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An Overview of The Los Amigos Watershed, Madre de Dios, Southeastern Peru
An Overview of The Los Amigos Watershed, Madre de Dios, Southeastern Peru
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Nigel C A Pitman
Field Museum of Natural History
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Table of contents
(gray text indicates incomplete sections)
Introduction
Geography and hydrology
Regional context
Geographic locations of the watershed, concession, and field stations
Hydrology
Geology, topography, and soils
Regional context
Local surface geology
Landslides and other landscape disturbances
Topography
Soils
Climate and seasonality
Climate overview
Weather at CICRA, Cocha Cashu, and Puerto Maldonado
Seasonality
Vegetation
Regional overview and recommended bibliographic sources
History of botanical work to date at Los Amigos
The flora of Los Amigos
Vegetation of the Los Amigos watershed
Vegetation types in the Los Amigos watershed
Forests around CICRA
Fauna
Composition, structure, and dynamics
Diversity and endemism
Rare and threatened species
Human history
Introduction
Deep history
1900-1982
The mining camp (1982-1999)
The logging boom (1999-2002)
The age of ACCA (2000-present)
Uncontacted indigenous groups
Research in Los Amigos
Research before ACCA
The first six years (2000-2006)
Research priorities
Acknowledgments
Annotated bibliography
1
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
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An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
INTRODUCTION
“...and ever since some maps of South America have shown a short heavy line
running eastward beyond the Andes, a river without a beginning and without an
end, and labeled it the River of the Mother of God. That short heavy line... has
always seemed the perfect symbol of the Unknown Places of the earth.”
Nearly a century has passed since Leopold wrote those lines, and southeastern Peru is
no longer one of Earth’s Unknown Places. Although most of it remains a roadless
wilderness, and vast stretches will remain unexplored for decades to come, its flora and
fauna are very well known relative to other areas in the Amazon basin. Most of the
region’s vascular plants and vertebrates have been collected and identified, more than
2,200 articles, books, academic theses, and reports have been written about the biology
of the region (Pitman et al. 2007), and at least nine biological stations are currently
active in Madre de Dios. Southeastern Peru is also one of the best-known corners of
Amazonia for non-scientists. Over the last two decades it has replaced Iquitos as Peru’s
leading destination for Amazonian ecotourists—some 70,000 visit each year (Goulding
et al. 2003)—and its national parks are world-famous.
Thus it is surprising how hard it remains to track down basic information on this
landscape: how rainfall varies across the region, which soils are dominant, or which
direction the wind blows in April. Part of the reason is that while a great deal has been
written about southeastern Peru, most publications are either highly specialized articles
written in English and published in scientific journals in the United States or Europe, or
reports, theses, and assorted gray literature written in Spanish, published or distributed
privately in Peru, and available in a few scattered libraries in Lima, Cusco, and Puerto
Maldonado (Pitman et al. 2007).
This document presents basic information on the geography, biology, and history of the
Los Amigos watershed in southeastern Peru. It is intended as a background for research
in and around the Los Amigos field stations. I have tried to include enough specialized
information to make it a useful source of facts on the region without entering into great
detail on any one topic. Earlier descriptions of the Los Amigos landscape are given by
ACCA (2001b) and Forsyth et al. (2002). Valuable descriptions of other sites in Madre
de Dios are given by Terborgh (1983) for Cocha Cashu, Pitman (2000) for Manu, Erwin
(1985) and Napravnik Pesce (2004) for Tambopata, and ONERN (1965; 1972; 1977;
1982) for a variety of other sites around Madre de Dios. A broader overview of the
Madre de Dios watershed is given by Goulding et al. (2003) and a survey of Amazonian
Peru has been published by Kalliola et al. (1993); both are highly recommended.
Appendix 1 of this document lists especially helpful documents for understanding the
landscape, history, and flora and fauna of Madre de Dios.
This survey draws on published and unpublished reports from the region, conversations
with long-time residents of the Los Amigos area, and research to date at Los Amigos.
Since that research remains in the early stages, some of the text here has been adapted
from a preliminary survey of Manu National Park (Pitman 2000).
3
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
For the moment this document is an incomplete, unpublished draft; corrections and other
suggestions are welcome and should be emailed to the author. To cite this version of the
manuscript, please see the instructions in the acknowledgments section.
The Los Amigos watershed is part of the 85,183 km2 department of Madre de Dios.
Madre de Dios is the third-largest Amazonian department in Peru, after Loreto and
Ucayali; 82% of it is below 500 m elevation. The Los Amigos watershed is centrally
located in Madre de Dios, just a few kilometers south of the department’s geographic
centroid. (The centroid, an otherwise trivial cartographic feature, has attained modest
importance in recent years because some databases of biological collections use it as a
default locality for collections that were made in the department but whose labels lack
specific locality data; the irony is that the centroid is in a very remote part of the Las
Piedras watershed where it is unlikely that any biologist will ever collect a specimen.)
The western portion of the Los Amigos drainage belongs to the Distrito and Provincia de
4
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
Manu, while the eastern portion belongs to the Distrito de Laberinto and the Provincia de
Tambopata.
The Los Amigos watershed is entirely lowland, although both its mouth and its
headwaters are only 50 km north of the Andean foothills. The river runs roughly parallel
to the Andes for its entire length of 353 km.
The Los Amigos conservation concession covers 145,918 ha in the lower third of the
watershed, including its southernmost and easternmost points, and has a perimeter of
450 km. (At its establishment the concession measured 135,832 ha and included some
isolated patches that were still logging concessions; those became part of the
conservation concession in early 2005.)
The geographic position data given above are taken with GPS near the center of each
station and are accurate to a few tens of meters. There are not yet any permanent
reference markers in the Los Amigos watershed that have been surveyed for geographic
position and elevation with cm-level accuracy; establishing such markers at both CICRA
and CM2 is a short-term goal. In 2003-2004 ACA placed permanent cement markers
along the border of the conservation concession, but precise (i.e., <10 m accuracy)
coordinates and elevations are not yet available for them.
Some other organizations have also placed permanent cement markers in the Los
Amigos area. Markers at the corners of mining concessions are topped with a circular
brass marker inscribed with a place name, a number, and the words “Catastro Minero
Nacional MEM (Ministerio de Energía y Minas).” Coordinate and elevation data for these
markers are available from the Ministerio de Energía y Minas office in Puerto
Maldonado, but it is not known how accurate the data are. The Proyecto Especial de
Titulación de Tierras (PETT) of the Ministerio de Agricultura has also placed some
cement markers in the region to demarcate private properties. One is located in the
CICRA clearing, near the weather station, and reads “PETT-CBS-6”. The geographic
information associated with the PETT markers is not especially reliable (D. Pogois,
personal communication).
5
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
A variety of cartographic resources are available for the Los Amigos watershed.
Topographic maps at the scale 1:100,000 are available in Carta Nacional sheets 25-u,
25-v, and 26-v, for sale in Lima at the Instituto Geográfico Nacional
(www.ignperu.gob.pe). Dozens of GIS layers, satellite images, and maps of the
watershed are now publicly available at atrium.andesamazon.org.
Madre de Dios, like all of Peru, is five hours behind Greenwich mean time; it is in the
same time zone as the eastern seaboard of the United States, but does not follow
daylight savings time. At the December solstice, the sun in this part of Peru rises at 5:09
and sets at 6:01. At the June solstice, the sun rises at 5:56 and sets at 5:20. The
shortest day of the year (21 June) has 11:24 of sunlight, while the longest day (21 Dec.)
has an hour and a half more. The sun passes directly overhead Los Amigos on around
27 October and 16 February. Days at Los Amigos are never symmetric around noon,
i.e., there is always more daylight between sunrise and noon than between noon and
sunset. This is because we are significantly east of the Standard Time Meridian for our
time zone (75°W). Another result of this is that the sun always reaches its zenith at Los
Amigos before 12:00 noon local time.
The declination in Los Amigos, as of June 2006, is 5°16’ W, increasing by 0°9’ W each
year. In other words, compasses at Los Amigos point at a magnetic north pole that is
five degrees to the west of the line to the geographic north pole. To walk in a straight line
towards the geographic north pole with a compass at Los Amigos, one must aim five
degrees east of magnetic north. In general, to walk at n degrees to geographic north,
one must follow the compass n + 5 degrees. Declinations change over time; the current
declination for Los Amigos can be calculated at the following website:
www.ngdc.noaa.gov/seg/geomag/jsp/Declination.jsp
The closest settlement to CICRA is Boca Amigos, ~3 km to the SE and about ten
minutes’ travel downriver from the station by outboard canoe. The closest large town is
San Juan Grande, ~12 km to the W of CICRA, about 40 minutes’ canoe travel upriver
from the station. The closest city is Puerto Maldonado, ~90 km E of CICRA, about three
hours’ travel downriver by outboard canoe and an hour’s travel by road. Appendix 5
provides air distances from CICRA to various landmarks and field stations in this part of
the world.
Hydrology
Large rivers
Very little of the physical setting in the Los Amigos watershed makes sense without
reference to the river systems that successively build up and tear down the landscape.
There are at least two kinds of large rivers in the area: steep-gradient, high-energy
torrents roaring down from the Andes—like the Alto Madre de Dios and the Inambari—
and lower-gradient, meandering lowland rivers like the Los Amigos, the Manu, and the
Las Piedras. The high-gradient rivers tend to produce braided channels and carry a
heavy sediment load—from sand to gravel to large boulders—while the lowland rivers
twist back and forth across broad floodplains dotted with abandoned oxbow lakes,
moving mostly silt and sand. High-gradient rivers are generally classified as white-water
rivers, with neutral chemistry and high levels of suspended sediments. Lowland rivers
throughout Amazonia tend to be slightly more acidic and with a lighter sediment load,
and are placed at an intermediate position in the black- and white-water dichotomy
6
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
(Kalliola and Puhakka 1993). In contrast with other areas of Amazonian Peru, there are
no large blackwater rivers in Madre de Dios.
Rates of lateral migration are poorly known for the high-energy rivers, and course
changes may be sudden rather than gradual. As the beds of these rivers accumulate
more and more gravel, rocks, and other debris, they gain elevation relative to the
surrounding landscape, thereby increasing the likelihood that rivers will find a lower
gradient elsewhere and jump abruptly to new routes during high water events. Thus it is
no surprise that the soils of the high terraces to either side of the Alto Madre de Dios
River (and many other locations in the uplands south of the Madre de Dios) are full of
gravel; they are the product of high-energy braided rivers that have scythed back and
forth across the landscape for some ten million years, leaving trails of rocky debris from
the Andes.
Meandering rivers such as the Manu carry mostly fine particles, and migrate laterally
through a sandy floodplain at a rate of 5-25(-200) m/yr. It has been estimated that such
rivers can cut down and rebuild their several-kilometer-wide floodplains every few
hundred years (Terborgh 1990; Kalliola and Puhakka 1993). However, the ubiquity of
oxbow lakes and their sometimes impressive age—Cocha Cashu, for instance, may be
~2,500 years old (M. Silman, personal communication)—suggest that some of the
floodplain has been untouched by river migration for several thousand years (but see
Foster 1990). Schroeder and Zimmermann (unpublished data) have estimated from a
comparison of remote sensing images taken of the Manu River in 1962 and 2001 that
floodplain 1 km distant from the river is disturbed, on average, every 2,000 years by
meandering dynamics. Puhakka and Kalliola (1995) have quantified some aspects of
river meandering and oxbow lake formation on the Madre de Dios and Los Amigos
rivers. The oldest known aerial images of the landscape around Los Amigos were taken
in 1960, so it will soon be possible to reconstruct a more complete meander history of
both rivers.
Flooding events on all rivers in the region are poorly recorded. Since September 2001
the level of the Madre de Dios River has been recorded twice daily (morning and
evening) at the CICRA docks. River level is measured against marked posts set out
around an arbitrary zero. The +5 m level is maintained, for the time being, as a mark on
the supports of the CICRA sign at the docks; a more permanent calibration point is
needed, as the riverbank beneath the sign appears to be slumping. The best
measurements to date suggest that the arbitrary zero on the CICRA river gauge is at
approximately 227 masl. A similar river gauge was established on the Amigos River at
the CM2 station in December 2005 and is likewise being monitored twice daily. River
level is also being monitored on the Madre de Dios at Puerto Maldonado (C. Cañas,
personal communication), but the Los Amigos gauges and the Puerto Maldonado gauge
have not been calibrated one to the other.
Data from the CICRA river level gauge are given in Figure 2. Low water is typically in
September, while high water is typically between December and February. The
difference between the highest record and the lowest record in the dataset is 9.47 m,
and the river is capable of rising or falling as much as 3 m in a 24-hour period.
Significant areas of the CICRA trail system in the floodplains become impassable during
high water on the Amigos and Madre de Dios rivers, but we do not yet have an effective
way to relate river level as measured at the CICRA gauge with the flooding depth or
duration of floodplain and swamp forests around the station.
7
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
Figure 2. Variation in the level of the Madre de Dios River from August 2001 to April 2006, as
measured twice daily at the Los Amigos dock. The horizontal lines mark the arbitrary zero. The
absolute maximum and minimum values are marked by asterisks. The highest river level (+5.62
m) was recorded on 21 January 2003, when a state of emergency was declared in the region
because of severe flooding. The lowest river level (-3.85 m) was recorded on 9 September 2005,
at the end of one of the driest dry seasons ever recorded in Amazonia. The inset (red lines)
shows all five years on the same vertical axis.
Barthem et al. (2003) summarize in detail the various changes in water chemistry and
other river characteristics between periods of high and low water. During low water, the
Madre de Dios is slower, warmer, more acidic, more transparent, and with higher
conductivity. There is no significant difference in water oxygen levels in the two seasons.
Goulding et al. (2003) speculate that approximately half of the water in the Madre de
Dios River is runoff from the Andes; the rest is from the lowlands. Heavy rainfall in the
Colorado watershed (the next large tributary of the Madre de Dios upriver from the Los
Amigos) turns the Madre de Dios a characteristic bright orange, due to erosion of the
colored clay that gives the Colorado its name. Water in the Los Amigos river is warmer
than the Madre de Dios,
The channel of the Madre de Dios is ~xxx m wide at the CICRA dock. Goulding et al.
(2003) give maximum depths of 15 m for the Madre de Dios, with high water means of 7-
10 m and low water means of 2-5 m, and high water velocities of 11-14 km/hour.
Lakes
Nearly all lakes in the region are oxbows—known locally by the Quechua word for lake,
cocha—sections of channel that have been abandoned by the meandering river and
8
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
begun a new life as lakes in the floodplain. There are ~40 cochas in the Los Amigos
concession, and several larger ones in the Madre de Dios floodplain around the mouth
of the Los Amigos. The only significant lake in the region that does not appear to be an
oxbow is the Pozo Don Pedro, a tiny blackwater lagoon in the palm swamp to the
northwest of CICRA. Mining operations have also created dozens of small ponds in the
Madre de Dios floodplains around the station; it is not clear how long these will persist.
Cocha water undergoes seasonal changes similar to those seen in large rivers
(Goulding et al. 2003). Although most cochas are no longer connected to the river that
formed them, and receive river water only during especially high floods, most do receive
water year-round from small streams that drain the uplands. As a result, water acidity
and conductivity in cochas tend to be intermediate between that of rivers and upland
streams. Cochas vary significantly in age and size, for obvious reasons, but also in water
chemistry, aquatic plant communities, and fish communities, for reasons that are not well
understood (Davenport 2003).
Streams
Most rain in Madre de Dios falls in the uplands, far from lakes and rivers. Some of what
does not evaporate back into the atmosphere runs directly off the uplands via small
streams. Other rainwater is absorbed by the soil and filtered down to a water table well
above river level, from which it seeps laterally out of hillslopes as small springs,
supplying the streams during periods of low rainfall. Water in these streams is typically
cooler, more acidic, and poorer in nutrients than that in large rivers (Goulding et al.
2003). Streams in the uplands often trace the dividing line between soils of different
textures, so that one bank of a stream may be predominantly sandy while the opposite
bank is mostly clayey (Osher & Buol 1997).
All streams, seeps, swamps, and other bodies of water on the CICRA trail system were
visited and mapped, and their water characterized chemically in May 2006. An
annotated map should soon be available (G. Barbieri, personal communication).
The geologic parent material underlying the region is recently deposited alluvium of the
same kind. All of the upland terraces aged to date in the region date to <200,000 years
old, with some dates possibly as recent as 30,000 years old (see next section). The
material is anything but homogeneous. Stratigraphic sections reveal a jumble of
differently-textured material corresponding to different kinds of historical deposition
events—gravel layers indicating ancient river bottoms, sand deposited in point bars by
laterally migrating rivers, and silt and clay deposited by occasional flooding events
(Räsänen 1993).
