General Botany (Bot 123)

Elisa Marie C. Apurillo B.S

Agriculturist – Plant Breeding
E-mail: franghens2164@gmail.com
Part-Time Lecturer
Eastern Visayas State University Burauen Campus
Burauen, Leyte
This module is exclusive only for First Year Agriculture students of Eastern Visayas

State University Burauen Campus. No part of this module may be reprinted,

reproduced or utilized in any form without consent from the author.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

COPYRIGHT 2020

AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT

EATERN VISAYAS STATE UNIVERSITY BURAUEN CAMPUS

BURAUEN, LEYTE

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED TO AUTHOR

2
Course Name: General Botany (Bot 123)
Instructor: Elisa Marie C. Apurillo

General Course Description:

This course provides background material for students who have not
previously been exposed thoroughly to basic Botany at University level. Knowledge of
the fundamental and applied aspects of different botany fields of study, considering
the levels of organization, plant structure and function, classification of the plant
kingdom and interactions between plants and their environment.

Botany is the scientific study of plants or deals with the study of plants and
their relationship to the environment. This will serve as an introduction to the plant
sciences that will discuss about the growth, reproductive, anatomy, morphology,
physiology, biochemistry, taxonomy, genetics and ecology of plants.

General Objectives:
By the end of this course, the students should be able to:
1. Define Botany and identify the sub-disciple of Botany.
2. Identify and understand the plant cells, structure, function and basis of
reproduction.
3. Identify and understand the functions of the different plant cells and tissue
types.
4. Understand morphological and anatomical organization of the plant body and
parts.
5. Gain knowledge and understanding regarding plant nutrition, nutrient
transport and metabolism.
6. Expose student to what plants do and what physical and chemicals factors
cause them to respond as they do.
7. Learn the principles in genetics mechanism for plant breeding and plant
propagation.
8. Gain knowledge on crop plant evolution, plant systematics and classification.

No. of Units and Class Hour:

– 3 units (2 hours lecture and 3 hours laboratory)

3
Lecture Outline:

1. Introduction
2. Microscopy
3. Plant Cell Structure and Function
4. Cellular Basis of Reproduction
5. Plant Structure (Morphology & Anatomy)
6. Plant Cell Type and Tissue Systems
7. Root System
8. Stem System
9. Leaves System
10. Flower, Fruits and Seed
11. Soil and Plant Nutrition
12. Water movement and Nutrient transport
13. Plant Metabolism (Photosynthesis, Respiration and Translocation)
14. Plant Growth and Development
15. Plant Breeding and Propagation
16. Genetics and Evolution
17. Systematics and Taxonomy
18. Plant Systematics

4
Test your knowledge on General Botany:

Quiz #1

1. On your own understanding kindly describe the field of Botany.

2. As an agriculture student why study Botany? Please justify your answer.
3. What is the difference between botany and biology?

5
 LECTURE 1

COURSE INTRODUCTION:

What is Botany?

It is a branch of biology that deals with the study of plants that includes their
structures, properties and biochemical properties. Studying plant classifications and
how they related to the evolutionary process of the plants is the first step in order to
establish strategies for plant conservation. The molecular properties of plant life play
a vital role in plant survival and evolution. They help the plant to resist the threats
and challenges such as human population and activities, climate change, and
pollution. Some treaties and organizations have established strategies to overcome
threat effects on plants. The methods that plant species are preserved and recorded
for the future are vital to understand how these processes relevance to biodiversity.
It‟s also essential for scientists to know the past, present, and future of the botanical
life (Samen Abdelghany 2016). Botany can be considered to be a „slice science‟
because it covers multiple levels of organization.

Why Study Botany?

– World population is increasing

while agricultural land is depleting,
there is a need to improve crops
production to meet the demand of
the population and to secure food.
– Botany permeates our everyday life.

Sub-disciplines of Botany:

1. Plant Cell biology – structures

functions, and life processes of
plant cells.
2. Plant Physiology – how plants function (photosynthesis, mineral
nutrition).
3. Plant molecular biology – structures, functions of important biological
molecules (proteins, nucleic acids).
4. Plant Genetics – plant heredity and variation.
5. Plant Ecology – interrelationships among plants.

6
 Why Study Plants?

Basically plants provide human food to eat, fiber, fuel and mostly important even
without noticing, plants even provide us
Figure 2. plant emerge/germinated
oxygen or air that we breathe in order to
live. Among other reasons scientist
studies plants to improve and secure the
food supply for an increasing world
population, identify new sources of
bioactive compounds and medicines,
improve fiber production and identify
sources of bio-fuels and bio-renewable
resources.

What is a plant?

Plants - are like most animals they are eukaryotes.

– cell walls made of cellulose (fig. 3)
– have chlorophyll, a green pigment to carry out photosynthesis.
– chlorophyll is contained in
chloroplasts and it is essential
to where it allows plants to
absorb energy from lights.
– they are photosynthetic
autotrophs where they can
make their own food.

Figure 3. Plant cell

7
 Discovery of cells in plants inform us about the world. Since Robert Hooke
discovered and describe cells in microscope, from then on more discoveries and
knowledge on plant sciences were followed.

Fig. 4. Plant cell seen under microscope

Plants are diverse, there are estimated 500,000 species of land plants and still
there‟s lot of species unknown. Plants have evolved the ability to thrive in diverse
land habitants. Land plants had to undergo exciting structural and reproductive
changes to adapt from an aquatic to terrestrial lifestyle. Considering their vast
diversity, all land plants have at least one very important characteristic in common –
they undergo a unique life cycle that is referred to as an Alternation of Generation.
The amount of time spent in each phase varies depending on the group of the plant
belongs.

• 1st phase called gametophyte – plants (multicellular) that has a single

set of chromosomes (haploid) produces gametes (egg and sperm cells).
• 2nd phase called sporophyte – plant (multicellular) that has 2 sets of
chromosomes (diploid) result of fusion of 2 gametes (egg and sperm).

Figure 5.

8
Plants can be divided into two groups: plants1 and plants2.

• Plant I contain all photosynthetic organisms which use light, H2O and
CO2 to make organic compounds and O2. Plants 1 is defined ecologically
(based on their role in nature). However there some plants 1 can be
bacteria or even animals like the green slug (Elysia chlorotica). It collects
chloroplast from the algae and uses them for their entire life as food
producers. Therefore, greens slugs (figure 6) can be both plants and
animals (heterotrophic plants).

Figure 6. Green Slugs (Elysia chlorotica) captures chloroplast from the alga (Vaucheria
litorea)

• Plants II are all organism from Vegetabilia kingdom. Normally. Plants 2

are green organism with a stem and leaves. It defines also as multi-tissued,
terrestrial, and primarily photosynthetic eukaryotes. Tis definition is
taxonomical it based on evolution.

