sizes

SP
sands, little or no fines. with some intermediate sizes missing.
Sands
Sands with fines
amount of fines)
SM Non-plastic fines or fines with low plasticity

(appreciable
Silty sands, sand-silt mixtures

(for identification procedures see ML below)
Clayey sands, sand-clay Plastic fines (for identification procedures see

SC
mixtures. CL below)
Identification procedures on fractions smaller

than 425 µm sieve size
More than half of material is smaller than 75µm sieve size
Dry Strength Dilatancy Toughness

(crushing (reaction to (consistency
characteristics shaking) near PL)
Inorganic silts and very fine
sands, rock flour, silty or clayey Quick to
ML None to slight None
Silts and Clays
fine sands or clayey silts with slow

Liquid Limit
Fine-grained soils
slight plasticity.
< 50
Inorganic clays of low to medium

Medium to None to
CL plasticity, gravely clays, sandy Medium
high very slow
clays, silty clays, lean clays
Organic silts and organic silty Slight to

OL Slow Slight
clays of low plasticity medium
Inorganic silts, micaceous or

Silts and Clays
Slight to Slow to Slight to

Liquid Limit
MH diatomaceous fine sandy or silty

medium none medium
soils, elastic silts.
> 50
Inorganic clays of high plasticity, High to very

CH None High
fat clays. high
Organic clays of medium to high Medium to None to Slight to
OH
plasticity, organic silts high very slow medium
Peat and other highly organic Readily identified by colour, odour, spongy
Highly Organic Soils Pt
soils feel and frequently by fibrous texture.
1. Boundary Classification: Soils possessing characteristics of two groups are designated by combinations of group
symbols. For example GW-GC, well graded gravel sand mixture with clay binder.

Information Required for Describing Laboratory Classification Criteria

Soils
6 7
Determine percentage of gravel and sand from grain size curve. Depending on percentage of fines
For undisturbed soils add information
on stratification, degree of D60
compactness, cementation, moisture Cu = 〉 6
(fraction smaller than 75 µm sieve size) coarse grained soils are classified as follows
conditions and drainage D10
characteristics.
(D30 )2
Give typical name; indicate Cc = ≥1≤ 3
approximate percentages of sand and D10 xD60
gravel, max. size, angularity, surface
condition, and hardness of the coarse
grains, local or geologic name and Not meeting all grading requirements for GW
use of dual symbols

other pertinent descriptive information,
GW, GP, SW, SP
GM, GC, SM, SC
and symbol in parentheses. Atterberg limits
below the A
Above the A line
Use grain size curve in identifying the fractions as given under field identification
Line or PI < 4
EXAMPLE: With PI between 4 and 7 are
Atterberg limits borderline cases requiring use
Silty sand, gravelly, about 20% hard,
below the A of dual symbols.
angular gravel particles 13.2mm
maximum size, rounded and sub- Line with PI < 7
angular sand grains coarse to fine,
about 15% non-plastic fines with low
dry strength well compacted and D60
moist in place; alluvial sand (SM). Cu = 〉 4
D10
5% to 12%
>12%
<5%
(D30 )2
Cc = ≥1≤ 3
D10 xD60
Not Meeting all grading requirements for SW
Atterberg limits
below the A Above the A line
line or PI < 4 With PI between 4 and 7 are
borderline cases requiring
Atterberg limits
use of dual symbols.
below the A
line with PI < 7
Give typical name, indicate degree 60
and character of plasticity, amount A - line
and maximum size of coarse grains,
Platicity Index
colour in wet condition, odour, if any

local or geologic name, and other 40
pertinent descriptive information; and CH
symbol in parentheses.
For undisturbed soils add information, CI

on structure, stratification, consistency 20 MH OH
in undisturbed and remoulded states, CL
moisture and drainage conditions. SF MI
S OI
EXAMPLE: ML O
L
Clayey silt, brown, slightly plastic, 0 20 50 100
small percentage of fine sand,
Liquid Limit (LL)
numerous vertical root holes, firm and
dry in place, loess. (ML).
PLASTICITY CHART for laboratory classification of the fine-grained soils
2. All sieve sizes of this chart are AS standard.

3. Cu = Coefficient uniformity. Cc = Coefficient of curvature. D60 = Grain diameter at 60% passing.
D30 = Grain diameter of 30% passing. D10 = Grain diameter at 10% passing.