9
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
Local geology
Information about the geology of the Los Amigos concession comes from: 1) seismic
profiles of the oil industry (Huertas Castillo 2002), as well as at least two exploratory
wells dug in the Los Amigos watershed (north of the concession) during 19xx by xxx; 2)
the official Peruvian government geological survey of the area, carried out by the
Instituto Geológico Minero y Metalúrgico and published as a book with geological maps
at 1:20,000 (Chávez et al. 1998, available for sale at INGEMMET’s office in Lima); and
3) studies of surficial geology by scattered groups of geologists and paleontologists.
ACA has not yet obtained the relevant information from historical oil exploration in the
region, in part because much of it remains privately owned.
Antoine et al. (2003) show the Los Amigos watershed sitting on top of a 3 to 4-km thick
slab of alluvium deposited during the Neogene, i.e., over the last 25 million years. The
dominant geological formation at the surface in the Los Amigos concession is the Madre
de Dios Formation, dated indirectly at upper Miocene to Pliocene. Antoine et al. (2003)
describe this formation as a series of alluvial, lacustrine, and tidal deposits, and suggest
that some of it was deposited by an inner sea in the region during the upper Miocene.
The Madre de Dios Formation overlies the older but similar Ipururo Formation, which
becomes dominant to the north towards Acre. Below these formations is a basement of
older alluvium. The basement tilts downwards in the direction of the Andes, pushed
down by the weight of that huge mountain range. This same phenomenon is believed to
be uplifting the Los Amigos landscape (Antoine et al. 2003). Presumably this tilting is
also the reason why the Madre de Dios and the Los Amigos rivers do not run north,
directly out into the Amazon lowlands, but instead run parallel to the base of the Andes.
The massive landslide 500 km NW of CICRA, overlooking the Madre de Dios, provides
one of the longest and most accessible stratigraphies in southeastern Peru. Its deep red
alluvial soils, sitting on a grey formation closer to the river, have been described in detail
by Chávez et al. (1998), Antoine et al. (2003), and Hovikoski et al. (2005). The same
outcrop has also produced some interesting plant and animal fossils. Antoine et al.
(2003) carbon-dated an unidentified piece of wood embedded in the hillside a few
meters above the river level, and estimated an age >45,000 yr. Campbell et al. (2000)
and Alberdi et al. (2004) describe a fossil gomphothere discovered in the same
landslide. The mining camp that occupied the CICRA terrace in 1982-1999 had on
display the fossilized skull of a huge crocodilian. It is not clear where the fossil was
discovered, but it is reasonable to suppose that it was also in the vicinity of CICRA. It
seems likely that the skull belonged to Purussaurus brasiliensis, a Miocene giant that
measured 14-18 m long and weighed more than Tyrannosaurus rex.
The youngest geological deposits are the thin strips of active floodplains along the major
rivers. These accumulate sediment every few years, when rivers overflow their banks
onto the adjacent floodplains. These deposits, and the river bottom itself, are the only
places on the landscape with appreciable amounts of gold. Because the gold originates
from the Andean foothills and travels down rocky rivers, most of the gold around Los
Amigos is in the form of fine particles—nuggets are ground to sand on their way down
the rocky rivers. The richest alluvial deposits are downriver of the Río Colorado, which
drains the region’s principal mining area, the Río Huaypetuhue.
10
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
small hot springs exist along the upper Alto Madre de Dios and are being developed for
tourism (C. Cañas, personal communication).
Probably the most important large-scale physiographic disturbances in the region, apart
from the meandering rivers (see above), are landslides. These may be triggered by a
combination of tremors, treefalls, and massive rainfall, or they may be the culmination of
years of minute slippage. Larsen and Simon (1993), based on observations in Puerto
Rico, suggested that 200 mm of rainfall in a 72-hour period is likely to set off a large
number of landslides in hilly tropical terrain. This threshold has been reached once at
CICRA in six years (240 mm).
Khanal (2006), examining 2003 air photos of a 1,634-km2 area in the lower Los Amigos
watershed, mapped 381 landslides. The largest measured 4 ha; the mean size was 0.24
ha. Together, these landslides accounted for 0.5% of the study area. Landslides were
spatially autocorrelated up to around 2 km, but they were not clumped where one might
naively expect them to be: around the steep cliffs overlooking the floodplain of the Los
Amigos River. Instead, they seem to cluster in places where the terraced uplands and
hilly uplands border each other, and where the steep cliffs along the river have long
since collapsed to form young watersheds (N. Pitman, personal observation).
In 2005 Pascual Flores recalled the three major landslides that occurred during the
nearly 20 years that he has lived on the CICRA terrace. None of them took place close
to CICRA; all of them were in the bare hillside a few hundred meters upriver from the
CICRA docks. Flores saw one of the landslides with his own eyes, and remembers being
unimpressed by the spectacle until the cascading debris hit the river, whereupon it threw
up a massive wave that traveled a long ways up and down the Madre de Dios River and
washed into the forest on the opposite bank. Flores tells of walking through the forest on
the opposite bank shortly after the landslide and finding several large fish on the forest
floor, stranded there by the wave.
Physiography
Perhaps in compensation for the remarkable paucity of information on the region’s soils,
hydrology, geology, and climate, geographers have described physiographic features of
southeastern Peru in exhaustive detail. Part of the reason is that describing topographic
features is relatively easy to do with aerial photos or satellite images. Another reason is
that many biogeographers have hoped that physiographic units might serve as proxies
for plant and animal distributions: indeed, the leading forestry maps of Amazonian Peru
are still based directly on topography rather than vegetation. Thus one description of the
Los Amigos watershed distinguishes ten different physiographic units, encompassing
terraces and hills of varying degrees of dissection, elevation, and steepness (ACCA
2001; the units seem to have been determined from a physiographic map of the region,
but the original source is not given in the report).
Foster (2001) sensibly lumped these into three units which form fairly discrete and
obvious blocks in Landsat images of the Los Amigos region: floodplains, terraced
uplands, and hilly uplands. The terraces, “notable for being very flat with only infrequent
cutting by small streams.... are the very western tip of a formation that forms a broad
regional arc of weakly dissected uplands. This formation does not go south of the Rio
Madre de Dios except in the vicinity of Puerto Maldonado (where it crosses over to just
beyond the Rio Tambopata), but instead sweeps northeast into Pando, Bolivia, eastern
Acre, Brazil, and beyond” (Foster 2001).
11
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
The hilly terra firme, he writes, are “highly dissected steep hills ~50-100 m high or
higher. This is the southernmost end of a large regional physiographic formation,
interrupted only by rivers, that stretches northwest and north for hundreds of kilometers
into the Ucayali Department of Peru, western Acre, Brazil, and beyond. It also does not
pass south of the Rio Madre de Dios, though it does appear to be on both sides of the
Manu floodplain above the Rio Pinquen.”
Foster (2001) offers a variety of potential explanations for the existence of two
physiographically distinct kinds of uplands. The best-supported seems to be that hills
and terraces reflect the results of weathering on different soil types. As Osher and Buol
(1997) have noted near Puerto Maldonado, coarse soils tend to produce gradual slopes,
while fine-textured soils tend to produce steeper, convex slopes. Since upland terraces
in Madre de Dios contain significant amounts of sand, the prediction is that soils in the
hilly uplands have higher concentrations of clay.
(Availability of topographic data for the region.) Topography of the Los Amigos region is
given in Figure x. The highest elevation within the watershed is ~433 m, and the lowest
elevation is ~226 m (Khanal 2006). Terraced uplands and floodplains are the dominant
physiographic formations around CICRA. All three main formations are accessible from
the CM2 station.
Soils
Soils in Madre de Dios are either very complex or very simple, depending on one’s
perspective. On the one hand, since the parent material that modern soils are derived
from is a jumbled mosaic of clayey materials, sandy materials, silty materials, gravel,
and various mixtures of these deposited by thousands of rivers that meandered
unpredictably across the ancient landscape, soil texture can vary dramatically in the
course of a short walk through a single forest type. For example, soils collected at half a
dozen upland sites between Cocha Cashu and Los Amigos had sand contents ranging
from 27 to 85% (N. Pitman, unpublished data). On the other hand, despite this significant
spatial heterogeneity in texture, the vast majority of upland soils in the region fall into just
two classes in the soil taxonomy system: the Ultisols and Inceptisols that dominate much
of western Amazonia (Linna 1993, Mazer 1996, Osher & Buol 1997, Phillips et al. 2003,
Pitman et al. 2001, Riley 1994).
It is still too early to draw detailed conclusions about the fertility of Madre de Dios soils
relative to other sites in Amazonia or the Neotropics, but in general they occupy the
fertile end of the gradient. There is no doubt that floodplain soils in the region are fertile;
because much early work was done on the Cocha Cashu floodplain, the region gained a
reputation among tropical biologists for relatively rich soils. Pitman et al.’s (2001)
comparison of upland soils in Madre de Dios with the fertile upland soils of eastern
Ecuador seemed to confirm this impression; no significant differences in nutrient
availability were found.
The most detailed study of upland soils in Madre de Dios to date is an examination of a
forested site on the road between Puerto Maldonado and Laberinto (Osher & Buol
1997). They found that “all upland soils classify as Ultisols, in clayey, fine-loamy or
coarse-loamy families.” Upland soils were very acidic, with pH of 3.6-4.7. Acidity
decreased, while clay content increased, with depth. The dominant clay mineral was
kaolinite, while the dominant mineral in sandy samples was quartz.
12
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
Terra firme soils are consistently sandier, more acidic, and poorer in nutrients than
floodplain soils (Mazer 1996). Among flooded forest samples, extremely young soils (i.e.,
new levees created by river dynamics) tend to be less acidic than older soils, and to
concentrate nutrients at much greater depths than older soils (Riley 1994). The best
study of alluvial soils in Amazonian Peru is from Loreto, but it probably applies well to
floodplains in Madre de Dios (Paredes Arce et al. 1999). Thus a very simplistic picture of
soil diversity in Manu shows >80% of the landscape covered with mostly coarse-textured
and relatively poor upland soils derived from young alluvium and the remaining 10%
composed of thin bands of fine-textured and relatively rich alluvial soils along streams
and rivers.
The most striking edaphic feature in southeastern Peru are the clay licks scattered
across the landscape and visited by birds, mammals, and other animals (Emmons &
Stark 1979). These clay licks, known as colpas in Spanish orthography, ccolpas or
ccollpas in Quechua, are valued by hunters and ecotourists for the abundance of animal
life they attract. Twenty-five years after the first paper on the region’s clay licks (Emmons
and Stark 1979), biologists and soil scientists have yet to pinpoint the reasons that lead
animals to eat soils (Brightsmith & Munoz-Najar 2004). Even less is known about the
distribution of these economically and biologically important features across the
department, across Amazonian Peru, or at larger scales in the Amazon basin. As of
2005, the map of clay licks on the Los Amigos River (Figure 3) was the only colpa map
in existence for Madre de Dios, and perhaps for all of Amazonian Peru (D. Brightsmith,
personal communication).
13
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
Large-scale weather maps show Los Amigos at the intersection of two climatic gradients
(Kalliola et al. 1993). To the south, mean annual temperatures drop at least 20°C as
elevation rises from <500 m in the lowlands to >4,000 m in the Andes, and along the
same gradient precipitation reaches >7,000 mm at intermediate elevations, before
decreasing again at higher elevations. To the east, rainfall declines dramatically, and
forests give way to savanna in large areas of Bolivia, and Brazil. Figure x shows how the
rainfall and seasonality of Los Amigos and other sites in Madre de Dios compare to well-
known study sites elsewhere in the tropics.
Long-term, high-quality weather data from Los Amigos do not yet exist, and so a picture
of the watershed’s climate must be pieced together from a variety of other sources.
While there is an abundance of scattered data—including a five-year record from CICRA
2000-2006, decades-long data from the five Peruvian government climate stations in the
surrounding lowlands (Puerto Maldonado, Iberia, Iñapari, Pakitza, and Puerto
Esperanza), several years’ worth of data from a variety of privately operated weather
stations (e.g., Cocha Cashu, Tambopata Research Centre, Explorers’ Inn), and the
personal observations of long-term residents and researchers (e.g., Foster and Terborgh
1998)—no one has yet compiled these into a single dataset. Part of the reason is that
the best climate record in the region—from Puerto Maldonado, where rainfall,
temperature, and humidity have been recorded daily (but not continuously) since 1948—
is not publicly available. The Puerto Maldonado data can be purchased from Peru’s
Meteorology and Hydrology Service (SENAMHI) at very high cost (~US$9,000 as of
December 2004). In the meantime, historical summaries (i.e., monthly means) of many
of the SENAMHI stations are available on various public access websites.
Collating these data is a top short-term goal of ACA, because several important
questions about the regional climate remain unanswered. How does climate vary across
the lowlands of the region, over hundreds of kilometers (Cocha Cashu in the west vs.
Cusco Amazónico in the east), over dozens of kilometers (CICRA vs. CM2), over a few
kilometers (CICRA vs. the end of Huangana trail), and between different physiographic
features (high terraces vs. adjacent floodplains)? How have the frequency and intensity
of friajes (cold snaps) and windstorms varied over the 40-year climate record for Madre
de Dios? How does the climate change during El Niño/Southern Oscillation and La Niña
events? How do climatic factors affect plant phenology and animal behavior?
Fortunately, the region’s weather is constant enough in many aspects that a ragged
dataset provides a reasonably good picture of its basic features. Even Terborgh’s (1983)
initial survey of Cocha Cashu’s weather, based on a single year of data recorded in
1976-77, still provides an accurate picture of basic weather patterns, despite several
subsequent years’ worth of record-collection at the same site. Casual observations of
professional ten-day forecasts of the weather in Puerto Maldonado (available online at
www.weather.com, www.accuweather.com, and other such sites) do a reasonably good
job of predicting conditions at Los Amigos.
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An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
All of these numbers are significantly higher than long-term means from Puerto
Maldonado (2,259 mm) and Cocha Cashu (2,200-2,500 mm), but it is premature to
conclude that these differences are statistically significant, since the CICRA record is
based only on recent years. When annual rainfall at CICRA in 2000-2005 is compared
for the three sites, xxx. In all three datasets rainfall is markedly seasonal, with >80% of
the precipitation falling between October and April, when the convectional clouds of the
intertropical convergence zone visit these latitudes. The driest months are June, July,
and August, each averaging <80 mm of rain in both records, with May and September
averaging only slightly more than 100 mm (Figure x). Relative humidity at Puerto
Maldonado tracks precipitation, with only the seasonally dry months averaging below
80%. At CICRA, relative humidity averaged 87.3% between September 2004 and April
2005. Absolute minimum was 29.2%, recorded in a period of September-October 2004
when relative humidity around noon was often below 40%.
15
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
600
2000
2001
2002
500
2003
2004
2005
2006
400
Precipitación (mm)
300
200
100
0
ene feb mar abr may jun jul ago set oct nov dic
Figure 4. Monthly rainfall totals at the Los Amigos Biological Station from December 2000 to June
2006.
These average rainfall values mask a great deal of year-to-year variation, both in total
annual rainfall and in the strength and duration of the dry season (Terborgh 1983).
Annual rainfall at CICRA has been as low as 2,612 mm (2001) and as high as 3,498 mm
(2003). Cocha Cashu has ranged from 1,600 mm (1983-84) to 2,700 mm (1993-95), and
Puerto Maldonado from <2,000 to >5,000 mm (Barthem et al. 2003). Much of this
variation appears to be due to a high variance in rainfall in the transitional months
between the wet and dry seasons—April, May, September, and October (Figure 4). At
CICRA, 472 mm of rain fell in April 2003, while <40 mm fell during April 2005. For every
month of the year in the Puerto Maldonado dataset, maximum rainfall recorded for any
given month is more than an order of magnitude higher than the minimum for that same
month.
Rainfall in many tropical climates peaks in the afternoon, after many hours of
evaporation and transpiration, but this is not the case for Los Amigos (Figure x). At Los
Amigos rain is more likely during the morning; 25% of all rainfall occurs between 10 AM
and 1 PM. Rain is least likely between 9 and 10 PM (just 0.7% of the total), and rises
steadily from that minimum value to its peak value between 12 noon and 1 PM (which
accounts for 9.6% of the total). After 1 PM the probability of rain declines steadily
through the afternoon.
16
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
Temperature shows a much milder seasonal signal. The dry season is slightly cooler
than the wet season, but monthly means never depart from the range of 21-26° C. The
highest temperature recorded at CICRA since 2000 is 39° C (37.1° C with the automated
station), at Cocha Cashu since 1976 33°C, and at Puerto Maldonado since 1948 40°C.
