Ellard Diss

EDMOND COSTERE'S
r
·LOIS ET STYLES DES HARMONIES MUSICALES
Presented by
Brian J. Ellard
/
To fulfill the dissertation requirement for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy
Department of Music Theory
Thesis Directors:
Dr. Robert Gauldin
Dr. David R. Williams
Eastman School of Music

of the
University of Rochester
May, 1973.
PART I:
A STUDY
VITA
Brian Joseph Ellard was born January 15, 1940, in Ot-

tawa, Ontario, Canada. His early training in music was ac-
quired through the Extension Division of the Royal Conservatory
of Music, Toronto. Upon graduation from high school in 1957,
he was enrolled in the Faculty of Arts'and Commerce of'the
University of Ottawa as an accounting major. After two years
in the programme, he withdrew to accept a position as a sales
representative for the Hallman Organ Company, a position he
retained for slightly more than one year. In April 1961, he
joined Crawley Films Limited as Music Editor.
In September 1963, he resigned from Crawley Films to
pursue his studies in music at the Eastman School of Music,
.
from which institution he holds Bachelor of Music (1966) and
Master of Arts (1968) degrees in Music Theory; in 1969 he was
accepted as a Candidate for the degree Doctor of Philosophy.
Throughout his graduate studies he served as a teaching as-
sistant in the Theory Department.
Also in 19.69, he was appointed Instructor in the Music
Department of l'Universit, de Moncton, New Brunswick, Canada.
The following year he was promoted to Assistant Professor and
elected Chairman of the Music Department, a post he still holds.
Mr.Ellard has held numerous positions as church-
organist and choirmaster, and has served as director of various
amateur and semi-professional choral groups. He has composed
and arranged music in a wide variety of styles for vocal and/
or instrumental ensembles of various musical persuasions and
abilities.
He is married to the former Mary Anne Lortscher of
Rochester, New York, and they have a family of two boys.
ABSTRACT
In Lois et styles des harmonies musicales, published

in 1954 by Presses Universitaires de France, Edmond Cost~re
introduces a theory of harmony that purports to have dis-
covered the common bases of such divergent musical styles as
tonalism and atonalism, diatonicism and dodecaphony. The
laws of harmony that he propounds are based on the natural
and acoustical principles that seem to regulate the affinity
that tones manifest for one another. These laws can be con-
veniently grouped under the heading Law of Cardinal Attrac~ion
or Law of Attractive Potential.
The objectives of the present study are: (1) to as-
sess the relevance and potential of Edmond Costere's theory,
and (2) to provide an English-language translation of Lois
et styles des harmonies musicales.
In Part I of the present work, after a brief biographical
sketch of Edmond Costere, a resume of the treatise is provided
so that the reader might review the general framework of Lois
et styles •••• It should be noted that a study of the resume
alone is not sufficient: in order to thoroughly acquaint him-
self with Cost~re's theories, the reader must study the entire
treatise in either its original orits translated version.
Following the resume, there is a discussion of what appear to
this writer to be the .most significant aspects of Costere's
theory, notions such as the basis of his system, cardinal law,
symmetry as the basis of minor, the inclusion of rhythmic sets.
In the final section, selected aspects of Cost~re's
theory are compared to similar aspects in the writings of
such eminent modern theorists(-composers) as Olivier Messiaen,
Nicolas Slonimsky, Paul Hindemith, Howard Hanson, Allen Forte
and George Perle. And, in order to test the claims of uni-
versality that Cost~re makes concerning the applicability
of his theories, three pieces of contrasting styles (Bach,
Wagner and Schoenberg) are analyzed in terms of selected
and restrictive criteria.
Because of the rather sophisticated and erudite
prose style o f ~ et styles, ••• it was felt that an
English translation could prove useful; it constitutes the
second part of this dissertation.
In specific terms, one of the many interesting
re~elations yielded by our comparative evaluation is that
Costlre seems to have preconceived in his 1954 publication
the n~tion of unique interval content that was presented by
Hanso.n in 1960 in his Harmonic Materials of Modern Music, as
well as the notion of set-complexes as applied to music that
was presented by Forte in 1964 in his artjcle "A Theory of
Set-Complexes for Music."
In broader terms, we discover that Costere's theory
not only explains many of the unfounded affirmations and
"unexplained imperatives of standard treatises on harmony,"
but that it is indeed capable of universal application. Al-
though one does encounter many difficulties in attempting to
employ his system~-difficulties that are essentially semantic--
there appears to be little doubt that a great deal of latent
potential lies therein, and that a truly viable system of
analysis could evolve from the theories presented by Edmond
CostAre in his Lois~ styles des harmon'ies musicales.
I
PREFACE
In 1930, because of a deep dissatisfaction with the

".unfounded affirmations and unexplained imperatives --of stand-
ard treatises on harmony," Edmond Costi!re began an intensive
search for those elements that could constitute a scientific
theory of music. His goal was to seek out the common bases
of all music~ and to formalize a theory that would relate
equally well to such divergent styles as those of Bach and
Boulez.
His efforts culminated in the publication in 1954 by
Presses Universitaires de France of Lois et styles des
harmonies musicales. Other publications have followed in
which the basic theories presented in Lois et. styles ••• have
been expanded, but the latter remains as the first and most
complete exposition of his theory.
The aim of the present work is to assess .the relevance
of CostE!re's theories, as well as to provide an English-
language version of his treatise. In Part
J
I, a summary of the
treatise is presented, followed by a personal
I
commentary on
some of its most significant aspects; subsequently, Cost~re's
discussion of selected elements is compared to the treatment
those elements have received in the writings of such eminent
modern theorists as Olivier Messiaen, Nicolas Slonimsky, Paul
Hindemith Howard Hanson, Allen Forte and George Perle.
ii
iii
Finally, in order to test Costire's claim that his system
applies to music of all styles, three short pieces are examined
on the basis of selected aspects of his theory, namely cardinal,
tonal and transpositional stability, and their concomitant
elements.
* * * * *
It will be noted that throughout both parts of the

present work, references made to Lois et st1les ••• do not
contain page numbers. Rather, the reader is provided with
the book, chapter, and paragraph (or section) number to which
particular reference is made. This format has the distinct
advantage of providing one reference for both the original
version and the translation, since the pagination obviously
differs from one to the other. So that the passages refer-
red to can be easily located, a Roman numeral followed by
an Arabic numeral appears in the bottom left-hand corner of
each page. The Roman numeral refers to the book number, the
Arabic numeral to the chapter number. The third number in
the reference formula refers to the paragraph, which the
reader can easily locate since in each case it is numbered,
and its heading is underlined (in the translation) or appears
in heavy type (in the original).
* * * * *
I would like to thank Presses Universitaires de France
for their permission to translate ~ et ·styles • • • within
iv
the scope of this dissertation. A copy of the agreement has
been included in Appendix. II, page 183 of Part I.
.
I would like to express . my sincere
.
gratitude to Mr.
. . 1 . .
-Edmond Costere (or Edouard Coester) for his mos~ generous and
courteous co-operation. Not only did he provide me·with an
· abundance of biblio-biographical data, but he prepared a list
I
of errata that I have incorporated into my translation. Most

of all, I appreciate the ge~tiine interest he has shown in this
project from its very beginning. (I have enclos~d in Ap-
pendix II, pages 178 through 182 copies of those of his letters
which relate specifically to -this project.)
. .
Finally, I must express· my .sincere appreciation to

·Dr. Robert Gauldin, .Chairman· of th.e Theory Department, and to
Dr. · David R. Williams for their helpful critic ism and advice
during.the preparation of this work.
. .
1Edmond cos tere. is the ·pseudonym used by Edouard

Coester in order to keep his musical activities ·separate from
his legal activities·.· For more details , see page ··2 ~e low.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART I: A STUDY .
PREFACE • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . ii
LIST OF TABLES •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . viii
INTRbDUCTION •• . . . . . . . ... • • • • • • • • • • 1
CHAPTER I. A RESUME. • • • • • • . . • • • • • • • • 6
A. The Basis of All Harmony • • • • • • • • • • • • 6

B. Sound-Entities • • • • • • • • • • • • . .... 22
c. Scales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
D. Toward Organized Music • • • • • • • • • • • • • 46
E. Rllythm. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 61
F. Harmonic Styles • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 66
G. Conclusion. • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 70
CHAPTER II. AN APPRAISAL • . . . . . . . . . . • • • • 72
A. The Basis of the System • . . . . . . 72

• • • • •
B. Cardinal Law or Attractive Potential. • . . . . 75
c. Symmetry: The Basis of Minor • • .. • • • • . 82
D. Scales, Chords, and Rhythms • • • . . . . 88
• • •
E. Harmonic Styles • • • • • • . • • • • • • • . 96
•
CHAPTER III. A COMPARATIVE EVALUATION. . . . . . • 100
A. Olivier Messiaen. • . • • • • • • • • • • . • . 100
B. Paul Hindemith. • . • • • . • . • . . . • . • . ].07
c. Nicolas Slonimsky . . . . . . . . . • . • . . . 115
.
D. Howard Hanson • • • . • . . . • . • • • . • • • 124

E. Allen Forte . . • . . . • . • • • . . . • . . . 136
F. George Perle. • • • • • • • • • .. . . • . . . . 144
G. Towards A System of An~lysis. • • • . • . • • • 151
H. In Conclusion • • • • • • • • • • • • . • . • . 156
APPENDIX I • • • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . • 159
A. Summary of the Characteristics of the 58 Sets
Used in Variation XXV of J. s. Bach's G·o·ldberg
Variations • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 159
V
vi
B. The 58 Sets Used in Variation XXV of J.S.Bach's
Goldber9: Variations and Their Characteristics •• 160
C. Summary of the Characteristics of the 33 Sets Used
in No. 1 of Schoenberg's Sechs Kleine
Klaviers tttcke. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 165
D. The 33 Sets Used in No.I of Schoenberg's Sechs
Kleine Klavierstttcke and Their Characteristics. 166
E. · Summary of the Characteristics of the 89 Sets Used
in the Prelude to Act Three of Wagner's Parsifal 169
F. The 89 Sets Used in the Prelude to Act Three of
Wagner's Parsifal and Their Characteristics • • • 170
APPENDIX II. PERTINENT CORRESPONDENCE. .. • • • • •• 178
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . ... . . . .. . • • . • 184
PART II: A TRANSLATION
THE PROBLEM • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1
BOOK ONE THE BASIS OF ALL HARMONY • • • ... . . . . .. 5
Chapter I. Fundamental Notions .. .

• • . ...
5 .
Chapter II. The Harmonic Scale • • • .. • • .. .
17 .
Chapter III. Cardinal Relationships. .• • • • • • 21 .
Chapter JV. The Perfect Major Triad .• • • ..
• 35 .
Chapter v. The Basis of Minor:
. Horizontal Symmetry •. .. • ....
44 .
Chapter VI. Tempered Projections. . .
• .....
58 .
BOOK TWO SOUND-COMPLEXES OR SOUND-LOCI •• .. . . .• • 65

Chapter I. Preliminaries .... • • • • .• • .
65 .
Chapter II. Stability and Dynamism. • • • .. ..
• 67
Chaptex- III. Characteristics of Major and
Minor Scale·s. • .. .
• • • • .. ..
• 82
Chapter IV. 'J;'he Diatonic Scale • • • • • • .
• • • • 88
Chapter v. Diatonicism or Polyvalence. • • • 100..
BOOK THREE SCALES • • . . . ... . . . . • • • .... 104
Chapter I. The Theory of Scales • • • • • • • • • 104

vii
Chapter II. Classification of Scales According
to Appearance. • . ..• • • • • • • . 115
Chapter III. Classification of Scales According
to Symmetry. • • . .
• • • • • • • • . 125
Chapter IV. Classification of Scales According
to the Function of the Perfect
Triads • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 135
Chapter V. Classification of Scales According
to Certain Functions • • • • • • • • • 140
Chapter VI. Classification of Scales According
to Their Cardinal Gravity • • • • • • • 147
Chapter VII. Classification of Scales According
to Their Tonal Gravity • • • • • • • • 153
Chapter VIII.-classification of Scales According
to Their Transpositional Gravity • • • 160
.BOOK FOUR TOWARD ORGANIZED MUSIC . • . . . . • • . . • • 166
Chapter I. Progressions • • • • • • • • • • • • • 166
Chapter II. Re-enforcement • • • • • • • • • • • • 171
Chapter III. Chords • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 18 6
Chapter IV. Mod.es. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 214
Chapter v. Tonal Relationship • • • • • • • • • • 245
Chapter VI. The Relationship of Transpositions
of the Same Set • • • • • • • • • • • • 251
Chapter VII. The Relationship Between
Different Sets • • • • • • • • • • • • 259
Chapter VIII. Tempered, Non-semitonal Projections •• 263
Chapter IX. The Architecture of Tones • • • • • • • 269
BOOK FIVE RHYTHMS • • . • • . . . . . . . . .. . . • • 278
BOOK SIX HARMONIC STYLES. ..... • • • • ... • • 288

Chapter I. Preliminaries. . • • • • • • • . . .• 288
Chapter II. The Cardinal Style . . 291
Chapter-III. The Mod.al Sty le • •
• • •
.. •
•
•
• •
... . .• •• 303
Chapter IV. The Tonal Style. . • • • • • . . . .. 310
Chapter v. The Atonal Style • • • • • • • . . .. 316
BOOK SEVEN CONCLUSIONS • • • ... • • • • • • • . . . • 331
SYNOPTIC TABLE OF THB 35i SETS. . . • • • . .. . . • • 338
ANALYTICAL TABLES OF THE SETS.· • • • • • . . . . •• 414
REFERENCES • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• 424
LIST OF TABLES
I. Scales of Limited Transposition .. . . . . . . . . 102 ·..
II. Hindemith's Table of Chord Groups:

Comparative Analysis • • • • • • • • .. • • 113
III. Distinct 3-Tone Sets in the 12-Tone System. 142
IV. Comparative Table of Stylistic Features Bas~d

On Cost~re's Criteria for Stability • • • • • • • • 154
viii
INTRODUCTION
EDMOND COSTE RE: A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
That the name of Edmond Cost~re is all but unknown to

musicians in America as a theorist-musicologist is not unusual:
there are probably hosts of Europeans actively engaged in the
music profession, as composers, theorists, musicologists or
performers, whose work is virtually unknown to Americans.
However, in view of the fact that Edmond CostAre has published
two books, 1 six articles (with another currently in preparation);
has delivered lectures to such eminent bodies as l'Institut
de Musicologie and the Soci~t~ d'esth~tique sur la musique
contemporaine et l'Art d'aujourd'hui, and has contributed--
either independently or jointly--to nq less than fifty-~
entrie·s in the Fasquelle Encyclop~die de la Musigue, 2 one
wonders how it is that his name does not appear in any of the
1A list of Cost~re's publications appears at the end

of the Introduction.
2To wit: fo]lCtion; gamme; grave; harmonie; harmoniques1
instabilit,; intervalle; majeur; melodie (B); mineur; mode;
modulation; neuvi~me; octave; onzilme; orthographe; parente;
polarisation; polymodaliU; polytonalite; potentiel; prepara-
tion; quart de ton; quarte; quinte; quinzilme; Rameau (com-
munication); recurrence; relatif1 relation; renforcement; ren-
versement; r,solution; r,sonnance1 seconde; sensible; septiAme;
sixte, sous (-dominante et -toriique); stabilit!; sus (-domi-
nante et -tonique); sym,trie; temp,rament; tension; tierce (1):
tiers de ton; tonalit! (2)1 tonique; transposition; treizilme;
triton.
1
2
·sti;#d#d'"bii>.li,oaj,~l)(t,d~ J101tces :,: ·pa:tt,icularly such standal'd

French .source~ ...;, tl,lt!~~1f!.i911f•e ~ 'l~f !fmigue, . Claude s~muel' s
. Panorama ~. l 'att -•9a1· •t.eJ1Jr«21;ain·, •.·Who'!. 99;.1n France·
(l969-1970l ,· :to a few.. is istrangest ~f all' that :~~ti~'.:
\ ·'",.
it'
his . name is /abEtetit/ from· ~ jasque11•:':pcyclopedia itseif ! ,', : , __ ,· ' . . .
"Edmon~l,:CQadte" 'is the 'p~eudonym that Edouard Coaster

(whose ruune' does a1'0ear ·.tri 1ilftlo's WAC) u_fl,,,France (1969-1970)
.
but wi'th
l. <
np Mritidri/of his musical aqt,i..yJ;tl.es)
") ,· . !
has .adoptec:l in
; ,
. .- ·-, , ' . • ·-~" -~ -' (
order to' kbep 'rita' mwrical. role separa1:e frcki his ;ole of magis-
trat·e. J M~. c•1;1tet'·,j whb was' .bd~le>d~'.i(ai ,\r 1905 in B~urg ,· '
(Ain) , .was trll1n•d .for

'
,thi::' legal professio,t and hoids a Doctor. 'i
.of Laws degre,~fr;om ,1 •IJ'niv6rsld de;: iiriaJ He is still very

.-·xc ,•- .".'-'s'""'; \ " - ' : ,,. '- ·• ,' '
active in his ch~en ;;:profeesiol) 'a~. a ma9i~1ti-ate in the,, French

• • ,-;,::; •o "i ,I ' •. ''
,· . ,"
"
. '
.
Supreme court
'' ' .
of '~peal.,'
"
all app#rttlnel'st ~e
. ' "<, . .' '·,,, i: 'C,,' ! ' ':· '
:CEICeiv~a in December
.
1969. · He is an
'.. ·,
ot'f'$9er in the F~ench i..g:ton of Honour, and
.~ ~-. \~·' 1' • ' : • • ;' • , ·,, •
. : . . • : ·•.: ·,: : \ · • ·1i ~ • ·. •- , • ~ I . ,: , . .

bolus the, Mili\t~ Cross. 'Vith a. specia3:' citation for dis-
tinguished se~ice
\ • •
to his COW.lti'y'in
•
·~e Second World War,
·;~, I
. as well as 'the •croi1c',:d8s services m#;ita:i.i'es volontai~sA.