 Plants may be understood on several levels of organization; from top to

bottom:
a. Ecosystem or taxa
b. Populations
c. Organism
d. Organs
e. Tissues
f. Cells organelles
g. Molecules

9
 Can we live without PLANTS?

Plants fix carbon dioxide into energy-rich molecules as human and animals can
used as foods. Through the process of photosynthesis plants converts CO2 gas into
sugars or glucose.

CO2

O2

 Importance of PLANTS:
– it produce most of the oxygen we breath, we can’t live without
oxygen mean we can’t live without plants. According to Joseph
Priestly (figure 7) an animal kept in sealed container breathing its own
(injured) air would eventually pass out. However, on the other hand he
recognized that in another sealed container containing plants it has the
ability to restore air because plant produce oxygen as a by-product of
photosynthesis (CO2 emitted from rat used by the plant).

–
–
–
–
–
–
– Figure 7. Oxygen experiment on rat in a sealed container
–

10
– provide shelter in a form of woods for houses also shelter to animals in
the forest.
– provide food to eat; basic food for all
organism came from plants.
– provide better fiber for papers and
fabric
– can produce an amazing assortment
chemicals e.g., vitamin A, C,
vanillin, caffeine and morphine.
– sources of novel therapeutic drugs
were mostly of the medicines comes from the plants used to treat
different illness.
– plants provide renewable energy sources – it can replace petroleum for
many products and purposes. Plants and other dead organic matters
can be converted into petroleum however, it takes million and millions
of years to happen….. And we are running of it. Petroleum is not a
RENEWABLE resource.

Figure 8. Oil Rigs in the ocean

– plants can be a source of biofuels. – solar energy from sun absorbed by

plants and use. Plants undergo microbial fermentation where microbes
ferment sugars (glucose, xylose and other sugars) to ethanol, which is
then separated from the mix ethanol, water, microbes and residue and
purified through distillation. Ethanol is can be used as fuel for cars (fig.
9).

11
 Figure 9. Process of converting plant sugars into ethanol

• Other Reasons:
1. to learn about the natural world
2. help to conserve endangered plant species and healed environment
3. enhance the abilities of plants to meet the needs of the future
generations (food, shelter, medicines and energy).

REAL CHALLENGE!

Why Study Plants?

World Population grows and grows: As of JULY 2020 world population is about
7.7 billion (figure 10) and increasing as years pass by, while agricultural land is
depleting and being converted into
industrial and commercial land. It‟s
a big challenge for our Agriculturist
and farmer to feed the growing
population as to increase the
production of food having
underlying problem where
agricultural land is decreasing.

Figure 10. World Population

Source: www.worldmeters.info

12
 Hunger and Malnutrition’s:

- According from the State of Food Security and Nutrition in the world by WHO
in 2019 estimated that almost 690 million people went hungry –up by 10
million from 2018.
- Asia has the greatest number of undernourished 381 M, second is Africa
having 250 million.

 Challenge to our Scientist and What they can do about this?

• Plant Scientist can contribute to alleviate Food Security

- by developing plants that:

i. are drought or stress tolerant
ii. high yielding varieties
iii. resistant to pathogens
iv. require less fertilizer or water
v. more nutritious yet affordable

• Prolonging the shelf life of the harvested crop

- Plant biologist study ways to keep crop fresh after harvesting, processing
and preserved to make it available all the time.

 Studying plants increases our knowledge about life in general and

helps us to work with them to keep us fed, healthy, sheltered,
clothed, and live in balance and happy.

13
THE MAKE-UP OF A PLANT:
Plant and its Parts

Plants have two organ systems: the shoot system and the other one is the
root system. The shoot system is the above ground and it includes the leaves, buds,
stem, branches, flowers and fruits (if the plants have any of the two or one). While
the root system is the part of the plant below the ground and it includes the root,
tubers, corm and rhizomes.

Plant is made up of many

different parts. However, the
three main parts or organ are:
the roots, the leaves and the
stem. Each part has a set of
functions in able to keep the plant
alive and healthy.

• Roots – it absorb
water and minerals from the soil
that are needed by the plant. Also
it used as anchorage of the plant in
the soil.
- substances taken in
must be transported to the parts of
the plant above ground, so that
the conduction of the absorbed
substances is also a part of the
work of roots.
- other function of the
roots is the storage of the reserve food, it is important especially having a
thick roots like carrots, radish, beets, sweet-potato, potato and taro.

• Stems – also and the branches - it supports the plant above ground.
- usually the conduction of water and minerals from roots to leaves and
from leaves to roots.
- support of the leaves, as well as of the flowers, in a position favorable to
the performance of their work.
• Leaves – in the majority of seed plants, the chief food-manufacturing
organs, it collects energy from the sun and makes food for the plant, using
an amazing process called photosynthesis
- some plant made food also in the green parts of the stem, branches and
flowers.
- other plant used leaves as a medium for propagation such as cactus and
other succulents.

14
 Other plant parts:
• Flowers
• Fruits and seeds
• Nodes and internodes

 Adaptation – in general, plants and its organs are so constituted that they
are able to perform their function successfully and most satisfactory under the
conditions, such as those of temperature, light and moisture, to which the
plant is ordinarily exposed. These facts are said that the plant is adapted to its
environment if they do survive in such conditions or if the organism not fairly
well adapted to their environment, obviously they would not long survive.

15
 LECTURE II

MICROSCOPY

History of Microscope

Microscope has become one of the most recognizable symbols of science.

Starting with the use of a simple lens in ancient times, to the first compound
microscopes that we‟re using today in the life of science, it allowed scientists to make
discoveries about the “invisible world”. In 100 BC, people used water as a magnifier
in a blown glass globes filled with water to magnify things. They noticed that tiny
objects and writings could be seen more clearly through a round glass container filled
with water.

Around 1st century, someone discovered that looking through a crystal

made things look larger. That piece of crystal was called a magnifying glass or
magnifiers that are made of
curved, clear piece of glass. Later
on, it was called lens because, it
was shaped like a lentil seed
(figure 2.1). In the 12th century
(1200s) an Italian inventor Salvino
D‟Armate made the first eye
glasses, allowing to wear having
magnification. Eye glasses were
Figure 2.1 magnifying glass were called then lens
came from lentil seeds. also called spectacles.

Microscope was first built in 1595 by Hans and Zacharias Janssen in

Holland (fig. 2.2). The first compound microscope or Jansen microscope produced
were simply a tube with lenses at each end. It composed of 3 sliding tubes, measuring
18 inches long when fully extended and 2 inches in diameter. It contained 2 lenses and
diaphragms between the tubes to cut down on the glare from the crude lenses. It was said to
have a magnification of 3X when fully closed and 9X when fully extended.