The first two complete years of data from the automated weather station at CICRA
indicate a very slight increase in average temperature from 2005 to 2006. The mean
temperature for 2006 (24.10° C) was 0.28% higher than that for 2005 (24.03° C).
Friajes
One of the region’s most important climatic features are the periodic cold fronts, known
locally as friajes, that sweep through Madre de Dios during the austral winter. These are
large masses of cold air driven northwards from Patagonia into the Amazon basin—the
southern hemisphere equivalent of the arctic fronts that periodically sweep down into the
continental United States during the boreal winter (Marengo et al. 1984, 1997). During
these phenomena temperatures can drop as much as 20° C in under 24 hours. Most
friajes last between one and four days, but some last for more than 10 days, and
consecutive cold fronts can keep daily minima below 20°C for as long as a month (Table
x, Figure x). The historical lows at CICRA, Cocha Cashu and Puerto Maldonado are 8°
C, 8° C, and 4.5° C respectively.
The arrival of a friaje at Los Amigos is typically heralded by strong winds sweeping in
from the south and west. On the Los Amigos terrace the approach of these winds is
audible several minutes before their arrival, as they come roaring through the
surrounding forest or up the river. The first gust is often the strongest. Accompanied by a
harrowing roar from the trees around camp, it comes tearing into camp, knocking over
equipment, ripping off roof cornices, and sending the contents of clotheslines soaring off
the cliff. For the next 30 minutes to an hour, these winds continue to blow, surging and
subsiding like waves on a roughly two-minute cycle. In most cases the wind is
17
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
accompanied by heavy rain, which causes additional havoc as it is driven into rooms and
laboratories by the strong winds.
In the forest on the CICRA trail system trees and branches are commonly flung down by
these storms, and witnessing one from inside the forest is a dangerous and nerve-
wracking experience. Although the most violent winds typically blow for less than an
hour, steady westerly and southerly winds often continue for several hours after the front
has passed. At the station, one lasting effect can be seen in the young trees around
camp, many of whose trunks are permanently angled towards the west as the result of
being pressed so insistently in that direction by these winter storms.
Figure x. Frequency of cold fronts, or friajes, at the Los Amigos Biological Station during the
winter months of 2005-2007. Each graph shows temperature data at 30-minute intervals from 1
April to 30 September. In each graph the vertical axis ranges from 10 to 40 degrees Celsius, with
gridlines at 20° and 30° C.
As the wind and rain die down, air temperature drops precipitously, often recording the
cold front's lowest temperature during the first 24 hours after its arrival (Figure x). For the
next several days, under skies that may remain overcast or cloud-free, temperature
maxima and minima typically warm by about 1° C per day until normal temperatures are
again attained or another cold front arrives.
While the frequency, duration and intensity of friajes vary from year to year, data
collected at Los Amigos in the years 2005-2007 show some remarkably stable patterns.
18
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
To compare patterns among these years, I arbitrarily defined friajes as more than two
consecutive days with daily minima <20° C, and severe friajes as more than two
consecutive days with daily minima <15° C. By those definitions, the number of events
varied very little in the winter months of 2005-2007: 14-17 friajes and 4-5 severe friajes
per winter (Figure x, Table x).
It is not yet clear what effect El Niño/Southern Oscillation events have on the climate in
Manu. The weather in Puerto Maldonado was hotter and possibly rainier during the
November 1997-January 1998 event, but this is not a consistent pattern, and the picture
remains foggy for much of western Amazonia (Marengo 1998).
Light
In order to measure solar radiation, a silicon pyranometer and a datalogger that records
readings every 30 minutes were established in the CICRA clearing in September 2004.
In the 257 days of data available to date, the site has received a 24-hour average of
178.8 Watts/m2. This is slightly lower than but quite similar to comparable data from
Manaus, Brazil (181), and Cristóbal, Panamá (194; Müller 1982, Cubit et al. 1988).
Seasonal variation in radiation is fairly predictable in the data to date: highest around the
equinoxes and lowest around the winter solstice.
Wind
As in many other Amazonian forests, occasional, fierce, brief windstorms play an
important role in the dynamics of Madre de Dios plant communities (Nelson et al. 1994).
Foster and Terborgh (1998) document an easterly squall that moved across Madre de
Dios in the fall of 1995, toppling thousands of trees. Ortiz (2002) describes a similar
event in the Tambopata region. On June 21, 2005, strong winds flattened a large area of
floodplain forest at the intersection of Cocha Lobo, Aguajina, and Lindero trails. The
winds were apparently associated with a very heavy rainfall event that evening, but the
CICRA wind speed meter did not record exceptionally high winds that day. Indeed, both
average wind speed and wind gust for that day do not fall in the top 100 records for the
preceding year. Taken together with the relatively local scale of damage, this suggests
that the winds involved were especially strong gusts at a particular and rather small
19
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
area. We do not yet know if the same event created other similar clearings elsewhere in
the area.
Satellite images and aerial photos of the Los Amigos region show at least four areas
where large patches of forests appear to have been flattened by this type of windstorm
between 1990 and 2000 (INRENA et al. 2004). All three of them are >25 ha; the largest
appear to be >150 ha. Finding four blowdowns of this size in a relatively small area
would seem to suggest that these are relatively frequent events across Madre de Dios.
However, a recent study that compared 1990 and 2000 Landsat images of a >7 million
ha area including Los Amigos watershed and Manu and Alto Purús National Parks did
not detect any other large blowdowns during that decade (INRENA et al. 2004).
In a 2000 Landsat image, three of the four blowdown patches in the Los Amigos region
have identical colors, suggesting that the disturbance there may have been
simultaneous (i.e., caused by a single storm). In the false-color Landsat these three
patches are the same color as beaches, indicating that most of their vegetation was
obliterated. The fourth patch resembles secondary forests in the image. In 2004 a visit to
this fourth patch confirmed that it has been recolonized by adult pioneer trees,
suggesting that it is several years older than the other patches (J. Olivier, personal
communication). The dominant pioneer tree in this patch, Cecropia sciadophylla
(Cecropiaceae), is the same species that dominates second growth around the CICRA
station, as well as large blowdown regeneration in northern Peru and Ecuador
(Vriesendorp et al. 2004, 2005).
Seasonality
Seasonal changes in climate, hydrology, phenology, animal behavior, and land use are
marked in Madre de Dios, but they have not yet been integrated into a single database
that permits a global view of seasonality. In the meantime, here is a brief sampling of
seasonal patterns. Large catfish migrate up the Madre de Dios River to spawn between
December and April, and largely disappear from the river for the rest of the year
(Goulding et al. 2003). Brazil nut trees put out flowers between October and January,
drop fruits in December and January, and are visited by castañeros in January and
February (Cornejo Valverde 2003). Giant otters give birth between May and June
(Schenck 1999), river turtles lay their eggs on the Río Los Amigos between July and
September (Mansilla et al. 2004), macaw visits to Tambopata clay licks peak in
September (Brightsmith 2004), and spider monkeys disperse seeds of Virola calophylla
at Cocha Cashu between September and December (Russo & Augspurger 2004). Most
tree-cutting, mining, commercial fishing, ecotourist visits and scientific research in Madre
de Dios take place during the dry season (Goulding et al. 2003).
It is not a trivial task to determine which seasonal changes drive which seasonal patterns
in plant and animal communities, since many seasonal changes occur simultaneously.
The dry season in Madre de Dios is also the season with the lowest air temperatures,
the highest river water temperatures, the lowest solar radiation levels, the thickest leaf
litter on the forest floor, the highest river water pH, the shortest days, the highest stream
conductivities, and (because it is also a time of lower rainfall in the Andes) the lowest
river levels (Goulding et al. 2003). Other seasonal patterns, like variation in air pollution,
cloud cover, wind direction and intensity, storm intensity, lightning strikes, tree falls, and
bamboo growth, are also potentially important drivers of seasonal patterns but are poorly
documented. Meanwhile, the vast majority of seasonal patterns in plant and animal
communities—changes in mycorrhizal fungi abundance, mosquito community structure,
20
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
In this section I discuss a few broad topics that I consider especially important or
interesting about the region’s vegetation. Readers wanting a broad introduction to the
vegetation of the region should try Foster (1990, 1994) and Gentry (1997). For
references on more specific topics, see Table 2.
Table 2. Some recommended bibliographic sources for the vegetation of Madre de Dios, in
English and Spanish.
21
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
(Regarding phenology, that could form a brief section of its own or a couple of
paragraphs in this section.)
22
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
(Ideally, we'd also have sections called "Forests around CM1" and one called "Forests
around CM2". I don't know enough about those forests to contribute much, though.)
FAUNA
(under construction)
HUMAN HISTORY
Introduction
Deep History
1900-1982
We know very little about the history of the Los Amigos watershed for most of the 20th
century. In part, this is because no one has made a concerted search for mention of Los
Amigos in the hundreds of books and articles written about Madre de Dios during and
following the rubber boom. For the time being, this section relies on a few scattered
allusions I have found in geographers’ and missionaries’ accounts, and others which
anthropologist James Graham has brought to my attention.
23
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
One of the first published mentions of the Los Amigos River is a 1902 map of the Madre
de Dios River and tributaries by Rafael Baluarte. The map’s tracing of the Los Amigos is
cursory enough to suggest that it was drawn based on interviews rather than exploration.
While the river’s mouth is accurately mapped, its course is wildly misrepresented—
draining from east to west rather than from north to south (Figure x). Three years after
that map’s publication, the Los Amigos is described briefly in an article in the Boletín de
la Sociedad Geográfica de Lima as “a long river populated by Peruvian rubber tappers”
formed by the confluence of two smaller rivers, the Aucaio and the Busamanu
(Larrabure-Correa 1905: 92). Stiglich (1922) identifies Busamanu as the original name of
the Los Amigos, although linguistic evidence suggests that these were names given by
the rubber tappers’ guides, members of the Takana language group, rather than the
residents of the Los Amigos themselves, who more likely belonged to the Iñapari group
(T. Moore, personal communication). What Busamanu and Aucaio mean is still to be
discovered.
In a 1907 book, Stiglich confirms that the Los Amigos was one of the few tributaries of
the Madre de Dios whose forests were at that time producing for the rubber trade; rubber
tappers were unable to work in several other watersheds because of hostile indigenous
inhabitants. Indeed, the name “Amigos” is apparently a tribute to a peaceful interlude
between rubber tappers and an indigenous community that lived near the mouth of the
river. Juan M. Ontaneda (1907: 423) explains: “One of [famous rubber tapper Carlos
Fermín] Fitzcarrald’s expeditions was attacked by some [mashcos], with whom they
made peace on their return by giving them some of those cheap gifts that fascinate the
savages. As this interaction took place at the mouth of a stream, Fitzcarrald named it
‘Amigo....’”
Later in the same book, the author opens a window on earlier relations between rubber
tappers and indigenous inhabitants of the Los Amigos, which are markedly less than
friendly. He writes: “The explorers of this region had to fight with the fierce mashcos to
clean them out of the Manu and Amigos rivers, which the explorers later occupied. The
Mashcos who left the latter [apparently the Amigos] have since regrouped in the
Colorado River” (Ontaneda 1907: 449). The earliest of these “explorers” were apparently
rubber tappers led by a Peruvian named Alcibiades Torres (Stiglich 1922).
Who the indigenous inhabitants of the Amigos were and where their descendants are
living today is still not clear. Avencio Villarejo (1959) describes a settlement of 50 people
at the mouth of the Los Amigos River, inhabited by a group he calls the Manuquiaris, or
Mashcos. The first name is synonymous with the Arasairi, Sapiteri and Toyoeri of the
Amarikeri language family (J. Graham, personal communication). Ribiero and Wise
(1978) have since suggested that the Manuquiaris are most closely associated with the
Toyoeri, a group that they say has since integrated with the mestizo population of Puerto
Maldonado.
Following the battles and forced migrations of the rubber boom period, conflict between
indigenous inhabitants and mestizos has continued sporadically up to the present day
(see previous section). In a 1940 account of a trip from Puerto Maldonado to the
Colorado River, a Dominican missionary writes: “On the fourth day [of travel upriver from
the mouth of the Inambari River] we arrived at the Los Amigos River, where Señor
Troncoso and others have lived for several years. A son of his is traveling with us, and
told us that in a nearby creek the maschos had killed two of his workers and left the
bodies surrounded with arrows stuck in the ground as a sign that they would return
24
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
(Álvarez 1940: 177).” (The descendants of this Troncoso today own the Hotel Cabaña
Quinta in Puerto Maldonado; they believe that this story is a tall tale.)
It would appear that by the 1940s no one was tapping rubber trees any longer in the
vicinity of Los Amigos. Indeed, given that it is relatively easy to find scarred old trees in
areas of northern Amazonian Peru that were worked by rubber tappers a century ago (N.
Pitman, personal observation), the absence of scarred trees at Los Amigos is something
of a mystery. Perhaps the tapped trees died of stress or disease, or perhaps they have
yet to be found.
Today only a few reminders of the mining camp remain: the ruins of the original winch,
standing in the yard west of the main dormitory; the cement table next to the washing
basins at the eastern end of the laboratory, which was formerly used to clean the day’s
catch of fish; the abandoned earthmoving equipment in the shed at the start of Carretera
trail; and Carretera trail itself, which the mining company built as a road for heavy
vehicles around 1992 (thus the rocks). Aerodromo trail is the continuation of this road,
built during the clearing of the landing strip that same year. The landing strip was
completed during the mining years but never used; the story has it that the only pilot to
attempt a landing blanched at the rolling terrain at the last minute and landed at Lagarto
instead.
25
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
The ecological impact of this large mining camp on the forests surrounding CICRA is
hard to quantify. Throughout its existence, workers at the camp fished and hunted in the
surrounding forests, because the company did not buy meat from Puerto Maldonado.
When the camp was full, providing bushmeat was a full-time job for two camp
employees. The favorite prey for hunters were deer, peccaries, tapirs, and agoutis, as
well as monkeys and large birds; the favorite fishing spot was Pañacocha. Workers cut
several large timber trees in the surrounding forest, especially tornillo (Cedrelinga
cateniformis), which was used for building, and Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa), which
was used for constructing mining barges. Trash was thrown over the cliff near where the
staff quarters stand today. Had 120 men lived at the camp throughout its existence, the
plant and animal communities around CICRA would have been very severely
impoverished. Thus it is a stroke of luck for biologists that the mining camp stood largely
empty for most of the 1990s.
Even so, some of those who saw the mining camp at the height of its activity today
remember it with nostalgia. In retrospect, it is easy to imagine how, from the perspective
of someone who climbed up the mining camp’s long wooden stairway, lit up with electric
lights, and stepped into a campsite thrumming with large generators, winches, and the
bustle of 120 workers, today’s CICRA is a sleepy place by comparison. Where the
cabins stand today, not long ago stood a hangar and landing pad for the helicopter that
transported the company’s engineers to and from the city. The laboratory that once
processed several kilos of gold per year is now a discolored patch in the grass near the
dining hall. The forest along today’s stairway is only a few years old; previously one
could stand at the top of the stairs and look down at the docks, or survey the river to the
south. Gone is the avocado plantation formerly around what is now the staff quarters,
gone the field of corn, manioc, and watermelon on what is now the soccer pitch, and
gone the small building that once stood at the entrance of Aerodromo trail, where the
station’s workers were entertained each month by company-sponsored visitadoras like
those described in Vargas Llosa’s novel.
Forest structure. The impact of logging on forest structure in the Los Amigos watershed
was trivial in the period 2001-2002, so the reduction in impact is correspondingly small.
However, it is still measurable. The reasoning is as follows. Between 1 May 2001 and 30
April 2002, ACCA park guards recorded ~1.8 million board feet of mahogany and cedar
leaving the Amigos watershed. Sixty-four percent of the wood was mahogany and 36%
was cedar (ACCA 2002). Assuming 1,992 board feet/tree, and assuming that twice as
many trees were felled as were harvested (after Schulte-Herbrüggen & Rossiter 2003),
this gives a total of 1,820 large trees felled in the watershed during a one-year period:
1,156 mahogany and 664 cedar. Assuming that all of these trees were felled inside the
135,000 ha of what is now the conservation concession, this gives an impact of one tree
felled every 74 ha. Because we know that some of the wood brought out of the Los
Amigos during that time was felled outside of what is now the conservation concession,
we can round that figure to an approximate average density of one large tree felled every
100 ha.
To put this in perspective, data from a 2002 study in Cocha Cashu suggest that roughly
730 very large (>70 cm dbh) trees grow in 100 ha of unlogged forest (N. Pitman & M.