'• . ~ .
Althpugh·'iaw was"Coester's. cJ\dSen. profe~sion, he seems

· to have fO\Uld dple ti~ to pursue a hobby:;career
. ,.:, . ',
··1:n. the
,,
;
arts • . '· . '
he has dabbled in "paihting: as·. well, .~ '

to the : exten~ of even
,'
exhibiting; up "l$lil 1939, as .cl:, member :'OfC:the Salon.:· d ~ automne

··at Lyon.
I 3
a violinist, one of his brothers a violist and another a cel-

list), it was only natural that Edouard Coester should study
music. He began studying piano at age 5. Although he has
never played publicly, he still occasionally will play for
intimate gatherings of friends, either as a soloist or as
a member of a chamber ensemble.
Coester has never had any formal training in theory
an d compos 1. t '1 on • 4 He is a self-taught hannonist who has
dedicated himself since 1930 to researching all of the pos-
sible elements that could constitute a scientific theory of,
music. This was the result of his intense dissatisfaction
with the "unfounded affirmations and unexplained imperatives"
of standard treatises on harmony.
His compositions were also those of an autodidact.
After having composed miscellaneous pieces for piano, a viola
sonata and a string quartet, 5 and after having begun several
other works, he abandoned composition in order to concentrate
4
Although the Dedication of Mort ou transfigurations
de !'Harmonie (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1962,
p. V) might lead one to believe that Cost~re studied harmony
with Andr~ Joli vet and Olivier Messiaen ("... ~ qui je dois
de mieux connaitre l 'harmonie modale ,qu 'ils ont magnifil!e; ")
or composition with Pierre Boulez, among others, (" ••• a qui
je dois de mieux connaitre les techniques s~rielles qu' il a
parfaites; ") , the author has indicated that these dedicatees
are simply close friends of his, and that what he has. learned
from them derives f~om the ensemble of his conversations and
discussions with them, as well as from a careful study of
their works.
5
t asked Mr. Coaster ~o comment on the style of these
compositions and he replied: " ••• They were likened in some
respects to the works of Bartok or Prokoviev with whose styles
I was not familiar at the time. I abandoned it [ the style]
very quickly once I became aware of their too neo-classical
style ••• ".
4
on solving the mysteries contained in the musical creations

of his contemporaries.
In 1958 Edmond Costere was awarded a
doctorate (docteur
es lcttres) in music by l'Universite de Paris 6 for his thesis
"Essai d'une discipline generale des harmonies musicales".
In the fall of 1970, he was appointed to the Faculty of Let-
lers at Vincennes (a branch of l'Universit~ de Paris) where
he gives a course entitled "Systemes et langages en mati~re
musicale" (The Systems and Languages of Music).
The following is a list of Edmond Costere's publi-
cations, all of which re-present, re-_formulate or expand the
notions contained in his first publication Lois et styles ... ,
the basis of this dissertation.
BOOKS
Lois et styles des harmonies musicales. Paris: Presses uni-

- - - vers1taires de France, 1954.
Mort ou transfi<J:urations ~ !'Harmonie. Paris: Presses uni-
versitaires de France, 1962.
ARTICLES
6 French universities award three distinct types of doc-

torate: the doctorat de troisieme cycle which requires a small
arnount of course work beyond the Master's degree or its equiva-
lcn't, but no thesis, and therefore corresponds to the D.A.
degree o red by some American institutions; the doctorat
d'universite which requires simply a thesis, the significance
and scope of which will vary enormously depending on the ad-
visor (and there is 'only one), but no course work, and there-
fore corresponds in many instances to little more than an honor-
ary doctorate (although some doctorats d'universit~ have the
weight of a bonafide Ph.D. if 1the advisor has been demanding
enough)~ the doctorat d'~tatfahich requires a considerable
amount of course work asweTl as a substantial thesis and
therefore corresponds to a strong American Ph.D.
5
"Substance de la composition musicale et mutations harmoniques,

rythmiques et m~lodiques," Polyphonie IX-X (1954).
Paris: Richard Masse.
"Entre l'harmonie. classique et les harmonies contemporaines
y a-t-il rupture ou continuit€?" Revue de musicologie
(July, 1954) •
"Peut-on fonder sur la r€sonnance une discipline g€n€rale des
harmonies musicales?" Revue de musicologie (July, 1958).
"L'attraction comme €1€ment de formation des €chelles ext€-
rieures I la r€sonnance," La r€sonnance dans les €-
chelles musicales (1963). Paris: Editions du Centre
national de la recherche scientifique •
.
"Fondements de la musique d'Ernest Ansermet," Revue musicale
suisse no. 41 (1963).
"Forces vives de la musique, aujourd'hui," Revue d'esth€tique
(July, 1968) •
IN PREPARATION
"L'homme multidimensionnel ou les pr€monitions de l'Art."
THESIS
"Essai d'une discipline g€n€rale des harmonies musicales."
Unpublished Doctorat d'Universit€ thesis, Facult€
des Lettres, Universit€ de Paris, 1958 (in.manu-
script in the Facult€ library).
CHAPTER I
A RESUME
A. THE BASIS OF ALL HARMONY
1. Fundamental Notions
In the face of the vast divergence of harmonic tech-
niques that exist in the music of different artistic periods,
the musician is almost obliged to formulate as many approaches
to analysis as there are techniques; one technique will be
ideal for the music of a certain period, but ineffective when
applied to the music of an earlier or later period; another
technique will be ideal for a later period, but irrelevant
when applied to an earlier period.
The goal of Lois et styles des harmonies musicales
is to formulate a uniform theory of music which will be
equally applicable to all harmonic styles, based on certain
basic and irrefutable facts and, in the measure possible,
free of the somewhat detrimental effects of subjectivity.
The method in question is founded on the affinity that tones
seem to exercise on one another as a result of their very
being, and as a result of natural, physical, and acoustical
laws.
The harmonic series is very carefully and very clearly
presented in its most traditional context, with strong emphasis
6
7
on the fact that it is the sole natural law that exists in the
entire realm of sound1 all conclusions and consequences are
allegedly to be drawn from this unique law.
A discussion of the phenomenon of hearing reveals that
for physiological reasons, the comma of Aristoxenus will be
retained as the standard of the limit at which the human ear
ceases to perceive distinctly the two components of narrow
intervals. Consequently, Costlre resolves to avoid objective
or practical use of this interval in his subsequent discussions
of projections, scales, chords, etc., although he does admit
td its fluctuating degree of precision, depending on several
factors (intensity at the source, sensitivity of the listener,
etc.) •
In the continuing study of the harmonic series, the
author presents the theory of the octave equivalence of pitches:
c 1 and c 3 , for instance, are held to be one and the same note.
Accepting this principle all01!.fs all of the problems in the
gamut of audible sounds to be·concentrated into a single
octave.
The objective exposition of the harmonic series con-
cludes with its rejection as an unsatisfactory vehicle for
' \
musical composition, owing to its tona1 uniformity, discon-
, tinuity, and uninvertibility.
Temperament, on the other hand, as an equalizer of con-
junct intervals, is adopted as a necessity of composition.
And, so that. the harmonic series need not be discarded en-
tirely, it may be incorporated into a projection of equal,
8
h•mpered unit-intervals, as long as all of the tones of the
projection approximate the tones of the series within the

mar9 in of tolerance of \the comma. This somewhat "subjective"
granting of equivalence to tones only approximating one
another is based on the physiological imprecisions inherent
in the hearing phenomenon.
Harmonic series, equality of octaves, temperament,
and comma are among the most basic and primordial elements
of all harmonic systems.
2. The "Harmonic" Scale

l'
The harmonic scale, by definition, is that eight-tone

scale which exists in the fourth,octave of the harmonic series,
I
but isolated from it; it contains the eighth to the sixteentjl

I
partials, and roughly approx\iates the "normal" scales. It

/
is the only scale that is provided by nature.

In order to detex;mine the properties and characteristics
of the harmonic scale, it is inserted into a quarter-tone pro-
jection (that projection containing twenty-four equal ·intervals
per octave), since this is the only projection that can incor-
porate the scale within the margin of tolerance agreed upon
above--the comrna--if projections of very narrow intervals are
ignored.
This scale is almost perfect since it represents a
combination of natural law, the barely-altered harmonic series,
and a transposable and invertible tempered projection, the
quarter-tone projection. And, if tonality is the whole of
melodic and harmonic phenomena concurring to prolong and mag-
9
nify a tone in an organized entity, this scale is tonal to

the utmost degree, since it is based firmly on the tone that
is its germinal element and its center of attraction.
The harmonic series itself could constitute the es-
sence of tonality (up to and including the scale of the fourth
octave) if it did not, at the same time, contain the basic
principle of the disintegration of tonality (beyond the fourth
octave, for reasons that will be made clear later on).
3. Cardinal Relatio.nships
The very basis of the immanent attractions that con-
dition dynamism in sound, or in other words, the curre.nts of
attractive force that cause certain tones to converge oncer-
tain others can be related to one of the most general notions
in all of knowledge: the law of uQi versal attraction, the
shortest distance between two points.
In music this distance is the interval that separates
two points or tones, and must be measured according to two
, criteria: the shortest distance in terms of the harmonic
series, and the .shor£est distance in ~erms of a tempered
chromatic projection.
Since the,two pitches comprising the octave are held
to·be identical, the shortest distance between the fundamental
and next different pitch in the series is the fifth (twelfth
minus one octave) or its inversion the fourth. In a tempered
projection of conjunct intervals, the shortest distance bet-
ween one pitch and another is represented by the unit-interval
which forms the basis of the projection.
10
The following law of harmony results: MUTUAL 'RELATION-

SHIPS OF PRIMARY AFFINITY EXIST ON ONE HAND BETWEEN TWO TONES
A FOURTH OR A FIFTH APART, AND ON THE OTHER, BETWEEN TWO TONES
SEPARATED BY THE UNIT-INTERVAL OF THE ADOPTED PROJECTION.
_The four notes thus related to a given pitch are
called its cardinal tones; cardinal attractions are the im-
manent attractions by which the cardinal tones are linked to
the primary tone. Any tone in any projection has four lines
,
of cardinal force revolving around it.

For example, the cardinal tones of c in the half-tone
projection would be: f, b, d-flat and i· The cardinal tones
of din the quarter-tone projection would be: g, d-half-flat,
d-half-sharp and!·
Two or more tones forming an entity can be analyzed
in the same way: it is simply a matter of determining the
cardinal tones of each of the constituent tones of the entity.
Examining the entity£ e in the half-tone projection, we
observe that the following pitches are affected by the entity's
very existence: f, b, £, d-flat and 2, because of£, and!,
d-sharp, ~, f, and b because of e. These tones are given
coefficients re·presenting their cardinal relationship with
the entity in question: f has a coefficient of 2 (cited once
as a cardinal tone of c and once as a cardinal tone of!); b,
a coefficient of 2 (cited once as a cardinal tone of c and
once as a cardinal tone of !b c, a coe~ficient of 1 (cited
once as a component of the entity); d-flat, a coefficient of
. 1 (cited once as a cardinal tone of £); 2,, a coefficient of
11
1 (cited once as a cardinal tone of £)1 !, a coefficient of
1 (cited once as a cardinal tone of !)1 d-sharp, a coefficient

of 1 (cited once as a cardinal tone of e); and!, a coef-
ficient of 1 {cited once as a component of the entity); all
:-
the other tones in the projection have a c'oefficient of O (zero)
since they bear no cardinal relationship to either core.
Ex. 1. The cardinal table 1 of the entity£ e:
,1µJ.,JJJ~J@Ji4J
1 c1 o 1> 1 ci o 1 o 1 o i>
It represents '-'the cardinal relationships of each of
the twelve half-steps of the half-tone projection (always
beginning on c) with the entity in question. The numbers
standing freely {outside parentheses) represent the component
pitches of the entity, the numbers in parentheses represent
" . \
the tones foreign to the entity, and the underlined numbers

represent the tones of highest cardinal density.
The following six facts are revealed by the cardinal
table of any entity:
(1) the tempere~ projection that has been adopted, by
the total nwnoer of integers used;
(2) the number.of component tones in the entity, by
the niim):>er of integers standingfreely;
(3) the size ,of the interva): ~!,) seearatin2 the compo-
nents, by"the number pf integers appearing between
each component integer;
1subsequently renamed table of attractive potential

in Mort ou transfigurations de l 'Harmon·ie and the article
"PotentieI" in the FasquelleEncyc!oe&die de la Musique,
both by E. Costlre.
12
. .
(4) · the number _g! c•rdinal relationships existing
· w!tbin the. enti~~ !&elf, by. the sum of the
free-standing In egers 1 · ·· , .
(5) the numper of relationships existing outside

the entity, Dy the sum ol the integers ln ·
parentheses; and · · / .
the locatiQII. of the Jne(s) Of hirest cardi-
nal attracE1eif; compbnent-orfore gn, by the·
underline<! !nterger(s). ·· · · ·
The cardinal table of an entity Will always coma'rise
I
I
a total number of relationships eq:ual t~ five times the/"number
!
of component
,
tones, since each·component
. . .
accounts for five
I
I
!
units· .of cardinal reiationship~
·.Also,.
' . . any cardinal'
.
ta})ie that·
. '
is. prepared in this ' . ,,
- _manner _will .be eqqally· valid,·_ within •1:he same projection, _for. .
any other e11tit.Y;· comprisin_g the same intenallic st~cture •.
. For instance, -f::be cardinal table of f !,·, or· !...;;flat i. ,,111· be
- e,
' I ' , ,' '
the same as the cardinal- ·table.-·of c· .... although' the 'numbers ·

...•, . '
-. wi'i~ be dis~laced in ran~ ··by one, according_ .to .the number of

, , . •1 •· f ·, , • , , \1. ,• <
half-to~es between . the .. c'or;z:espond:ing _;1:ones· of'. ,.tl'i'~ ~·t'Wd entities~ -·

For example, the· cardinai
' ' '
table --~f .C .e..... ·ls:::; . .. ·,,' . .
- . 'I . I
· 1 (l .
•• , •
'o':
', •'
1) l ·. {i . 0 · ,1 ·o · 1 0:' 2 )' .
'. , >•~ • •• - 1· ,
1
, 1, : . I,,'
(0 1 0 l 0
,since £"'."sharp is six half..:iateps ·away from £,. · just· . as -a-sharp . ,
is six half-steps away-· from e· •. • ·

• . • 1 - :
1,''
The cardinal tables. of more complex en·:tities

. '
.can. be ' . ' ' , , , ' .
·established by means of a 1double::..antz;y· process; .. · the chromatic . • •. • I • . •
tories of the. tempered-

·.
pJ;Ojection
.
~e laid
'
'9ut; horizontally , . , . ' ' '
and the component tones Qf the' entitY ''arE{a.rrarig~d,'~e:i:-tidally 1

13
opposite each component tone is inscribed its affinities; the

sum of the integers in the vertical columns indicates the
total number of cardinal relationships that exist between
this tone and the entity being examined.
Ex. 2. .~e cardinsl tabie of the diminished-seventh chord
£ e g: b :
1 pf j ~ J J ,J J p ~ #? ~
b
'
b • • • • • •• • • • • • •
i. .......•.•.•.
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
e ••• ••••• ••• • • 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
i
£ ••••••••••••• 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
<.~.> 1 (2 ,!) 1 (,! 2) 1 (2 2) 1 (,!)
The cardinal density of a pitch represents the number

of cardinal relationships that exist between it and the com-
ponents of the entity in ~uestion; the cardinal density of an
entity is equal to the sum of the densities of each of its
components, and represents the total number of cardinal relation-
ships that exist among the tones of the entity. For instance,
the cardinal density of the diminished-seventh chord is 4 (1 +
1 + 1 + 1); the cardinal density of the foreign tone £-sharp

is 2; and the cardinal density of the component tone e is 1.
An entity possesses cardinal stability if its density
is high in relation to the twelve degrees of the half-tone
projection; it possesses cardinal instability if its density
is low in relation to these same twelve degrees. The cardinal
stability or instabillty of an entity can be assessed by
comparing the cardinal density of the entity itself with that
14
of the same number of d~nsest foreign tones, or, if the entity

comprises more than six tones, by comparing the density of the
foreign tones with that of the same number of least dense
constituent tones. According to this formula, both entities
that we examined thus far(£ !, and £-sharp! i b-flat)
are cardinally unstable since their densities are surpassed
by the densities of the same number of densest foreign tones.
So far it seems that the stability and the dynamism

of a given entity depend entirely on the incidence of its
cardinal forces, but they also depend on the projection that
has been adopted. Cardinal impetus is lost in projections
that do not contain a fifth within the margin of tolerance
provided by the comma (the projection containing eleven equal
intervals per octave, for example)1 and it is weakened as
projections are based on narrower unit-intervals, since the
more degrees there are per octave, the more tones indifferent
to the entity there will be, causing a d~crease in the densi-
ties of both component and foreign tones.
In other words, when an entity is placed in a tempered
projection of intervals that are too narrow, its attractive
potential is weakened and immobilized, and its dynamism (pro-
pensity to resolve) disappears as a result of the weakening
of its externally-oriented forces,· the spreading out of
internally-oriented cardinal currents, and the increasing
insensitivity of foreign tones. In such cases the notions of
stability and dynamism lose the efficacity of their former
opposition and tend to become one single notion, namely,
15
inertia.
4. The Major Triad

The harmonic scale shows itself to be neither stable
nor particularly tonal (since the tones of this scale, bor-
rowed from the harmonic series on£, tend to gravitate toward
a transposition down a fifth) when considered in the quarter-
tone projection. Even when assessed in terms of its natural
QOntext within the harmonic series (the fourth octave of the
series compared to the fifth), this same scale manifests a
basic cardinal instability.
However, this instability is not cha~acteristic of
the entire series. An examination of the first eight dif-
ferent pitches of the series, followed by an examination of
the first seven, then the first six, etc., on down to the
first three different pitches, the latter aggregation consti-
tuting the major triad, reveals that the harmonic series is
initially tonal and stable, and that it progressively loses
contact with the fundamental tone as m~e and more new tones
are introduced.~ Up to the fifth harmonic, the stability of
the series is absolute,· but, with the appearance of the
seventh harmonic, instability sets in, seeming to refract
the cardinal rays tnat heretofore had focused very sharply
on the maj,qr triad erected on the fundamental. This seventh
harmonic, when added to the major triad, forms an harmonic
seventh chord (which is closely related to the traditional
"dominant seventh chord") which seems to disintegrate the
tonality of the major triad, in favour of the tonality of
16
that triad whose root lies a fifth below the root of the
initial triad.
Inasmuch as the major triad erected on the fundamental
is endowed with a functional stability superior to that of
all the fundamental's harmonics, as well .as with a position
'·
of primordial importance in the series, it is well-equipped

to act as the essent~al basis of any strictly tonal system.
The major triad is a natural extension of its root, and
constitutes the perfe'ct expression of that tone's tonality.
But, what of the minor triad? From where does it
originate?
In music there exist two types of symmetry:
horizontal symmetry, in which tones and their "height• are
set against one another in terms of interval inversion, and
vertical symmetry, which is expressed in terms of recurrence
when stacks of intervals are set against one another, and
retrogradation when rhythmi~ pattems are set against one
another. However, only the former need concern us here.
The harmonic series proved to be rebellious to the
notion of symmetry, owing to the decreasing size of its con-
stituent intervals, and their incornrnensurability within the
octave. It became more and more obvious, however, that equal-
isation of intervals was necessary, and temperament satisfied
this requirement.
Now, if the notion of horizontal symmetry is applied
to the harmonic scale, a scale containing the same intervals,
but projected downward, results. But is there any acoustical
17
justification for the dc,wnward projection of the harmonic

series itself, producing an "undertone" series?
Some theorists and performers have attested to its
existence, others simply deny it. Cost~re chooses not to
enter into that particular controversy. He does, however,
accept a downward projection of the series, based on the
similarity of the arithmetic progressions measuring fre-
quencies and string lengths: frequency-• lF, 2F, 3F, etc.,
string lengths= lL, l/2L, l/3L, etc. If the progressions
'
are retained, and only the terms of reference are interchanged,
we arrive at a "minor 0 or downward projection of the series:
frequency= lF, l/2F, l/3F, etc., string lengths• lL, 2L, 3L,
etc. This exchange provides a quasi-natural undertone series
which is symmetrical, note for note, to the ascending series;
the former inherits all of the characteristics and properties
of the latter, but inverted~
Consequently, the minor triad formed of the first,
third and fifth scale degrees of the inverted harmonic scale
assumes a position of prime importance, alongside its major
counterpart. Henceforth, the upward, or natural projection
of the harmonic series, and the perfect triad 2 and harmonic
scale derived therefrom shall be referred to as major; the
downward, or inverted projection of the series, as well as the
perfect triag and harmonic scale derived therefrom shall be
2After the French system of musical terminology, a

triad containing a perfect fifth as opposed to a diminished
or augmented fifth. In other words, it is a generic term
which encompasses triads of both major and minor gender.
18
referred to as minor.
This application of the law of symmetry to the natural
series can be extended to include all entities of sound:
. \
every entity has one "relative" entity, discounting transpo-

sitions, that contains the same intervals, but ~heir order is
inverted. We note, however, that certain complexes are i-
dentical to their inversions, owing to the presence of an axis
of symmetry within the complex to be inverted: these are
sY!M:11etrical entities: all others are asymmetrical. The major
seventh chord, for example, is symmetrical to itself, since
its inversion contains the same projection of intervals: major
third - minor third - major third, whether read upward or
downward, or from left to right or right to left. The major-
minor seventh chord, on the other hand, is asymmetrical: major
third - minor third - minor third which, when inverted,
produces the half-diminished seventh chord: minor third -
minor third - major third.
The cardinai table of a symmetrical entity is also
symmetrical. Further, the cardinal tables of two related

entities are symmetrical to one another. In sum, any property
or characteristic of one entity will be found, identical in
value but inverted, in its relative, symmetrical entity.
We emphasize the fact that minor is a symmetrical
inversion of major, and not merely an alteration of it, as
traditional usage seems to contend. For this reason, tradi-
tional terminology is abandoned in favour of one that-will
recall the subservience of minor to the law of symmetry: in
Cosd!re 's theory, the· ~ of an inverted minor ·triad is the
19 ..
highest-sounding tone, the traditional fifth; the fifth, the

lowest-sounding tone, the traditional root; by the same token,
an inverted minor scale will very often be spelled from high
to low, or from the tonic note downward, to underline the sym-
metry of major and minor.
MAJOR is identified with the upward projection of the
natural harmonic series, MINOR, with its downward, inverted
projection. The antimony of major and minor genders that is
expressed in traditional music in terms of the expressive or
symbolic values attributed to them is in reality based on
their symmetrical, or directional opposition.
6. Tempered Projections
The tempered projections that lend themselves most
propitiously ·to harmony are those that are capable of incor-
porating the perfect triad, within the margin of tolerance
provided by the comma.
If we discount projections of very _ narrow intervals,
in order to avert inertia, we discover that, between the
limits represented by .the half-tone (12 steps per octave) and
quarter-tone (24 steps per octave) projections, there are
six projections that contain the perfeqt triad: those. \pro-
jections containing 12, 15, 19, 21, 22, and 24 equal unit-
intervals per octave. Here also we observe a progressive
atrophy of the intensity and the number of cardinal relation-
ships, since, as mentioned earlier, the more degrees there
are per octave, the weaker the force of cardinal attraction
will be, owing to the dissipation of these forces over an
20
increasing number of tones. Such is the law of inertia in

projections.
In evaluating all tempered projections, from those
with the lowest, to those with the highest number of steps
per octave, we discover that the half-tone projection is the
fulcrum between the tonal dearth of the former, and the pro-
gressive cardinal degeneration of the latter. The perfect
triad appears for the first time in this projection, and it
is here that the contrast between stability and dynamism is
strongest, or most pronounced. Consequently, Cost~re confines
his operations to this projection, since this study does deal
primarily with harmony and it is here that its characteristics
are most manifest. Nevertheless, there are discussions, later
on, about the conditions under which narrower projections will
be most effective.
Thus far, it appears that the practices of our fore-
fathers concur with the laws of harmony that have been expounded:.
THE LAW OF THE CARDINAL GRAVITATION OF TONES;
THE LAW OF THE INSTABILITY OF THE HARMONIC SERIES;
THE LAW OF THE TONAL STABILITY OF THE PERFECT TRIAD;
THE LAW OF SYMMETRICAL AGREEMENT;
THE LAW OF INERTIA IN PROJECTIONS.
The purpose has been to justify these principles by
applying them to traditional music. However, we shall see
that they are also capable of universal application, even to
music outside the half-tone projection, and music devoid of
the perfect triad. These principles, in the pages that fol-
21
low, will supplant traditional precepts of diatonicism,

relegating them to the rank of simple contingencies of the
law of the cardinal gravitation of tones.
B. SOUND-ENTITIES
1. Stability and Dynamism