Example TEST Limits for Crushed rock
Disclaimer
Test limits listed in this Appendix are provided to illustrate the relationships between material characteristics. Although
the limits outlined have been used in some specifications, they are intended as a guide only and are not intended to be
adopted nationally.
Quality System
The supplier shall establish implement and maintain a Quality System in accordance with the requirements
of AS/NZS ISO 9001 or a recognised equivalent.
Test Methods
All testing required by the specification shall be performed in a laboratory endorsed by the National
Association of Testing Authorities (NATA). Tests shall be performed in accordance with the relevant
Australian Standard testing procedures.
Materials
Crushed rock fragments shall consist of clean, hard, durable, angular rock fragments of uniform quality. The
use of sands and/or filler and crushed fines from a source other than the source of the coarse aggregate is
permitted, but shall be subject to approval of the purchaser.
For the purpose of this specification crushed rock is to be supplied in various in classes broadly defined as
follows:
• Class 1 is normally specified as a premium cohesive pavement base material for unbound pavements
where a very high standard of surface preparation for a sprayed sealed or thin asphalt surfacing is
required. It has a minimum plasticity index requirement and may have additional requirement for
maximum permeability when used for heavy duty unbound pavements.
• Class 2 is normally specified as a high quality pavement base material for unbound flexible pavements in
locations where a very high standard of surface preparation may not be required. Class 2 crushed rock
does not have a minimum plasticity index or a maximum permeability requirement.
• Class 3 is normally specified as a high quality upper subbase material for heavy duty unbound flexible
pavements. It may have a minimum permeability requirement to provide positive drainage to the sub-
surface drains.
• Class 4 is normally specified as a lower subbase material for heavy duty pavements or a subbase
material for most other types of pavements. It may have a maximum permeability requirement if used as
a capping material.
Source Rock Specifications
The supplier shall supply details of the source and geological description of the rock to be used for
production of the crushed rock.

Coarse Aggregate Fraction (Portion Retained on a 4.75 mm AS Sieve)
Tables B.1, B.2 and B.3 provide three alternative combinations of durability and hardness requirements.
Only one combination shall be applied and this must be selected by the purchaser. This should be the set
that has been shown by local experience to be valid for the rock sources likely to be used. Materials from
sources not complying with the given values may perform satisfactorily and may be used provided that there
is local evidence of proven performance.
Wet Strength and Wet/Dry Strength Variation
Base and subbase materials having wet strength and wet/dry strength variation values that comply with the
limits given in Table B.2 have performed successfully in practice.
Los Angeles Value and Unsound and Marginal Stone Content
Base and subbase materials having a Los Angeles Value not greater than the relevant limits given in Table
B.3, when tested in accordance with AS 1141.23, have performed successfully in practice. In addition, base
and subbase materials having unsound and marginal stone content not greater than the relevant limits given
in Table B.3, when determined in accordance with AS 1141.30, have also been used successfully.
Los Angeles Value and Sodium Sulphate Soundness Loss
Base and subbase materials having a Los Angeles Value not greater than the relevant limits given in Table
B.4, when tested in accordance with AS 1141.23, have performed successfully in practice. In addition, base
and subbase materials having a sodium sulphate soundness loss not greater than the relevant limits given in
Table B.4, when determined in accordance with AS 1141.24, have also been used successfully.
Table B.1: Wet strength and wet/dry strength variation requirements for hardness and durability
Test value
Base Subbase
Test Property
Class 4
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
(lower)
10% fines value (wet) (kN) (min) 100 80 50 –
wet/dry strength variation (%) (max) 35 35 45 –
Table B.2: Los Angeles value and unsound and marginal stone content requirements for hardness and
durability
Test value
Test Rock type Base Subbase
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4

coarse grained 35 35 40 –
Los Angeles value (%) (max)
fine grained 30 30 35 –
total of marginal and unsound
all rock types 10 10 20 –
stone (%) (max)
unsound stone (%) (max) all rock types 5 5 10 –