26
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
Silman, unpublished data). Assuming 2% mortality, an average 15 of those trees will die
of natural causes each year. By contrast, during the year of highest impact in the Los
Amigos watershed, loggers felled just one tree per 100 ha. Even if the extrapolation
exercise above underestimates impact by 100%, i.e., even if the loggers felled two trees
per 100 ha, not one -- and even if this impact occurred every year, rather than being
concentrated in one or two years -- the impact of logging remains <15% of the natural
background rates of large tree mortality. Indeed, single windstorms in this part of Peru
occasionally knock down more large trees in half an hour than were felled by loggers in
the Los Amigos watershed in 2001-2002 (Foster & Terborgh 1998, Ortiz 2002).
(Additional thoughts re this question: Juan Carlos has some data on the additional impact
of logging camps, trash, and trails. I believe these impacts are small. I can’t even find a
large logging camp I visited near CICRA in 1998, even though it was then surrounded by
very wide trails.)
RESEARCH AT CICRA
Research priorities
As Webb (2005) has noted, “The field of conservation biology is in a unique position: in a
world of increasing human health, wealth, and technological capacity, few other
disciplines are waging losing wars.” Faced with this gloomy tableau, ACA’s approach to
defining research priorities has been to keep things simple. Briefly, research priorities at
Los Amigos are inventory, long-term monitoring and global change, regional topics, and
public service, as described in more detail below.
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An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
28
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
29
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
• Regional topics. ACA has a special interest in projects that study the defining
features of the southwestern Amazon landscape. These include colpas (clay
licks), bamboo-dominated forests, wetlands, friajes (winter cold fronts),
meandering rivers, economically important species like Brazil nut, mahogany,
and tropical cedar trees, endemic species, and the environmental impacts of
logging, gold mining, and ecotourism.
• Public service. Regardless of the research question, ACA favors research that
generates some public good for the community. Examples include projects that
provide training opportunities for Peruvian biologists, strengthen capacity in
Peruvian museums and universities, share research projects widely, and make a
special effort to build on prior scientific work at Los Amigos and the other well-
studied sites in the region, like Cocha Cashu, Pakitza, and the Río Tambopata
lodges. Collaborative projects with Bolivian and Brazilian researchers and
institutions are highly encouraged.
In 1992, John Terborgh, Percy Núñez and Manuel Sánchez scouted forests in the Los
Amigos watershed as part of a large-scale inventory of tree communities in Madre de
Dios. Terborgh and colleagues had completed several tree inventories in the Manu
watershed and were inspecting tree communities in other watersheds in Madre de
Dios—an undertaking that took them to the Alto Madre de Dios, the Colorado, the
30
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
Pariamanu, the Las Piedras, the Tahuamanu and the Acre rivers, as well as the Los
Amigos. In 1993, Núñez, Sánchez and Viviana Horna returned to Los Amigos to
establish two 2-ha tree plots in upland forest. In 1998, Núñez, Sánchez and Nigel Pitman
visited the two plots as part of Pitman’s thesis work. One plot, now located in upland
forest near CICRA between Castañal and Segundo Mirador trails, was recensused by
Rolando Díaz in 2005. The other plot, located in upland forest near CM3, was relocated
and recensused by Carlos Lazo and the Andes-Amazon Botany Project team in early
2007. Data from these plots have appeared in several articles and theses (Terborgh &
Andresen 1998, Pitman 2000, Pitman et al. 2001, Condit et al. 2001, Pitman et al. 2002,
Terborgh et al. 2002, ter Steege et al. 2004, Masse 2005, Latimer et al. 2006, Malhi et
al. 2006).
In 2000, Wake Forest master’s student Emilio Ancaya sampled woody vegetation the
large palm swamp northwest of CICRA (Ancaya 2002). Miles Silman, Mark Bush, and
Luis Imunda accompanied Ancaya as part of a project to sample swamp vegetation and
pollen in lake sediments in the Manu and Madre de Dios watersheds.
Stern/Cornejo trip
FZS surveys
Figure 6. The CICRA laboratory building in April 2000 (left) and September 2006 (right). Photos:
Trond Larsen and Nigel Pitman.
Relatively few researchers visited the station in 2000-2003 as its infrastructure, staff, and
management were being put into place (Figure 7). In each of those four years, the
number of person-days of research averaged <2,000; in other words, fewer than five
researchers and assistants were present at the station per day, on average, during that
period. Notable projects included the start of the long-term botanical inventory by Dr.
John Janovec, in 2001, a variety of rapid biological inventories (plants, birds, mammals)
for the elaboration of the proposal conservation concession in 2001, and an intensive
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An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
inventory of fish communities and aquatic habitats around the station in 2001-2002, by
Dr. Michael Goulding and colleagues (Goulding et al. 2003, Barthem et al. 2003).
Research traffic accelerated sharply in early 2004 as grantees from the new ACA grants
program began arriving at the station and a large radio-tracking project led by Dr.
George Powell got underway. During 2004 the average number of researchers and
assistants rose to 18; by 2005 this number had risen to 31.
Since 2003, ACA’s grants program to support field research at Los Amigos has made
111 awards—an average of more than one grant every two weeks (Table 4). ACA has a
special interest in providing support to Peruvian and Latin American scientists.
Consequently, 60% of grants to date have been awarded to Peruvian researchers, and
>15% of the remainder have been awarded to researchers from other Latin American
countries. ACA offers three kinds of support: 1) grants to Peruvian undergraduates
working on their thesis project, 2) grants to Peruvian and foreign graduate students
working on their thesis project, and 3) grants to Peruvian and foreign established
researchers starting the first year of a multi-year project at Los Amigos.
Table 4. Grants awarded by ACA’s program to support field research at Los Amigos, 2003-2007.
Figures in parenthesis are the number of awards given to Peruvian grantees.
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33
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am indebted to Edgar Collado, Carlos Cañas, Pascual Flores, Viviana Horna, Trond
Larsen, Juana Luque, Miles Silman, the ACCA promotores, and many others who have
shared information and observations. This document should be cited as: Pitman, N. C.
A. 2010. An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, Madre de Dios, southeastern Peru.
February 2010 version of an unpublished report available from the author at
npitman@amazonconservation.org.
34
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following combines a list of references cited in this article and a list of all known
publications related to Los Amigos. The latter are marked by stars.
*Abrill, C., S. Alvarado, A. Luque, R. Martinez and L. Portal. 2004. Riqueza de invertebrados
acuáticos asociados a brácteas de Heliconia stricta (Musaceae): Una aproximación a la
teoría de biogeografía de islas. Pages 35-37 in Servat, G. (ed.), unpublished
compendium of student projects from the 2004 field course "Ecología tropical y diseño
experimental" at the Centro de Investigación y Capacitación del Río Los Amigos,
sponsored by the Asociación para la Conservación de la Cuenca Amazónica (ACCA).
*Abrill, C., N. Hidalgo and S. Zambrano. 2004. Riqueza de aves en bosque de tierra firme e
inundable. Pages 45-49 in Servat, G. (ed.), unpublished compendium of student projects
from the 2004 field course "Ecología tropical y diseño experimental" at the Centro de
Investigación y Capacitación del Río Los Amigos, sponsored by the Asociación para la
Conservación de la Cuenca Amazónica (ACCA).
*ACCA. 2000. Diagnóstico situacional de las comunidades de Boca Amigo, Centro Poblado
Menor de San Juan Grande y Cinco Islas. Unpublished report of the Asociación para la
Conservación de la Cuenca Amazónica.
*ACCA. 2001a. Plan de negocios para el Centro de Capacitación Los Amigos. Unpublished
report of the Asociación para la Conservación de la Cuenca Amazónica.
*ACCA. 2001b. Propuesta técnica para una concesión de conservación en la cuenca del río de
Los Amigos, departamento de Madre de Dios. Unpublished report presented to INRENA
by the Asociación para la Conservación de la Cuenca Amazónica (ACCA). 42 pages.
*ACCA. 2002. Declaración de impacto ambiental, Concesión para Conservación en la Cuenca
del Río Los Amigos. Unpublished report presented to the Instituto Nacional de Recursos
Naturales (INRENA) by the Asociación para la Conservación de la Cuenca Amazónica
(ACCA). 30 pages.
*ACCA. 2003. Informe anual 2002-2003, concesión para conservación en la cuenca del Río Los
Amigos. Unpublished report of the Asociación para la Conservación de la Cuenca
Amazónica (ACCA). Lima.
*Achicahuala, J., V. Cano, C. González, J. Vargas, L. Zenteno and D. Cadena. 2003. Cúanto
tienes, cuánto vales: Disponibilidad de recursos y la defensa en las plantas. Pages 96-99
in Servat, G., M. Rodríguez, D. Cadena, K. Balta, and C. García-Robledo (eds.),
unpublished compendium of student projects from OTS course "Ecología de ecosistemas
amazónicos 2003-13," sponsored by the Universidad Nacional de la Amazonía Peruana,
Centro Amazónico de Educación Ambiental e Investigación & the Organization for
Tropical Studies.
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452. ABSTRACT: Morphological characters of South American Gomphothere remains
from Peru are described and discussed in this work. We assign the remains from
Ayusbamba (Cuzco) to Cuvieronius hyodon and the remains from La Huaca (Piura),
Quipan (Canta) and Serpentin of Pasamayo to Stegomastodon waringi. It is not possible
to distinguish remains from Rio Madre de Dios, referred to the late Miocene of Amazonia,
from other Stegomastodon waringi specimens from late Pleistocene of Peru based on
dental morphology. Consequently, further data are needed to confirm the earliest
appearance of Gomphotheriidae in Peru. We also describe Gomphothere migration
routes from the North and examine their palaeobiogeographical implications.
*Alfaro, A., S. Alvarado, N. Andrade, E. Chulla and A. Luque. 2004. Relación entre la riqueza y la
abundancia de insectos y la cobertura en un bosque de succesión ribereña. Pages 57-61
in Servat, G. (ed.), unpublished compendium of student projects from the 2004 field
course "Ecología tropical y diseño experimental" at the Centro de Investigación y
Capacitación del Río Los Amigos, sponsored by the Asociación para la Conservación de
la Cuenca Amazónica (ACCA).
35
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
36
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
37
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
(ACCA).
*Carilla, J., R. Giudice, A. M. Torres, K. Eckhardt, K. Dexter and G. W. Fernandes. 2004. Efectos
de la filogenia y el área foliar sobre el nivel de ataque y la efectividad en la respuesta
ante insectos agalladores en plantas. Pages 70-75 in Servat, G., D. Cadena, K. Balta,
and C. García-Robledo (eds.), unpublished compendium of student projects from the
OTS course "Ecología de ecosistemas amazónicos 2004-13," sponsored by the
Universidad Nacional de la Amazonía Peruana, Centro Amazónico de Educación
Ambiental e Investigación & the Organization for Tropical Studies.
*Cazoría, M. Y. and V. Méndez Alvarez. 2002. Mimercofilia y herbivoría en Triplaris americana y
Triplaris poeppigiana (Polygonaceae) en la reserva Los Amigos, Perú. Pages 127-133 in
Servat, G., S. Correa, A. Bravo, and D. Cadena (eds.), unpublished compendium of
student projects from OTS course "Ecología de ecosistemas amazónicos 2002-13,"
sponsored by the Universidad Nacional de la Amazonía Peruana and the Organization
for Tropical Studies.
*Chave, J., H. C. Muller-Landau, R. Condit, N. Pitman, J. Terborgh, S. P. Hubbell and E. G.
Leigh. 2002. Beta-diversity in tropical forests: Response. Science 297(5586).
*Chávez V., A., G. Salas A., J. Cuadros P. and E. Gutiérrez S. (eds.). 1998. Boletín No. 106,
Serie A. Carta Geológica Nacional: Geología de los cuadrángulos de Fitzcarrald y Río
Los Amigos (Hojas 25-u y 25-v). Instituto Geológico Minero y Metalurgico, Lima.
*Chocce, M., J. P. Janovec and E. A. Christenson. 2004. A synopsis of the genus Otostylis
(Orchidaceae: Maxillarieae subtribe Zygopetalinae) with a new record from southern
Peru. Sida 21(2): 841-852. ABSTRACT: The genus Otostylis (Orchidaceae) is one of the
lesser known genera in the Zygopetalum alliance, which has had a problematic
taxonomic history. Otostylis consists of four species distributed in South America and
Trinidad. The purpose of this paper is to provide a synopsis of the genus, with
descriptions of the four species and keys for their identification. Otostylis paludosa is
resurrected from previous synonomy under O. lepida and reported as a new record for
the genus in Peru, occurring as a dominant herb in bog wetlands of the Department of
Madre de Dios.
*Chocce Peña, M. A. 2003. Estudio de las orquídeas de tres bosques de la cuenca del Río Los
Amigos (Dpto. Madre de Dios, Perú). Unpublished report for the Asociación para la
Conservación de la Cuenca Amazónica. 6 pages.
*Condit, R., N. Pitman, E. G. Leigh, J. Chave, J. Terborgh, R. B. Foster, P. Nunez, S. Aguilar, R.
Valencia, G. Villa, H. C. Muller-Landau, E. Losos and S. P. Hubbell. 2002. Beta-diversity
in tropical forest trees. Science 295(5555): 666-669. ABSTRACT: The high alpha-
diversity of tropical forests has been amply documented, but beta-diversity -- how species
composition changes with distance -- has seldom been studied. We present quantitative
estimates of beta-diversity for tropical trees by comparing species composition of plots in
lowland terra firme forest in Panama, Ecuador, and Peru. We compare observations with
predictions derived from a neutral model in which habitat is uniform and only dispersal
and speciation influence species turnover. We find that beta-diversity is higher in Panama
than in western Amazonia and that patterns in both areas are inconsistent with the
neutral model. In Panama, habitat variation appears to increase species turnover relative
to Amazonia, where unexpectedly tow turnover over great distances suggests that
population densities of some species are bounded by as yet unidentified processes. At
intermediate scales in both regions, observations can be matched by theory, suggesting
that dispersal limitation, with speciation, influences species turnover.
*Conger, J. 2001. Organic gardening at Los Amigos. Unpublished report for the Asociación para
la Conservación de la Cuenca Amazónica (ACCA).
Cornejo Valverde, F. 2003. Historia natural de la castaña (Bertholletia excelsa Humb. & Bonpl.) y
propuestas para su manejo. Asociación para la Conservación de la Cuenca Amazónica,
Puerto Maldonado. 52 pages.
*Cortez, C. and D. C. Ramos. 2002. Diferencias en los niveles de herbivoria entre sexos en una
planta dioica (Cecropia sciadophylla). Pages 106-110 in Servat, G., S. Correa, A. Bravo,
and D. Cadena (eds.), unpublished compendium of student projects from OTS course
"Ecología de ecosistemas amazónicos 2002-13," sponsored by the Universidad Nacional
38
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
39
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
40
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
*Feria, T. P. and K. Balta. 2002. Efecto del volumen de agua sobre la riqueza de invertebrados
presente en los internodos del bambú Guadua weberbaueri. Pages 117-122 in Servat,
G., S. Correa, A. Bravo, and D. Cadena (eds.), unpublished compendium of student
projects from OTS course "Ecología de ecosistemas amazónicos 2002-13," sponsored
by the Universidad Nacional de la Amazonía Peruana and the Organization for Tropical
Studies.
*Fernández, M. Year unknown. Informe final de la prospección ambiental del río de Los Amigos.
Unpublished report for the Asociación para la Conservación de la Cuenca Amazónica
(ACCA).
*Ferreyra Vela, F. R. 2004. Conservación del lobo de río (Pteronura brasiliensis) en Perú,
Capítulo II: Censo de población de nutria gigante (Pteronura brasiliensis) en las cuencas
de los ríos Amigos y bajo Madre de Dios. Unpublished report of the Proyecto Lobo de
Río of the Frankfurt Zoological Society for the Amazon Conservation Association. 35
pages.
*Flores, C. 2004. Effect of light, soil fertility and soil moisture in early growth of lowland tropical
cedars (Cedrela spp.) in southeast Peru. Unpublished report for the International
Foundation of Science.
*Flores, J. L. and O. González. 2002. Efectividad del camuflaje en saltamontes. Pages 145-149
in Servat, G., S. Correa, A. Bravo, and D. Cadena (eds.), unpublished compendium of
student projects from OTS course "Ecología de ecosistemas amazónicos 2002-13,"
sponsored by the Universidad Nacional de la Amazonía Peruana and the Organization
for Tropical Studies.