Before considering groups of tones in a concrete
musical context, we shall study them in a purely isolated
state, in their most abstract context as sound-entities. In
their abstraction, these entities are free of any tonal, melo-
dic, or rhythmic influences. The tones are condensed into
one octave, and studied as a successions of intervals, as
represented b y ~ -
A set is capable of three distinct types of stability
or instability (dynamism):· cardinal (based on its relation-
ship to another entity), tonal (based on its relationship to
the 24 perfect triads in the half-tone projection), and trans-
positional (based on its relationship to its own transpositions).
And so, it is not enough to say that an entity is stable or
unstable; t h e ~ or nature of the stability or instability
must also be specified.
An ~ntity is cardinally stable when the sum of the
densities of its components is equal to, or surpasses the sum
of the densities of the same number of densest foreign tones; 3
3 In the case of an entity containing more than six tones,

the sum of the densities of all the foreign tones compared to
the sum of the densities of the same number of least dense
constituent tones will determine the cardinal stability or
instability of the entity.
22
23
in this case, the center 2.!, cardinal gravity lies within the
entity itself. It is cardinaliy unstable when the sum of the
densities of its components is exceeded by the sum of the
densities of the same number of foreign tones; in this case,
the cen~er of cardinal gravity lies outside the entity.
For example, the fifth c ~ is cardinally stable,
since the sum of the densities of its components surpasses the
sum of d~ densities of the same number of densest foreign
tones (4 as opposed to 2):
Ex. 3. Cardinal table of c ~:
'JµJiJJ JpJ,JJjJJ
2 c1 1 o o 1 1> l c1 o o 1>
On the other hand, the major third c e is cardinally unstable:

Ex. 4. Cardinal table of c · e:
' j il J f J J jWJ i J ~ J
l (1 0 1) 1, (l O 1 0 l O 1)
Anentity is tonally stable if the perfect triad of

highest cardinal density in its table of tonal gravity 4 is
composed of members of the entity1 in this case, the center
of tonal 9ravity lies within th,e entity itself. It is tonally
4In the table of tonal gravity of an entity there are

two rows of numbers1 in the first row the number under each
tone is the index of the density of the ma~r triad of which
that tone is the root; in the second row, e number under
each tone is an index of the density of the inverted Sinor
triad of which it is the root. This table and the ,ta e of
cardinal gravity combine to constitute the cardinal chart of
an entity.
24 ..
unstable if the perfect triad of highest cardinal density

contains at least one tone which is foreign to the entity;
in this case, the center of tonal gravity lies outside the
entity.
.
For example, the major third c - -e is obviously tonally
unstable since it does not contain enough tones to even con-
stitute a perfect triad.
Ex. 5. Cardinal chart of c e:
~
1µJ ~ J u iJ ~ w~ ~
Cardinal table:
Major:
'
Table of tonal gravity:
1 (1
(3 3
0
0
1) 1 (2
2 3 4
0
1
1
2
0
2
1
3
0
2
1)
2)
Inv. minor: (3 2 1 2 3 3 1 3 2 3 1 3)
On the other hand, the diatonic major scale is tonally stable

since the perfect triads of highest cardinal density all
comprise constituent tones of the scale (note also this enti-
ty's cardinal stability).
Ex. 6. Cardinal chart of c d e f ~ a b:
i1pJ,.JJ J~J,JJ~J
Cardinal .table: ! (2) 3 (2) 4 3 (3) ,3 (2) 3 (3) 3 ''

Major: 11 ( 7 9 8 9) 10 ( 8) 9 ( 8 9 9 8)
Inv. minor: (9 8 9 7)11 (8 9 9 8) 9 (8)10
An entity is transpositionally stable (or non-trans-

posing) if the sum of the densities of its constituent tones
is equal to, or surpasses the sum of the densities of its
25
transpositions to each of its other eleven degrees in the

half-tone projection (all of the densities are derived from
the cardinal table of the original entity); in this case,
the center of transpositional gravity lies within the entity
itself •. It is transpositionally u~stable (transposing) if
the sum of the densities of one or more of its transpositions
exceeds the sum of the densities of its own components.
The preparation and explanation of tables of trans-
positional gravity will be dealt with in more detail when
scales are classified according to this particular center of
gravity. For the time being, suffice it to point out that
the major third£ ~ is transpositionally unstable (transposing),
since db f and f a both surpass it in cardinal density (ac-
cording to the cardinal chart of c ~). On the other hand,
the fifth£ ~ is transpositionally stable (non-transposing)
since its own density exceeds that of any of its own trans-
positions (again, within its own cardinal table).
certain entities, such as the maJjor triad c e ~, are
if
stable in all respects, as an examination of its cardinal chart a
will show:
Ex. 7. Cardinal chart of c e ~:
~
Jµ J p J J iJ ~ ~ ~ jJ
Cardinal table:
' !
Table of tonal gravitya
(1 1 1) 1 ·(! 1) 2 (1
s
1 0 2)
.
Major:
-(!
5 (4 3 3 4 5 2
s
4 3 3 4)
Inv. minor.- 3 3 4 4 3 4 3 4 2 !>
26
Other entities, such as the diminished seventh chord

c1 e i bb, are unstable in all respects.
Ex. 8. Cardinal chart of c 1 ~ i bb:
'JpJ~J JfJ,JJi4J
Cardinal table: (~) 1 (2 2) 1 (2 2) 1 (2 · 2) 1 (2)

Major: (4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 ~)
Inv. minor: (5 4 6 5 4 6 5 4 6 5 4 6)
And still other entities are capable of a mixture of

stability and instability. The entity 9 ci f
- -fi , for
example, is cardinally and transpositionally stable, but
tonally unstable.
Ex. 9. Cardinal chart of c c1 f ft:
l1pJpJ □ fJf JiJ J

Cardinal table: 3 3 (1 0 1) 3 3 (2 1 0 1 2)
Major: (6 7 4 3 4 6 7 5 4 4 5 5)
Inv. minor: (7 6 4 3 4 7 6 5 5 4 4 5)
And, the entity C c• d di f

i a a* is cardinally and
tonally stable, but transpositionally unstable (transposing
up to G or down to F, each having a cardinal density of 29 as
opposed to the entity's own density of 28).
Ex. 9. Cardinal chart of £ £.# d d# ! i a a#:
'flµJ~J JPJiJJ@J
Cardinal tabla: 4 3 5 3 (3) 3 (3) 3 (4) 3 4 (2)
'
27

Major: (11 10 11)10 (9)10(10 10 11 10)12 (8)
Inv. minor: (11 9)12 (9 10)10(10)10(10)11(10 9)
In sum, then, once the various centers of gravity
have been determined, our knowledge of the entity is greatly
increased.
2. Characteristics of Major and Minor Scales

Despite its dynamism and its near-perfect expression
of major gender, the harmonic scale must be put aside since
it is incapable of being incorporated into the half-tone
projection. We must try to find two scales, inversions of
one another, that can act as the prototypes of major and minor
in the half-tone projection.
We begin by adopting all the tones in the harmonic
, scale that can be inserted into the half-tone projection. In
C major, these tones are: c. d, e, i, and b: in C minor,
they are: c, bb·, ! b , f, and db • These five-tone sets typify
the major and minor genders in the half-,-tone projection. Now,
in order to expand these scales, we selec.t the densest tones
from the cardinal table of the harmonic scale in the quarter-
tone projection that can be inserted .into the half-tone pro-
jection. These tones are: ! for the major scale, and !-flat
for the inverted minor. We now have at our disposal two six-
tone scales, prototypes of major and minor: c d e i a b
and c bb !b ! !b <l..b• We note· that, except for their tonic,
these two scales have no common tones, and also, that they
employ all the tones in the half-tone projection except £_-sharp.
.,
28
This tone, then, is added' to each of the six-tone prototypes.

to provide us with the most characteristic expressions of
major and minor seven-tone scales, in the half-tone projection:
major: c d ~ ft .[ !_ bi minor: £ bb ab fi f eb db.
Transposed to white-notes, they represent the most major (on F)
and the most minor (on B) of all the ancient modes.
Ex. 10. Cardinal chart of the F major-prototype scale:
Cardinal table: 3 (3) 3 (2) 3 (3) 3 4 (2) 3 (2) 4

Major: 10 (8) 9 (8 9 9 8)11 (7 9 8 9)
Inv. minor: (8 9 9 8) 9 (8) 10 (9 8 9 7) 11
The cardinal chart of the F major-prototype scale shows
it to be cardinally stable. Also, though f ! c and~ .[ b
are the most major and most minor constituent perfect triads,
they are not the most cardinal: they are exceeded by c e .[
and its inversion! £ ~- Consequently, this scale and its
inverted minor are given their strongest tonal expression when
c and e are respectively selected as tonics: it is on these
tonics that the seven-tone major and minor prototypes, in the
white-note set, are tonally stable. The cardinal chart also
reveals that the major-prototype on F tends toward its trans-
position u~ a fifth to c, and that the minor-prototype tends
'toward its transposition down a fifth to E. Consequently,
wh~n c and~ are selected as tonics, these scales will·not
only be tonally stable, but transpositionally stable as well.
In sum, the diatonic major scale of c, and its symmetrically
29
inverted ~inor are perfectly stable in all respects.
3. The Diatonic Scale

The interchangable use of the terms "mode" and "gender"
that followed the progressive/disappearance of all the modes
of the white-note set other 1than those on C and A make certain
definitions necessary here, in order to eradicate any and all
confusion.
Projection: the general frrutework of a musical
system based on a chromatic succession of equal, teint>ered
intervals; hence, the half-tone projection, the quarter-tone
projection, etc.
Set: the abstract representation (according to
conventions· that will be established presently 5 ) as a suc-
cession of intervals, usually within an octave. All of the
component intervals are considered equal, and the set may begin
with any one of these. The white-note set, for example, ccµ1
be represented abstractly as the following succession of
intervals: tone, tone, semitone, tone, tone, eone.
Mode: the succession of intervals represented by
the set beginning on a specific component, selected as tonic.
For example, a mode of the diatonic set referred to above
would be represented by the succession of intervals typical
of any of its seven modes: tone, semitone, tone, tone, tone,
semitone, tone (Dorian), tone, .tone, semitone, tone, tone,
semitone, tone (Mixolydian), etc.
5 cf. section c., paragraph 1 of the present chapter,

page 34 ff.
30
Scale: the concrete representation of a mode as a

succession of actual pitches. For example, the Dorian mode
on F:
Ex. 11.
ba__e_ _
o ....
Q
It is Costere 's contention that "major" and "minor"

achieved supremacy at the expense of the other modes as a
result of a sub-conscious realization of the cardinal primacy
of these two modes. It is inadmissible to justify the major
scale on the basis of the circle of fifths1 the deficiencies
of this particular genesis have already been denounced by
many theorists.
Careful analysis of the mode of C of the diatonic set
(or its symmetrical inversion) reveals it to be the most
cardinally, tonally, and transpositionally stable of all the
modes of this set.
Furthermore, cardinal law not only justifies the
very gen~sis of the diatonic set, it justifies the majority
of the academic decrees connected to it. For example, the
dominant seventh chord of C major,~ b d f, contains three
of the most cardinal tones of the tonic triad c e ~: ~, b,
and f. Interestingly enough, traditional theorists allow
only the d, the only tone that is not one of the most cardinal
tones of c e ~, to be dropped from this chord.
Also, the four most cardinal tones of the tonic triad
c e g, that is£, f, ~, and b, are all members of the dom.i-
31
nant eleventh chord, whose cadential power is widely recog-

nized.
Further, standard treatises assign a particularly
important role to b, that of leading-tone, and impose on it
an obligatory resolution to£• It so happens that bis one
of the four tones of highest cardinal density in relation to
c ~ ~' and its resolution to£ is based on the cardinal af-
finity that it manifests for the nearest tone.
Again, not only is the tone that has no cardinal af-
finity whatsoever for the tonic triad foreign to the scale
(!!,-flat.in the case of C major), it is precisely the same
tone that, when added to the tonic triad, causes the disinte-
gration of the original tonality in favour of that of the
sub-dominant.
Traditional harmony is based on the tonic triad and
its most closely-related triads in terms of cardinal value,
the dominant and sub-dominant, along with the dominant-seventh
chord. And finally, traditional doctrine holds that the most
remote triad from a given tonic triad is that one which is a
tritqne away; the table of tonal gravity bears witness to this
remoteness.
,;
We note that the natural 1minor scale, the symmetrical·

inversion of the major diatoni~ scale, has the same properties
and characteristics as the major, but, contrary to common
usage, inverted in its relationship to'it. '\
The harmonic minor scale has the following character-

istics: it is symmetrical, tonal, and organically unstable,
1370803
32
with a propensity toward transpositions at the fifth, and a

tendency to transmute into inverted major.
Ex. 12. Cardinal chart of the harmonic minor scale:
Cardinal table: (3) 3 3 (3) 2 ( 3) 4 (2 3) 2

-4 3

Major: (!! 8 8 10 8 8 9) 9 10 (8 8 8)
Inv. minor: 9 (8 10) 8 (9 8 8) !!. (8 7 9 9)
The melodic minor scale .

1S symmetrical, tonal, organ-
icall:f: unstable, and cadential, with a tendency toward major
when it is centered on its most cardinal minor tonic, and
toward minor when it is centered on its most cardinal major
tonic.
Ex. 13. Cardinal chart of the melodic minor scale:
,JpJ,JJJj.JJ~J~J
Cardinal table: ! (2) ! 2 (!) 2 (3) 3 (3) 2 (!) 2
Major: (!!, 7 9 9 9) 8 (9) 9 (9 8 10, 7)
Inv. minor: (9 7 11 7 10 8 9) 9 (9) 8 (9 9)
6. Diatonicism ~ Polyvalence
Costire does not admit or maintain, as many tradition-
al theorists seem to, that there exists but one scale--the
diatonic scale--of which all others are but·alterations.
Each scale is an individual entity that generates laws that
are peculiar only to it.
33
Even though it may contain only a few pitches, any
entity is admissible, as is any projection. He considers
each entity as being unique, having its own set of character-
istics, based on the simple play of cardinal attractions. It
is not just an alteration of the diatonic scale: the academic
reflex to so consider it must be banished.
The diatonic (again, white-note) set is but one among
three hundred and fifty other sets that comprise the system
,
based on cardinal law. They constitute the catalogue into
which can be inserted the two thousand and forty-eight ways
or covering the distance of an octave in the half-tone pro-
jection.
I ,.
C. SCALES
1. The Theory of Scales

In the half-tone projection, there are close to 25,000
scalar possibilities. However, if we eliminate transpositions
and consider only different scales, this figure is reduced to
2,048. Now, if we eliminate modes and consider only different
---
sets, the number is further reduced to 351. In other words,
- ----- -
there exist 351 different sets, or ways of traversing an octave,
discounting the various modes of these sets, and the various
transpositions of these modes.
Since only a few of the 351 sets have names (diatonic
set, whole-tone set, pentatonic set, etc.), we shall refer to
sets by one of their ~ost obvious characteristics: their
numerical representation. However, in order to formulate a
numerical representation for each set, we must refer first of
all to 1:he graphic representation on which it is based.
A set can be represented graphically by a series of
12 rectangles (representing the 12 degrees in the half-tone
grojection). Light rectangles ("O" is used here for typo-
graphical rea~ons) represent constituent tones of the set,
dark rectangles ("X") represent the foreign tones. Graphic
representations always begin with the longest succession of
conjunct light rectangles, unless of course a particular mode
of the set were to be illustrated. In this case 13 rectangles
34
35
would be used, since the "tonic" rectangle would appear both

· at the beginning and at the end of the series. 6 For example,
the graphic representation of the diatonic set would be:
0 0 X 0 X 0 0 X 0 X 0 X1
its mode on F would be represented:

0 X 0 X 0 X 0 0 X 0 X 0 o.
The reEresentative number of tones of an entity
consists of a series of numbers, each of which refers to one
or more rectangles of the same colouration. In order to
facilitate its reading, the digits in this number are grouped
into pairs. The first number in each pair refers to component
tones, the second to foreign tones. Consequently, the represent-
ative number of tones of the diatonic set would be:
0 0 X O X O O X O X O X
2 1 1 1 2 1 1· 1 1 1, that is 21 11 21
11 11.
Just as in the graphic representation, the longest
succession of conjunct component tones initiates the numerical
representation. In the event that there may be two or more
identical successions, as in the diatonic set, the represent-
ative number of tones is always given its highest mathematical
expression as a whole number. Consequently, the diatonic set
would be represented as 21 11 21 11 11 and not as 21 11 11 21
11 because the former constitutes a higher number than the
6Although Costlre does not mention it, this also allows

the reader to realize that a mode, rather than a set, is being
represented since, the latter would contain only 12, and not
13 rectangles.
36
latter: 2,111,211,111 (two billion, one hundred and eleven

million, two hundred and eleven thousand, one hundred and
eleven) as opposed to 2,111,112,111 (two billion, one hundred
and eleven million, one hundred and twelve thousand, one
hundred and eleven).
When a particular mode of the set is to be represented,
one begins on the tonic and continues-upward until this tone
reappears. For example, the diatonic set in its mode on F
would have the following representative number of tones:·
11 11 11 21 11 2.
Finally, we observe that in the half-tone projection,
the sum of all the digits in the representative number will
always equal 12 (in other words the sum reveals the projection
being used), and that the sum of the digits of odd rank (first,
third, fifth, etc.) will reveal the number-of constituent tones
in the set.
2. Classification~ scales accordin9 to appearance

Two scales are comple~ntary i~, when added to_gether ,,
they employ all twelve tones in the half-tone projection,
without having a single tone in common. Further, two scales 7
that are complementary have the same characteristics: if one
is cardinally stable, for instance, the other will be also.
Revertible scales are six-tone scales (of which there
are 80) that are their own complementary scales. For example,
7 It is true that we are dealing here. with sets, and

not scales as such. However we are simply following the lead
of the author who opts for the usage of the term scale through-
out his discussion of the classification of sets.
37
the complementary scale of the .symmetrical whole-tone set is