Fig 2.2 son and father Janssen with their invention microscope
16
 With the discovery of the microscope from Janssen and with their
obvious magnification properties being used by many people, it was just a matter of
time before someone put two lenses together to make a sophisticated and clearer
view from compound microscope. At this time, more discoveries were found about
life and sciences.

Robert Hooke was the first scientist to

Fig. 2.3 Robert Hooke
microfungos “Mucor”.
describe live process under microscope where in
1665; he first discovered or saw under the
microscope a looked like honey-comb from the thin
slice of cork which it made of tiny units or a small
room where he called „cell‟. He named these pockets
of air “cells” after the small monastery rooms used
by monks. However, what he actually saw was the
dead cell walls of plant cells (cork) as it appeared
under microscope. In the same year, he presented
his first published depiction of a microorganism namely

Robert Hooke was a mechanical genius. His book, Micrographia, was an

important milestone in proving the importance of microscopy. Hooke‟s microscope
was a very large instrument-nearly 2 feet tall (fig.
2.4). Large body tube was attached to the stand by
a crew, and so by rotation, the object could be
brought into focus. The object was placed on a pin on
the lower stage, and light illuminated the object from
above. The illumination came from an oil flame and
a globe (rounded glass container) and a lens to
focus the light.

Fig. 2.4 Image of Hooke’s microscope

About the same time where Hooke was
making discoveries with a microscope, a Dutch
amateur scientist named Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek (fig. 2.5) was making incredible
discoveries with a tiny single-lens microscope that
was made and designs by himself. He was the first
person to observe and accurately describe the
microorganism such as bacteria and protozoa he
called “animacules”. He constructed over a 250 small
powerful microscope that could magnify around 50-
300 times. Below is the replica of simple microscope
Antonie Leeuwenhoek (magnifying lenses) made by him (fig 2.6).

17
 Leeuwenhoek experimented on different metals and made hundreds of simple
microscopes. His lenses were much better than those in more advanced scopes. A
specimen is placed on a pin in front of the lens
which is held in place by two metal plates.

John Yarwell and John Marshall were

the two leading microscope makers in 1690. The

Fig 2.6 Leeuwenhoek microscope body tubes could be rotated and a small glass stage
could hold a specimen. The lights were below the
stage. Soon, Marshall made some improvement on his microscope were the body
tube could be slid up and down and the stage also could be raised and lowered.

Figure 2.7 john Yarwell and John Marshall

microscope

In 19th century microscope makers

were finally working on the quality of the optical
image. The optical problems of the past were
corrected through the work of Lister and Dolland.
Large clear images were being produced instead
of large, blurry ones. By the end of the 19th
Century, microscopes were being massed
produced in high volume for low cost.

Fig 2.8 Joseph Lister microscope18

 Microscopy:

Microscopes are instruments designed to produce magnified visual or

photographic images of small objects. It contains one or more lenses that make an
enlarged image of an object to show it clearer.

Types of Microscope:

1. Light Microscope – use sunlight or artificial light, it is the simplest of all

microscope.
- it use lenses to bend and focus light rays to produce enlarged images of
small objects
• Types of Light Microscope
i. Bright-field microscopy – produces a dark image against a
brighter background.
- 2 types: Simple microscope
Compound microscope
 Simple Microscope – light passes through only one lens.
example: magnifying glass
 Compound Microscope - it is very common, usually
classified as used of the students. Visible lights passes
through the specimen and bent through the lens system
containing two or more lenses. Benefit of light microscopy
that it can often be performed on living cells.
- it is two dimensional with high magnification and low
resolution =200nm
- oil immersion lens increases resolution

a b

Fig 2.9 Images of microscope (a. simple b. compound)

ii. Dark-field microscopy – produces bright image of the objects

against dark background and specimen appears gleaming bright.
iii. Phase contrast microscopy – produces high-contrast images of
transparent specimens.

19
 iv. Fluorescence microscopy – exposes specimen to ultraviolet,
violet, or blue light. It shows bright image of the object resulting
from the fluorescent light emitted by the specimen.
2. Stereoscopic Microscope – it gives three dimensional view of an object. It
used for dissections.
example: used for leaves and insects

Figure 3.0 Stereoscopic Microscope

3. Electron Microscope - use beam of electrons instead of a beam of light to

magnify the image. It can achieve or give 2D and 3D images.
- it can obtain thin slices of specimen having a high magnification and high
resolutions.
- Produces useful images with magnification up to about 200,000x

Figure 3.1 Electron Microscope

• Types of Electron Microscope:

i. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) – produces 3-
dimensional images of specimen‟s surface features.

20
 ii. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) – a beam of
electrons is transmitted through the specimen for a 2D view.
- provides detailed study of the internal ultrastructure of cells and
allows the observation of molecules within cells
- allows the magnification of object up to about 100,000x.

Figure 3.2 Diagrammatic of Transmission and Scanning Electron Microscope

4. Confocal Laser Scanning Microscope (CLSM) – laser beam used to

illuminate spots on specimen.
- computer compiles images created
from each point to generate a 2-
dimensional image.
- used on specimens that are too thick
for a light microscope

Figure 3.3 Confocal laser scanning

microscope

21
 Magnification and Resolution of Microscope:

Magnification is the ability to make small objects seen larger, such as making a
microscopic organism visible. This enlargement is quantified by a calculated number
also called magnification. Compound microscope which is usually used and available
in science lab has three magnifications – low, medium and high. Each objective will
have a specific magnification (low-4x, medium- 10x and high-40x). In addition to
this, ocular lens or the eyepiece magnification is usually 10x.

 To calculate the magnification:

Total magnification = objective magnification X ocular lens

 Magnification of the Compound Microscope

Objective Ocular Total

Magnification lens Magnification

Low power 4x 10x 40x

Medium
10x 10x 100x
power
High power 40x 10x 400x

Resolution describes the ability of an imaging system to show detail in the

objects that is being imaged. While on the other high magnification without high
resolution may make very small microbe visible, but it will not allow the observer to
distinguish between microbes or sub-cellular parts of microbe. Resolution depends
on the distance between two distinguishable radiating points.