*Forsyth, A., M. Ríos and M. Romo. 2002. Plan de manejo: Concesión para conservación en la
cuenca del río Los Amigos, provincias de Manu y Tambopata, Departamento de Madre
de Dios. Unpublished report presented to the Instituto Nacional de los Recursos
Naturales (INRENA) by the Asociación para la Conservación de la Cuenca Amazónica
(ACCA). 82 pages.
Foster, M. S. and J. Terborgh. 1998. Impact of a rare storm event on an Amazonian forest.
Biotropica 30(3): 470-474.
Foster, R. B. 1990. Long-term change in the successional forest community of the Rio manu
floodplain. Pages 565-572 in A. H. Gentry (ed.), Four Neotropical rainforests. Yale
University Press, New Haven, USA.
*Foster, R. B. 2001. Some description of the Río Los Amigos, Madre de Dios, Peru. Unpublished
report for the Asociación para la Conservación de la Cuenca Amazónica (ACCA). 2
pages.
*Foster, R. B., H. Betz and H. Beltrán. 2002. Arboles y arbustos del Centro Río Amigos. An
unpublished laminated field guide produced by Environmental and Conservation
Programs of the Field Museum. 30 + 600 color photos pages.
*Gazis Oliva, R. 2004. Evaluación preliminar de la micoflora localizada en los alrededores del
Centro de Investigación "Río Los Amigos," Manu. Tesis de licenciatura. Facultad de
Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Ricardo Palma, Lima.
*Gil, A., V. Cano, C. Delgado, V. Fernández, A. Montero, A. Troya and R. Dirzo. 2003. Morfología
foliar como mecanismo de escape a herbívoros en Iriartea deltoidea. Pages 79-82 in
Servat, G., M. Rodríguez, D. Cadena, K. Balta, and C. García-Robledo (eds.),
unpublished compendium of student projects from OTS course "Ecología de ecosistemas
amazónicos 2003-13," sponsored by the Universidad Nacional de la Amazonía Peruana,
Centro Amazónico de Educación Ambiental e Investigación & the Organization for
Tropical Studies.
*Giudice, R., C. Blundo, J. Carilla, G. Artavia, F. Soley, T. Erwin and C. Sánchez. 2004.
Composición de comunidades de artrópodos en tres tipos de vegetación de sucesión
ribereña. Pages 95-99 in Servat, G., D. Cadena, K. Balta, and C. García-Robledo (eds.),
unpublished compendium of student projects from the OTS course "Ecología de
ecosistemas amazónicos 2004-13," sponsored by the Universidad Nacional de la
Amazonía Peruana, Centro Amazónico de Educación Ambiental e Investigación & the
Organization for Tropical Studies.
*Giudice, R., G. Namen and R. A. Saldaña. 2004. Segregación espacial de murciélagos y
41
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
42
An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
Kalliola, R., and M. Puhakka. 1993. Geografía de la selva baja peruana. Pages 9-21 in R.
Kalliola, M. Puhakka, and W. Danjoy (eds.), Amazonía peruana: Vegetación húmeda
tropical en el llano subandino. PAUT and ONERN, Jyväskylä, Finland.
Kalliola, R., M. Puhakka and W. Danjoy (eds.). 1993. Amazonía peruana: Vegetación húmeda
tropical en el llano subandino. Proyecto Amazonia of the Universidad de Turku (PAUT),
and Oficina Nacional de Evaluación de Recursos Naturales (ONERN), Jyväskylä. 261
pages.
*Kirkby, C. 2001. The distribution, abundance, clump characteristics and techniques for managing
Guadua cf. angustifolia, Bambuseae, a potential non-wood forest product, in Madre de
Dios, Peru. Master's thesis. The University of York, York, UK.
*Kirkby, C. and B. Griscom. 2001. Bamboo research and development strategy for the Los
Amigos Conservation Concession and associated areas. Unpublished report for the
Asociación para la Conservación de la Cuenca Amazónica. 29 pages.
*Kometter, R. F., M. Martinez, A. G. Blundell, R. E. Gullison, M. K. Steininger and R. E. Rice.
2004. Impacts of unsustainable mahogany logging in Bolivia and Peru. Ecology and
Society 9(1): 12. ABSTRACT: Although bigleaf mahogany [Swietenia macrophylla King
(Meliaceae)] is the premier timber species of Latin America, its exploitation is
unsustainable because of a pattern of local depletion and shifting supply. We surveyed
experts on the status of mahogany in Bolivia and Peru, the world's past and present
largest exporters. Bolivia no longer has commercially viable mahogany (trees > 60 cm
diameter at breast height) across 79% of its range. In Peru, mahogany's range has
shrunk by 50%, and, within a decade, a further 28% will be logged out. Approximately
15% of the mahogany range in these two countries is protected, but low densities and
illegal logging mean that this overestimates the extent of mahogany under protection.
The international community can support mahogany conservation by funding park
management and by encouraging independent verification of the legality of mahogany in
trade. Our findings demonstrate that a systematic expert survey can generate reliable
and cost-effective information on the status of widespread species of concern and help to
inform appropriate management policy.
*Küchmeister, H. 2000. Pasos para un plan de manejo sostenible de la cuenca del río Los
Amigos. Unpublished report for the Asociación para la Conservación de la Cuenca
Amazónica.
*La Rosa, D. 2002. Patrones de uso estacional de las colpas por vertebrados mayores en el
Centro de Investigación Río Los Amigos, Madre de Dios. Unpublished report for the
Asociación para la Conservación de la Cuenca Amazónica. 3 pages.
*La Rosa, D. 2003. Patrones de uso de collpas por mamíferos en el Río Los Amigos, Madre de
Dios. Unpublished report for the Asociación para la Conservación de la Cuenca
Amazónica. 11 pages.
*La Rosa, D., L. H. Emmons, M. Trolle and V. Pacheco (2003). Uso de colpas por el tapir de
tierras bajas Tapirus terrestris (Perissodactyla: Tapiridae) en el Río Los Amigos, Madre
de Dios. XII Reunión Científica. Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, April 2003,
Lima.
Larsen, M. C., and A. Simon. 1993. A rainfall intensity-duration threshold for landslides in a
humid-tropical environment, Puerto Rico. Geografiska Annaler 75A: 13-23.
*Larsen, T. 2000. Los Amigos dung beetle report. Unpublished report for the Asociación para la
Conservación de la Cuenca Amazónica. 6 pages.
*Latimer, A. M., J. A. Silander, Jr. and R. M. Cowling. 2005. Neutral ecological theory reveals
isolation and rapid speciation in a biodiversity hot spot. Science 309: 1722-1725.
ABSTRACT: South Africa’s Mediterranean-climate fynbos shrubland is a hot spot of
species diversity, but its diversity patterns contrast strongly with other high-diversity
areas, including the Amazon rain forest. With its extremely high levels of endemism and
species turnover, fynbos is made up of dissimilar local communities that are species-rich
but relatively poor in rare species. Using neutral ecological theory, we show that the
relative species-abundance distributions in fynbos can be explained by migration rates
that are two orders of magnitude lower than they are in tropical rain forests. Speciation
rates, which are indexed by the ‘‘biodiversity parameter’’ Q, are estimated to be higher
43
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terra firme. The tree plots were arranged in floristic space using non-metric
multidimensional scaling ordination, and the effects of distance and geomorphology on
floristic similarity were evaluated using multiple linear regressions. The effect of habitat
was further explored by comparing observed habitat restriction with a null expectation.
The geomorphologies were floristically distinct, and species were more habitat-restricted
than expected by chance. There was a significant effect of distance on floristic similarity,
most of it at very short scales (< 5 km). Geomorphology explained most of the variation at
an intermediate scale (< 50 km) and distance explained most of the variation at a larger
scale (up to 300 km). Distance explained little (~5%) of the across-habitat similarity, while
it explained more than 30% within habitats. While distance affected floristic composition,
its effects were overridden by geomorphology. The large scale distance effect may be
due to the spatial variation in fluvial dynamics. The short scale distance effect probably
reflects dispersal and mass effects. Geomorphology may locally be a valid proxy for
environmental variables but seems to fail to summarize environmental variation at large
scales.
Mazer, S. J. 1997. Floristic composition, soil quality, litter accumulation, and decomposition in
terra firme and floodplain habitats near Pakitza, Peru. Pages 89-126 in D. E. Wilson and
A. Sandoval (eds.), Manu: The biodiversity of southeastern Peru. Smithsonian Institution
and Editorial Horizonte, Lima.
*Medina, N., N. Andrade, A. Alfaro and E. Chulla. 2004. Estructura de la comunidad de insectos
en tres tipos de fitotelmata. Pages 23-26 in Servat, G. (ed.), unpublished compendium of
student projects from the 2004 field course "Ecología tropical y diseño experimental" at
the Centro de Investigación y Capacitación del Río Los Amigos, sponsored by the
Asociación para la Conservación de la Cuenca Amazónica (ACCA).
Michael, L. D., and C. Beier. 2003. Poblaciones indígenas en aislamiento voluntario en la región
del Alto Purús. Pages 149-162 in R. Leite Pitman, N. Pitman, and P. Álvarez (eds.), Alto
Purús: Biodiversidad, conservación y manejo. Center for Tropical Conservation, Lima.
*Montero, A., N. Estrada and Y. Paiz. 2003. ¿Qué factores afectan la riqueza de epífitas en
jardines de hormigas? Pages 118-121 in Servat, G., M. Rodríguez, D. Cadena, K. Balta,
and C. García-Robledo (eds.), unpublished compendium of student projects from OTS
course "Ecología de ecosistemas amazónicos 2003-13," sponsored by the Universidad
Nacional de la Amazonía Peruana, Centro Amazónico de Educación Ambiental e
Investigación & the Organization for Tropical Studies.
*Mori, S. 2001. Key to the Lecythidaceae of Los Amigos. Unpublished report for the Asociación
para la Conservación de la Cuenca Amazónica (ACCA). 2 pages.
Müller, M. J. 1982. Selected climatic data for a global set of standard stations for vegetation
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Napravnik Pesce, M. (ed.) 2004. Guía interpretativa para Tambopata Research Center y Posada
Amazonas. 11ra Edición 1994-2004. Rainforest Expeditions S. A. C. and INNOVA Arquitectura
Integral S. R. L., Lima. 332 pages.
*Neill, A. K. Year unknown. Los Amigos jungle cucumbers: A study of five sympatric Gurania
species. Unpublished report for the Asociación para la Conservación de la Cuenca
Amazónica.
Nelson, B. W., V. Kapos, J. B. Adams, W. J. Oliveira, O. P. G. Braun, and I. L. do Amaral. 1994.
Forest disturbance by large blowdowns in the Brazilian Amazon. Ecology 75 (3): 853-
858.
*Nolivos, L. and S. Enriquez. 2002. Remoción de semillas por murciélagos y aves en plantas del
género Piper. Pages 123-126 in Servat, G., S. Correa, A. Bravo, and D. Cadena (eds.),
unpublished compendium of student projects from OTS course "Ecología de ecosistemas
amazónicos 2002-13," sponsored by the Universidad Nacional de la Amazonía Peruana
and the Organization for Tropical Studies.
*Ochoa, J. A. and J. C. Chaparro. 2005. Scorpiones de la cuenca del río Madre de Dios, Perú.
Unpublished report for the Asociación para la Conservación de la Cuenca Amazónica. 19
pages.
*Olivier, J. 2003. Distribución, historia y futuro de la invasión del bambú en la cuenca del río Los
Amigos en relación a la variación climática: Implicaciones para la tala sostenible a largo
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Palacios and M. Aulestia. 2002. A comparison of tree species diversity in two upper
Amazonian forests. Ecology 83(11): 3210-3224. ABSTRACT: We inventoried two
Amazonian tree communities separated by similar to1400 km of continuous lowland
tropical forest, in an effort to understand why one was more diverse than the other.
Yasuni National Park, near the equator in eastern Ecuador, has one of the most diverse
tree communities in the world. Manu National Park, at 12degrees S in Peru's Madre de
Dios region, is only moderately diverse by upper Amazonian standards. Following the
field inventories, a database of. morphological, ecological, and other traits was compiled
from the taxonomic literature for 1039 species from the plots. Our goals were (1), to
describe how terra firme tree communities at the two sites differed in composition,
diversity, and structure; (2) to characterize the "extra" species responsible for the higher
diversity at Yasuni; and (3) to assess, in the light of those observations, some
explanations for why forests near the equator are so diverse. Yasuni has similar to 1.4
times as many. tree species as Mann at all three spatial scales we examined: local (1
ha), landscape (<10000 km(2)), and regional (<100000 km(2)). Yasuni samples contain
more families and genera, more individual trees per unit area, and a larger proportion of
small trees. Tree species at Yasuni have smaller stature, larger leaves, larger seeds, and
smaller geographic and altitudinal ranges than those at Manu, and disproportionate
increases in species diversity are observed within the Myrtaceae, Lauraceae,
Melastomataceae, and several other families. Community structures were strikingly
similar, with the same species (Iriartea deltoidea, a palm) dominating both sites at
identical densities. Common species at Yasuni occur at the same densities as equally
ranked species at Manu, but there are substantially more very rare species at Yasuni.
The poorer tree flora is not a nested subset of the richer tree flora, though a majority of
species in each inventory do occur at the other site. Several models that offer
explanations for geographic variation in tropical tree species diversity are assessed in
light of these data. Most do a poor job of accounting for. the patterns revealed by the
inventories. We speculate that the most important factor in producing the higher diversity
in Yasuni is its rainier, aseasonal climate, and we discuss. two specific rainfall-related
mechanisms that appear to be supported by the data: (1) year-round water availability
allowing more species to persist in the understory at Yasuni and (2) a newly described
"mixing effect" related to the higher stem density there.
*Puhakka, M. and R. Kalliola. 1995. Floodplain vegetation mosaics in western Amazonia.
Biogeographica 71(1): 1-14.
*Quan, C. L. and M. Vidaurre. 2002. Composición de las comunidades de epífitas en jardines de
hormigas. Pages 139-144 in Servat, G., S. Correa, A. Bravo, and D. Cadena (eds.),
unpublished compendium of student projects from OTS course "Ecología de ecosistemas
amazónicos 2002-13," sponsored by the Universidad Nacional de la Amazonía Peruana
and the Organization for Tropical Studies.
*Rado Quispe, R. 2003. Influencia de la disponibilidad de luz bajo el dosel, en el crecimiento de
regeneración natural de Bertholletia excelsa H.B.K. en tres tipos de bosques en el Centro
de Investigación del Río Los Amigos, Madre de Dios, Perú. Thesis for the degree of
Ingeniero Forestal. Universidad Nacional San Antonio Abad del Cusco, Puerto
Maldonado. 59 pages.
*Rado Quispe, R. Year unknown. Inventario de Cedrelinga catenaeformis Ducke en el Centro de
Investigación del Río Los Amigos, Madre de Dios. Prácticas Pre-profesionales report for
the Facultad de Ciencias Forestales y Medio Ambiente of the Universidad Nacional San
Antonio Abad del Cusco. Puerto Maldonado. 22 pages.
Räsänen, M. 1993. La geohistoria y geología de la Amazonia peruana. Pages 43-67 in R.
Kalliola, M. Puhakka, and W. Danjoy (eds.), Amazonia Peruana: Vegetación húmeda
tropical en el llano subandino. PAUT and ONERN, Jyväskylä, Finland.
Riley, M. P. 1994. Soil chemical changes accompanying a primary riparian succession in Manu
National Park, Madre de Dios, Peru. Master's thesis, Duke University.
*Ríos, S., J. Díaz, V. Fernández, J. Rodríguez, A. Troya and G. Servat. 2003. Riqueza y
abundancia de insectos asociados a Heliconia stricta en relación a la posición de la
bráctea. Pages 103-107 in Servat, G., M. Rodríguez, D. Cadena, K. Balta, and C. García-
48
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Robledo (eds.), unpublished compendium of student projects from OTS course "Ecología
de ecosistemas amazónicos 2003-13," sponsored by the Universidad Nacional de la
Amazonía Peruana, Centro Amazónico de Educación Ambiental e Investigación & the
Organization for Tropical Studies.
*Rodríguez, C., K. Eckhardt and M. Rivera. 2004. Abundancia y riqueza de ácaros presentes en
colibríes y en flores visitadas por éstos. Pages 121-123 in Servat, G., D. Cadena, K.
Balta, and C. García-Robledo (eds.), unpublished compendium of student projects from
the OTS course "Ecología de ecosistemas amazónicos 2004-13," sponsored by the
Universidad Nacional de la Amazonía Peruana, Centro Amazónico de Educación
Ambiental e Investigación & the Organization for Tropical Studies.
*Rodríguez, D., F. Soley, C. Blundo, G. Namen, C. Sánchez, C. Rodríguez and P. Stevenson.