I
the same set transposed a trjone; the complementary scale of
the asymmetrical set 32 13 21 is the same set, also transposed
a tritone.
Two complementary six-tone~ are revertible on~
another when they are symmetrical inversions of one another.
For example, the complimentary set of the set 31 13 11 11 is
Jl 11 13 11, its own symmetrical inversion.
The cardinal charts of revertible scales, like the
cardinal charts of other complementary scales, are comple-
J
mentary.
Scales of limited intervals lack one or more intervals.
This characteristic is revealed by the set's representative
.
number of intervals (a n1ll1ltE!rical representation of the semi-
tones between each component in the set1 it is also presented
in its highest arithmetic expression) • Not only is the
interval(s) absent from the representative.number of intervals,
it cannot be manufactured by combining any number of consecutive
digits in this representative number. For example, the whole-
tone set 11 11 11 11 11 11, whose representative number of
intervals is 222222, contains no minor second (1 semitone),
no minor third (3 semitones), no perfect fourth (5 semitones),
no perfect fifth (7 semitones), no major sixth (9 semitones),
and no major seventh (11 semitones).
Scales of limited transposition (15) contain the same
interval pattern twice or more within an octave, causing the
same tones to reappear in one or more of their transpositions.
'I'hc number of distinct tonal versions of such a scale can be
determined by dividing the total number of possible transposi-
tions, in principle, twelve, by the number of times that
the pattern recurs within the octave. For example, the
set 13 13 13 has only four different transposition (12 ~ 3);
the whole-tone set 11 11 11 11 11 11 only has two (12 ~ 6).
3. Classification of Scales According to Symmetry

There exist two types of horizontal symmetry: inter-
calated when the axis falls between two tones, and median when
the axis falls on a tone.
-
A symrretrical (to itself) scale (95) contains the same
succession of intervals ascending or descending from the
starting point to the axis of symmetry and vice versa, or if
its representative numbers are identical whether read from
left to right or right to left. For example, the diatonic
set is symrretrical.
Ex. 13. Representative number of tones (extended beyond one
octave):
1 22 1 222 (1 22 1 etc.)
.
I
Representative number of intervals:
J
21 11 21 11 11 (21 11 2 etc.)
The cardinal charts of symmetrical scales are like-

wise symmetrical.
39
4. Classification of Scales According~ the Function

~ the Perfect Triads
Atonal scales (30) are completely deprived not only
of perfect triads, but also perfect fifths.
Neutral scales (53) do not contain a perfect triad,
but they do contain one or more perfect fifths. The scales
will have a tendency toward major or minor, depending on
whether the lower component of the fifth is the root of a
major triad of highest density, or the upper component of
the fifth is the root of a minor triad of highest density.
I£ a major triad and its inverted minor triad share. the
highest density, the scale (and the fifth) is as neutral as
possible.
Any scale containing at least one perfect triad is
said to be tonal (268). If the scale contains only one major
or minor triad, or if the densest triad is major or minor, the
scale will be correspondingly major or minor.
If both a major third and a minor third happen to be
present above the root of the densest major triad (or below
the root of the densest inverted minor triad) the scale is
binary, owing to the binary nature of the triad. A binary
scale will lean more toward major or minor, depending on the
relative densities of the two perfect triads so engendered.
s. Classification 2£ Scales According to Certain Other

Functions
A modulating scale is one that contains several per-
fect triads , each of· which is capable in turn of becoming
40
tonic, no matter what its cardinal density; the set must

contain the saroo number of intermediate degrees between each
characteristic tone (root,- third, fifth, and sometimes,
cadential seventh) of each perfect triad. For example, the
c diatonic set lends itself well to modulation (movement from
one mode, not one transposition, to another) since the roots,
thirds and fifths of.each of the constituent perfect triads
are nll separated by one intermediate degree:
Ex. 14.
Sets are more or less modulating depending on the number of

p~rfect triads that fulfill the above conditions.
A modulating scale can accommodate melodic imitations
within the same set, but with a change of mode or tonic.
Scales of tonal imitation can accommodate melodic imitations
within the same set, without a change of mode or tonic. This
can only be accomplished in sets that contain an equal number
of intermediate degrees between each of the tonal functions
(root, third, fifth) of each of the constituent perfect
triads, as in the set 33 11 11 11 (on C) for example,
Ex. 15.
0
t,
•
or in sets that contain an equal number of intermediate degrees
between tonic, dominant and upper tonic on one hand, and
mediant, tonic and upper mediant on the other . (see example 16),
or> between tonic, dominant and upper tonic on one hand, and
dominant, mediant and upper dominant on the other, or any
41
other such combination,

Ex. 16.: '!he set 31 11 31 11 (on C):
ba. ba. ~ ~
: =:·
i,.. ♦
l»
►•
t)
' "♦
l,.
or in sets that comprise the peculiarity that all of the tonal
functions of some of the constituent perfect triads, when
regularly laid out every two or three steps, occupy succes-
sively all of the degrees of the scale, as in the set 4111
21 11 (on C), for example:
Ex. 17.
' . P!ft::: ! ; l»--.!f

The other scales of tonal imitation partake of these character-
istics only in part.
All of the above observations concerning constituent
perfect triads are equally applicable to constituent atonal
' ' \
chords in scales of atonal imitation.
6. Classification of Scales According to Cardinal Gravity

A scale is dense if its cardinal density is equal to,
or surpasses that of the same number of densest foreign tones.
It is transitive in the converse situation. Dense scales are
cardinally stable, transitive ~cales, cardinally unstable.
Scales 2!. cardinal polarity are scales in which one tone
surpasses all others in cardinal density. If this tone is a
component of the set, the set is said to be 2!_ tonic polarity
(of which there are 153), such as the set 33 1111 11 (on C).
Ex. 19. Cardinal table of the set 33 11 11 11:
42
ifJJ~J J ~-~ ·p JFJ

2 5 2 (3 0 3) 2 (4). 2 (3)' 1 (3)
· . If the densest tone or tones is foreign to the set, the scale

is said to be~ extrinsic 29larity.(of which there are six),
..
. ''
such as the set 13 1111 11 11 (on C). .
Ex. 20. Cardinal table of the sei: 13 1111 11 11:
,aP □ PJ upJuJ~~
l (3 0 · 3 ) 1 (!) 1 ( 3) 1 ( 3) · 1 (!)
Scales of balanced pqlarity (of which there are twenty-one)

. contain one component· tone,· whose card"inal ~ensi ty is· superior
. ' . .
to that
'
of the o~er compotlent . tones,._but only manages to
. ' .
equal that of one or more foreign tones, .as. in the set· 22 11

11 11 11.
Ex. 21. Cardinal table of the set 22 11 11 11 11: ·
I I
f ip 1 ~J J F J ·i,) 14 ~ .
f 2 · 4 (1 3). 1 (4) 2 (3). 2! (3) 1 (!:) ..
I
In scales of·cadential. polarity (of which tllere ar.e .four),

. ;-- . . . I
the denses~ component tone is surpaf)s~d i~/cardinal valu~ by
I
one or more foreign tones, as in the ·s'et 21 13 11 12 , for ·
. • example.
. ,•
. I
Ex. 22.
~
Cardinal table of the set 2113 11 12:
1
f
f liJ j P j J F.~ ~ J ~J
3 . 2 (!) .1 (2
Scales 2!_·cardinal balance
1
.-
.2) 2 ·{4) 1 (21)
(of/which·there are thirty-
43
t.hree) exist in contrast to scales of cardinal polarity;

tht'Y contain component toncis of identical cardinal density,
such as the set 21 11 12 11 11, for example.

Ex. 23. Cardinal table of the set 21 11 12 11 11:
l ! c2> ! c2> ! c2 2> ! c2> l <2>

7. Classification of Scales According to Tonal Gravity
Tonally stable sets (of which there are eighty-one)
contain one or more perfect triads whose cardinal density
surpasses that of all the foreign perfect triads: the center
of tonal gravity lies within the scale, as, for example, in
the set 31 23 21.
Ex. 24. Cardinal chart of the set 31 23 21:
Cardinal table: {2 4, 3 (3) 3 3 (3) 3

-4 2 2)
-··
3

Major: 11 (8 8 8) LO 10 '{8 8 9 9 8 8)
Inv. minor: 10 (8 8 8)11 (8 8 9 9 8 8) 10

Clashin9: scales {of which there are eighty-four)
contain perfect triads that ar3/ surpassed in cardinal density
by two or more foreign perfe,' triads; in 1'his case, the ·
center of tonal gravity lies outside the scale, as in the
set 21 11 22 11.
Ex. 25. Cardinal chart of the set 22 11 22 11:
44
Cardinal table: 3 3 (2 2) 1 (!) 3 3 (2 2) 1 (~)

Major: 7 (9 7 6 7 2_) 7 (2_ 7 6 7 9)
Inv. minor: (2_ 8 6 8 6 8 9 8 6 8 6 8)
Cadential scales (of which there are also eighty-four)

are clashing scales in which one of the foreign perfect triads
surpasses all of the others in cardinal density. The external
cepter of tonal gravity rests on this triad, as in the set
21 12 11 11 11:
Ex. 26. Cardinal chart of the set 21 12 11 11 11:
Cardinal table: 2 (3) 3 (2) 2 (3) 2 4 (2) 3 (1 3)

Major: 8 (8) 8 (7 7 8 6 10 6 8 7 7)
Inv. minor: (7 8 8 7) 7 (7 8 8 7 9 5 9)
Tonall:f balanced scales (of which there are 103)

contain constituent and foreign perfect triads which are equal
in cardinal density, as in the set 22 21 21 11.
11,iJ~JJ~~.;JpJ
Cardinal table: 4 3 (2 3) 2 4 (3) 3 3 (J) 2 (3)
45
Major: 9 10 (8 8 8 11 8 8 10 8 8 9)
Inv. minor: 11 ( 9 7 9 9) 9 ( 8 10) 8 ( 9 8 8)
Tonic scales are those in which one constituent per-
fect triad has a cardinal density exceeding that of all the
other perfect triads, as in the set 21 13 21 11.
' 1 p Ji ~ J J ~ J , J ~ J
Cardinal table: 3 3 (3) 3 (1 2 2) 3 4 (2) 2 (2)
,Major: (7 9 .7) 8 (7 7 6 8)10 (6 7 7)
Inv. minor: (9 7 8 9 6 7 7) 9 (8 7 7 6)
8. Classification of Scales According to Transpositional

Gravity
When an entity is transposed up and down by the same
interval, the densities o,f the two transpositions will be
identical. Consequently, the table of transpositional gravity
of an entity (which indicates the sum of the densities of
the component tones of the original scale and its transposi-
tions) need only contain density coefficients for six trans-
positionsi those of one, two, three, four, five and six half-
tones, since at this point, we arrive at the tritone above
and below the original tonic.
A scale is !!2!!_-transposing if its cardinal density
equals or surpasses that of each of its transpositions. In
the opposite circumstances, the scale is transposing.
.
.' .
I •
/ .
I
/
_D. _!IOWA1U> ORGANIZED' MUSIC
1. Progressions
. ' .
The difference~ the attractive potential with.which

·the constituent tones or triads and tbe fo;eigntones .. or
triads, or the transposit~ons of an entity, are equip~ed,
· · 1:egulates the entity's. dynamism. Th'i! ·. leas.t den{le constituent
tones in the cardinal chart of. an entity are directed toward·

.the densest ones, w:het.her: ··these lie· within. ·or. outside the
'
entity. Balance is established on the most stable of the
entities to which·t,he caaential.forces lean. However, should
two entities be of the same nature (both stable, or'both .
u~- I
.s'blble):, the stabler of the twoI s held' to be th•t one whore .

_ densest tones are furthest aw'f from one another. For example,
£ ·.i is a stabler entity · th~ £ ~b 1 e.ven though their s ta-
,
bili ty is identical in •11 other respects, ·the greater ·_s.~pa...
ration of the densest ton~s in·c i, makes it stabler
. db •.
- . '
.Ex.· . 2 9 • c·ardinai tables : . .
·· C·a, ilJ P.J J F J i j ·~ .·~

i .
of £ 2.,: ,! (l: 1.. 0 1 .: 0, .1 1): ·a_:{l O 0. l)i '
of c db-~
- '
2 ·
--
2
~.
~1 · o-,
t
o. 1 · 1 '1,, 1 -'o.· o l)
'. t
I'
·, .
'1
"'
:
·'
,t. .
.
Re.;.enforceinent , _,. , ": · ''

. '
'
,'I,l
J ,l
--- · · · ···n_.,·, ·. · . · ·.· ·1 ,
'!·. ·,. ' , . . ' .. · . '
as :succes.;,
• • j • ' ' ' .' •• ·-;. ," ••
Thus· far,· -SOQDd:-entities .have'ibeen· treated

• ' t • ,: ' :-: • . •. . ·•,. ' . .. . ·. ,, '
l' l-~!i: ._,:,_.'-'·t •'·:-_. ' - ·.', ,·_. ' 46 : .

' ; 11" ; .
47
sions of equal tones. But, when a complex is incorporated

into live mus.ic, this alleged equality is destroyed. Repe-
tition, accentuation, and prolongation are some of the ways
in which a tone can be re-enforced. Re-enforcement of a tone
-------
causes its density, as well as that of each of its cardinal
tones, to be increased, by the same amount. We observe that
re-enforcement of a particularly dense constituent tone will
always favour the set at the expense of-the foreign tones;
re-enforcement of a constituent tone of low density will
., al-
ways favour the foreign tones at the expense of the set.
Cohsequently, re-enforcement, since it affects the cardinal
table of a tone, can affect, to a certain extent, the cardi-
nal gravity and stability, the tonal gravity and stability,
and the transpositional gravity and stability of an entity.
It can upset the cardinal hierarchy of tones in a
set by transforming a cardinally-balanced scale into a scale
of tonic polarity for example, or by suppressing the primacy
of the natural tonic of a scale of intrinsic cardinal polarity.
Re-enforcement does affect the cardinal 2ravity of an entity.
However, it affects the cardinal stability of an entity only
',
to a very slight degree.
Re-enforcement can alter the transposing or non-tr~s-
posing nature of a set only when the latter's density-is very
close to that of its transposition(s) of highest density.
On the other hand, appropriate re-enforcement can
generally alter the location of the center of transpositional
gravity. Re-enforcement of the tones of lowest density in
48
the original set will increase the set's propensity toward a

given transposition; re-enforcement of the tones of highest
density in the original set will decrease the set's propensity
toward a given transposition.
Re-enforcement can variously affect the tonal gravity
and stability of a set. Substantial re-enforcement can sta-
bilize certain clashing sets on one or another of the con-
stituent perfect triads. On the other hand, re-enforcement
can also render clashing sets cadent~al, by elevating one of
the perfect triads to a rank of cardinal supremacy.
Similarly, through the agency of re-enforcement, a
cadential set can be made clashing, when several perfect
triads are made to share cardinal supremacy. But, very few
cadential sets can be stabilized on a c_onstituent perfect
triad, no matter what amount of re-enforcement is applied.
·,
Except for some rare and exceptional cases, tonally
stable sets cannot be transformed into cadential or clashing
sets through the application of re-enforcement.
On the other hand, because of their precarious position
between tonal stability and tonal instability, balanced sets
are particularly susceptible to re-enforcement.
In sum, apart from balanced sets and some very rare
exceptions, the cardinal, tonal, and transpositional stability
of sets remain constant in the face of re-enforcement. Such
is the principle. of!:!:!!, permanence of essential cardinal
functions within.!::!!!, permanence o f ~ ~ set.
49
3. Chords
A chord is essentially a simultaneous, rather than a

successive rendering of a set. Consequently, in principle,
there are as many possible chords as there are possible sets
(351) in the half-tone projection, not counting modes and
transpositions, and these chords fit into the same categories
as the sets (symmetrical, complementary, etc.) • Chords can
be expressed most simply in the same way as their sets: by
their numerical representation. Since the "voicing" of a
chord is so often an integral part of its nature, and since
it often encompasses more than an octave, the representative
number of intervals is given preference over the representative
number of tones for designating chords. For example, the
major-minor seventh chord, in root position and close struc-
ture would be: 4 33, representing the·half-steps between
adjacent chord-members. The major-minor seventh chord c e
b
.~ b, in open structure, would be: 7 9 6 on c.
Chords conform to the sa:me laws of re-enforcement as
do sets, with one extension: the lowest- and highest-~oundi~g
tones in a chord are to be considered re-enforced. Conse-
quently, in its concrete form as an aggregation of actual
pitches, a chord may possess different characteristics as its
inversion changes, since the effects of its cardinal af-
finities are modified with each different inversion, owing
to the privileged positions occupied by its extreme tones;
such was not the case in· its abstract representation, since
all the tones were presumed equal.
50
The notions of cardinal, tonal, and transpositional

stability are not readily applicable to chords. In addition
to containing its own various centers of gravity, a chord
must be conclusive, or at least suspensive in order to be
considered truly stable. The simultaneous hearing of all
the tones of a set, no matter how dense or tonal the set might
be, does not generally provoke an impression of relaxation
since the chord so-fonned possesses the resolutive tendency
of the set toward one or more constituent tones or triads of
highest cardinal density.
The perfect triad represents the essence of chordal
stability in the half-tone projection, as a comparison of its
cardinal chart with those of the other seventeen possible
three-tone chords in the half-tone projection will show. This
does not mean, however, that none of these other chords can
be used as suspensive or even conclusive chords.
The choice of such chords is above all a matter of
taste, but, there are two conditions under which an isolated
chord displays a propensity toward stability:
(1) the chord has no other function than to prolong a
tonic, whether that tonic is a tone, a fifth, or
a triad; in other words, one tone, one fifth, or
one triad in the chord acting as the focal point
of the cardinal affinities of the other components
can suffice to make a chord stable;
(2) the chord contains tones in a state of cardinal
balance, the ones in relation to the others, and
has no resolutive propensity toward any other
tone or group of tones. ·
Cadential chords, on the other hand, are chords with
a cardinal compulsion to resolve on a foreign perfect triad
51
whose density exceeds that of any other perfect triad in the

table of tonal gravity of the set •.
Obviously, the notion of re-enforcement plays an
extremely important role in the creation or the alleviation
of the resolutive propensity, or the conclusive or suspensive
tendency of a chord. In the concrete use of chords, one must
always take into account not only the characteristics of the
J
chord itself as if it were an isolated entity, but also those
cha~acteristics that are imposed on the chord by its very
context or environment.
4. Modes
First of all, we must distinguish between two related
notions: modal scale, which is the succession of intervals
of a set, going from one tone selected as tonic to the cor-
responding tone in the next octave, implying a strictly horizon-
tal or melodic usage of the scalar components; and mode, which
is a modal scale articulated on its tonal content, implying~
vertical or harmonic, as well as horizontal usage of the pitch
materials of the set. There are as many modal scales for a
given set as there are tones in the set, since any tone in
'
the set may serve as tonic for one modal scale. For example,
there are seven possible modal scales for the diatonic set:
C to c, D to _D, E to E, etc. Each modal scale is capable of
several modes, only one of which is fundamental, the others
are all derived.
A fundamental mode is one in which the initial tone
' 0
is the root of the tonic perfect triad, such as, for example,
52
the modal scale on F of the diatonic set, articulated on the

triad -f -a c selected
-, as tonic. A derived mode is one in
which the initial tone is the third or fifth of the tonic
perfect triad, the seventh or ninth of a tonic harmonic
seventh.or ninth chord, or a component of an atonal tonic
triad, such as, for example, the modal scale on E of the
diatonic set, articulated on£ ~ ~ as tonic (where e is the
third of a major tonic triad), or the modal scale on D of the
diatonic set, articulated on b d fas tonic (where dis
the third of an atonal tonic triad), etc.
A fundamental mode is major if the initial tone of
the modal scale is the root of a major triad (C to C, ar-
ticulated on c e ~, for example)1 it is minor if the initial
tone is the inverted root of an inverted minor triad (E to E,
articulated on a c ~, for example)1 it is polar if the
initial tone is simultaneously the root of a major triad and
the inverted root of a minor triad: the C minor harmonic
scale modal scale on G is major when articulated on g b d, it
is minor on c ' eb ~). Polar modes are exceptions to the ;j
principle :t}lat there is only one fundamental mode for a given

modal scale, since in their case, there are two. A funda-
mental mode is neutral when the initial tone of the modal
scale is the upper or lower component of a neutral, con-
stituent perfect fifth (such as the Chinese pentatonic scale,
in its mode on c--c d f. ~ a c-~articulated on the fifth
2, ~). In all other cases, the fundamental mode is atonal.
A derived mode is major if its initial tone is the
53
third or the fifth of a major triad (such as the modal scale

of E of the diatonic set"' articulated on c e .9:.): it is
minor if this tone is the third or fifth of an inverted minor
triad {such as the modal scale on F of the d~atonic set,
articulated on d f ~); it is binary if this tone is one of
the thirds, or the fifth of a binary triad (such as the C
J
minor harmonic set, in its mod&l

J
scale on C, articulated on
!
ab c ,l> '. it is barmonic i f f is tone is the harmonic or
cadential seventh or ninth of a harmonic or cadential seventh

or ninth chord (such as the C minor harmonic set, in its
modal scale on F, articulated Qn ~ ~ ~ f); it is atonal
if this tone is a component other than the root of an. atonal
chord {such as. the modal scale on D'of the diatonic set, ar-
ticulated on b d f). rn referring to derived modes, one
must always specify both the modal scale and the mode. For
example, the traditional "Dorian mode" would be referred to
......,
as the modal scale on D of the diatonic_ set, in the mode of
d f a.
The cardinal value of modes is measured according

to the tonic tone, the tonic fifth,.. or- the tonic triad or
chord. A cardinal .mode is one whose tonic tone or group of
tones possesses or can achieve cardinal supremacy; a non-cardi-
nal mode is one whose tonic tone or group of tones cannot
achieve cardinal supremacy, no matter what amount of re-enforce-
ment is effected.
Re-enforcement of certain tones or groups of tones will
be necessary in order that a chosen modal tonic achieve its
54
maximum cardinal density. Modal tables of tones and perfect

triads reveal which tones or groups of tones ought to be re-
enforced to this end. However, not all chords can achieve
cardinal supremacy over all-other aggregations composed of
constituent tones, though they may still function as tonics
in what Cost~re calls the "modal style". We would suggest
that at this point, the reader examine the various modal
scales of the diatonic set (!!22!, ~ , CHAPTER IV, paragraph
·, 16 through 22 in ~ ~ styles ••• or the translation
thereof constituting the second part of the present study)
in-order that Costlre's theory of modes be more thoroughly
understood.
5. Tonal Relationship
The term "relationship" when applied to an entity,
refers to the degree of proximity or remoteness of its trans-
positions. Three types of relationship emerge in Cost~re's
theory, as opposed to just one--the circle of fifths--in
traditional theories: tonal relationship, based on the rela-
tive cardinal densities of the perfect triads of a set and
its transpositions; cardinal relationship, based on the rela-
tive cardinal densities of the ensemble of constituent tones
of a set and its transpositions; ~d, vicinal relationship,
based on the number of tones that are common to a set and any
or all of its transpositions.
The tables of tonal relationship 2£_ perfect triads,
which are really the tables of tonal gravity of perfect triads,
·show the.degree of remoteness or proximity of the various
55
transpositions of a given set, in terms-of cardinal value.