22
 EASTERN VISAYAS STATE UNIVERSITY

Burauen, Leyte
AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT

Botany 123
GENERAL BOTANY

Laboratory Exercise No. 1

Micrsocopy

Introduction:

Microscope is an optical instrument consisting of lens or combination of

lenses for making enlarged images of minute objects. It is usually used for science
research and science lab experiment. Only objects 0.1mm and larger can be
visualized by the human eye. Because most microorganisms are much smaller than
0.1mm, a microscope must be utilized in order to directly observe them. In general,
the diameter of microorganisms ranges from 0.2 - 2.0 microns.
Compound microscope is usually used microscope because it is very common
and available and considers a type of light microscope which uses light as a source of
illumination, will be employed in this lab. There are several types of light
microscopes. The type used in this course is a bright-field microscope or
compound microscope, where the specimen appears darker against a bright
background.

Objectives:
1. To familiarize the parts of microscope.
2. To locate and label correctly the parts of microscope.
3. To differentiate the uses and functions of the parts of microscope.
4. Able to calculate the total magnification of a lens system.

23
 Lab Report
General Botany 123

Name: Date Submitted:

Schedule:

Exercise No.1
Microscopy

Instruction: For those who can‟t print, just answer directly for No.1 and follow
numbering. Submission date is to be announced.

1. Label the parts of Compound Microscope. 18 points

1.----------------

2 -----------------
10 -------------
---
3 -----------------
-----------------
11 -----------------
4 ----------------
------------------ ----
---
-
5 ----------------
6 ----------------- 12 ---------------
---
13 ---------------
7 ---------------
---
8 ------------------ 14 ---------------
----
9 ------------------ 15 ---------------
---
16 -----------
----

17 ---------------
----
18 ------------
----

24
2. Calculate the missing information in the chart using your knowledge on the
power of magnification. 5 points

Ocular lens Objective

Power of magnification
magnification magnification

10x 80x

5x 500x

10x 100x

10 100x

40x 400x

3. What are the parts (use your answer from above) of the compound microscope?
Uses and functions of each part. 18 points
4. How does the view of a specimen change as you increase the power of
magnification? 2 points
5. When using a compound microscope, you should look through the (encircle the
correct answer)
a. objective lens
b. condenser
c. ocular lens
d. stage
6. When carrying a microscope you should always;
a. walk carefully
b. grasp it at the microscope arm with one hand and supported the base with
the other hand
c. hold it with both hands
d. all of the above

*you can print this paper and answer directly here and use another sheet for questions 3 and 4.

25
Note:
Instructions for the output format and on how to submit student output:

1. Finish outputs must be submitted first to the messenger account of instructor then wait
for the submission date for the hard copy of output to the school.
2. All outputs should have a name, year and section.
3. When submitting to school, put all your output in one long brown envelope. Write
your name, year and section, and subject. Also (instructor’s name) my name ELISA
MARIE APURILLO at the back of it of envelope.
4. Wait the submission date as it will be announce.
5. Submit your envelope to the school (guard house) and make sure to put it in the box
provided by the instructor.
6. Loss of your envelope will not be liable of instructor.

26
 LECTURE III
PLANT CELLS: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Overview of CELLS

Cells were first discovered in 1665 by Robert Hooke,

an English Scientist where he discovered cells under a
microscope. He saw a tiny box looked like a honey-comb
from the thin slice of cork (bark from an oak tree) which it
made of tiny units or small room where he called cell.
“CELLS” comes from the Latin word for “little room”.

Robert Hooke

Anton van Leeuwenhoek a Dutch amateur scientist. He

was the first person to observe and accurately describe the
microorganism such as bacteria and protozoa he called
“animacules”. Today, it called single-cell organisms.

 Scientist that stated the Cell Theory:

Antonie Leeuwenhoek 1. Matthias Schleiden - A German botanist who

discovered that all plants are made up of similar units, or
cells.
2. Theodor Schwann - A German scientist who stated that all plants and animals are
made up of building blocks, or cells.
- He also observed that there are similarities and differences between plant and
animal cells.
3. Rudolph Virchow - This German physician also reported that every living thing is
made of up vital units, known as cells. He also predicted that cells come from other
cells.

Cell theory
The three main parts of Cell Theory are:
1. All living organism are made up of cells.
2. Cell is the basic unit of structure and function in all organisms.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
4. The cells of all living things carry on similar chemical activates.
5. All cells carry on their metabolic activities in organelles.
 What is CELL?
- the smallest unit of an organism that carries on the function of life.
- simply – cell is the basic unit of life.
- a cell can perform all the processes of life.

Figure 3.3 Plant cells

There are some organisms are single-cell (unicellular), and others are made up of many cells
(multicellular) or cell colony.

 Type of Cells:
1. Prokaryotes
- are organisms which are made up of small and simple cells.
- organism whose cells lack a membrane enclosed nucleus.
- examples: Bacteria and Arachaea
2. Eukaryotes:
- Organism which are made up of large and complex cells.
- Organism that have a nucleus in each cell
- membrane –bound structure
- Example: plants, fungi, animals and protists

Fig. 3.4 Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells

28
 Plant Cell:

All plants and all other living organism are composed of cells. For algae and
fungi, some of these organisms are consist of a single cell, however angiosperms are complex
multicellular organism composed of many different types of cells. Plants are multicellular
organisms composed of millions of cell with specialized function. Plant cells are microscopic
and typically range from 10 to 100 μm in length.

In spite of the differences in size and complexity, all cells are mostly
composed of the same substances and they all carry out similar life functions. These include
growth and metabolism, and reproduction by cell division. Plant cells are composed of
subcellular structures that are responsible for different and specific functions. These
structures are known as organelles. Most organelles are common to both animal and plant
cells. However, plant cell also have features that animals cells don’t have; a cell wall, large
central vacuole, and plastids such as chloroplast.

Plants play a vital role for the other organism to be able to live as plants make
their own food in a process called photosynthesis. They take the carbon dioxide (CO2) and
water (H2O) and convert them into glucose and they release oxygen which it used for other
living organism to survive.

 Cell organelles and other Cell component (Cell Structures)

1. Cell wall
2. Plasmodesmata
3. Plasma membrane
4. Nucleus PLANT CELL
5. Ribosomes
6. Nucleolus
7. Endoplasmic Reticulum
8. Golgi Bodies
9. Plastids
10. Chloroplasts
11. Mitochondria
12. Central vacuoles
13. Microtubules
14. Lysosomes
15. Cytoplasm
16. Chloroplast Figure 3.5 Anatomy of Plant Cell
17. Cytosol

29
 Component of Plant Cell:
- consists of a more or less rigid cell wall and the protoplast – the contents of
the cell.
1. Cell wall consists of:
i. Middle lamella – a sticky layer; mostly pectin, cement adjacent cell together
ii. Primary cell wall
a. found in all plant cells.
b. composed of a number of polysaccharides, principally cellulose matrix
with hemicellulose, proteins, pectin, lignin, cutin, and wax.
c. characteristics of undifferentiated cells or ones that still are growing.
iii. Secondary cell wall
- just inside primary cell wall
- characteristics of mature cells
- comprised of hemicellulose and lignin – a very complex organic
molecule

Figure 3.6 Microscopic view of cell wall

– Plasmodesmata – cytoplasmic connections between adjacent plant cells.