2004. Dispersión de semillas de Onychopetalum sp. (Annonaceae) en un bosque tropical
de la Amazonía peruana. Pages 76-79 in Servat, G., D. Cadena, K. Balta, and C. García-
Robledo (eds.), unpublished compendium of student projects from the OTS course
"Ecología de ecosistemas amazónicos 2004-13," sponsored by the Universidad Nacional
de la Amazonía Peruana, Centro Amazónico de Educación Ambiental e Investigación &
the Organization for Tropical Studies.
*Rodríguez, J. and V. Aschero. 2003. ¿Me ves o no me ves?: Comportamiento críptico
antidepredación en ortópteros. Pages 111-113 in Servat, G., M. Rodríguez, D. Cadena,
K. Balta, and C. García-Robledo (eds.), unpublished compendium of student projects
from OTS course "Ecología de ecosistemas amazónicos 2003-13," sponsored by the
Universidad Nacional de la Amazonía Peruana, Centro Amazónico de Educación
Ambiental e Investigación & the Organization for Tropical Studies.
*Rodríguez, M. and V. Cano. 2003. Efecto de la densidad y presencia de tricomas sobre la
herbivoría en Melastomataceae. Pages 114-117 in Servat, G., M. Rodríguez, D. Cadena,
K. Balta, and C. García-Robledo (eds.), unpublished compendium of student projects
from OTS course "Ecología de ecosistemas amazónicos 2003-13," sponsored by the
Universidad Nacional de la Amazonía Peruana, Centro Amazónico de Educación
Ambiental e Investigación & the Organization for Tropical Studies.
*Rojas, J. and S. Vejarano. 2002. Relación entre la tasa de producción de néctar y la frecuencia
de visitas de murciélagos a flores de Bauhinia tarapotensis. Pages 111-116 in Servat, G.,
S. Correa, A. Bravo, and D. Cadena (eds.), unpublished compendium of student projects
from OTS course "Ecología de ecosistemas amazónicos 2002-13," sponsored by the
Universidad Nacional de la Amazonía Peruana and the Organization for Tropical Studies.
*Rojas, J., M. Vidaurre, C. Cortez, O. Gonzáles, S. Enriquez, F. Ferreyra and E. Fischer. 2002. El
cambio de una forma esférica hacia una forma plana: Un posible camino evolutivo para
las diásporas anemocóricas? Pages 83-87 in Servat, G., S. Correa, A. Bravo, and D.
Cadena (eds.), unpublished compendium of student projects from OTS course "Ecología
de ecosistemas amazónicos 2002-13," sponsored by the Universidad Nacional de la
Amazonía Peruana and the Organization for Tropical Studies.
Russo, S. E. and C. K. Augspurger. 2004. Aggregated seed dispersal by spider monkeys limits
recruitment to clumped patterns in Virola calophylla. Ecology Letters 7: xxx-xxx.
Schenck, C. 1999. Lobo de río (Pteronura brasiliensis): Presencia, uso del hábitat y protección en
el Perú. GTZ & INRENA. Lima. 176 pages.
*Salcedo Villamar, E. 2002. Evaluación en transectos de Bertholletia excelsa H.B.K. en tres
zonas de la cuenca del Río Los Amigos. Prácticas Pre-profesionales report for the
Facultad de Ciencias Forestales y Medio Ambiente of the Universidad Nacional San
Antonio Abad del Cusco. Puerto Maldonado.
*Servat, G. 2003. Ecología tropical y diseño experimental. Unpublished compendium of student
projects from a 2003 field course at the Centro de Investigación y Capacitación del Río
Los Amigos, sponsored by the Asociación para la Conservación de la Cuenca
Amazónica (ACCA). 86 pages.
*Servat, G. 2004. Ecología tropical y diseño experimental. Unpublished compendium of student
projects from a 2004 field course at the Centro de Investigación y Capacitación del Río
Los Amigos, sponsored by the Asociación para la Conservación de la Cuenca
Amazónica (ACCA). 72 pages.
49
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50
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Terborgh, J. 1983. Five New World primates: A study in comparative ecology. Princeton
University Press, Princeton, USA.
Terborgh, J. 1990. An overview of research at Cocha Cashu Biological Station. Pages 48-59 in A.
H. Gentry (ed.), Four Neotropical rainforests. Yale University Press, New Haven, USA.
Terborgh, J., C. H. Janson, and M. Brecht. 1986. Cocha Cashu: Su vegetación, clima y recursos.
Pages 1-18 in M. A. Ríos (ed.), Reporte Manu. Centro de Datos para la Conservación,
Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina, Lima.
*Terborgh, J. and E. Andresen. 1998. The composition of Amazonian forests: Patterns at local
and regional scales. Journal of Tropical Ecology 14: 645-664. ABSTRACT: An analysis
was conducted of floristic patterns contained in 48 1-ha tree plots distributed at 29 sites in
seven neotropical countries, with a primary emphasis on the Amazonian region. Analyses
were made with family level data, using detrended correspondence analysis and
multidimensional scaling to generate two-dimensional ordinations. Dissimilarity values for
all pairs of plots were then used to compare forest composition at both local (flooded vs
unflooded forests) and regional scales (e.g., western vs central vs eastern Amazonia).
The predominate family of trees in a large majority of Amazonian and Guianan forests (by
number of stems) is either Palmae or Leguminosae (sensu latu), followed by Moraceae
and Euphorbiaceae. The forests of western Amazonia are particularly rich in palms,
Moraceae, and Myristicaceae, whereas those of eastern Amazonia and the Guianas are
rich in Lecythidaceae and Chrysobalanaceae. Dissimilarity between sites increases with
distance for both flooded and unflooded forests. The tree communities of flooded and
unflooded forests within a region tended to resemble one another more closely than
forests of either type resembled the homologous forests of the adjoining regions. Within
Amazonia the edaphic properties of each region and its geological history are tightly
interrelated. it is therefore difficult to distinguish between evolutionary and ecological
interpretations of the results.
*Terborgh, J., N. Pitman, M. Silman, H. Schichter and P. Núñez V. 2002. Maintenance of tree
diversity in tropical forests. Pages 1-17 in D. J. Levey, W. Silva and M. Galetti (eds.),
Seed dispersal and frugivory: Ecology, evolution and conservation. CAB International,
Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
*Torres, A. M., D. Rodríguez and M. Espinoza. 2004. Selección de entrenudos de bambú por
Rhinastus latisternus (Curculionidae). Pages 129-133 in Servat, G., D. Cadena, K. Balta,
and C. García-Robledo (eds.), unpublished compendium of student projects from the
OTS course "Ecología de ecosistemas amazónicos 2004-13," sponsored by the
Universidad Nacional de la Amazonía Peruana, Centro Amazónico de Educación
Ambiental e Investigación & the Organization for Tropical Studies.
*Trolle, M. 2003. Camera trapping in the Rio Los Amigos region, Madre de Dios, Amazonia, SE
Peru. Unpublished report for the Asociación para la Conservación Amazónica.
*Trolle, M. 2004. Flashed in the forest. BBC Wildlife Magazine 22: 30-37.
*Trolle, M. and L. H. Emmons. 2004. A record of a dwarf brocket from lowland Madre de Dios,
Peru. Deer Specialist Group News 19: 2-5. ABSTRACT: The South American dwarf
brockets (Mazama spp.) are known from few museum specimens, and their geographic
ranges and population status are poorly known (Wemmer 1998; IUCN 2002). We report
here on a dwarf brocket photographed by camera trap in the Madre de Dios region of SE
Peru. We believe that this is the first published record of a dwarf brocket in the lowland
Amazonian rainforest of Peru and, possibly, the first unambiguous record of dwarf
brocket from all of the Amazonian lowlands. It seems to be a new species record for Peru
and comprises either a major range extension of a known species or, possibly, an
undescribed taxon.
*Trolle, M. and M. Kéry. 2004. Camera-trap study of ocelot and other secretive mammals in the
Peruvian Amazon. Unpublished report for the Amazon Conservation Association. 5
pages.
*Unknown. 2003. Andes to Amazon botany program at BRIT. Iridos 14: 20-21.
*Valderrama, E., N. Medina, M. Chocce and L. Portal. 2004. Patrones de herbivoría en hojas
jóvenes y adultas de Piper sp. Pages 50-52 in Servat, G. (ed.), unpublished compendium
of student projects from the 2004 field course "Ecología tropical y diseño experimental" at
51
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the Centro de Investigación y Capacitación del Río Los Amigos, sponsored by the
Asociación para la Conservación de la Cuenca Amazónica (ACCA).
*Vanucci, D. 2003. Erotylidae (Insecta: Coleoptera) en el sotobosque de la cuenca del Río Los
Amigos, Madre de Dios, Perú. Unpublished report for the Asociación para la
Conservación Amazónica. 4 pages.
*Vargas, J. and J. Achicahuala. 2003. Riqueza y abundancia de escarabajos coprofagos
(Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) en dos tipos de bosque. Pages 122-126 in Servat, G., M.
Rodríguez, D. Cadena, K. Balta, and C. García-Robledo (eds.), unpublished
compendium of student projects from OTS course "Ecología de ecosistemas amazónicos
2003-13," sponsored by the Universidad Nacional de la Amazonía Peruana, Centro
Amazónico de Educación Ambiental e Investigación & the Organization for Tropical
Studies.
*von May, R. 2003. Tercera evaluación de la herpetofauna en el Centro Río Amigos, Madre de
Dios, Perú. Unpublished report for the Asociación para la Conservación Amazónica. 16
pages.
*von May, R. 2004. Geographic distribution, Leptodactylus stenodema. Herpetological Review
35(3): 282.
*von May, R. 2004. Geographic distribution, Osteocephalus buckleyi. Herpetological Review
35(3): 283.
*von May, R. and L. O. Rodríguez. 2004. Guía fotográfica para los anfibios y reptiles del Centro
Río Los Amigos, Madre de Dios, Perú. Unpublished set of color laminas for the
Asociación para la Conservación de la Cuenca Amazónica.
Vriesendorp, C., N. Pitman, R. Foster, I. Mesones & M. Ríos. 2004. Plants/Plantas. Pages 54-61,
141-147 in Pitman, N., R.C. Smith, C. Vriesendorp, D. Moskovits, R. Piana, G. Knell & T.
Wachter (eds.), Perú: Ampiyacu, Apayacu, Yaguas, Medio Putumayo. Rapid Biological
Inventories Report 12. The Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.
Vriesendorp, C., N. Pitman, J. I. Rojas Moscoso, L. Rivera Chávez, L. Calixto Méndez, M. Vela
Collantes, P. Fasabi Rimachi (eds.). 2005. Perú: Matsés. Rapid Biological Inventories
Report 16. The Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago. 336 pages.
Webb, C. O. 2005. Engineering hope. Conservation Biology 19: 1-3.
*WI. 2004. Ecological applications of multispectral 3D aerial imagery in the Los Amigos Reserve
in eastern Peru. Unpublished grant report by Winrock International (WI) for the Amazon
Conservation Association and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation. 14 pages.
*Yánez, I. and M. Gómez. 2004. Rugosidad de los árboles y establecimiento de las epífitas y
hemiepífitas en terraza baja y alta. Pages 134-137 in Servat, G., D. Cadena, K. Balta,
and C. García-Robledo (eds.), unpublished compendium of student projects from the
OTS course "Ecología de ecosistemas amazónicos 2004-13," sponsored by the
Universidad Nacional de la Amazonía Peruana, Centro Amazónico de Educación
Ambiental e Investigación & the Organization for Tropical Studies.
*Yánez, I., M. Gómez, K. Dexter, A. Tauro, R. A. Saldaña, P. Stevenson and M. Espinoza. 2004.
Variación de la densidad y la riqueza de plantas entre claros de diferente edad en un
bosque tropical. Pages 100-104 in Servat, G., D. Cadena, K. Balta, and C. García-
Robledo (eds.), unpublished compendium of student projects from the OTS course
"Ecología de ecosistemas amazónicos 2004-13," sponsored by the Universidad Nacional
de la Amazonía Peruana, Centro Amazónico de Educación Ambiental e Investigación &
the Organization for Tropical Studies.
*Zenteno, L., C. González and S. Ríos. 2003. Dime quién te come y te diré quién eres: Herbivoría
en un gradiente de sucesión vegetal. Pages 139-141 in Servat, G., M. Rodríguez, D.
Cadena, K. Balta, and C. García-Robledo (eds.), unpublished compendium of student
projects from OTS course "Ecología de ecosistemas amazónicos 2003-13," sponsored
by the Universidad Nacional de la Amazonía Peruana, Centro Amazónico de Educación
Ambiental e Investigación & the Organization for Tropical Studies.
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Appendix 1.
A LIST OF RECOMMENDED TEXTS
FOR BIOLOGISTS WORKING IN MADRE DE DIOS
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
• Excerpts from Goulding, M., C. Cañas, R. Barthem, B. Forsberg and H. Ortega.
2003. Amazon headwaters: Rivers, wildlife, and conservation in southeastern
Peru. Grafica Biblos S.A., Lima.
• Excerpts from Barthem, R., M. Goulding, B. Forsberg, C. Cañas and H. Ortega.
2003. Aquatic ecology of the Río Madre de Dios: Scientific bases for Andes-
Amazon headwaters conservation. Asociación para la Conservación de la
53
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PLANTS
• Regional context: Gentry, A. H. 1997. Lowlands of Manu National Park: Cocha
Cashu Biological Station, Peru. Pages 360-363 in S. D. Davis, V. H. Heywood,
O. Herrera-MacBryde, J. Villa-Lobos and A. C. Hamilton (eds.), Centres of plant
diversity: A guide and strategy for their conservation. Volume 3. WWF and IUCN,
Cambridge, UK.
• Terborgh, J. and E. Andresen. 1998. The composition of Amazonian forests:
patterns at local and regional scales. Journal of Tropical Ecology 14: 645-664.
• Excerpts from ter Steege, H., N. Pitman, D. Sabatier, H. Castellanos, P. Van der
Hout, D. C. Daly, M. Silveira, O. Phillips, R. Vasquez, T. Van Andel, J.
Duivenvoorden, A. A. De Oliveira, R. Ek, R. Lilwah, R. Thomas, J. Van Essen, C.
Baider, P. Maas, S. Mori, J. Terborgh, P. N. Vargas, H. Mogollon and W.
Morawetz. 2003. A spatial model of tree alpha-diversity and tree density for the
Amazon. Biodiversity and Conservation 12(11): 2255-2277.
• Gentry, A. H. and R. Ortiz. 1993. Patrones de composición florística en la
Amazonía peruana. Pages 155-166 in R. Kalliola, M. Puhakka and W. Danjoy
(eds.), Amazonía peruana: Vegetación húmeda tropical en el llano subandino.
Proyecto Amazonia of the Universidad de Turku (PAUT), and Oficina Nacional
de Evaluación de Recursos Naturales (ONERN), Jyväskylä.
• Swamps: Excerpts from Ancaya, E. J. 2002. Floristics and hydrology of upper
Amazonian swamps. Master's thesis. Department of Biology, Wake Forest
University, Winston-Salem, USA.
• Floodplains: Foster, R. B. 1990. The floristic composition of the Rio Manu
floodplain forest. Pages 99-111 in A. H. Gentry (ed.), Four Neotropical
rainforests. Yale University Press, New Haven, USA.
• Gentry, A. H. and J. Terborgh. 1990. Composition and dynamics of the Cocha
Cashu mature floodplain forest, Peru. Pages 542-564 in A. H. Gentry (ed.), Four
Neotropical rainforests. Yale University Press, New Haven.
• Terborgh, J. and K. Petren. 1991. Development of habitat structure through
succession in an Amazonian floodplain forest. Pages 28-46 in S. Bell, E. D.
McCoy and H. R. Mushinsky (eds.), Habitat structure: The physical arrangement
of objects in space. Chapman and Hall, New York.
• Uplands: Pitman, N. C. A., J. W. Terborgh, M. R. Silman, P. Nunez, D. A. Neill, C.
E. Ceron, W. A. Palacios and M. Aulestia. 2001. Dominance and distribution of
tree species in upper Amazonian terra firme forests. Ecology 82(8): 2101-2117.
• Bamboo: Griscom, B. W. and P. M. S. Ashton. 2003. Bamboo control of forest
succession: Guadua sarcocarpa in Southeastern Peru. Forest Ecology and
Management 175(1-3): 445-454.
54
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INSECTS
• Excerpts from Erwin, T. L. 1991. Natural history of the carabid beetles at the
BIOLAT Biological Station, Rio Manu, Pakitza, Peru. Revista Peruana de
Entomología 33: 1-85.