Since these tables are transposable, they give, for any tonal
entity whatsoever, the order of tonal relationship between it
and any of its own transpositions. For example, for any
entity containing the major.triad c ~ ~ in the role of
tonic, the tonal hierarchy of its transpositions is as follows:
Ex. JO.
. \
Major: 5 (4 3 3 4 5 2 5 4 3 3 4)
,Inv. minor: (5 3 3 4 4 3 4 5 3 4 2 5)
Closest transpositions: fa c; ~ b d; f ab c; c eb ~;
. e ~ 6"; they-arr nave s-units
of cardinal attraction too e g;
Most remote transpositions:
nal attraction to£~~-
6. Relationship Between Transpositions~~~ Set

The table~ cardinal relationship of an entity, which
is the same as its table of transpositional gravity, gives
the successive cardinal densities of each transposition. For
each set, there exists a corresponding order of proximity or
remoteness of its transpositions, which is particular to it
alone, independent of the tonality or mode selected.
The table 2f vicinal relations.hip of an entity is
patterned after the table of cardinal relationship. However,
rather than showing the cardinal densities of the transposi-
tions of a set, it shows the number of common tones between
the set and its various transpositions. The first number
56
indicates the number of tones that are common to the set and
its transpositions up and down one half-tone: the second, the
number of common tones between the set and its transpositions
up and down two half-tones; the third, the number of common
tones between the set and its transpositions up and down
three half-tones; etc. The table of vicinal relationship
for the diatonic set is as follows: l (2 S 4 3 6 2)
which indicates that the original set and its transpositions
up and down one half-tone share two common tones; that the
original set and its transpositions up and down two half-tones
s~are five common tones; that the original set and its trans-
positions up and down three half-tones share four common tones,
and so on.
The tables of cardinal and vicinal relationship of
two symmetrical sets are identical. Also, the tables of cardi-
nal and vicinal relationship of two complementary sets are
identical.
7. Relationship Between Different Sets

In principle, tonal relationship is only applicable to
sets that are either tonal or neutral. Two types of tonal
relationship can" exist between two sets: the first is based
on the relationship of the successive tonic perfect triads,
and is derived from the table of tonal relationship proper
to perfect triads; the second is based on the relationship of
the totality of tones of the first set to the tonic perfect
triad of the second set, and is derived from the table of
tonal gravity of the first set.
57
The cardinal relationship between any two different

sets, no matter what their nature, is based on the totality of
tones of the two sets. The second set is more or less cardi-
nally related to the first depending on whether it contains
some or.all of the densest tones of the first set, or some or
all of its least dense tones.
The vicinal relationship between any two different
sets, no matter what their nature, is based simply on the
number of tones that are conunon to each set. The second set
is more or less vicinally related to the first depending on
the number of tones that it has in common with the first set.
Two transpositions of a synunetricai set, no matter
how remote they may be, are brought a little closer together
f
if they share the same axes of symmetry_. For example, for

the diatonic set, the axes of symmetry ~-flat and dare shared
b b b' b b b b' .
by c d e f g a b c and ~ ~ b ~ d :. f g , th us
bringing the set and its transposition at the tritone a little
closer than their tables of cardinal and vicinal relationship
would seem to indicate. Since there exist two types of sym-
metry,8 there are consequently two categories of axial
relationship (based on the type of axis): axial relationship
of median SYinm:try, and axial relationship of intercalated
symmetry.
8. Tempered, Non-semitonal Projections

Though the half-tone projection appeared to be the
8cf. section c., paragraph 3, page. 38, above.

58
most favourable to harmony by virtue of its dynamism and co-

hesion, it is by no means unique. Other projections have
many merits of their own. But, one must be careful to take
into account the cardinal differences that exist between one
projection and another, lest he be led to some false con-
clusions.
In projections that cannot accommodate a fifth within
the margin of tolerance provided by the comma, a system of
harmony based solely on chromatic attraction can be erected,
but the harmonies will lack the essence of life provided by
th~ initial intervals of the harmonic series. If on the
other hand the projection does contain a fifth, the lines of
cardinal force are re-established in all their fullness.
In projections which contain a fifth but which do not
contain a major triad, there is a lack not only of the tonal
plenitude provided by the first few harmonics of the series,
but also of the savoury contrast that is provided by inverted
minor.
Certain projections are based on very narrow intervals.
And, cardinal relations tend to become atrophied because of
the inertia inherent in these projections.
However, if one keeps these reservations in mind, any
entity, in any projection can be utilized and manipulated
with a certain degree of efficacity. This efficacity will
depend on the determination of the cardinal virtualities of
the set and projection in question.
59
9. The Architecture of Tones

There exist two types of harmonic construction: hori-
zontal, in which the harmony is produced by the simultaneous
unfolding of parts~ and vertical, in which the harmony is
produced by chord successions. However, neither exists inde-
pendently; there are vertical considerations to be taken into
account in horizontal harmony (harmonic counterpoint), and
horizontal considerations to be taken into account in vertical
harmony (contrapuntal harmony).
There exist in horizontal harmony situations in which
aLl of the twelve tones of the half-tone projection are used
apparently equally. In such cases, re-enforcement will
indicate which tones are most important; consequently, the
cardinal laws are still very much in play, although it may
have seemed that they were temporarily inapplicable. Serial
music as well as tonal chromaticism is subject to this type
of cardinal scrutiny.
Sometimes, several tonclllities appear to exist s·imul-
taneously. Usually all of the tones be'ing used can be 'incor-
porated into a single set, in which case this is merely an
example of polymodality (several modes of a same set, existing
simultaneously) and not polytonality. Nevertheless, it does
happen that two set& do exist simultaneously--or two tonalities
--but not nearly so frequently as traditional theory would
have us believe. It is simply a matter of determining whether
or not the two sets can be amalgamated to form one.
Vertical harmony is usually based on progressions from
60
independent set to indepeident set. The secrets of their

movement can be easily enough uncovered. But vertical harmony
can also partake of some of the complexities of horizontal
harmony in the form of bitonal and polytonal combinations •
.There is but one type of harmony that evades ca~i-
nal analysis: it is the non-functional harmony that is
typical of the atcmal style. It is based not only on a lack
of functional attraction of tones, but also on the negation.
of their equality.
E. RHYTHM
The synoptic table of the 351 sets in the semitonal

system can be utilized not only for the organization of tones,
but also for the organization of rhythms: one simply sub-
stitutes a time-unit value for the interval-unit {half-tone)
and the sets become rhythmic, rather than tone sets. The
white rectangles that represented component tones in tone
· sets represent rhythmic articulations in rhythmic sets 1 the
dark rectangles that represented foreign tones in tone sets
represent rests {of the same value) in rhythmic sets. For
example, the rhythmic set corresponding to the set 21 11 21
11 11, the diatonic set, would be:
),),., )., ),),., )., ).,
In this way, then, the 351 sets th~t summarize the 2,048 pos-
sible modal scales--or possible combinations of light and dark
rectangles--also summarize the totality of possible combi-
nations of rhythmic articulations and suppressions of twelve .
primary time-units. The juxtaposition or the fragmentation
of some or all of these potentially reveal all the possible
rhythmic organizations of tones.
The notions of entity, set, mode, complementary scale,··
revertible scale, symmetrical scale, etc., that were appli-
cable to sets, are equally applicable to rhythms.
A rhythmic entity is the abstract representation of
61
62
a rhythm, according to the succession of articulations and

rests, reduced to their primary unit-value (lowest common
durational value in the pattern).
A rhythmic~ is that portion of a rhythmic entity
that constitutes a renewable whole: it need not necessarily
contain a fixed numbe~ of units. It has the same graphic
'\
and numerical representation as a tone set.

Three types of relationship can link rhythmic sets:
modal mutations, complementary sets, symmetrical sets.
A rhythmic relationship by modal mutation corresponds
to a modal scale where tone sets are concerned. Any rhythmic
set can be initiated on any one of its points of articulation.
Consequently, a rhythmic set contains in principle, as many
modal mutations as there are articulations in the set.
Ex. 31. The rhythmic set 21 11 21 11 11 and its modal
mutations:
However, as was the with scales of limited transposition,

some modal mutations of a given set repeat the same pattern
of articulations and rests as the original: these are rhythms
of limited modal muta:ti'on. An examination of the rhythmic
63
set 33 33 119veals it to b~'of this'type since·there are only

· · three distinct mo4al autati.Ons: mutations (l) and (4) are.
identical, as are (2) and (5), and (3)'_, and.' ,(6). , • t
"·-
' ff ~ ,'
•• j. .. •• , ...
Ex. 32. The rhytluUc set 33 33 and its·moda~ ~tations:

(1)
.,
',P,PJ>., ., ., )>)).,.., ., '
'.(2) ,, ' ))., '., J>.P)'I.,., J> '
(3) ' )., ., ., J,J>J,.,,., ., ,P,P '. ' '
(4) ' ' .· J,J,;.,·., ., )>))., ., .,
(5) )J>., ., ., ))>~~., ., ., j, '
(6) ' J>,'., ))J>., ·i .,· )>)>
'
A compl...ntaq rhythmic !,!!:_is derived.in the same
manner as a compleaentary tone set.
. '
]for·every rhythmic set

r
there exists:one coinplell\entary set in which articulations and

rests are interverted in·~erms of the:origi.nal set, and in which·
there is not a single colbmoti' articulation. As was the case
with complementary aaales,there exi,t rhythms which are their
'
own compl~nt, that is, whose complementary rhythm.is identical
I - .
to one ofJ. its modal mutations : . these are · revertil:)le rhythms.
The set 3. 33 alluded. to in exam.pl$ 3~ is ~f thi$ 'type~ .
The inverted or symmetrical se.t o~ a gi veif rhythmic set
is that one c►taining .the same sw::ceSsiof Of articulations

1 · i '
and rests, but in the inverted order.of e.lapsed time.

: / ' '' ' ' '
Ex. 33 •. The rhythmic set 41 32 11 and i~s symmetrical inversion:

)>)>)J>., )>J,J>., ·., )., )., .,(,P,P)>., ·);)).,
I ' j
However, as was :the case with tone set&, rhythmitl sets that are
·. ' ' ' ' ,,' /
synaetrical are !!2!,-invertible.because;' they are their own in-
, ~
I
versions·.
64
' \
Once these abstract rhythmic sets are incorporated

into actual music, they can be materialized in many different
ways, owing to the variety of notational,symbols by which
they can be represented in order to specify the attack, dura-
tion, accentuation, etc., of the tone in question. For ex-
ample, the rhythmic set:
) ., ., ;, J> ., ) ., )
could serve as the basis for each of the following concrete
rhythmic patterns:
-
J. );
. J. J. 0
>
Jt rn m
OR
OR
- -- ETC.
These materializations represent rhythmic imitations by accent
displacement. The accent displacement varies accordirig to:
the meter, the location of the beat .within the meter, dynamic
accent, agogic accent, anacrusis, etc.
It should be stressed that non-retrogradable and non-
invertible rhythms are not the same. A non-retrogradable
rhythm is one that produces the same succession of note-values
whether read forward or backward: J JJ>J . A n.on-invertible
rhythm is one that produces the same succession of articu-
lations and rests whether read forward or backward: J., JJ-, J
Note that the first rhythmic pattern cited, although it is
non-retrogradable, is invertible (its set:)., JJJ -, ); the
second rhythmic pattern cited, although it is non-invertible,
is retrogradable when materialized as follows: J )J. J.
In conclusion, by manipulating the various rhythmic
sets, (fragmentation, augmentation, multipled or divided values,
65
etc.) and by determining all their related sets, the totality

of rhythmic figures possible, using twelve primary unit-values, ·
·. is latently possible.
/
/
..
F. HARMONIC STYLES
The realm of organized tones can be divided into four

large style-categories, based on their historical evolution
in westem music: modal and cardinal on one hand, and tonal
and atonal on the other •. No on~ of these is superior to
the o~ers; the expressive power -of each one depends entirely
on its .implementation.
. .
1. The Cardinal Style

All music, whether.it is tonal. or atonal, is in the
cardinal style, when it evolves according to the laws. of car-
dinal gravi~ation, either by complete submission to cardinal
'
attractions,
.
or, following· the opp0$ite
. . .
direction,
.' . by. the
·systematic use of the least cardinal relationsh,ips, whenever
this. suppression of the
.
laws of attraction seems t.o be but
an homage. paid to their very· immanence.
It has been shown that traditional· music conforms to
the laws of cardinal attraction with SC) mticb vigour, that it

almost seems as· if it itself had explicitly revealed them.
However, the cardinal style _i!:l ·by no means ·res.tricted · t.o dia-
tonic or traditional music. The laws of cardinal gravitation
can be observed regulatin.g the music of many, many "style"
periods, right up to, and.including~ much so-called atonal
music.
66
67
h study of the analyzed musical examples which Cost~re
provides in Lois~ styles ••• (VI, 2, !) will support this

position.
2. The Modal Style

The modal style also comprises music which is tonal or
atonal. The essential element of the modal .style is its
reaction against the forces of cardinal attraction, disrupting
their natural course, altering their direction. This style
is based on the establishment and maintenance of secondary
tonics--tonics which are not among those of highest cardinal
density in the set. Its continuance is inextricably founded
on the notion of re-enforcement; the latter, however, must
be discretely manipulated within this style so that the tones
or aggregations of highest cardinal density do not displace
or overthrow the tonics of lower cardinal. density that were
adopted. The modal style is most manifest in the non-functional
harmony of atonalism.
Again, a study of the analyzed musical examples in
Lois et styles ••• (VI, 3, 3) is reconnnended.
3. The Tonal Style

In the expanded concept of tonality that is now
generally accepted, there is an organization of the music
,'
around a tone or group of tones, selected as a natural, or

forced pole of attraction. This, however, seems to exaggerate
the tonal domain at the expense of the atonal; according to
this definition, very little music could be classified as
68
atonal, especially if one reflects on the various effects of

re-enforcement on some of the allegedly~equal tones in the
strictest of serial techniques.
So, for his purposes, Costere considers music to be
in the tonal style when it is organized around one or more
complete, complex, or incomplete perfect triads. In other
words, music in this style is more or less attached to a
portion of the natural harmonic series, or its symmetrical
inversion. Consequently, the tonal domain is bounded on
either side by MAJOR on one hand, and MINOR on the other.
The tonal style, probably mo3:e than any other, is
subjected to the notions of: cardinal gravity, tonal gravity,
transpositional gravity, cardinal stability, tonal stability,
transpositional stability, etc.
4. The Atonal Style

The atonal style is characterized by the rejection of
any interference whatsoever of the harmonic series: each
tone is rid of any connotation that is not proper to its very
substance. Music in this style is organized around a tone,
or group of tone from which the perfect triad in any of its
forms is naturally or artificially excluded.
There are two main types of atonal music: one based
on !!.2!!.-harmonic tonalism or atonal polarity, in which the
music is polarised around one tone, or a group of tones, but
these have no relationship whatsoever with the perfect triad7
the other is based on ~-attraeti ve harmony or ~-polarity,
in which the tones are completely unrelated to one another,
69
and in which not a trace of tonal cohesion can be found.
Functional atonality, in which the music is drawn
from an atonal set and is consequently strictly atonal, and
from which cardinal attractions are excluded, in principle,
represents one type of non-harmonic tonalism; cardinal ato-
nality, in which cardinal density determines the choice of
tonics, transpositions, etc., is another.
Chromatic atonality consists of the systematic use
of all twelve tones of the half-tone projection, with no
intrusion of perfect triads, melodically or harmonically.
However, as has been pointed out, the effect of re-enforcement
on this type of atonality can be dangerous, since certain
tones or aggregations could emerge superior to the others;
if this re-enforced aggregation happened to be a perfect triad,
the music would no longer be atonal, but chromatic.
There are also less rigid types of atonality: horizon-
. :!:.!!. atonality, in which the melody is derived from an atonal
set, but in which the harmony remains free to employ perfect
triads; and, vertical atonality, in which the melody is not
strictly atonal, but in which .the harmony is completely devoid
of any reference to perfect triads.
The examples of analyzed music in the atonal style
provided in~!:!:, styles ••• (VI, 5, 1) is, again, recom-
mended.
G. CONCLUSION
The practical musician now has a deeper understanding

of the very substance of harmony. Not only.is he no longer
chained to the diatonic system, he understands its genesis,
its limitations, the veritable basis of the academic decrees
attached to it; he also understands the true genesis of major
and minor, and understands why the perfect triad represents
their utmost manifestation and is their primary symbol. He
also is aware of the limits and means of expression ·of ato-
nality,_ as well as the advantages and disadvantages of pro-
jections other than the half-tone projection, and sets other
than the diatonic set.
The musicologist and the theorist are now equipped
not only to examine, but also appreciate more deeply, music
in scales other than the diatonic, and projections other
than the half-tone. And, at every instant of their examination.
they can be aware of the secret forces of all of harmony.
The composer is now in a/position to uncover all of
the formal characteristics of his tone· materials: the dynamism
of his harmony, the stabilit✓and tonal power of its modes,
the degree of relationship of its transpositions. He also
possesses a variety of techniques with which to unleash more
and more versions and permutations of hia tonal and rhythmic
bases.
70
71
If this work helps the creative artist along the way

to perfecting his work, its author will have achieved his
goal.
CHAPTER II
~ AfPRAISAL
A. THE BASIS OF THE SYSTEM
The basic fault or handicap of·many_theories of harmony

is th!:l;t the point of departure, o.r basis of the system,. is a
particular style-period~ Some.systems can.logically and ef-
.
fectively.be applied to traditional music--generally speaking,
' ' '
music· between roughly·. 1700 and. 1900--others.provide