- allow the transport of substances
from one cell to the next cell.

30
2. Protoplast – consist of the cytoplasm and nucleus
i. Cytoplasm – it includes distinct membrane-bound organelles such as plastids
and mitochondria; (consist of various organelles)
– Systems of membranes:
a. Endoplasmic reticulum
b. Dictyosomes
– Non-membranous entities
a. Ribosomes
b. Actin filament
c. Microtubules
– The rest of the cytoplasm is a liquid matrix in which the nucleus,
various entities and membrane systems are suspended - it is typically
referred to as the cytosol or ground substance

3. Plasma Membrane – the outermost layer of the protoplast which is composed of

phospholipids and proteins.
– serves as a permeability barrier, allowing some molecules (such as
water) to pass through.
– a selectively permeable; allowing certain materials to pass through and
prevents the movement of other through it.
– Fluid mosaic model – called for the structure of the membrane.
- it is the ability of membrane components (mosaic molecules) to move
fluidly within the plane of the membrane.
• This model consist of double layer of phospholipids with
scattered proteins;
i. Integral proteins - inserted in the membrane and not easily
removed; and go through the lipid bilayer.
ii. Peripheral proteins - are loosely associated with the
membrane (can be dissociated with salt) and easily
removed.
- proteins that are on either the inner or the outer surface.
iii. Some of the membrane proteins and lipids have
carbohydrates attached; they are called glycoproteins and
glycolipids, respectively.

4. The Central Vacuole

– maintain turgor pressure against the cell wall
– used as storage areas and also serve as the site of chemical digestion.
– can occupy as much as 90% of the volume of certain cells.
– surrounded by a membrane called tonoplast.

31
5. Plastids
– are structures which function for storage of products and
photosynthesis according to their type.
– contain their own DNA and some ribosomes

Figure 3.8 Plastids and its main types.

– Main types of Plastids:

i. Amyloplasts (Leucoplastides) – are large white structure where
starch is stored.
- Leucoplast – do not contain pigments and are located in roots
and non-photosynthetic tissues of plants. It specialized for bulk
storage of starch, lipid, or protein.
- upon exposure to light, leucoplast may develop into chloroplast
ii. Chromoplasts – contain pigments that are responsible for the
orange and yellow colors of petals, fruits and flowers.
iii. Chloroplasts – double membrane structures where the process of
photosynthesis occurs.
• Chloroplasts – captures the light energy from the sun
(specifically chlorophyll) and use it with carbon dioxide and
water to produce sugars and oxygen. It looked like a flat disc
usually 2 to 10 micrometer in diameter and 1 micrometer thick.
• Chloroplast contain chlorophyll, the green pigment that gives
leaves color and absorbs light energy

32
 Figure 3.9

• Chloroplast structures:
i. Inner and Outer Phospholipid membrane – structure that
encloses the chloroplast.
ii. Stroma – fluid within the chloroplast
- it contains one or more molecules of small, circular DNA, also
ribosomes.
iii. Thylakoid – has a flattened disc shape; sub-organelles that are the
site of photosynthesis lying within the stroma.
- thylakoid space or lumen – an empty area inside the thylakoid
(flattened disc shape).
- it stacks on top of another.
iv. Grana (granum singular)– called for a stack of thylakoid

 Cell Process: Moving Into and Out of Cells

Cells constantly exchange materials with their environment allowing water

and nutrients to move into and out of the cells. Cell membrane controlled the permeability of
the cell, and cell wall surround the cell membrane protecting the cell from changes in osmotic
pressure.

• Osmotic Pressure - occurs when differences in concentration of solutes on

opposing sides of a semipermeable membrane.
- One way this occurrence of exchanging is by diffusion.

33
 Substances that move into or out of a cell do so by one of three methods.

A. Diffusion is the spontaneous movement of particles from areas of higher

concentration to areas of lower concentration.
B. The diffusion of water molecules across cell membrane through a
permeable membrane is called osmosis.
– water can move freely through the membranes; the direction of water
molecule is dependent on the relative concentration of substances on
either side of the membrane.
– water movement through a membrane from a region of higher to lower
concentration.
– it is important to cells because cells cannot function properly without
water adequate.
– can cause extreme osmotic pressure on a cell when its external
environment changes.
a. Solute – substance being dissolved in a liquid (e.g salt)
b. Solvent – substance doing the dissolving (e.g water)
c. Permeability – the extent to which a membrane will allow particular
sized molecules to pass.
d. Semi-permeable membrane (selectively permeable) - allow some
molecules to pass but not others.

• When comparing two solutions there are three possible

relationships. It identify the relationships by determining what would
happen if a cell were placed in the solution.
1. Hypotonic – a solution that causes a cell to swell because of osmosis
meaning the water rushes into the cell.
2. Isotonic – solution that causes no change in cell size, meaning there is
no movement of water.
3. Hypertonic – solution that causes a cell to shrink because of osmosis,
meaning water leaves the cell.

34
Figure 3.10 Osmosis in plant cells. (a) In an isotonic solution, the cell neither gains nor loses
water; water flows equally both into and out of the cell (b) In a hypertonic solution, the cell
loses water because more water moves out of the cell than enters (c) In a hypotonic solution,
the cell gains water because more water enters the cell than moving out.

C. Active Transport – the movement of a substance against the

concentration gradient.
- requires the cell to use energy to let things pass through the membrane.

35
 SELF EVALUATION 2

PLEASE READ THE MODULE CAREFULLY BEFORE YOU ANSWER PART 1. TRY
TO ANSWER THE QUESTIONS WITHOUT SEARCHING IN THE INTERNET AND
SCANNING YOUR NOTES, IF POSSIBLE ALSO PART 2 SO YOU CAN ASSESS
YOURSELF IF YOU HAVE LEARNED ON WHAT YOU HAD READ.

Instruction: It can be either hand written or encoded. For hand written you can use
bond paper or yellow paper. Date of submission is to be arranged.