• Lamas, G. 1997. Comparing the butterfly faunas of Pakitza and Tambopata, Madre
de Dios, Peru, or Why is Peru such a megadiversity country. Pages 165-168 in
H. Ulrich (ed.), Tropical diversity and systematics: Proceedings of the
International Symposium on Biodiversity and Systematics in Tropical
Ecosystems. Zoologische Forchunginstitut und Museum Alexander Koenig,
Bonn.
• Pearson, D. L. and J. A. Derr. 1986. Seasonal patterns of lowland forest floor
arthropod abundance in southeastern Peru. Biotropica 18(3): 244-256.
• Tobin, J. E. 1997. Competition and coexistence of ants in a small patch of
rainforest canopy in Peruvian Amazonia. Journal of the New York Entomological
Society 105(1-2): 105-112.
• Wilson, E. O. 1987. The arboreal ant fauna of Peruvian Amazon forests: A first
assessment. Biotropica 19(3): 245-251.
• Yu, D. W. and N. E. Pierce. 1998. A castration parasite of an ant-plant mutualism.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences
265(1394): 375-382.
55
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BIRDS
• Kratter, A. W. 1997. Bamboo specialization by Amazonian birds. Biotropica 29(1):
100-110.
• Parker, T. A., III, P. K. Donahue and T. S. Schulenberg. 1994. Birds of the
Tambopata Reserve (Explorers' Inn). Pages in R. B. Foster, J. L. Carr and A. B.
Forsyth (eds.), The Tambopata-Candamo Reserved Zone of southeastern Peru:
A biological assessment. Conservation International, Washington, D. C.
• Terborgh, J., S. K. Robinson, T. A. Parker, III, C. A. Munn and N. Pierpont. 1990.
Structure and organization of an Amazonian forest bird community. Ecological
Monographs 60(2): 213-238.
• Excerpts from the old volume of Monographs in Ornithology that has some classic
EBCC papers on mixed flocks, etc. Scott R’s work and Fitzpatrick’s stuff on
flycatchers.
MAMMALS
• Regional context: Voss, R. S. and L. H. Emmons. 1996. Mammalian diversity in
Neotropical lowland rainforests: a preliminary assessment. Bulletin of the
American Museum of Natural History 230(26): 1-115.
• Emmons, L. H. 1987. Comparative feeding ecology of felids in a Neotropical
rainforest. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 20(4): 271-283.
• Kiltie, R. A. and J. Terborgh. 1983. Observations on the behavior of rain forest
peccaries in Peru: Why do white-lipped peccaries form herds? Zeitschrift fur
Tierpsychologie 62(3): 241-255.
• Leite Pitman, R., H. Beck and P. M. Velazco. 2003. Mamíferos terrestres y
arbóreos de la selva baja de la Amazonía peruana: Entre los ríos Manu y Alto
Purús. Pages 109-124 in R. Leite Pitman, N. Pitman and P. Álvarez (eds.), Alto
Purús: Biodiversidad, conservación y manejo. Center for Tropical Conservation,
Lima.
• Excerpts from Terborgh, J. 1983. Five New World primates: A study in
comparative ecology. Princeton University Press, Princeton, USA.
• Abstracts/excerpts from other classic primate studies at Cocha Cashu, e.g.,
Wright, P. C. 1994. The behavior and ecology of the owl monkey. Pages 97-112
in J. Baer, R. Weller and I. Kakomo (eds.), Aotus: The owl monkey. Academic
Press, San Diego, Anne Goldizen on tamarins.
PLANT-ANIMAL INTERACTIONS
• Silman, M. R., J. W. Terborgh, and R. A. Kiltie. 2003. Population regulation of a
dominant-rain forest tree by a major seed-predator. Ecology 84:431-438.
• Terborgh, J. 1986. Keystone plant resources in the tropical forest. Pages 330-344
in M. E. Soulé (ed.), Conservation biology: The science of scarcity and diversity.
Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, USA.
• Wright, S. J., M. E. Gompper and B. Deleon. 1994. Are large predators keystone
species in neotropical forests? The evidence from Barro Colorado Island. Oikos
71(2): 279-294.
CONSERVATION
• Álvarez, N. L. and L. Naughton-Treves. 2003. Linking national agrarian policy to
deforestation in the Peruvian Amazon: A case study of Tambopata, 1986-1997.
Ambio 32(4): 269-274.
• Dourojeanni, M. J. 2003. Impactos socioambientales de las carreteras
56
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PEOPLE
• Clark, C., L. Michael, and C. Beier. 2005. The Mashco Piro of the Río Purús
region: Factors affecting their well-being and self-determination in a changing
world. Unpublished report of the Cabeceras Aid Project. 29 pages.
• Excerpts from Huertas, Beatriz. 2002. Los pueblos indígenas en aislamiento: Su
lucha por la sobrevivencia y la libertad. IWGIA, Lima.
• IIAP. 2002. Propuesta de zonificación ecológica económica de la región Madre de
Dios: Versión corregida en base a los acuerdos de la asamblea regional sobre
Zonificación Ecológica Económica (ZEE). Unpublished report of the Instituto de
Investigaciones de la Amazonía Peruana (IIAP).
• Phillips, O., A. H. Gentry, C. Reynel, P. Wilkin and B. C. Galvez Durand. 1994.
Quantitative ethnobotany and Amazonian conservation. Conservation Biology
8(1): 225-248.
• Shepard, G. H., Jr. 2001. Rainforest habitat classification among the Matsigenka of
the Peruvian Amazon. Journal of Ethnobiology 21(1): 1-38.
OTHER
• D'Achille, B. Excerpts from Uturunkusuyo: El territorio del jaguar. Lima.
• Leopold, A. [1924] 1991. The River of the Mother of God. Essay from The river of
the mother of God and other essays. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison,
USA.
• Symington, M. xx de julio. Pages xx-xx in M. B. Mulder and W. Logsdon (eds.),
I’ve been gone far too long: Field study fiascoes and expedition disasters. RDR
Books.
• Terborgh, J. 2000. In the company of humans. Natural History 109: 54-63.
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Appendix 2.
RESEARCH PROJECTS ACTIVE AT LOS AMIGOS, 2000-2006
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Rice University
2004
The River Continuity Concept and its applicability to Neotropical river systems
Eduardo Oyague (Peru)
Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina (Peru)
2004-2005
VEGETATION
Inventory of Sapindaceae in the Los Amigos concession
Dr. Pedro Acevedo (USA)
Smithsonian Institution (USA)
2004
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Taxonomy and diversity of pteridophytes in different vegetation types of the Los Amigos
watershed
Benjamín Chambi (Peru)
Universidad Nacional San Antonio Abad del Cusco - Puerto Maldonado (Peru)
2005-2006
Inventory of orchids
Miguel Chocce (Peru)
Universidad Nacional Mayor San Marcos (Peru)
2003
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12-year recensus of a 2-ha permanent plot in terra firme forest near CICRA
Rolando Díaz (Peru) and others
Universidad Nacional San Antonio Abad del Cusco - Puerto Maldonado (Peru)
2005
Influence of light, soil moisture, and soil fertility in the early growth of Cedrela spp.
Ing. César Flores (Peru)
Yale School of Forestry (USA)
2001-2002
Vegetation mapping along 170 km of trails in and around the Los Amigos Conservation
Concession
Therany Gonzales (Peru)
Universidad Nacional San Antonio Abad del Cusco-Puerto Maldonado
2005-2006
Structure and dynamics of Mauritia flexuosa populations in the Los Amigos Conservation
Concession
Nelson Gutiérrez (Peru)
Université de Toulouse (France)
2004-2005
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Ecophysiology of carbon uptake and water use by the palm Mauritia flexuosa L.
Viviana Horna (Peru), Reiner Zimmermann (Germany)
University of Goettingen (Germany)
2005-2006
Natural history, population biology, and pollination biology of vanilla orchids (Vanilla
spp.)
Ethan Householder (USA), Alex Van Dam (USA)
Texas Christian University (USA), University of California-Riverside (USA)
2005-2006
The distribution, abundance, clump characteristics and techniques for managing Guadua
cf. angustifolia, Bambuseae, a potential non-wood forest product, in Madre de Dios,
Peru
Chris Kirkby (UK)
University of York (UK)
2001-2002
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PLANT-ANIMAL INTERACTIONS
Impacts of peccaries on plant communities in Los Amigos and Cocha Cashu
Dr. Harald Beck (Germany), Karim Ledesma (Peru)
Towson University (USA)
2004-2006
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INVERTEBRATES
The evolution of social parasitism in Megalomyrmex ants
Rachelle Adams (USA)
University of Texas (USA)
2004
Variation in the spider community during dry and wet seasons in the Los Amigos
watershed
Mariajosé Deza (Peru)
Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina (Peru)
2005-2006
Diversity, composition, distribution, and food plant use of ants in understory vegetation in
Amazonian Peru
Megan Frederickson (USA)
Stanford University (USA)
2005
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Inventory of Diptera
Steven Paiero (Canada), John Klymko (Canada)
University of Guelph (Canada)
2006
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FISH
Ichthyological inventory of the Madre de Dios and Los Amigos rivers
Dr. Michael Goulding (USA), Carlos Cañas (Peru), Dr. Rolando Barthem (Brazil), and
others
Amazon Conservation Association (USA), Asociación para la Conservación de la
Cuenca Amazónica (Peru), and other institutions
2001-2003
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Status and management of the river turtle, Podocnemis unifilis, in the Los Amigos River
Ana María Mansilla (Peru), David Ttito (Peru), Edwin Quispe (Peru)
Asociación para la Conservación de la Cuenca Amazónica (Peru)
2004-2006
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BIRDS
Long-term monitoring of fauna along the Los Amigos River
Hernán Collado (Peru), Wilberth Concha (Peru), Jerry Martínez (Peru), Alberto
Melendez (Peru), Jorge Pérez (Peru), Fernando Pinto (Peru), Edwin Quispe (Peru),
David Ttito (Peru), Eriberto Torres (Peru), Dr. Nigel Pitman (USA)
Asociación para la Conservación de la Cuenca Amazónica (Peru)
2004-2006
Preliminary study of the behavior and ecology of the warbling antbirds Hypocnemis
cantator peruviana and Hypocnemis cantator collins
Dr. Nathalie Tobias (UK), Dr. Joe Tobias (UK), Paulo Pulgarín (Colombia)
Cambridge University (UK)
2004-2006
Ecological roles and habitat use of two species of forest-falcons in the Amazonian
rainforest
Ursula Valdez (Peru), Peggy Shrum (USA), Raul Báez (Peru), Laura Riba Hernández
(Costa Rica), and others
University of Washington (USA)
2004-2006
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2003-2004
MAMMALS
Ecology and behavior of the emperor tamarin, Saguinus imperator
Israel Aragón (Peru)
Universidad Nacional San Antonio Abad del Cusco (Peru)
2003-2004
Phylogeography of Proechimys
Maria de Angelo (USA)
Yale University (USA)
2004
Inventory of giant otters and their habitat in the Los Amigos watershed
Freddy Ferreyra (Peru) and others
Frankfurt Zoological Society (Germany)
2004
Understanding the pair bond in Callicebus brunneus: Male and female interests
Jenna Lawrence (USA) and others
Columbia University (USA)
2002, 2004-2005
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Dr. George Powell (USA), Krista Adamek (Canada), Thomas Adamek (Canada), Dra.
Renata Leite Pitman (Brazil), Rafael Mares (Panama), Sue Palminteri (USA), Raul
Tupayachi (Peru), and others
World Wildlife Fund USA and other institutions
2003-2006
OTHER
The diversity of the eukaryote microbial groups Alveolata and Cercozoa in a tropical
rainforest environments using microscopy and molecular inference
David Bass (UK), Thomas Richards (UK)
University of Oxford (UK), Natural History Museum London (UK)
2005
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Appendix 3.
COMPANION NOTES FOR THE PRINCIPAL TRAILS
OF THE LOS AMIGOS RESEARCH STATION
The stairs
The station’s infamously unwelcoming approach trail ascends 251 steps to the station
terrace, some 40 m above the river. The oldest person to have made the climb was 75
years old at the time; upon reaching the top she triumphantly lit a cigarette. The
youngest person to have made the climb with no assistance was three years old. She
took her time going up, and so should you.
The forest to either side of the stairs is less than 20 years old; when the station was a
mining camp this hillside was bare, and it was possible to see the port from the head of
the stairs and vice versa. Near the base of the stairs (but not visible from them) is an
overgrown plantation, where a small hillside planted in pineapple overlooks a stand of
cacao, banana, and papaya trees. We are currently deciding whether to reactivate the
plantation or remove it. The argument for reactivating the plantation is that it would
relieve us of the absurd practice of bringing bananas from Puerto Maldonado. The
argument for letting the area go back to nature is that only two forests in the Río Madre
de Dios floodplain are currently protected from development, and this is one of them.
The obvious compromise solution is to restore the plantation to wilderness and buy
bananas from neighboring farms.
The hillside vegetation along the stairs already has a healthy understory of aroids, ferns
and treeferns, Costus, Piper, and melastomes. A native bamboo (apparently Guadua
weberbaueri) is scattered around the first and second descansos and dominates a large
patch just behind the first. A couple of large mango trees at the first descanso and a
smaller citrus tree on the slope below are reminders of the area’s recent past. Several of
the largest trees here belong to the genus Erythrina, a legume characteristic of disturbed
river banks (there is one at the dock in Laberinto) with striking hummingbird-pollinated
red flowers. There are also two large fig trees (Ficus insipida), one at the second
descanso and one at the top of the stairs, as well as some fast-growing youngsters that
will dominate the canopy of this forest in a few years.
Small monkeys are seen relatively frequently from the stairs, particularly emperor
tamarins (Saguinus imperator), saddleback tamarins (Saguinus fuscicollis), and squirrel
monkeys (Saimiri sciureus).
The vegetation along the entire trail is young secondary forest, littered with the huge,
star-shaped leaves of Cecropia sciadophylla, the dominant pioneer tree species in
western Amazonia. Only two short stretches of the trail are not typical secondary forest.
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One, around meter 225 on the east side of the trail, is a large and essentially
impenetrable patch of native grass and bamboo that stretches across Jean and Primer
Mirador trails to the east. We do not know yet whether the patch is a natural feature or
an indicator of disturbance by past inhabitants of the terrace, but we do know that it was
already there when the mining company arrived in the early 1980s.
The other segment that is not secondary forest, from meter 425 to meter 565, is not part
of the original road, but a detour built when a large stretch of the road collapsed in a
landslide; the forest here is much older than that along the rest of the trail. Although the
trail is just a few meters from the cliff overlooking the Madre de Dios River, rain that falls
here drains in the opposite direction, following a long and circuitous route through the
Los Amigos watershed before meeting the Madre de Dios where the two rivers come
together.
At the start and the end of the detour small trails lead to the cliff’s edge with a good view
of the landslide, river, and floodplain forest. As from the station, on especially clear days
the Andes are visible from this lookout. Note that the cliff is not stable and there is no
safety rail, so observers should keep well away from the edge.
Despite the run-down appearance of the secondary forest along this trail, it is the
preferred habitat of the endemic Rufous-Fronted Antthrush (Formicarius rufifrons),
known only from this corner of Amazonia, and the emperor tamarin (Saguinus
imperator), often seen accompanied by the saddleback tamarin. The short-eared dog
(Atelocynus microtis) has been sighted several times on this trail. In 2005 it was
common to find tapir tracks in the mud at meter 830.
Plataforma (2)
For much of its route, this trail follows the edge of the cliff that separates the terrace from
the palm swamp at its base. The forest here is much older than that around the station
and along Aerodromo trail, and the trail passes some of the largest and most beautiful
trees on the Los Amigos trail system. Much of the “older” forest on this terrace falls into
the same category: patches of large old trees and closed-canopy forest alternating with
patches where trees are sparse, small, and often soft-wooded pioneer taxa.
Rubber trees are exceedingly common along this trail. During the dry season they are
easy to pick out in the canopy because their leaves turn a fire-engine red before falling.
During the wet season, rubber seedlings are ubiquitous in the understory, where they
are easily distinguishable by their large trifoliate leaves, colored black when developing.
And during a few sunny days between January and March, the trees announce their
presence with sharp little explosions—the sound of the fruit capsules dispersing their
seeds with a pop—a sound that is disarmingly similar to the tooth-clicking alarm call of
white-lipped peccaries.
No one seems to know who tied the Brazil nut fruits to treelets in various places along
this trail some time in 2005. It is either an abandoned experiment or a Blair Witch-type
handicraft.