. .
much .
insight int? the music of the "golden age of polyphony", and

still others are particularly useful.in the analysis of serial
' '
and atonal~sic. But none of these seems to be able.to

transcend the b9rcier-lines of the style..:peri~ for which it
' '
was formulated, and be implemented outs.~de of it, with any

' .
degree of efficacy. Heretofore, most systems coµld be
. . . .
categorized on.the basis.of whether they were·relEl)Tant.to

contrapuntal or harmonic styles.· on the one hand, and to tonal
or atonal styles on the other. Or,. if they were .supposed~y
capable of universal application, they.yield~d only token
amounts of information abou~ this or that composition, in this
or that style. 1
1whi1e such works as Walter Pis ton's Harmon* and .·

· Counterpoix;it, Robert <?ttman:s Elementag:·Harmony·.an~· Advanced
· Harmony,. v·incent Persichetti' s Twentie · -Century Harmony,·
Howard Hanson's Harmonic Materials of Modern Music, etc., are
72
73
Edmond Costcre, aware of this pitfall, sets himself

l:hc goal of discovering what the music 2£. all periods and
~_!::_y_les has in common; what are the laws that govern or
regulate the movement of tones, regardless of the style-context
I
into which these tones are inserted. In order to formulate

a valid answer to these propositions, subjectivity, to the
degree possible, is banished from the study. Only scientific
fnct, derived from natural, physical, and/or acoustical laws
can serve as the legitimate basis for the answer.
It is Edmond Costere's contention that th~ law of
universal attraction--the law of the .shortest distance between
two points--provides a firm basis on which to erect his theory.
Obviously, this primordial ele~ent of his theory requires a
concession on the part of· the disciple! He may, or may not
agree that ". • • one of the most general notions in all of
knowledge" 2 is truly applicable to music. While there are
undoubtedly other valid points of departure, there is certainly
indeed very useful, none is designed for, or capable of effective

universal application·. Our intent is not to chastise or
deprecate the authors of these and similar works (for, as we
have intimated, it is by design th~t they are restricted in
scope), but to emphasize the singular dearth of equally fine
works dealing with the theory of all music. To this writer's
knowledge, there are no theoretical works dealing exclusively
and effectively with the musical macrocosm: for instance,
"cadence" is usually treated as a compendium of formulae ty-
pical of this or that style-period rather than as a resolution
--temporary or permanent--of the instability - stability or
tension - repose antimony. The new directions being taken in
the teaching of theory would seem strongly to support our
contention that too frequently dn the past we concentrated
on the "musical trees", at the/expense of the "musical forest".
2
see I, 3, 1 of Lois1~t styles •••
74
no more fundamental law o( nature; and, it would seem that

the disciple ought not to dismiss it until he has evaluated
its relevance in terms of the musical universe.
As far as organized tones are concerned, there are
two differen~ ways in which this law of universal attraction
can be implemented: the first is based on the harmonic series,
and maintains that the shortest distance between two different
tones is the fifth, the first real interval in the series,·
since the two components of the octave are generally held to
be identical; the second is based on the actual proximity of
tones, and maintains that the shortest distance between two
different tones is the interval-unit of the projection being
. ' \
used, that is, the half-tone in the projection most widely-

used in western music. 3 This duality can perhaps be better
understood if, as we very often must in music, we invoke the
two notions of verticality (simultaneity) and horizontality
(succession). The latter affinity between two tones is
horizontal in view of the fact that we must think in terms
of linear motion; the former affinity is vertical in view of
the fact that, in nature, the harmonic series is projected
above a given tone, not away from it linearly, on either
side. In sum, there exist a "vertical" and an "horizontal
shortest distance": the fifth, and the minor second or half-
tone. However, it would be false to assume that these af-
finities exist only in the domain suggested by their names.
3aenceforth, we shall confine ourselves to the half-

tone syst,em, unless otherwise indicated.
75
Too many theories of harmony base chord construction on the

harmonic series alone: needless to say, these disintegrate
rather rapidly in the face of secundal harmonies, for example,
whereas Costare's theory does not. The concept of horizontal
affinity can and does exist in a vertical or harmonic con-
struct, just as the concept of vertical affinity can and does
exist in a horizontal or melodic construct.
B. CARDINAL LAW OR ATTRACTIVE POTENTIAL
This affinity that tones have for one another forms

the basis of Cost~re's theory of the cardinal gravitation of
tones. Although the term "cardinal" is abandonned in favour
of "attractive potential" in subsequent Cost~re writings, one
would do well to retain it in this introductory study of his
system, because of its very convenient analogy to the cardinal
points of geography. Around every tone there exist four such
cardinal points: the fifth below, the half-tone below, the
half-tone above, and the fifth above. These cardinal tones
could almost be interpreted as musical adjectives whose
function it is to modify the musical noun. They constitute
what Cost~re refers to as a "sociology of pitches" in his
Mort ou transfigurations de l'harmonie. As we have seen, 4
a coefficient representing its cardinal density is given to
each of the twelve tones of the.half-tone projection, ac-
cording to its relationship with the tones of a given entity.
4 In Lois et styles . . . (I, .3, l ff.) and in PART I,

Chapter I, .section A, paragraph 3 , page 9 ff~ of the present
study.
76
If the density of the entity in question surpasses that of

the same number of foreign tones, the entity tends to gravi-
tate (or remain fixed) towards itself; if the density of the
entity is exceeded by that of the same number of foreign
tones, the entity will tend to gravitate away from itself.
Here we are touching upon the notions of stability
and instability: in the former case, the entity in stable;
in the latter, it is unstable. In this writer's considered
opinion, herein lies one of the most significant aspects of
' ''
the present theory~ without alluding, in any way, shape, or
form, to the notions of consonance and dissonance, those two
destructively subjective and capriciously relative twins, we
can now gauge the stability or instability of a chord, or a
scale, or a combination of the two, on purely objective grounds:
its cardinal density in relation to some or all of the other
tones in the half-tone projection, calculated on the basis
of the natural affinity that tones have for one another. We
have always been content to consider the use of dissonance as
one of the most important criteria for distinguishing one
style period from another. While it is true that this is a
valid criterion, the systems or theories of harmony based on
it find themselves, as we have pointed out earlier, somewhat
weakened, if not destroyed, when they attempt to overstep
their boundaries.
The cardinal table, or table of attractive potential
of an entity serves as the basis of other tables as well:
the table of tonal gravity and the table of transpositional
77
grnvity, which reveal the centers of tonal and transpositional

gravity of the entity. If these centers of gravity lie within
the entity in question, it is tonally and transposi tionally
I
/
stable; if not, it is tonally .~d transpositionally unstabl~
--providing two more bases o/which the relative stability or
I
instability of an entity can be established. While these
tables of gravity seem to yield only known and obvious facts
where the manipulation of traditional materials are concerned
(diatonic set, major scale, etc.}, they can prove mos·t useful.
in slightly less "familiar" surroundings by revealing on which
.
perfect triads, constituent or foreign, a given entity tends
,)
to resolve most strongly, or to which transposition it leans
most forcefully, on the basis of the total density of the
perfect triads in the first case, and the total density of
the component tones in the various transpositions in the
second.
However, the composer is by no means bound to submit
to the dicta of cardinal law. He is completely free to ignore
them if he wishes, but at the risk of sacrificing (perhaps)
some of the unity or cohesion in his work.· The important
fact here is that he be aware of these dicta so that the
incohesive quality of his- music be voluntary and effective,
and not random and accidental. For, as Costlre seems to be-
lieve, though unity is not essential as such, its incorp-
oration, or its avoidance, should be deliberate. All this
means, in effect, is that the creative artist ought to be,
at all times, in complete control of his materials, even if
78
that control consists of al.lowing certain things to happen

merely by chance, as in aleatoric music. In a manner of
speaking, he is controlling the lack of control that seems
to be manifest in his work, if it does partake of the element
of chance.
Another of the aspects of greatest significance
insofar as the law of the cardinal gravitation of tones is
concerned is the substantiation given it by so-called tra-
.
ditional music. Not only is the derivation and formulation
of this law scientifically and logically sound, it is justified
by, (or perhaps it justifies!) many of the s.tandard practices
and procedures connected to the traditional style. However,
there are some practices that are not explained or justified
by cardinal relationships. This is not to say that there is
no basis for them in Cost~re's system; there may very well
be, but they have not been treated by the author in either
of his two books. Among these is the stringent prohibition
of parallel fifths. One would think that if one fifth is
such a vital factor in the movement and inter-relationship
of tones, two, or three fifths would be welcomed as a stabi-
)
lizing force without peer. However, such is not necessarily

the case: the very stability of the fifth and the law "of
the shortest distance" can provide one possible justification
for the avoidance of parallel fifths, according to the present
theory.
If the cardinal tables of all the intervals of the
half-tone projection are compared (minor ~d major seconds,
79
major and minor thirds, ahd the fifth), one observes that
only the fifth and the minor second possess cardinal stabi-
lity.5 In other words, the fifth tends to gravitate towards
itself rather than towards any other two-tone entity, since
its center of cardinal gravity is located within itself.
A glimpse at the cardinal table of the fifth£ ~ will reveal
this stability.
Ex. 34. Cardinal table of c ~=
,1µJfJ ;JifJJ~JjJJ
2 c1 1 o o 1 1) l c1 o o 1>
If the fifth c i were allowed to progress to each
of the other two-tone combinations in the half-tone projection
that are considered consonant in traditional terms (major
third, minor third, fifth, and their inversions), it would
tend to resolve, according to the law of cardinal gravitation,
on those two-tone entities according to the decreasing order
of their densities. In other words, c i, who~e density co-
efficient is 4, would tend to progress, first of all, to
those entities having a density coefficient relative to itself
of 3, then 2, then 1, and finally 0.
Of the four consonant entities having a cardinal
density of 3, two are major thirds (~b £ and i ~), and two
are fifths (£ £,and~ ~), each of which has one tone in
5There seems to be no need to enter into a discussion

of parallel minor seconds at this point, since, in the style
in question, this particular parallelism would not be likely
to occur, owing to the traditional treatment of dissonance:
such is not the case, however, with the consonant fifth.
80
common with c ~-·If c ~ did resolve to f £or~ _d, the

second fifth would tend to appear in its inverted form, the
fourth, owing to the law of the shortest distance: the conunon
tone would be retained, and the other component would move
a major.second.
Of the fifteen consonant two-tone entities having a
cardinal density of 2, eight are minor thirds, four are major
thirds, and three are fifths (db ab, ft £t, and b ft). Only
tile fifth ft £I is subject to the law of shortest distance,
which would require it to appear in its inverted form. No
rationale can be provided (apparently) for the avoidance of
db ab orb ft after c ~ according to this line of reasoning.
However their case will be considered again momentarily.
Of the thirteen consonant two-tone entities having a
cardinal density of 1, six are major thirds, four are minor
thirds, and three are fifths (e
-- b, -
ab-eb, and .....
bb f). The _
first two are subject to treatment according to the law of
the shortest distance. However, all three have this trait in
common: at least one of the major or minor thirds encompassed
by the components of these fifths surpasses the fifths in
cardinal density. For example, the fifth ~b eb (density: 1)
is surpassed in cardinal density by the thirds ab c (density:
4), ab cb (density: 2), and£ eb (density: 2); c ~ has
a stronger propensity to resolve to one of these thirds, than
to the fifth itself.
The three entities having a cardinal density of Oare
all fifths: d b and a
!, !.b b, e. The major and minor
81
thirds of which one or the other components of these fifths

are members all exceed the fifths in cardinal density.
In sum, it seems that the fifth£ ~ would prefer to
resolve on a fourth (shortest distance}, or on a major or
minor third (higher cardinal density) rather than on another
fifth. Although the two fifths db ab and b f# could not
justifiably be avoided after£ ~ on the basis of shortest
distance, nor on the basis of internal thirds of greater
density, each does contain one major and one minor third whose
density equals their own. In the case of these two fifths
then,£ ~ has a tendency to resolve on two of their internal
thirds equal to its tendency to resolve on the fifths them-
selves. All the other fifths, nine to be exact, would either
appear in their inverted form after c ~, or be suppressed at
the benefit of one or more of the thirds encompassed by their
components.
Consequently, a given fifth has a stronger propensity
to resolve on a fourth or a third than on another fifth.
This is one possible way of supporting the traditional prohi-
bition covering parallel fifths, according to Edmond Cost~re's
theory.
Perhaps this justification for the avoidance of
parallel fifths seems a little far-fetched, and unconvincing.
But, is it not just as logical,· and just as valid as.the
rationale provided in the standard traditional treatises 'r
where most of the decrees connected to this particular style

are based on common practice: they exist on the basis of
82
what occurs and not why it occurs. The present system at-
tempts to justify them on the basis of natural law, and does
so successfully, to a greater or lesser degree, in a great
· many, if not all cases.
C. SYMMETRY: THE BASIS OF MINOR
From the very beginning of the exposition of his

theory of harmony, Edmond Cos ~re constantly refers to the
harmonic series. Its advantages and disadvantages are enumer-
ated; its abandonment in favour of tempered projections is
advocated, and, above all, its status as the only natural
phenomenon in the realm of music is strongly emphasized.
Consequently, in his attempt to remain thoroughly objective,
the author bases all of his vital conclusions on the harmonic
series, by direct or indirect allusion to it.
Even though the major triad, formed of the first
three different tones in the series, is generally conceded to
be stable in the most traditional sense of the work, its sta-
bility must be, and is, proven in terms of cardinal law. By
way of contrast, the harmonic series itself is shown to be
initially stable, with an ever-increasing tendency toward in-
stability as it pursues its course. -This progressive instabi-
lity is also, in ~elation to the tonality of the fundamental,
generally acknowledged. Although Cost~re's reasoning may
differ from traditional reasoning, the ;esultant conclusions
are the same.
The"harmonic scale• 6 consisting of all the different
6see Lois et styles ••• I, 2, as well as PART I, Chapter
I, Section A, paragraph 2 of the present study, page 8-ff.
83
tones in the first sixteen overtones, condensed into a single

octave, is one of the "new" notions presented in this treatise.
Since it is derived directly from the harmonic series, Cost~re
calls it "the only scale provided by nature".' Although not
specifically stated, its uniqueness is presumably due to the
proximity of its component tones to the fundamental, as well
as to the natural adjacency of those components. The major
scale, for instance, can also be extracted from the series,
.
but it lacks this cohesive characteristic. The "harmonic
scale" partakes of the functional instability of the harmonic
series (beyond the seventh or ninth harmonic), whether it
is evaluated in the quarter-tone projection--the only one
capable of accommodating it--or in the natural series--by
comparing it with the scale in the next octave of the series.
If this natural scale is to be inserted into a half-
tone projection, certain tones must be adjusted, notably,£-
half-sharp (thinking in terms of a C tonic), !-half-sharp.
They are replaced in the half-tone projection by those tones
that most closely approximate them: ft and a. The scale
thus produced is the traditional lydian mode, the most major
of scales (f .9. a b £ d !.. f when transposed to whi,te-
notes). However, this "adjusted" scale retains the functional
instability that was particular to it in the quarter-tone and
harmonic proj~ctions. But, if it is articulated from dominant
to dominant, or~ to c, it achieves a functional stability
exceeding that of any of the other "white-note scales"·. This,
believes Cost~re, is the true genesis of the major scale ••• the
7Lois et styles ••• I, 2, 1.

84
real reason behind its rise to power, at the expense of other

diatonic modes. Again, his reasoning differs somewhat from
that of traditional theorists, but what is important is that
an actual fact of musical history is explained quite logically
and convincingly, according to the law of cardinal gravitation.
It is so logical, in fact, that, as the author contends, it
almost seems as if a sub-conscious awareness of the cardinal
system was responsible for the temporary supremacy of major
over the other modes.
The close kinship between "major" and the harmonic
series, as well as the functional stabi~ity of the major triad
and the major scale are made manifest by the system currently
under consideration. But, what of "minor"? Where did it
originate? The minor scale in its three forms and the minor
triad did, after all, co-exist with major for approximately
three hundred years. Various attempts have been made to ex-
plain its origin in terms of the overtone series1 other at-
tempts have been made to explain it in terms of an undertone
series1 while yet others have seen it as a mere alteration
of major. 8
At this point, Costlre parts, although not drastically,
with tradition. He acknowledges that the minor triad can be
extracted from the overtone series, but at such a distance
from the fundamental that there. is no real justification for
its parity with the major triad. On the other hand he avoids
8
see Paul Hindemith, The Craft of Musical Compasition,
page 74.
85
the controversy of whether or not there exists in nature an
undertone series. Nevertheless, he does admit to the latter,
not as a natural phenomenon, as was the case with the over-
tone series, but as a theoretical consequence of the enforce-
ment of the laws of symmetry: any pattern or design that
exists in nature can be symmetrically imitated. Thus, the
overtone series, when mirrored, or projected symmetrically
in the opposite direction, produces the so-called "inverted
series". This can be effected simply, by letting the ratios
of the frequencies in the overtone series become the ratios
0£ the vibrating string lengths in the undertone series; and
the ratios of the vibrating string lengths in the overtone

series become the ratios of the frequencies in the undertone
series. When the characteristics of the undertone series are
examined, we observe that a minor triad exists where a major
triad existed in the overtone series, and that a minor "harmonic
scale" exists where a major "harmonic scale" existed. In this
way, minor is explained as a symmetrical inversion of major
rather than just an alteration of it; the overtone series
engenders typically major characteristics, the undertone series,
typically minor characteristics. According to this reasoning,
all of the properties of major can be found in minor, but
inverted; this is how minor achieves true parity with major.
However, this explanation of minor presents some rather striking
contrasts with the traditional view of minor: minor triads
are derived.from a downward projection of tones (the root of
d f ,!, for instance, is _!!), and minor scales are spelled
86
downward from their tonics, recalling always the subservience

of minor to the laws of symmetry. Consequently, the symmetrical
inversion of the Lydian scale is the Locrian scale, the most
minor scale (~ ! 9. f ~ 2, c b, when transposed to white
notes). As was the case with its major counterpart, this
scale is functionally unstable. If it is articulated from

dominant to dominant (from~ down to~), it is functionally
stable on its tonic triad a c e.
In this writer's opinion, this concept is the most
difficult one in the entire treatise to accept. Theoretical-
ly, it seems sensible and logical, but practically, it seems
utterly confusing--at least at first sight. The most likely
,
reason for this confusion is that the traditional concept of
looking at major and minor through the same "lenses", as it
were, is py now firmly entrenched in most people's minds;
any other explanation of the two genders is rejected by the
mind ( and the ear) in the same way, perhaps, as the body
rejects a transplanted organ: by automatic reflex.
However, we must bear in mind· that this is a theoretical
explanation of the genesis of minor and not a practical explan-
ation of the basis of actual music in the minor mode. It is
an attempt to trace the origin of minor in cardinal terms,
not in terms of the use made of minor by traditional composers.
The apparent discrepancy between the two can be traced to the
fact that traditional composers thought of, or at least seemed
to think of minor, for the most part, as an alteration of
major, not a symmetrical inversion of it. Their particular
! 'ill, '' I
',;•
,' '
87 ''
. ·'· .
view of minor was no; doubf, 'founded ~n : the unque$tionable ·
, n , . . ,j•
presence in natqre of an' .~,rtone .se~ies, as opposed to the

I'
highly-questionable presence of an undertone series.
If the, reader att~mpt·s to understand this theory of
minor with the traditional concepts· (practical as well as aural)
I ' ' '
,in mind, only confusion and conflict ',qan re•ult~ The, author
himself', in the opening paragraphs 'Of his treati,se, strongly,

urges that al,1 "academic reflexes" be discarded lest, they
interfere with the business at hand.· If on the ,other hand
' . '•· ' . .,
the reader accepts this theory Of minor,. s'upplements it with,

Costire's notions of modes 9 , and subsequently applies it to
common practice, , taking into account at every instant, however,
. .
.the divergent points of departure, he ,will.realize that'the

conflict is more apparent than real •. ,
'. If common, practice does not reflect Cost.are 's particu.;. •
lar theory of minor, neith~r does it disprove or discredit it.
Nor does the theo,;y alter t:ommon pract.ice, 9bviou~ly.
What will happen in fact, if a passage of traditional
music in the ;minor mode -is .'analyzed, according to the cardinal
system,
.
is that
J
the. ' system
. ! . ''
wlll simply
' ~.
reve·a1 characteristics
• • • I•
, of the passage that ·categorize- it not as, ":pure•• mino~ as Cost.are