I. Matching Type:

1. Diffusion a. lack a membrane enclosed nucleus

1. Plasmodesmata b. Control center of cell; directs
2. Robert Hooke protein synthesis and cell
3. Fluid Mosaic Model reproduction
4. Cell c. process by which molecules tend to
5. Isotonic move from an area of higher
6. Eukaryotes concentration to an area of lower
7. Nucleus concentration.
8. Chloroplast d. movement of materials between
9. Prokaryotes cells
10. Vacuole e. movement of a substance against
11. Grana the concentration gradient.
12. Osmosis f. discovered cell
13. Active Transport g. green pigment drives for
14. Chlorophyll photosynthesis
h. unit of life
i. diffusion of water molecules
j. structure of the membrane
k. arranged of thylakoid stacks
l. no net movement of water, cell is
not turgid
m. storage of various substances
n. have a nucleus & has membrane-
bound structures
o. carry out photosynthesis

36
Essay: 3 points each

1. What is the significance of the Cell Theory to biology?

2. List three structures that are found in plants cells but not in animal cells.
3. Identify two functions of plastids in plant cells.
4. What are the roles of the cell wall and the central vacuole?
5. Give the equation of photosynthesis and explain it process.

37
 EASTERN VISAYAS STATE UNIVERSITY
Burauen, Leyte
AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT

Botany 123
GENERAL BOTANY

Laboratory Exercise No. 2

Plant Cell: Structure and Functions

Introduction:

Cell is the basic unit of life. Plant cell belong to eukaryotes also the animal cells
which are organism that made up of large and complex cells having a nucleus with nuclear
membrane and cell organelles. These organelles are the subcellular structures that are
responsible for different and specific functions.

In spite of differences in size and complexity, all cells (prokaryotes and eukaryotes)
are mostly composed of the same substances and they all carry out the same life functions.

Objectives:

1. To learn about the many different structures of plant cell.

2. To be familiar with the functions of the component of plant cell.

38
 Lab Report
General Botany 123

Name: Date
submitted:
Schedule:
Exercise No. 2
Plant Cell: Structure and Functions

Instruction: For those who can‟t print, just answer directly for No.1 and follow
numbering. Date of submission is to be arranged.

1. Label the parts of the Plant Cell.

1 -------------- 7 ----------------
----
2 -------------- -- 8 ----------------
---- --
3 --------------
9 ------------------
----
10 ------------------

4.----------------
11.---------

------
19 ------------
12 ---------
---------
13 ----------
--------
14 ---------
---------
15---------------
---
16 ----------------
--
17.--------------
5 ----------------
-- 6 ---------------- 18 --------------
-- ----

39
 Pick your answer from the box for Number 1.

Golgi apparatus Cytoplasm Nucleolus Chloroplast Peroxisome Mitochondrion

Nucleoplasm Vacuole Vesicle Cell membrane Nuclear pore Ribosomes

Plasmodesmata Lysosome Cell wall Rough endoplasmic reticulum Centrosome

Nucleus Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Nuclear envelope Flagellum

2. Enumerate the parts of the plant cells and gives it functions. (Base on the given plant
cell parts in the box).
3. Differentiate eukaryotes and prokaryotes.

40
 LECTURE IV

CELLULAR BASIS OF REPRODUCTION

Cell Reproduction:

 The life cycle of a multicellular organism includes:

 The cell cycle
- Growth – increase in cell size
- Development
- Division – production of new cells
• Two overlapping processes
- karyokinesis – nuclear division
- cytokinesis – cytoplasm division

Cells arise only from pre-existing cells it said that all cells came from cells. Cellular
reproduction called cell division because it allows for the development, growth, and repair of
multicellular organisms. It also ensures the continuity of life and genetics information among
the cells of a multicellular organism from one generation to the next.

Cell division is at the heart of the reproduction of cells and organisms; cell division plays
a role in replacement of lost or damaged cells. Organism can reproduce sexually or asexually.

Cell Reproduction:

1. Mitosis – cell reproduction responsible for growth, replacement of lost or

damaged cells, reproduction of many unicellular organisms, and the formation
of sex cells.
2. Meiosis – sexual reproduction requires the fertilization of an egg by a sperm,
(the production of eggs and sperm).

Methods of Reproduction:

1. Asexual reproduction – reproduction of some organisms involving a single

parent and only one single set of DNA.
- Chromosomes are duplicated and cell divides
- one copy of each chromosomes is placed in each cell
- each “daughter” cell is genetically identical to the parent and the other
daughter

41
 • Type of Cellular Division required – Mitosis
• Advantages:
- fast and convenient
• Disadvantages:
- very little genetic variation

2. Sexual reproduction – organisms involving two parents, occurring when a

sperm cell and egg cell unite to form a single fertilized egg cell.
- requires fertilizations of an egg by a sperm
- offspring inherit DNA from both their parents
- offspring can show great variation
• Type of Cellular Division required – Meiosis
• Advantages:
- lots of genetic variation
• Disadvantages:
- metabolically expensive

 Related Term need to Remember:

 Chromatin – material in an active nucleus

- Submicroscopic “thread” consisting of 50% DNA and 50% supporting proteins.
- Abundant in water and dissolved chemicals.
 Gene
- unit of heredity information determining the nature of a specific trait and have
specific places on chromosomes.
- section of DNA that codes for a protein tRNA or rRNA.
 DNA Replication
- conversion of one strand/piece of DNA into two identical strands/pieces.
 Chromosomes
- a thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of plant and animal cells
- a package of heredity material with supporting proteins visible in condensed form
during cell division.
 Chromatid – a single strand of DNA
 Chromosomes Set
- one copy of each of the different chromosomes in the nucleus containing one copy
of each different gene.
 Haploid Number (n)
- The number of chromosomes comprising one set.
• for human: n=23
• for plants: n=11
• for some ferns: n=250
- a haploid individual has one set of chromosomes per cell.

42
 Diploid Number (2n)
- the number of chromosomes in a cell containing two sets.
- a diploid individual has 2 set per cell.
- (triploid = 3 sets, tetraploid = 4 sets, etc.)

Structure of Eukaryotic Chromosomes:

Chromosomes – a thread-like structure, where DNA molecule is package inside in the

nucleus of each cell.

- each chromosomes is made up of chromatin, it contained the DNA that are tightly
coiled many times around proteins called histones that support its structure.

Chromatid – a single strand of DNA

- during most of the life of a cell,
chromosomes exist as a single strand called
“monad”.
- At the beginning of karyokinesis the single
strand is replicated forming two identical
chromatids attached to another forming a
“dyad”.

- Sister chromatid has identical DNA

centromeres. Kinetochore on centromere
provides binding sites for microtubules.

Centromere – small structure in the

chromonema, marked by a constriction. At this
point the two chromonemata are joined
together

Telomeres – specialized end of a

chromosomes which exhibits physiological differentiation and polarity.

Genome – complete complement of an organism’s DNA. It includes genes (control

traits) and non-coding DNA organized
in chromosomes.

Homologous Chromosomes -
members of a chromosomes pair that
are identical in the arrangement of

43
 genes they contain (but might have different alleles).