Table B.3: Los Angeles value and aggregate soundness requirements for hardness and durability
Test value
Test Rock type Base Subbase

coarse grained 35 35 40 –
Los Angeles value (%) (max)
fine grained 30 30 35 –
Sodium sulphate soundness
(maximum weighted average all rock types 6 9 12 –
loss) (%)
Fine Fraction (Portion Passing a 4.75 mm AS Sieve)
The use of crushed fines produced from a quarry, or a location within a quarry, different from that used for
the production of that fraction of the crushed rock retained on the 4.75 mm AS sieve is permitted subject to
the approval of the purchaser. Such crusher fines produced from any igneous or metamorphic rock when
tested in accordance with AS 1141.25.3 shall have a Degradation Factor-Fine Aggregate value not less than
60.
The use of sands and/or filler is permitted subject to approval in writing by the purchaser as to the proposed
source and nature of such materials, the proposed amounts to be added and the proposed method of
incorporating such materials in the product. Where the supplier elects to use an additive component with the
crushed rock, the additive shall:
• be derived from sound and durable material
• not be cementitious in nature
• be free of vegetable matter, lumps and balls of clay and oversize particles of rock
• be sized such that it can be effectively and uniformly distributed throughout the crushed rock
• be kept dry to facilitate incorporation into the mixture
• be blended in the base and subbase finished products and shall not be greater than 15% by mass.
Product Specifications
The crushed rock shall be free from vegetable matter and lumps or balls of clay and shall comply with the
relevant requirements of Table B.4.

Table B.4: Product requirements
Test values
Test Base Subbase

Liquid Limit % (max) 30 30 35 40
Plasticity Index (max or range) (1) 2-6 0-6 12 20
California Bearing Ratio % (min) (2) – - 30 15
PI x % passing 0.425 AS sieve (max) – - – 600
Flakiness index % (max) 35 35 – –
crushed particles % (max) (3) 60 60 50 –
(1) Minimum value for PI specified to ensure the material is sufficiently impermeable to resist penetration of water
through thin surfacing layers.
(2) Value applicable to material passing 19.0 mm sieve: compacted at Optimum Moisture Content to 98% of Modified
Maximum Dry Density as determined by test; then soaked for 4 days prior to CBR testing.
(3) Applicable to crushed river gravels.
Sulphide Mineralisation
Unless otherwise approved by the purchaser, crushed rock produced from any source shall not be permitted
if that fraction of the crushed rock product passing the 2.36 mm AS sieve, when prepared according to AS
1289.1 Clause 4.6, fails to comply with the requirements of Table B.5.
Table B.5: Requirements for sulphide mineralisation
Test Test value Soil to water ratio

pH (units) 6.0 (min) 1:2.5
conductivity (mS/cm) 1500 (max) 1:1
Grading of Crushed Rock Base and Subbase
The grading of the crushed rock after compaction shall comply with the relevant requirements of Tables B.6,
B.7, B.8 and B.9.
Table B.6: Grading requirements for Class 1 & 2, 20 mm base
Test value
AS sieve size Target grading
(mm) (% Passing) Limits of grading (% Retained between
Passing) Sieves %
26.5 100 100
19.0 100 95–100 0–5
13.2 85 78–92 7–18
9.5 73 63–83 10–16
4.75 54 44–64 14–24
2.36 39 30–48 10–20
0.425 18 14–22 14–28
0.075 9 7–11 6–13

Table B.7: Grading requirements for Class 3, 20 mm subbase
Target grading Test value limits of

AS sieve size (mm)
(% Passing) grading (% Passing)
26.5 100 100
19.0 100 95–100
13.2 85 75–95
9.5 75 60–90
4.75 59 42–76
2.36 44 28–60
0.425 21 14–28
0.075 10 6–13
Table B.8: Grading requirements for Class 3, 40 mm subbase
Target grading Test value limits of

AS sieve size (mm)
(% Passing) grading (% Passing)
53.0 100 100
37.5 100 95-100
26.5 85 75-95
19.0 77 64-90
9.5 60 42-78
4.75 46 27-64
2.36 35 20-50
0.425 17 10-23
0.075 9 6-12
Class 4 crushed rock subbase shall comply with the relevant nominal size grading requirements given in
Table B.9. The crushed rock shall not be graded from near the coarse limit on one sieve to near the fine limit
on the following sieve or vice versa.
Table B.9: Grading requirements for Class 4 subbase
Test Value Limits of Grading (% Passing)

AS Sieve Size
Nominal Size (mm)
(mm)
50 40 30 25 20 14 10
75.0 100
53.0 100
37.5 100 100
26.5 100
19.0 54-75 64-90 100 100
9.5 48-70 54-75
4.75 42-76 54-75 64-84
2.36
0.425 7-21 7-23 9-24 10-26 10-28 15-32 18-35
0.075 2-10 2-12 2-12 2-13 2-14 6-17 7-18