,, ' 1 t
would understand it, but as a type o.f "adulterated" minor

• • '•. · ·l . t · :, ' t
1
which borrpws more or less ,extensively fr(»n major • . But this
: ' ' , . !.' ! i( '
is evident'. to any trained musician worthy, o,£ ·the· niame: it is

not a stArjt1ing ~vela~ion, proper to the; c_Jrdinal s~stem.
.
. . '
.
' .
'
.'
, '
.
• : .... '
. '
!, I . .. .
, ,9 care~.' i study of ~is ~ atyl.ea , IV, 4 ,,is recom-

mended. ,
t
88
The conflict that appeared to exist between traditional usage

and the present system can be eased simply be reconciling the
semantic differences between the two. In this way the true
effectiveness of the system will be more deeply appreciated.
D. SCALES, CHORDS, AND RHYTHMS
If some of the points presented by this writer as

being the most significant, or, at least among the most
significant, in Edmond Cost~re's Lois~ styles des harmonies
musicales have seemed controversial and debatable, it is
p~rhaps because they differ to a greater or lesser degree
from the treatment given the same subjects by traditional
theorists (and even some contemporary theorists). Consequently,
a substantial adjustment is often-times required in the
reader's thinking. For this very reason, the discussion and
study of tonal and rhythmic organization should be received,
uncontested. It represents a study of the basic aspects of
musical composition (tones and rhythms) that is unmatched
in its precision and detail.
Cost~re's lack of musical prejudice is first brought
to light when we realize that he is willing to accept any
interval as the basis of a projection which would constitute
the framework of a musical system. He is, however, very
careful to point out the disadvantages of a projection of too- I
- I
narrow intervals, as well as those of a projection of too-
wide intervals, resulting in his decision to accept only those
projections of intervals between the quarter-tone and the
half-tone as being practical for composition. And, since most
89
western music is cast in the half-tone projection, it is to

this one that his treatise is restricted, except in instances
where a particular entity is being discussed that cannot be
incorporated into the half-tone projection.
This lack of prejudice is again'brought to light when,
rather than consider any and all scales.,_, in relation to major,'
' \
he prefers to consider them as separate entities, each pos-

sessing its own peculiar set of properties and characteristics.
It seems to this writer that, at this point, a summary of the
bases on which the complete catalogue of scales and chords in
Lois et styles ... is founded would not be entirely useless •
In order to reduce the number of entities with which
he must deal, the author convenes to study scales, first of
all, as abstractions or sets (represented by the succession
of the component intervals), removed from any definite musical
context. This eliminates the necessity of considering the
twelve (in principle) different transpositions of each "scale",
since a transposition does not really represent a different
scale but only a tonally displaced version of it. Likewise,
the different modes of a given set are not cons.idered· in this
abstract context, since each mode (the set, beginning on a
particular constituent selected as tonic) does not really
represent a different scale, only a variation in the order in
which the intervals or component pitches appear.
So that two transpositions or two modes not be er-
roneously interpreted as two different sets, each set is given
a specific graphic representation: the tones that belong to
90
the set are represented by white rectangles, the tones that

do not, by black rectangles. The graphic representation of
a set begins with the longest succession of conjunct white
rectangles. So, the white-note, or diatonic set is represented
graphically as follows, no matter on which note it begins
(since only the. interval succession, not the actual pitches,
are being represented) : 10
0 0 X O X O O X O X O X 0
If, however, a particular mode of the diatonic set
were to be graphically represented, one would begin by the
constituent chosen as tonic, and proceed up the octave until
that note re-appeared (the graphic representation in this case
would comprise 13 rectangles). For example, the diatonic set,
in its mode on C would be represented as follows:
0 X O X O O X O X O X O 0
Normally,. a mode is always reduced to its set in order that
the basic functional characteristics can be established.
The graphic representation of a set translates easily
into its representative number of tones: each number represents
a succession of rectangles of like colour. So that there be
no confusion between different sets, and modes or transposi-
tions of a same set, the representative number of tones is
always given its highest mathematical expression. For example,
the diatonic set would be represented as follows: 21 11 21
lOAgain we mention that, for typographical reasons,

white rectangles are represented by the sign "O", black ones
by "X" •
91
11 11.
The diatonic set, with its seven modes, each of which
is capable of twelve transpositions, represents but one of
three hundred and fifty-one abstract ways of covering one
octave, in the half-tone projection. However, it is capable
of eighty-four concrete representations (scales): 1 X 7 X 12
• 84. If each of the other sets is similarly considered, all
of the other twenty-five thousand (approximately) scales in
the half-tone projection are accounted for.
The properties and characteristics of any set, from
two to twelve tones, are enumerated and discussed in this
work. The synoptic table of the 351 sets includes these
characteristics as well as the cardinal, tonal, and trans-
positional (vicinal and cardinal) tables, and the numerical
and graphic representations of each set: the analytical table
'
of sets contains all of these sets, catalogued under four
major headings (tonally stable, balanced, cadential, and
clashing sets), as well as numerous sub-headings (revertible,
major, minor, modulating, transposing, etc.) with all the
other sets that possess these same sub-characteristics. In
sum, not only does Costire provide us with a complete list

of all sets and their particular properties, he also provides
us with a complete list of the sets having the same character-
istics as a given set! For example, these two tables enable
. '
us to discern very quickly the properties of the whole-tone

set: its representative number of tones is 11 1111 11 11 11,
its tables of transpositional gravity are: vicinal, 6 (0 6
0 6 0 6) and cardinal, 6 (~ 6 24 6· ~): its .cardinal table
92
is 1 (4) 1 (4) 1 (4) 1 (4) 1 (4) 1 (4); its tables of tonal

gravity are major, (6 9 6 9 6 9 6 9 6 9 6 9), and
inverted minor (6 9 6 9 6 9 6 9 6 9 6 9); its
graphic representation is O X O X O X O X O X O X;
it is clashing and tonal; it is of limited intervals, of median
tone (symmetrical), revertible, of limited transposition,
transitive, cardinally balanced, and transposing. Obviously,
these characteristics will only be completely meaningful
after a thorough study of Lois et styles ••• , but what a
gargantuan amount of information! Such an analysis of this
particular set leaves nothing to guesswork. That such a
detailed account of each and every set in the half-tone
/ '
projection is given in this treitise is remarkable. The use-

/
fulness of such a catalogue a1fuost defj:es description, for
/
both composer and analyst. The composer can use these tables
to unlock all of the secret properties of his scalar (or
chordal) materials, as well as to create scales or series that
will conform to a specific set of characteristics. The analyst
can use them to discover all of the vital characteris,tics of
a given passage or work.
One question, however, does arise: does not the
modality of a given set affect its characteristics to a certain
degree? For example, the Locrian mode obviously. does not have
the same properties as the Ionian mode.
Well, this is perhaps true if "characteristics" is
interpreted in a traditional sense. But, one must remember
that these tables reveal the properties of an ·abstract entity,
I 93
the set. Once a tonic has been selected, and a particular

mode of a certain set is established, the essential character-
istics of the set will not change, but the particular mode
will exhibit characteristics of its own. For instance, the
diatonic set retains its basic characteristics (tonally stable,
polytonal and tonic) no matter what its mode; on the other
hand, each mode will have some characteristics peculiar only
to it (fundamental or derived; major, minor, polar, or atonal),
according to conditions and circumstances made clear in the
chapter dealing with modes. 11 In essence, a hierarchy of
characteristics is set up, according-to, first of all, the
set, and then, according to the ·particular modality in which
it appears. Consequently, all of the properties or character-
istics of a given entity can be determined.by discerning its
set, and then its mode.
A chord is considered in the same light as a scale:
reduced to the set represented by its constituent tones. How-•
ever, certain characteristics are altered by the fact of its
simultaneous, rather than successive, hearing. But, these
changes are not drastic enough to require special consideration.
Suffice it to say that a sound entity, whether its component
tones are heard simultaneously or successively, is considered
in terms of its set.
The importance of what Costere refers to as re-enforce-
ment ought to be emphasized. A tone, owing to its attack, its
decay, its duration, its height, its depth, the type of ·ac-
llLois et Styles ••• IV, 4.

94
cent given it, doublings, etc., can, and does, assume a role
of superior importance to that of some or all of the other
tones 1·n the enti'ty. 12 Consequen tl y, re-en f orcemen t can
alter the propensity of the entity toward stability or instabi-
lity, as well as certain other of its characteristics. In
actual fact, it is extremely difficult to maintain an absolute
equality among the tones of a given passage, or composition,
if the factors above do affect or condition 1;:he relative im-
portance of the constituent tones. Some contemporary ap-
proaches to analysis (notably Howard Hanson's) tend to ignore
doublings, for instance, as well as other such factors, which,
in this writer's opinion, does not present an absolutely
honest or objective evaluation of the entity being examined.
While Costere's theory does take into account the
effect of doublings, etc., on an entity, it presents the
concomitant. problem of deciding what tones come under the
influence of re-enforcement and why. Although the author
provides certain guidelines, there still remain a number of
variables with which the analyst must grope. In this respect,
the subjectivity that Cost!re wished to banish from his theory
is not completely eradicated. On the other hand, the sub-
jective participation of the analyst is no greater here than
it is when having to decide what tones are essential components
of set and what tones are non-essential. We can only conclude
12 This, no doubt, explains why 6ctave doublings,

repetition of tones, etc., are discouraged in strict serial
technique.
95
that complete objectivity in a theory of harmony is perhaps

an unattainable ideal.
Re-enforcement can alter more or less essentially the
characteristics of an entity. A careful study of the author's
treatment of modes, tor instance, will reveal to what extent
re-enforcement can be used to establish or destroy the cardi-
nal superiority of a modal tonic. If tones are treated ab-
stractly as equal, not many valid objections can be raised.
However, when they are considered in terms of concrete musical
examples, their inequality must be acknowledged if and when
circumstances so warrant it.
If Edmond Cost~re's thorough cataloguing of set (scales),
and chords, and their essential characteristics, was only ap-
plicable to tones, it would still be one of the most signi-
ficant contributions to the science of music. But, its
applicability extends also to the realm of rhythm.
·sy substituting a time-unit, or note-value, for a
unit-interval, the graphic and numerical representations of
tone sets can be transformed into rhythmic sets. All of the
tonal possibilities that emerge from ma~ipulating these basic
sets can be reflected as rhythms as well. The obvious use-
' \
fulness of this system to the composer' (or to the analyst,

working in retrospect) is its potential for creating or
deriving myriads of permutations of a basic cell, rhythmic or
tonal, which will enable him to maintain an organic unity in
his work; or, if he so desires, he can deliberately employ
fragments or entire sets for varying lengths of time, which
96
arc diametrically opposed to one another, thus establishing

an incohcsi ve atmosphere. He has at his disposal a system
which permits him to be constantly aware of the relationships,
or lack of relationships, that exist between this and that
-
phrase, or this and that section, or this and that movement
of a work.
If one element of Lois et styles des harmonies ~-

s icales had to be selected as the most outstanding contribution
of Edmond Costere to music, it would have to be this completely
thorough and unique study and cataloguing of sets and their

characteristics.
E. HARMONIC STYLES
As we have stated before, many systems of analysis

fail when implemented in an environment foreign to the one
for which they were formulated. Even within a given style
period, some compos;i.tions, or·portions of compositions,
escape analysis according to a system which, otherwise, is
generally quite effective in the same particular period.
Confronted by such passages, the analyst desparately struggles
to describe them according to a particular system. Often he
resignedly labels them "exceptional" leaving his frustration
unresolved. On the other hand, he may choose to resort to
another system, or several other systems, in order to describe
the musical goings-on, in terms of an eclectic system of
I
analysis which he himself formu;lates. ·· Al though this amalgam.
of systems might work for thrI or that particular composition,
97
wil 1 it be capable of universal application? Maybe. If it

is, its author will have accomplished soioothing unique in
analytical systematics, and is most worthy of all the praise
and recognition that his fellow-analysts can muster.
In theory--and we shall find out whether this is
also true in practice, later--Edmond Cost~re's system is not
subject to these limitations. By defining harmonic styles in
broad terms, according to his principles, he manages to create
an array of categories capable of accommodating all styles of
music. According to this system, music is either cardinal
or modal on one hand, and tonal or atonal on the other.
Music is cardinal if the tones are manipulated in
such a way as to conform to the basic law of cardinal gravi-
tation (the most cardinal tones act as tonics, for·example);
if they are not so organized (the most cardinal tonics, or
cadences are avoided, for instance), the music is modal.
This lat,ter category, then, includes all music which would
seem to defy description according to the cardinal system;
it comprises what would be probably labelled "exceptions" in
more traditional systems. However, this system not only con-
tains a specific category for such "exceptions", it is able to
reveal varying amounts of information about the music, based
on the set(s), the mode(s), etc. It does not collapse in the
face of elements which appear to be in conflict with its vecy
basis.
While music is either cardinal or modal, it is also
either tonal {organized around a perfect triad, not just a
98
single tone acting as a focal point) or atonal. This expanded

notion of atonality must be looked upon objectively, since
it does have a broader meaning here than in other theoretical
studies. As long qS Costere's definition of atonal is borne
in mind, the analyst need not be m;i.sled by this epithet when
it is applied to a given entity: it simply neans that the
entity does not include a perfect triad.
What other possible categories of harmonic style could
there be? Music, no matter what. its period of creation, is
/
either cardinal or modal, and tonal or atonal. And, an entire
composition need not be restfted tQ any one of these in
particular: it is completely at liberty to change its character-
istics from one phrase, section, or movenent to qnother. The
system at hand, then, is capable of describing what is ac-
tually occuring, regardless of the style period in question
(and is this not the essential function of any system of
analysis?), at least, as we have already said, in theory.
In the foregoing sections of this chapter, we have at-
tempted to stress the most significant aspects of Edmond Cos-
tere's work. However, we would at this time point out what
we consider to be its weakness: it is the semantic confusion
that results from the use of certain terms (stable, or atonal,
for example) which have very definite meanings as far as most
readers are concerned, but which, in this context, have ex-
panded or altered meanings. That the author cautions the
reader to ignore the traditional connotations of certain terms
is not entirely enough; many of these evoke automatic responses
99
in the reader and it is oftentimes impossible to ignore or to

suppress a reference to tradition. In order to properly
interpret the characteristics of a given entity, one must
.understand all of the terms employed in its description only
in Costire's terms. If he does not, an inaccurate inter-
pretation may, and probably will, result, based on preconceived
notions of what certain terms actually mean.
But, perhaps the fault is not entirely the author's.
Many of the terms used, when considered objectively, have the
exact meanings with which he endows them. The reader, however,
owing to former conditioning, tends to ignore the objective
meaning of certain terms, in favour of the subjective meaning
it may have acquired through constant and restricted usage
(modulation is but one example).
It is not our intent to offer a list of alternate
terms. We merely wish to point out the one element in an
otherwise sound and logical work, which interferes with the
co:nmunication of its ideas to the reader.
CHAPTER ill
- ------ /------
A COMPARATIVE EVALUATION
' .
In order to oblectively/ assess the relevance of

. , I
I
Cost4re's treatise~ we shall/irst of :.all compare his .presen-

tation and discussion of selected aspects with that of ,some
. I
other modern theorists whose work is available: in Engl is~,

: . ' ' ' .' . . j
· some of !hich was publish~d bef'.ore
·' ;' . .
·!!2!!.· !!:_
. : '·.
styles, • • .
.
19me
I
'!
of which WM published
, , . aft~r. · .In• the ·final ,section
, of. Ithis
. . . •.. I
chapter, we. present. the results of a. b,rief .and restric"¥ed·
' ••, ,• , • • .' 1 ,l ',. • ' > •
anaiysi$ of: three' piece~· in' contrasting' styles,' employing ; ~

'
, l ' '
'
• • ' • ' '
. ' '
the _essential el~men.ts. of. ·'¢o•t4re's' th•ory.

' (
·,.· '<'
des hannonifis. musicales,·. partic~i~x-ly Jn view sif the fact tha.t

it is a. theoretical' treatise, are. the ,numerous ·fO~'Enotes and
.
. , ' \' ,• , •• •.. :•, .. • . . '1, ', '1 ' l ,'
the extensive bibliography

.
that Edmond: CostElre•.has
.. .. .provided.
.
. . . . . . .
.
' ,, ., . ,. .
.
. . ,
•. .·'
'
.One notices' that Olivier··~ssiaen i's Technis;ue ,~_,mon ~angage.',. . . . ' 1 ..,_,'·.
musicai 1 is refe:rred to s~veral times •. ' Indeed;'· i£ the :r;-e,adef ·.' . '
has. ever taken the opport~ity to .. study the latt~r wor~ ;, pe'
. . . ,-·, 'I ,' '. ' . . ... ' ' ', . . ' I ' ' •.' \I '. .'·_'•. ~ 1' ', 1 •
is struck by .the enormous. influen:ce

.
·that Mess·iaen'.seem.s .to .
: ' ' ' ' '
• ,' '' j, 1
have had on cost~re. In. . !

general
. ·. ..
terms. ·thi;s influence
,,
can be
I 'r,:·•..
1
.. . oli vier ·z.1esaiaen, The Techni$ue Music~l Langua:r~,
translated by Robert Sat~rneld. {Pari):,: A!pnonse Leduc, !956 .·
of. ·~
• .r... ',
I 101
seen in the very way that -Costere attempts to erect tables of
characteristics for each o'f the 351 tone sets, each one con-
sidered in its own right and not as a closely- or remotely-
rel utcd cmtity" to the diatonic set and the major scale, and
in the manner in which pitch and rhy.thm elements are inter-
re lated. 2 In specific terms it is seen in the mere presence
and the thorough discussion of the two essential components
of Messiaen• s "charm of impossibilities~•: non-retrogradable
rhythms and modes of limited transposition. 3
Scales of limited transposition are those that con-
tain the same interval succession tw~ce or more within the
octave, causing one or more transpositions meraly to repeat
the pitch content of a previous transposition, albeit enhar-
monically in some cases. Olivier Messiaen enumerates seven
scales of limited transposition and claims that no others
are possible in th~ semitonal system, although~ as will be
shown momentarily, he probably means that no others are ac-
ceptable. Edmond Cost~re, on the other hand, lists fifteen
sets of limited transposition: Messiaen's seven plus eight
others.
Both writers agree that different modes of the same
set do not represent different scales since neither the pitch
content nor the constituent chords are affected by the tone
2Messiaen relates non-retrogradable rhythms with

scales of limited transposition (pages 13 and 56) and Costire
allows pitch sets to be used as rhythmic sets (BOOK FIVE,).
3 rn order to avoid needless confusion, we shall
henceforth substitute "scales II for "modes" in the present
discussion of the two systems.
102
selected to begin the realization of the set, only the order

of the intervals is changed. In addition, Messiaen does not
consider as a distinct set of limited transposition any struc-
ture that is essentially a traditional chord (a diminished-
seventh chord, for example), nor, he claims, any set that
is included in or is a truncated version of one of his chosen
scales. 4 Theoretically then, the difference that exists
between the two writers concerning the total number of scales
of limited transposition can be reconciled in the light of
the fact that Messiaen's total is selective and Costere's is
all-inclusive since he is dealing essentially with abstract
sets. 5 We shall see, however, that Messiaen's selectivity is
not based on consistent criteria.
TABLE I
SCALES OF LIMITED TRANSPOSITION
:
~essiaen Costlre Realization *Total
'
Mode 1 11 11 11 11 11 11 c de £ 1 gi a 1 (c
-1 )
2
Mode 2 i 21 21 21 21 £- -i~- yi - 3
Mode
Mode
3
4
:
!
31
42
31 31
42
C. f~
C dia .e
C Cta f #
ft s
# !i !t!# {~
g gia b (c)
g D ...{c) -
4
6
Mode
Mode
5
6
3)33
3 31 11
✓ 11
c c ? ?
c er e r.!·
!i TcT · -
gi a* b <j.>
6
6
Mode 5 51 c c*a a:i e yi g g a a 1 Cc) 6
7
-- -, - - - -~--- -
*Total number of distinct transpositions possible
4 .
Messiaen, op. cit., pages 54 and 55.
5one can easily determine which ·of the 351 sets are of
limited transposition by consulting the ANALYTICAL TABLES OF
THE SETS at the ·end of· Lois• et ·s·tSles •••• In each of the four
major divisions {tonally stanI'e,aianced, cadential, and
clashing) there is a separate sub-section for the sets of this
particular type. The following list of sets is.derived
103
Both writers agree that there exists but one scale