Non-homologous Chromosomes – contain different genes and do not pair during

meiosis.

 Chromosomes exist in homologous pairs in diploid cells.

- Exception: Sex chromosomes in human are (X,Y).

 The complex chromosomes of eukaryotes duplicate with each

cell division

Before the cell divides, DNA molecules (chromatin) are copied and
then coil and condense into chromosomes, it duplicates all of its
chromosomes, resulting in two copies called sister chromatid joined at a
centromere. When the cell divides, sister chromatid separate from each
other and ensures daughter cells with identical sets of chromosomes.

Cell Cycle: (Cell Division)

• Purposes of Cell Division:

1. Growth
2. Replacement of damaged cells
3. Asexual reproduction

 Prokaryotes reproduce by Binary Fission

In Prokaryotic cell division, the genomic DNA is replicated and each copy is allocated
into a daughter cell. The cytoplasmic contents are also divided evenly to the new cells. In
prokaryotic, an example bacteria in their cell division, mitosis process is not necessary
because bacteria have a single, circular DNA chromosomes and no nucleus, rather the
chromosomes is replicated and the two resulting copies separate from one another, due to

44
growth of the cell. Bacterial cytokinesis is directed by a ring composed of a protein called
FtsZ.

- Prokaryotic cells reproduce asexually by the type of cell division called Binary
Fission.

 Binary Fission
- is a type of reproduction in which the
chromosomes is replicated and the
resultant prokaryotes is an exact copy
of the parental prokaryote, thus
leaving no opportunity for genetic
recombination or genetic diversity.
- genes are located on a single, simple,
circular chromosomes where it located
inside nucleus in each cell.
- the circular DNA molecule replicates
to form 2 chromosomes.
- the chromosomes is precisely copied
and divide or move apart.
- the cell elongate and together the
movement of copies.
- the plasma membrane grows inward,
dividing the parent into two daughter
cells.

 Cell Cycle for Eukaryotes:

Actively dividing eukaryotes cells pass through a series of stages known collectively as
the Cell Cycle. It’s a cell life cycle involves doubling of everything in the cell and then
dividing it into separate cell when the cell divides. Each of the resulting cells undergoes their
own cell cycle.

 Cell Cycle consist of following steps;

- two gap phases (G1 and G2)
- S – for synthesis phase; which genetic material is duplicated
- and an M phase; which mitosis partitions the genetic material and the cell
divides

 The Cell Cycle consists of two distinct phases:

1. : (Growth and DNA replication)
- doubling of chromosomes number

45
 2. Mitotic Phase: The division of the nucleus and chromosomes
- is preceded by interphase

Most of the cell’s life spent doing its regular function. Cells divide along a rough time
frame called Cell Cycle.

Interphase – cell replicates its

DNA/chromosomes in preparation of
upcoming division.
- chromosomes have duplicated but
they are still in the form of chromatin
fibers.

 Interphase consists of 3 sub-stages

– it accounts for about 90% of the
time required for the cell cycle.
i. Gap 1 phase or (G1) –
metabolic changes prepare for
the cell division. At a certain
point – the restriction – the
cell is committed to division and moves into the S phase.
- cell performs its normal function
- increases protein supply, duplicate organelles, and grows in size.
ii. Synthesis or S phase – cell actively duplicates its DNA in preparation for
division.
- each chromosome now consist of two sister chromatids.
iii. Gap 2 phase or (G1) – prepares the cell to divide, synthesizes proteins
required for cell division.
- metabolic changes assemble the cytoplasmic materials necessary for mitosis
and cytokinesis.

Mitotic Phase follows interphase:

- M phase or Mitosis – actual division of chromosomes occurs.
- A nuclear division (mitosis) followed by a cell division (cytokinesis).

Mitosis is a form of eukaryotic cell division that produces two daughter cells with the
same genetic component as the parent cell. Chromosomes replicated during the S phase are
divided in such a way as to ensure that each daughter cell receives a copy of every
chromosome.

- First mitosis divides the nucleus and separates each pair of sister chromatids in the
duplicated chromosomes.

- Cytokinesis completes the mitotic phase (and the cell cycle). It is the separation or it
divides the cell cytoplasm and organelles in a cellular division to produce two daughter cells.

46
 Mitosis is divided into 4 stages (PMAT)

1. Prophase:
- chromatin coils into chromosomes and the
chromosomes shorten and become visible.
- centrosomes duplicates itself to form two daughter
centrosomes that move to opposite side of the cell.
- the nuclear envelope begins to break up,
- mitotic spindle begins to form and attach to the
kinetochore of chromatids at the centromere of each
chromosomes.
- chromosomes condense into compact structures.

2. Prometaphase:
- chromosomes continue to condense
- chromosomes, led by their centromeres, migrate to the equatorial plane in the
midline of cell - at right-angles to the axis formed by the centrosomes.
- region of the mitotic spindle is known as the metaphase
plate.
- kinetochore appear at the centromeres of each
chromosomes
- Individual spindle fibers bind to a kinetochore structure
on each side of the centromere.

3. Metaphase:
- chromosomes line up along the center of cell called
the metaphase plate.
- chromosomes attached to spindle fiber.
- Spindle and astral fibers are now clearly visible

4. Anaphase:
- centromeres break up separating chromosomes
copies.
- sister chromatids of each chromosome are pulled
apart to opposite side of the cell, pulled by
spindle fibers attached to the kinetochore
regions.
- separated sister chromatid are now referred to as
daughter chromosomes.

47
 5. Telophase: (Cytokinesis)
- final stage of mitosis
- nuclear membrane forms around the
chromosomes grouped at either pole of the cell.
- chromosomes/DNA uncoil
- spindle and astral fibers disappear.
- cytokinesis begins to simultaneously

 Cytokinesis – final cellular division to form two

new cells.
- it happens with most (but not all cells)
- cytoplasm and organelles move (mostly
equally) to either side of the cell. Cell membrane “pinches” to form 2
separate cells.
- in plants a cell plate forms along the line of the metaphase plate.

 Plant Cytokinesis – division of the cytoplasm

- With plants, a cell wall must be formed
between the 2 daughter cells.
- Vesicles – containing cellulose form and
fuse between the two daughter cells,
eventually forming a complete cell wall.
- vesicles containing cell wall material line
up across middle of cell, they merge and
form a cell plate.
- cell plate grows until it divides the cell in 2

Cytokinesis process in plant cells – involve the formation of cell plate

48
 MITOSIS

Process of Mitosis

Meiosis

Meiosis is the form of eukaryotic cell division that produces haploid sex cells or gametes
(which contain a single copy of each chromosome) from diploid cells (which contain two
copies of each chromosome). The process takes the form of one DNA replication followed by
two successive nuclear and cellular divisions (Meiosis I and Meiosis II). Meiosis also
preceded by a process of DNA replication that converts each chromosome into two sister
chromatids.