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the wooden walkway, as the Mauritia palm and a couple of other swamp specialists
become increasingly common in the saturated soils. The word “soils” is not especially
appropriate, since by the time one steps onto the walkway the ground is more organic
matter than mineral soil. Researchers have recently determined that this layer of rotting
plant material is several meters deep in parts of the palm swamp.
Equipment in an ongoing experiment is wired to several trees near the start of the
walkway. This is part of a long-term ecophysiology project to measure water use by
Mauritia palms and other wetland trees. This project is also monitoring water, light, and
temperature levels in the palm swamp, to understand how huge trees manage to make a
living with no connection to mineral soil—teetering on a meters-thick, always-wet bed of
natural compost.
Closer to the Pozo, several of the Mauritia trunks are festooned with thick-stemmed
vines—a climbing orchid in the genus Vanilla and a relative of the plant that produces
the vanilla you buy at the market. A master’s student at the station in 2005-2006 has
been studying the biology of this plant and the four other species in the genus that grow
in this wetland, in part in order to determine whether they might someday become a new
crop plant for Madre de Dios farmers.
The Pozo itself is something of a mystery. It may have begun life as most other lakes on
the Madre de Dios floodplain—as an oxbow suddenly cut off from the main current when
the river shifted course. But it lacks the shape of a typical cocha, and it is much smaller
than other oxbow lakes in the region. Its water is dark and acidic thanks to the stew of
tannins and other chemicals steeping into in from the decaying plant matter. Pozo Don
Pedro is apparently fed by water seeping out of the base of the terrace, and not by
overflow from the Madre de Dios River.
The most popular faunal attraction of Pozo Don Pedro is a very large anaconda
(Eunectes murinus), which can sometimes be seen coiled up and sleeping in the grass
at the south end of the pond. Do not disturb the anaconda.
Just before the intersection with Otorongo and Segundo Mirador trails, the trail passes
abruptly into much older, structurally mature closed-canopy forest. Indeed the forest
surrounding one at the intersection of these three trails is one of the most beautiful on
the entire trail system.
Past the intersection the trail descends steeply to a lower terrace. By the time one
reaches the bottom of this slope, the forest has again changed dramatically and is
dominated by young pioneer trees. Close examination of this patch of forest reveals that
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it—like many other patches on the trail system—is recovering from a powerful windstorm
that toppled most large trees here, probably within the last 20 years.
The remainder of the trail is older forest, marked here and there by old timber extraction.
The overlook of the Río Los Amigos is a good place to watch a meandering river doing
its slow work of tearing down and building up the landscape, leaving different kinds of
vegetation in its wake. This is also a good spot to scan the banks of the river with
binoculars, to spot lurking fauna.
Carretera (15)
As its name indicates, this trail was once a gravel road connecting the station to a dock
on the Madre de Dios River (see Aerodromo trail description). Some of the earth-moving
equipment that traveled the road when the station was a mining camp is still parked
around meter 75 of the trail. (The tangled bankruptcy proceedings of the mining
company have so far prevented ACCA from donating, moving, or otherwise touching it.)
After a short start on the terrace the trail descends steeply towards the floodplain of the
Madre de Dios River. Like the vegetation along Aerodromo trail, this forest is young and
dominated by pioneer trees like Cecropia. Several spots along this sloping portion of the
trail illustrate how the forest is slowly chipping away at the high terrace. Each time a tree
falls here, it takes a little bit of the terrace with it; the death of an especially large tree or
of a tree on an especially steep slope can take quite a lot of the terrace with it. These
large landslides show up as prominent orange specks on high-resolution air photos of
the Los Amigos concession.
At the base of the slope the trail crosses a stream on an old bridge (watch your step).
This is the same stream that fills the reservoir which provides the station’s water. A little
farther on it disappears into a palm swamp, from which a small outlet trickles into the
Madre de Dios.
The first 100 m of the trail pass through young forest that was an agricultural plot not
long ago. Banana and papaya trees grow along this section of trail, attracting an
impressive suite of animals for secondary forest. (A researcher surprised a puma here in
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May 2006.) To the south of the trail, just out of sight, is an old farm plot where several
shadehouses were built in 2001 for a study on tropical cedar (Cedrela spp.) saplings.
The shadehouses have since been abandoned and overgrown.
Past this short stretch of secondary forest the trail descends a short slope to the actual
floodplain—land that is underwater during flooding of the Los Amigos and/or Madre de
Dios. This a headwaters floodplain, which means that it is underwater for only a few
days per year when especially strong rains in the Madre de Dios or Amigos watersheds
push river levels above their banks, not permanently underwater for months on end as in
downriver floodplains at Iquitos and Manaus.
The forest along most of this trail is old and well-developed, and is a good introduction to
mature floodplain forest in Madre de Dios. Just after the intersection with Ficus trail,
Cocha Lobo trail passes between two Ceiba trees so enormous that they are clearly
visible from space, in the Ikonos image hanging in the dining hall.
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Appendix 4.
A PRELIMINARY RED LIST FOR LOS AMIGOS
The Los Amigos Conservation Concession protects at least 27 species that are listed as
globally threatened or near threatened in the 2004 IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species. This list is preliminary to the extreme; most plant, invertebrate, fish, and reptile
species in Madre de Dios have not been evaluated by the IUCN to date.
PLANTS
Brazil Nut Bertholletia excelsa Vulnerable
(none) Caryocar amygdaliforme Endangered
Tropical Cedar Cedrela fissilis Endangered
Red Cedar Cedrela odorata Vulnerable
Fine-leaf Wadara Couratari guianensis Vulnerable
Bigleaf Mahogany Swietenia macrophylla Vulnerable
REPTILES
South American Tortoise Geochelone denticulata Vulnerable
Yellow-spotted River Turtle Podocnemis unifilis Vulnerable
BIRDS
Black-and-white Tanager Conothraupis speculigera Near Threatened
Rufous-fronted Anttrhush Formicarius rufifrons Near Threatened
Elusive Antpitta Grallaria eludens Near Threatened
Harpy Eagle Harpia harpyja Near Threatened
Crested Eagle Morphnus guianensis Near Threatened
Amazonian Parrotlet Nannopsittaca dachilleae Near Threatened
Orinoco Goose Neochen jubata Near Threatened
Blue-headed Macaw Propyrrhura (Ara) couloni Near Threatened
Peruvian Recurvebill Simoxenops ucayalae Near Threatened
MAMMALS
White-bellied Spider Monkey Ateles belzebuth Vulnerable
Goeldi’s Marmoset Callimico goeldii Near Threatened
Pacarana Dinomys branickii Endangered
Giant Anteater Myrmecophaga tridactyla Vulnerable
Jaguar Panthera onca Near Threatened
Giant Armadillo Priodontes maximus Endangered
Giant Brazilian Otter Pteronura brasiliensis Endangered
Puma Puma concolor Near Threatened
Bush Dog Speothos venaticus Vulnerable
Lowland Tapir Tapirus terrestris Vulnerable
Tabla 2. Las especies mundialmente amenazadas y casi amenazadas según la Lista Roja
de la UICN 2006 que han sido registradas hasta la fecha en la CCLA. Categorías de
amenaza: EN = En Peligro; VU = Vulnerable; LR/nt y NT = Casi Amenazada.
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organismo de amenaza
Árbol Cedrela fissilis Cedro EN
Árbol Caryocar amygdaliforme EN
Mamífero Pteronura brasiliensis Lobo de río EN
Mamífero Dinomys branickii Pacarana EN
Árbol Bertholletia excelsa Castaña VU
Árbol Couratari guianensis Misa VU
Árbol Cedrela odorata Cedro VU
Árbol Swietenia macrophylla Caoba VU
Pájaro Ara militaris Guacamayo militar VU
Tortuga Podocnemis unifilis Taricaya VU
Tortuga Geochelone denticulata Motelo VU
Mamífero Speothos venaticus Perro de monte VU
Mamífero Priodontes maximus Carachupa gigante VU
Mamífero Tapirus terrestris Sachavaca, tapir VU
Murciélago Thyroptera lavali VU
Árbol Miconia abbreviata LR/nt
Árbol Minquartia guianensis LR/nt
Caimán Melanosuchus niger Caimán negro LR/cd
Tangara Negra y
Pájaro Conothraupis speculigera NT
Blanca
Pájaro Contopus cooperi Pibí Boreal NT
Gallito-Hormiguero de
Pájaro Formicarius rufifrons NT
Frente Rufa
Pájaro Harpia harpyja Aguila Harpía NT
Pájaro Morphnus guianensis Aguila Crestada NT
Pájaro Nannopsittaca dachilleae Periquito Amazónico NT
Pájaro Neochen jubata Ganso del Orinoco NT
Pájaro Simoxenops ucayalae Pico-recurvo Peruano NT
Pájaro Tryngites subruficollis Playero Acanelado NT
Murciélago Artibeus concolor LR/nt
Murciélago Artibeus obscurus LR/nt
Murciélago Glyphonycteris sylvestris LR/nt
Murciélago Platyrrhinus infuscus LR/nt
Murciélago Sturnira magna LR/nt
Murciélago Vampyressa bidens LR/nt
Murciélago Vampyressa brocki LR/nt
Primate Callimico goeldii Mono de Goeldi NT
Mamífero Myrmecophaga tridactyla Oso hormiguero NT
Mamífero Panthera onca Jaguar NT
Mamífero Puma concolor Puma NT
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Tipo de Categoría
organismo Nombre científico Nombre común de amenaza
Liana Celtis iguanaea CR
Pájaro Neochen jubata Ganso del Orinoco CR
Pajaro Ajaia ajaja Espátula Rosada EN
Pajaro Mycteria americana Manchaco EN
Mamífero Pteronura brasiliensis Lobo de río EN
Mamífero Dinomys branickii Pacarana EN
Árbol Cedrela fissilis Cedro VU
Árbol Cedrela odorata Cedro VU
Manilkara bidentata
Árbol VU
ssp. bidentata
Árbol Swietenia macrophylla Caoba VU
Pájaro Ara chloroptera Guacamayo rojo y verde VU
Pájaro Ara couloni Guacamayo verde de cabeza celeste VU
Pájaro Ara macao Guacamayo rojo VU
Pájaro Ara militaris Guacamayo verde VU
Pájaro Harpia harpyja Aguila Harpía VU
Pájaro Jabiru mycteria Jabiru VU
Caimán Melanosuchus niger Caimán negro VU
Tortuga Podocnemis unifilis Taricaya VU
Mamífero Ateles chamek Maquisapa VU
Mamífero Callimico goeldii Mono de Goeldi VU
Mamífero Myrmecophaga tridactyla Oso hormiguero VU
Mamífero Priodontes maximus Carachupa gigante VU
Mamífero Tapirus terrestris Sachavaca, tapir VU
Liana Abuta grandifolia NT
Liana Banisteriopsis caapi Ayahuasca NT
Árbol Ceiba pentandra Ceibo NT
Árbol Clarisia biflora Chimicua NT
Árbol Clarisia racemosa Mashonaste NT
Hierba Mikania guaco NT
Caimán Paleosuchus trigonatus Lagarto enano NT
Pájaro Morphnus guianensis Aguila Crestada NT
Pájaro Formicarius rufifrons Gallito-Hormiguero de Frente Rufa NT
Pájaro Mitu tuberosum Paujil NT
Pájaro Pipile cumanensis Pava NT
Pájaro Pteroglossus beauharnaesii Tucán Encrespado NT
Pájaro Simoxenops ucayalae Pico-recurvo Peruano NT
Pájaro Conothraupis speculigera Tangara Negra y Blanca NT
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Appendix 5.
LOS AMIGOS IN NUMBERS
Last updated September 2006
History
Number of archeological artifacts found since 2000 at Los Amigos: 4
Number of archeological studies carried out to date at Los Amigos: 0
First date the CICRA terrace was cleared, in recent human memory: 1974
Date the AURINSA mining camp was built on the CICRA terrace: 1982
Number of men living in that camp during the 1980s: 120
Geography
Location of CICRA in UTM: 380500E 8610297N
Location of CICRA in decimal degrees: 12.56 S 70.10W
Location of CICRA in degrees minutes seconds: 12°34’07”S 70°05’57” W
Elevation of CICRA terrace: 268 masl
Elevation of arbitrary zero at CICRA dock: 227 masl
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Air distance from CICRA to closest point of the Bolivian border: 138 km
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Average annual temperature in the Los Amigos clearing since 2004: 24.2°C (75.6°F)
Highest temperature recorded in the Los Amigos clearing since 2004: 37.9° C (100.2°F)
Lowest temperature recorded in the Los Amigos clearing since 2004: 11.3° C (52.3°F)
Highest temperature recorded in the Los Amigos forest since 2000: 39.0° C (102.2°F)
Lowest temperature recorded in the Los Amigos forest since 2000: 9°C (48.2°F)
Probability that it will rain during a given 30-minute period in January, the rainiest month:
11%
Probability that it will rain during a given 30-minute period in August, the driest month:
2%
Average relative humidity in the CICRA clearing since September 2004: 87.6%
Minimum relative humidity in the CICRA clearing since September 2004: 29.2%
24-hour average of solar radiation in the CICRA clearing since September 2004:
Maximum width of Madre de Dios River at the CICRA dock (high water season):
Minimum width of Madre de Dios River at the CICRA dock (low water season):
Maximum depth of Madre de Dios River near Los Amigos: 15 m
High-water means of Madre de Dios River depth near Los Amigos: 7-10 m
Low-water means of Madre de Dios River depth near Los Amigos: 2-5 m
High-water velocity of Madre de Dios River near Los Amigos: 11-14 km/hour
Highest daily level of the Madre de Dios River since 2001: +5.62 m (21 January 2003)
Lowest daily level of the Madre de Dios River since 2001: -3.85 m (9 September 2005)
Difference between record high and record low: 9.47 m
Proportion of water in the Madre de Dios River that is runoff from the Andes: about half
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Biology
Number of species officially recorded in Los Amigos: >3,657
Number of new species described from collections made at Los Amigos: 0
Number of world diversity records held by Los Amigos: 1
Number of hectares of permanent tree plots in the Los Amigos watershed: 11.5
Number of trees examined each month at Los Amigos for phenological data: ~2,800
Infrastructure
Number of researcher/student beds at CICRA: 61
Number of researcher/student beds at CM1:
Number of researcher/student beds at CM2: 0
Number of tent spaces at CM2: 10
Number of researcher/student beds at CM3: 0
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Regional
Travel time in outboard canoe from CICRA to Boca Amigos: 5 minutes
Population of Boca Amigos:
Date of establishment of Boca Amigos: 1996
Number of texts written about the biology of Madre de Dios, 1567-2005: >2,330
Number of scientific journals published in Madre de Dios: 1
Number of universities with forestry programs in Madre de Dios: 2
Number of universities with biology programs in Madre de Dios: 0
Other
Number of days each year that the Andean range is clearly visible from CICRA: <10
Number of palm leaves required to thatch the roof of the CICRA dining hall:
Cost of purchasing those palm leaves:
Expected lifetime of the roof: 6 years
Number of times the no-alcohol policy at CICRA has been relaxed and then reinstated
because of problems: 4
Number of gallons of gasoline purchased by CICRA in the 2005-2006 fiscal year: >7,000
Number of gallons used by a typical American household each year: 1,060
Proportion of CICRA gasoline that was used for boat travel between Laberinto and
CICRA: 92%
Mean number of daily visits to the ACA website during August 2006: 674
Number of donations made via the ACA website during 2004, 2005 and 2006: 3, 9, 16
Mean monthly total of tips left in the CICRA tip box since July 2006: $40
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An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
Fastest time yet recorded from the CICRA dock platform to the top of the stairs, running:
Number of students who have completed theses about Los Amigos without ever visiting
Peru: 1
Proportion of visitors to CICRA who ask the Scientific Coordinator if he still has time to
do his own research: 100%
Answer to the question: Yes
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An overview of the Los Amigos watershed, uncorrected draft, February 2010
Appendix 6.
PUBLIC HEALTH AT LOS AMIGOS
Los Amigos is a healthy place to live. As was the case 50 years ago for Madre de Dios
in general (González del Río 1960), the most commonly reported ailments among
residents of and visitors to Los Amigos since 2000 are minor conditions like colds,
stomach upset, and insect bites.
Malaria is endemic to Madre de Dios and several dozen cases are reported each year in
Puerto Maldonado hospitals. Vivax is the most common type of malaria contracted in the
region, but falciparum has also been reported as present. No one living or working at
Los Amigos since 2000 has contracted malaria, and next to no one takes prophylactic
medication. The highest risk of malaria contraction for visitors to Los Amigos is probably
an overnight stay in Puerto Maldonado; it is worth checking that one’s hotel room has
good screens.
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