Moisture Content
Where payment is to be made on a mass basis, the average moisture content of the crushed rock at the
plant shall not exceed 3.5% by mass unless otherwise specified or unless the contractor has, at the time of
tendering, nominated an upper limit of average moisture content greater than 3.5%. In the latter case the
difference between the nominated value and the specified value will be taken into account when tenders are
being considered. The average moisture content of crushed rock supplied on any one day will be
determined from three samples taken at random from that day’s supply. If the average moisture content is
greater than that specified or nominated, the material may be rejected. If, at the discretion of the purchaser,
the material is accepted, then payment will be made for the mass determined by deducting the calculated
mass of excess moisture from the net mass shown on the delivery dockets.
Stockpiling Prior to Delivery
Material may be stockpiled prior to delivery provided the following requirements are fulfilled:
• the product, after recovery from the stockpile, complies with this specification
• the stockpile site is clean, adequately paved, and well drained
• if a stockpile is constructed in more than one layer, then each layer is fully contained within the area
occupied by the upper surface of the preceding layer
• the stockpiled material shall have a minimum moisture content of 3.5% to prevent segregation and
excessive dust.
Handling of Materials
Handling of materials, including the loading of trucks and stockpiling, shall be effected in such a manner as
to minimise segregation.

Example Test Limits for Natural Gravels
Disclaimer
Test limits listed in this Appendix are provided to illustrate the relationships between material characteristics. Although
the limits outlined have been used in some specifications, they are intended as a guide only and are not intended to be
adopted nationally.
Particle Size Distribution
Gravel and soft rock
The suggested particle size distribution for gravel and soft and fissile rock is given in Figure C.1.
Sand-clays
Specific test limits for sand-clays are not well established. Where possible, materials with maximum density
particle size distributions should be used. However, other information, such as modulus, resistance to
permanent deformation and CBR strength test results, will normally be more important as selection criteria.
The grading may be used to control quality once its correlation with strength is established.
Plastic Limit
A value in excess of 20% may indicate the presence of undesirable components.
Liquid Limit
The following values have been used in specifications:

• unsealed base or shoulders 35% maximum
• sealed base or shoulders 25% maximum.
Slightly higher values may be acceptable for some limestone rubbles or similar absorptive materials.
Plasticity Index
Gravel and soft rock
The following values have been used in specifications for gravel and soft rock:
Material use Annual Rainfall
< 400 mm > 400 mm

unsealed base / shoulder 4% min – 15% max 4% min – 9% max
unsealed subbase 18% max 12% max
sealed base / shoulder 10% max 6% max
sealed subbase 12% max 8% max
Note: For materials which contain natural cementing agents, higher values than those suggested have been used with
satisfactory results.

Sand-clays
The following values are suggested for sand-clays:
Material use Annual Rainfall (mm)< 400

unsealed base / shoulder 5% min – 15% max
unsealed subbase 3% min – 20% max
sealed base / shoulder 5% min – 12% max
sealed subbase 3% min –15%max
Note: Sand-clay does not perform well when wet or subjected to abrasion or erosion.
Figure C.1: Suggested particle size distribution for fixed maximum size
It is suggested that the use of sand-clays in unsealed roads should be limited to those subjected to low traffic
intensities. It is further recommended that sand-clay shoulders on a sealed road be sealed or stabilised with
bitumen.
Weighed plasticity index
As a guide, the product of the PI and the percentage passing the 425 µm sieve (relative to the whole
material), commonly called the Weighted Plasticity Index (WPI) should not exceed 200 for a material which is
to be used with a bituminous surfacing. A value of 400 has been used satisfactorily in arid areas (<400 mm
annual rainfall).