- Meiosis involves 2 round of cell division:

- Results in 4 cells with the normal genetic information

 Meiosis Phases:
 Meiosis I separates the pairs of homologous chromosomes.
- prior to division amount of DNA doubles

49
 Meiosis I :

 Prophase I – chromosomes begin to condense

- homologous chromosomes pair crossing over
- crossing over – exchange of genetic material between homologous
chromosomes occurs at chiasmata produces new genetic combinations

• Prophase I is divided into five phase:

i. Leptotene: chromosomes start to condense.
ii. Zygotene: homologous chromosomes become closely
associated (synapsis) to form pairs of chromosomes (bivalents)
consisting of four chromatids (tetrads).

50
 iii. Pachytene: crossing over between pairs of homologous
chromosomes to form chiasmata (sing. chiasma).
iv. Diplotene: homologous chromosomes start to separate but
remain attached by chiasmata.
v. Diakinesis: homologous chromosomes continue to separate and
chiasmata move to the ends of the chromosomes.

 Prometaphase I - spindle apparatus formed, and chromosomes

attached to spindle fibers by kinetochores.
 Metaphase I – homologous pairs of chromosomes line up along in the
metaphase plate
 Anaphase I – chromosomes start to move to opposite ends of cell as
spindle fibers shorten.
 Telophase I - chromosomes reach opposite end, new nuclei may or
may not joined together
 Sister chromatid remains joined together
 Cytokinesis or cell division occurs. Meiosis I results in 2 haploid
daughter cells.

 Meiosis II
- Begins after the meiosis without further replication of chromosomes.
Essentially identical to mitosis
- sister chromatids are divided in each of the daughter cell created during
meiosis
- the cell divide again, yielding four haploid cells.

The events of Meiosis II are analogous to those of a mitotic division, although the
number of chromosomes involved has been halved.

 Meiosis generates genetic diversity through:

i. The exchange of genetic material between homologous Chromosomes
during Meiosis I
ii. The random alignment of maternal and paternal chromosomes in
Meiosis I
iii. the random alignment of the sister chromatids at meiosis II

51
 EASTERN VISAYAS STATE UNIVERSITY
Burauen, Leyte
AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT

BOT 123
GENERAL BOTANY

Exercise No. 3
Cellular Basis of Reproduction

Name: Date Submitted:

Schedule:

Instruction: Give what is being asked. Use A4 bond paper and submission date is to be
arranged.

1. Draw and discuss the Cell Division in Prokaryotic Cell.

2. Draw and discuss the Cell Division in Eukaryotic Cell; Mitosis and Meiosis.
3. Compare Mitosis and Meiosis by completing the chart.

MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Produces haploid daughter cells unlike parent
1.
cell
2. Involves one cell division

3. Produces two daughter cells

Homologous chromosomes pair and then
4.
separate
5. Individual chromosomes line up at
metaphase plate
6. No crossing over occurs

7. Needed for sexual reproduction

52
Note:
Instructions for the output format and on how to submit student output:

1. Finish outputs must be submitted first to the messenger account of instructor then wait
for the submission date for the hard copy of output to the school.
2. All outputs should have a name, year and section.
3. When submitting to school, put all your output in one long brown envelope. Write
your name, year and section, and subject. Also (instructor’s name) my name ELISA
MARIE APURILLO at the back of it of envelope.
4. Wait the submission date as it will be announce
5. Submit your envelope to the school (guard house) and make sure to put it in the box
provided by the instructor.
6. Loss of your envelope will not be liable of instructor.

53
 REFERENCES:

ABDELGHANY, S. 2019 INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY. https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/299564526.

American Society of Plant Biologist. 2011. Why Study Plants.

Al-Whainbi, M.H. 2011. Plant Biology. King Saud University, Academic Publishing
&Press.

ARYAL, S. 2018. Chromosome – Structure, Types, and Functions. Online Microbiology and
Biology Notes. http://microbenotes.com.

Bailey, R. 2020. Cell Theory: A Core Principle of Biology. ThoughCo.

Bhumbla, U. 2018. History of Microbiology. Geetanjali Medical University.

https://www.researchgatenet/publication/334975999.

Concepts in Biology (OpenStax): Reproduction at the Cellular Level. Home bookshelves

Introductory and General Biology. © Copyright 2020 Biology LibreTexts.

FATHIMA, M.A. and et.al. 2005. Biology – Botany Book. Tamilnado Textbook
Corporation.

General Biology 22: Prokaryotes: Bacteria and Archaea – Prokaryotic Reproduction.

Home Bookshelves Introductory and General Biology.

https://kea.kcr.nic.in/uikasania/bridge.biology

hhtps://www.e-salq.usp.br/lepse/imags/cont_thumb/

Importance of Plant. University of Florida. IFAS Extension

Levetin–McMahon. 2008. Introduction to Plant Life: Botanical Principles. The Plant Cell.
Plants and Society 5th ed. The McGraw-Hill Companies. pp 16-30.

OpenStax Concepts of Biology: Reproduction at the Cellular Level. © Copyright 2020

Biology LibreTexts.

Parker, N. Schneegurt, M. and et al. 2019. Microbiology. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License

Plant Cell Structure and Functions. Let’s Talk Science. January 17,2020

Plant Cell Structure. CK-12 Biology for High School. Flexbooks 2.0

54
Plant Cells: https://www.google.com/source=web=https://uoqasim.edu.iqle_learning.

RAVEN, P.H. and et al. 1992. Biology of Plants 5th ed. Worth Publishers. Scientific
Publications, King Saud University Press, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. (In Arabic).

SHIPUNOV, A. Introduction to Botany. January 20, 2020 version. 192 pp.

SMITH, G.M 1935. Textbook of General Botany . Stanford University. The Macmillan
Company. pp . .1-.6.

STEERE, W.C. Botany definition, history, branches and facts.

The Cell Cycle, Mitosis and Meiosis. University of Leicester.

http://www2.le.ac.uk/projects.oer/oers/genetics.

The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance. Cell Division: The Cell Cycle and
Mitosis. The Production of Identical Cells.

The Cellular Basics of Reproduction and Inheritance. Connections between cell division and
reproduction and the eukaryotic cell cycle and mitosis. http://brittonsrhs.weebly.com

The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance. http://www.lamission.edu/

lifesciences/lecturenote/pmbio3.

The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance. Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education,
Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cumming.

The History of Microscope

Zitzmann. 2017. Cells and their functions.

55