Linear Shrinkage
Material use Annual Rainfall (mm)
< 400 > 400

unsealed base / shoulder 6% max 3% max
unsealed subbase 8% max 2% max
sealed base / shoulder 4% max 2% max
sealed subbase 5% max 3% max
Maximum Dry Compressive Strength
Material use Maximum Dry Compressive Strength

unsealed base / shoulder 2.8 MPa min
unsealed subbase 1.0 MPa min
sealed base / shoulder 1.7 MPa min
sealed subbase 1.0 MPa min
Miniature Abrasion Loss Test
A maximum value of 15% loss has been specified for base and subbase materials.
Ball Mill Value

• base 40 maximum
• subbase 55 maximum.
Note that these values would exclude many of the ripped rocks used in rural areas. The values relate more
to a relatively high-strength material that would probably require blasting to extract and crush.
Texas Triaxial Test
The following values are suggested at the expected in situ moisture density conditions:

Compressive Modulus
Material use Class Number
(at zero lateral pressure)
unsealed base 2.3 max. –
sealed base 2.0 max. 28 MPa min
subbase 3.0 max. –
As a guide, modified Texas triaxial requirements specified by the RTA NSW are as follows:
Design traffic loading

Base Subbase
(ESA)
≥ 107 2.0 max 3.2 max

4 x 106 < N < 107 2.2 max 3.2 max
106 <N≤4x 106 2.5 max 3.2 max
≤ 106 3.0 max 3.2 max
California Bearing Ratio Test
The following CBR values are commonly used in specifications for base materials:
• unsealed base 60% min
• sealed base 80% min.
These minimum values are intended to apply at the expected in situ moisture-density condition.
Where in situ moisture-density information is not available, laboratory samples should be compacted to
specified laboratory moisture-density conditions. Soaked CBR testing is applicable for some locations.
Subbase materials may also be selected on the basis of CBR.

AGPT04A-08 Guide To Pavement Technology Part 4A Granular Base and Subbase Materials

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AGPT04A-08 Guide To Pavement Technology Part 4A Granular Base and Subbase Materials

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Guide to Pavement Technology Part 4A:

Granular Base and Subbase Materials

Edition 1 published September 2008 • Queensland Department of Transport and Main

2. Role and Function of Granular Materials in a Pavement.................................................................... 4

3. Behaviour of Granular Pavement Materials in Service ...................................................................... 8

4. Production of Granular Materials ....................................................................................................... 19

Austroads 2008 | page i

5. Crushed Rock Properties Requiring Specification ........................................................................... 31

6. Properties of Naturally Occurring Granular Materials Requiring Specification ............................37

7. Tests For Quality .................................................................................................................................. 40

Unified Soil Classification System ........................................................................................ 53

Example TEST Limits for Crushed rock ................................................................................ 55

Example Test Limits for Natural Gravels .............................................................................. 61

Austroads 2008 | page ii

Figure 2.2: Rutting of granular base induced by trafficking......................................................................... 6

Austroads 2008 | page iii

Austroads 2008 | page 1

Further details on all available Austroads documents can be found at www.austroads.com.au

1.2.1 Improved Pavement Design Procedures

1.2.2 Improved Understanding of Durability

Austroads 2008 | page 2

1.2.3 Increased Heavy Vehicles

1.2.4 Improved Quarry Plant

1.2.5 Improved Construction Plant

1.2.6 Uniformity of Practice in Specification

Austroads 2008 | page 3

2. Role and Function of Granular Materials

2.1 Function of a Road Pavement

Figure 2.1: Components of a road pavement

The purpose of the shoulder is to provide:

General pavement configurations that incorporate granular pavement layers include:

Austroads 2008 | page 4

2.2 Requirements of a Pavement Material

The requirements of a pavement material are generally as follows:

Table 2.1: Pavement material requirements (Lay 1981)

Property Definition Range

Austroads 2008 | page 5

Figure 2.2: Rutting of granular base induced by trafficking

2.3 Function of Granular Base and Subbase Materials

The functions of a granular base layer in a pavement are to:

The functions of a granular subbase layer in a pavement are as follows:

The stress distribution within a granular pavement is illustrated in Figure 2.3.

Austroads 2008 | page 6

Figure 2.3: Stress distribution within a granular pavement

2.4 Operating Environment

Austroads 2008 | page 7

3. Behaviour of Granular Pavement Materials in Service

Austroads 2008 | page 8

Long term performance

* percentage passing the 0.075 mm sieve

3.2 Shear Strength

Austroads 2008 | page 9

Figure 3.1: Shape of aggregate particles

Source: VicRoads 1998, Technical Bulletin 39

3.2.1 Particle Shape and Surface Texture

3.2.2 Percentage Fines and Fines Plasticity

Austroads 2008 | page 10

3.2.3 Particle Size Distribution

3.2.4 Density and Moisture Content

3.3.1 Particle Size and Shape

Austroads 2008 | page 11

3.3.2 Particle Roughness and Shape

3.3.3 Fines Content and Fines Plasticity