limited to only two transpositions:_ the whole-tone scale,
roode 1, set 11 111111 11 11.
To Messiaen's mode 2, the half-tone - whole-tone
scale, set 21 21 21 21, Cost~re adds the complementary set
12 12 12 12. The latter is unacceptable to Messiaen because
it merely represents the diminished seventh chord.
Messiaen's mode 3, the whole-tone - two-half-tones
scale, set 31 31 31, is joined in Cost~re's tables by its
complement, set 13 13 13, as well as by set 22 22 22. The
former set is unacceptable to Messiaen because it represents
the augmented triad. The latter set, while not specifically
alluded to by Messiaen is probably not included as a sepa-
rate entity owing to its inclusion in one of its transpositions
in mode 3, of which it would be considered a truncated version.
Ex. 35. Mode 3, set 31 31 31:
#a • le t.i • I t)
' • 0 JD 9
and set 22 22 22:
~ ; e ., • af
'
therefrom: (1) three tonally stable sets are of limited
transposition: 22 22 22 (c ct e £ _gfaf7 31 31 31 ·(c ct d e
f fi .9:# .! ,!i) , . and 33. 3~ Tc:-c#_d_fl i-it> : (2) none-or tne-
E'aianced sets 1s of limitea transposition;- none~the
cadential"'sets :Ls of limited transposition{twelve clashing
sets are orTimited transposition: 11 11 11 II l l l l (c de .
ft g_f at) , 12 12 12 12 ·cc di ft a), 13" 11 13 11 ·cc· e fl atr,
I3 1"3 I3 Cc e .9:t) , 15 lS~(e ff), -21 12 21 12 ·cc· cJ at-f#:-.9: at),
21 21 21 2I' T2. ct di' e· 1•· g i at) , 22 11 22 11~cs: 2,J !-fi .9:-
af), 24 24 (a cJ fJ .9:f, 317.I' JI ll ·cc ct· d' e· ft· i. .9:f· al),
'ff 4f2) (£ _g_f ~ at ;J. i . .9:t· !) , and 51 5I Tc· ct=-d=-dt· ! ft-g: s_i
--
a a •
I
- !
104
Cos~re 1ists nine sets that are ~imited to six real-
izations, four of which correspond to Messiaen's modes 4
(42 42), 5 (33 33), 6 (31 11 31 11) and 7 (51 51). However,
on the basis of the criteria established by Messiaen himself,
one wonders how it is that mode 5 can legitimately exist
(33 33) when in fact it is included in mode 4 (42 42) and is
therefore merely a truncated version of it.
Ex. 36. Mode 4, set 42 42:
9 Q
► ►
ti G
and mode 5, set 33 33:
G Q
►
Q !
Further, how can mode 1, set 11 11 11 11 11 11, be
considered acceptable as an autonomous entity when it is
included in mode 6, set 31 11 31 11?
Ex. 37. Mode 6, set 31 11 31 11:
and mode 1, set 11 11 11 11 11 11:
-,
Messiaen himself specifies th.at sets 22 11 22 11 and
21 12 21 12 are inadmissible because of their inclusion in
mode 2; set 24 24 is unacceptable because it is a truncation
of mode 5 (which, as we have just pointed out, is itself a
truncated version of mode 4); set 13 11 13 11, because of its
inclusion in mode 1 (itself included Ln mode 6). The set
15 15 is unacceptable because it merely represents the tritone.
105
While it seems logical that Messiaen would reject a

simple interval as a mode or scale of limited transposition,
there are some serious inconsistencies in his selection of
scalar patterns that he wished to include in his list. In
addition, the phrase "first mode of limited transposition"
seems to yield a meager amount of information concerning the
scale's characteristics when compared to what can be leamed
of set 111111111111 by consultin9. Costire's tables of
characteristics: clashing (foreign triads have cardinal su-
premacy), atonal (completely deprived not only of constituent
perfect triads, but also perfect fifths), of limited interval
content (lacks all intervals composed of an odd number of
semitones), of median ~ (symmetrical, and contains within
itself the axis of symmetry), revertible (its complement is
identical to it in all respects), transitive (its total car-
dinal density is surpassed by that of the six foreign tones),
of cardinal balance (the cardinal density of each of the
constituent tones is identical), and transposing (its cardinal
density is surpassed by that of one or more of its transposi-
tions).
A non-retrogradable rhythm, it will be recalled, is
one in which the same succession of time-values occurs whether
read from left to right, or right to left. In his treatise,
Messiaen describes and gives examples of some non-retrogradable
patterns, but he does not provide a catalogue of possibilities
such as he does with scales of limited transposition. Neither
does Costire provide a complete catalogue of non-retrogradable
rhythms in ~ !! ·styl·es. • • • However, he does show how. the
106
351 tone sets can be converted to abstract rhythmic sets and
how these rhythmic sets can give birth to complementary and
inverted sets as well as to as many modal mutations as there
are actual articulations in the set. 6 Furthermore he illus-
trates that rhythmic sets need not necessarily comprise twelve
units: they may consist of fewer or more than twelve. He
introduces a category of rhythms that Messiaen had not dis-
cussed: non-invertible rhythms, the rhythmic e~pression of
symmetrical tone sets. Non-invertible rhythms are abstract
sets and refer to the actual order of the rhythmic articulations
iQ the set, and not to the concrete or actual time-values as
do non-retrogradable rhythms. Finally, he demonstrates that
\
a great many actual concretizations of'an abtract set can be

effected and recalls certain processes of rhythmic development,
processes which include Messiaen's principle of added values.
In e£fect then, while Messiaen's discussion of rhythm
is indeed useful ~d was quite unique at the time of its
publication, it seems somewhat dwarfed by Cost~re's thorough,
though not necessarily lengthy treatment of the same musical
element.
It is not our intent to discredit Messiaen because
of certain inconsistencies or a lack of completeness. One
must bear in mind that his treatise is a commentary on his
own musical language and not a ,complete theory of music. Our
aim has been only to underline the relative thoroughness of
6see tots· ·et· ·sty·les • • • v, 4, and Chapter I, Section

B, page 61 of'"tlii present study.
107
I
Cost~re 's treatise.
B. PAUL HINDEMITH
When comparing Cos~re 's .Lois.!!. i:rtyles· ~ •• and

Hindemith's ~ Craft of Musical Composition 7 one- immediately
observes several common bases. For example, both use natural
resonance (the harmonic series) and the notion of gravitational ..
pull as basic elements of their systems; both are concerned
with formulating a theory of music that considers. melody (hor-
izontali ty) and harmony (v~rticality) on the same plane; both
are. seeking a system that does not lose its effecti Veness
outside the diatonic style; both wish· to dissipate the tyranny
that major enjoyed for too long in relation to other scalar ·
formations, to mention but a few.
However, as the systems are developed,-there appears
a widening gap between the two. Hindemith, for· example,
after much discussion o-f a possible acoustical basis for. the
minor triad reverts to the notion that it is simply _an alter~
I
ation of major. He rejects Costere's·idea that minor is a
symmetrical inversion· of major (despit~ its simpligity):
In the domain of visual forms, symmetry is one
of the most important principles of design; tonal and
temporal phenomena, on the other hand, seem to avoid
it. Except in a few of the simplest basic rhythmic
and formal elements . • . i t is hardly to be found
in the field of aural forms. 8
although he does admit that it is one of. the cleverest of
7Paul Hindemith, The Craft of Musical Compo•si•tion,

Book I, translated by .Artnur Mendel(fourth edition; New York,
Associated Music Publishers, Inc., 1945).
8airidemi th,·· ·S?.· cit. , page 76.
108
all the explanations advanced. He goes on to mention that:
Against the theory of symmetrical construction is
also the fact that while it is true that we have a·
minor triad that i$ the opposite of major, we do
not have the opposite of the.complete major tonality • • • 9
The fact is, however, that in Cos-tare's theory we do: the
minor tonality and the minor triad.are .derived
I
not -from an
undertone series (although the resultant complex contains the
same components) but from an inverted -projection of harmonics .• ·
One simple observation, it seems, sufficiently
justifies an inverted harmonic projection: the per-
fect identity (samenes§.} of numbers between the
rising progresi;ion me'asuring frequency and the fal-
ling progression measuring string·lengths, as well
as between the· rising progression measuring string
lengths and the falling progression measuring fre-
quency.10 .
It would seem logical to assert that this exchange of terms
of reference (string lengths and frequency) while leaving
the. actual ratios untouched constitutes an application of the
principle of symmetry to one of, if not the most:basic of
all aural elements: the overtone series, creating a symmetrical
inverted series.
· Hindemith's apparent refusal to accept anything but
acoustical fact as the basis for minor in his sys~em seems
inconsistent with his acceptance of minor as an alteration
of major. By the same token, one wonders why, when employing
the, combination tone theory, 11 he · restricts himself to dif-
ference tones. Should not also the effect of summational tones
9aindemith, 1..2£• cit.

10ct>stE!re,· ~ e~ ·s·tyles ••• ···r,s,2.
11aindemith,· .22• cit., page 61
109
be considered owing to their factual existence in the realm
. of acoustics?
Although Cos~re does not enter into any discussion
of the theories of Paul Hindemith in ~ et styles ••• he
) .
does spend several pages in Mort ~ ·tran·sfigurations de l'
12
.. harmonie commenting on the alleged failure of the system.
I
After briefly presenting a synopsis of Hindemith's system,
Costere discusses the first six measures of the farmer's
/
analysis of Arnold Schoenberg's Klavierstftck, opus 33a,
13
(measures 19 to 29) and follows it with his-own inter~
pretati~n of the same passage •. While he admits that the
theory advanced by Hindemith is rather seductive at ~irst
9'lance and that i:t can be adapted readily .to much traditional
music,. he claims that it fails·. when applie<?, to serial music.
because of its heavy.emphasis on roots.and root movements,
.causing an undue· focus of attention (under the pretext of
resonance) on the low tones of a given entity or succession
of entities when indeed, these low .tones may.only be incidental
or f°oreign [(in measures 21.and. 22, for example·, there. appears
... -
ab which Hindemith.explains
. . .
as ·the· tonal center 6f the two-
measure passage: Costire, on ·the other hanp., claims that the
..
same tone is merely an "~chap~e" and that. the ;real tonic would .
· seem to be B-£lat) • Apparentl_y Costir.e would have openly ac-
cepted Hindemith's system if it qoul.d have shown that music
that pretended or claimed· to remove itself from the pri_nciples
. 12 .
.· .· See p~ges 30 ·to 3.4.
13. · ·
Hinde~ith, .£e~, cit., pages 217.;.218.
110
of root movement was·indeed never able to.escape .these prin-
ciples.
Costere points out other inconsistencies in Hindemith's
14
system. For instance, after deciding to restrict his oper-
ations to the first six partials of the series because of the
difficulty of incorporating the seventh, eleventh, etc.
partials into the semitonal system, Hindemith incl~des in his
table of intervals (series 2) an e-flat (a tone
- .
foreign to
.
the first part .of the series and acceptable only as an alter-
ation of the third of the major triad) and immediately after
that, ab-flat (only an approximatio~ of the seventh harmonic
which he claimed not to want to take into account).
Costere poses yet' other.questions concerning series
· series
l , th e me l od ic . ' : lS why d oes th e t one ~ appear b e f ore
the tone e when indeed the former was rationalized and deemed
admissible in terms of the latter which itself appears within
the first six partials of the series on c? Why does e-flat
appear before a-flat considering that a-flat is to c what
e-flat is to 2,, and£ appears before i? 'He continues:
The same arbitrariness prevails over the successive
appearance of d as the uppe 7 fifth of j, of_b-flat
as the fundamental of a series whose fifth is f, of
d-flat as the fundamental of a series whose third is
f, of b as the upper fifth of e and 2,-flat as the
Iower fifth of d-flat.and nothing seems to give
any further justification to an order which, by vir-
tue of the same generating principles differently
applied, could be altogether different.16
14 ~ .9.!f transfi@r·ati•ons, pages. ·32 and 33.

•••
15
aindemith; ~- cit., page 33 •
16~ ~ ·tran·s•figurations, • • • page 33; my translation •
111
Before concluding this rather superficial comparison

of the theories of Edmond Cost~re and Paul Hindemith, we shall
briefly discuss the concepts of stability and instability as
they relate to the latter's Table of Chord-Groups. It will
be recalled that this table divides chords into two groups--
A and B--depending on whether the entity is non-resolutive
(A) or stable, .or resolutive (B) or dynamic. Within each
group there are different categories depending primarily on
the location of the root and the interval content. Since
Cos~re does not put any emphasis as such on roots or root
movements, our intent here is simply to compare each author's
assessment of the entities' stability or dynamism.
Hindemith predicates the stability or instability
(dynamism) of an entity on the presence (unstable) or absence
(stable) of one or more tritones in the sonority. Cost~re's
criteria for assessing stability and instability are slightly :i
more complex in that he considers the entity from three points

of view: cardinal stability, tonal stability and transpositional 1
stability. 17 If the sum of the cardinal coefficients of the

constituent tones of an entity surpasses, or is at least equal
to that of the same number of densest foreign tones, the
enity is said to be dense and cardinally stable. If the op-
posite conditions exist the entity is said to be transitive
and cardinally unstable.
If a constituent perfect triad (or fifth in the case
17cost~re, Lois !:!:, sty·1es, •••. BOOK THREE, and chapter

I, section B, page rrabove. .
112
of neutral sets) surpasses,, or is at least equal to a foreign
perfect triad in density, the entity is said to be tonally
stable in the first case, and balanced in the second. If one
foreign perfect triad surpasses all others in cardinal deQsity,
the set is said to be cadential; if two or more foreign per-
fect triads share the same highest density, the entity is
said to be clashing •. In both these cases the entity is con-
sidered to be tonally unstable.
If the cardinal density of an entity is equal to, or
surpasses that of one or more of its transpositions, it is
said to be !!.2!!-transposing and transpositionally stable. In
the opposite circumstance, the entity is said to be transposing
and transpositionally unstable.
In TABLE II, page 113, not all of the chords ·appearing
in Hindemith's table have been analyzed. Two chords from
each group were selected at random. If, however, there was no
unanimous agreement between the two analyses as to the sta-
bility or instability of the entity, the remainder of the
given chords were examined. We note that Hindemith's chords
were considered as sets in terms of Cos~re's theory and not
as particular modes or realizations. 18
We observe that as far as groups I, II, III and VI
18 since the notion of re-enforcement (Lois et styl·es,

••• IV, 2) is applicable only in a real musicarcontext, its
effects have not been considered in this particular analysis
of Hindemith's chord.a employing Cos t!re 's approach. We note
that, in any event, re-enforcement has no direct relationship
to rootness1 it is related to the stability or instability of
an entity from the cardinal, tonal and transpositional points
of view.
113 I.
!
TABLE II
HINDEMITH'S TABLE OF CHOIID GROUPS

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
Chord Pitch Rep. number CHARACTERISTICS

iGroup content* of tones
carainaJ. Tonal. Transp.
(*from ba se c)
l** 14 13 12
AI 2 ** · ~ dense balanced non-tr.
IAI · · cfa 14 12 13 dense balanced non-tr.
(* •.all other in this group ha'\i e the same character sties)
BIIa cebb 15 11 13 trans. cadential transp.
1Biib1
ces~
cew
13 12 12 11
12 12 1111 11
trans.
trans.
cadential
clashing
transp.
transp.
cae 15 11 11 11 trans. cadential transp.
IBIIb 2 cdf1bb 13 13 11 11 trans. cadential transp.
ccifab' 13 1112 12 . trans. cadential transp.
BIIb3
caer*i•a•
cdfl2, -
11
13
11 11 111111 trans.
11 13 11 trans.
clashing
clashing
transp.
transp.
IAIII 1 cg~d · 21 14 11 11 dense balanced non-tr.

16 12 11 dense balanced non-tr.
IAIII 2 ~atJfab 23 12 13 dense ton. stb. non-tr.
--
cfaElJ°d 21 11 12 13 dense balanced non-tr.
BIV1 ceg~bdb 22 1i 12 11 clashing

.
trans. transp.
ceb ab 22 15 11 cadential trans. transp.
cf#~l5" 24 24 clashing dense non-tr.
cga 11 14 23 ton. stb. dense non-tr.
ceff~ 11 11 11 24 cadential trans. transp.
cf 2.£ ~• 33 33 ton. stb. dense non-tr.
BIV 2 cf9baeb same as the first sonority i 1 BIV1
caf~J:Sab 24 11 22 dense cadential non-tr.
Cf acfe 31 11 12 12 dense balanced transp.
~~5¥1.- 23 22 12 dense clashing non-tr.
cebf 25 23 dense balanced non-tr.
certb ,23 11 14 dense ton. stb. non-tr.
cebbe"b
-- 25 1112 dense clashing
'
non-tr.
-~
AV 13 13 13 trans. clashing transp.
b · 14 14 11 dense
. . .
ton. ..stb. non-tr.
. . .:
BVI cebgb 15 12 12 trans. clashing transp.

S!.~~a 12 12 12 12 trans. clashing transp.
114
are concerned both systelflS agree on the stability or instability

of the component chords. However, in group IV1 we notice that
two of the chords (numbers 4 and 6 in Hindemith's table) show
absolutely no trace of instability as far as Costere is con-
cerned, and that another (number 3) is only tonally unstable1
the remaining three entities are unstable in all respects.
Similarly, in group IV2 two of the entities (chords number 5
and 6) show no resolutive tendency at all, four (numbers 2,
.
3,4 and 7) show instability only in terms of one of Costare's
three criteria, only the first chord in the group is unstable
in all respects. And finally, the two chords of group V show
absolutely opposing characteristics.
It is not our intention to attempt a reconciliation
of the two systems. Such a reconciliation would probably re-
quire the formulation of a third system. We only wish to
point out some of the differences and some of the similarities
that obtain between the two. Indeed, it is beyond the scope
of the present study to attempt a complete critical analysis
of both treatises.
It is unfortunate that Hindemith did not have (or take)
the opportunity to refute the arguments that Costare advances
against his system. While he may have been able to defeat
some of them, it seems doubtful to this writer that he would
have been able to obtain an acquittal on the charge contained
in the following statement:

And one remains confused in the face of this ac-
cumulation of arbitrary premises and errors of reasoning
in a theory which was already defeated by the following
intrinsic contradiction: a complete subordination to
115
the fundamental principles of resonance and the

pretense of explaining music whosi 9precise
chpracteristic is . to ~efute them.
C. NICOLAS SLONIMSKY
Unlike the treatises of Messiaen and Hindemith,

Slonimsky's Thesaurus of Scales and Melodic Patterns 20 is
nut mentioned or referred to in either of Costere's books
even though it predates them by seven and fifteen years re-
spectively.21 As we have already pointed out, 22 one of the
most significant contributions of Lois et styles ••• is the
compendium of possible sets in the se~itonal system along
with a table of the essential characteristics of each.
Slonimsky's Thesaurus is very closely-related to
Lois et styles ••• in that it also presents a fairly complete
catalogue of scales (progressions of tones changing direction
only at terminal-points) and melodic patterns (melodic figures
in which changes of direction from ascending to descending,
or vice versa, occur before arriving at terminal points)1 we
stress here, however, that no claim of completeness is made
by Slonimsky. The p~esent study shall concern itself with
the "scales" aspect of the Thesaurus • • • since it is in
19 costere, Mort ou transfigurations, ••• pages 33

and 34, translationnune-.-
lONicolas Slonimsky, Thesaurus of Scales and Melodic
Patterns (New York: Coleman-Ross Company, Inc., I947).
21 Probably due to the fact that it is not available
in French or German and Coste!re seems to have restricted him-
self to references in these languages. ·
22 see above, Chapter II, section D, page 88 ff.
116
this respect that it can be related to Cos~re's treatise.
Slonimsky's derivation of scales differs somewhat
from Cost~re's in that the pitch content is the result of the
projection of different unit-intervals, from the minor second--
equal qivision of the octave into twelve parts--to the major
seventh--equal division of eleven octaves into twelve parts.
once the base scale yielded by each of these projections has
been determined, he proceeds to develop further scales and a
variety of melodic patterns that are generically related to
the original material: new scales are developed by inserting
one or more tones between each of the principal tones of the
progression, a process called interpolation.
Ex. 38. Interpolation of one tone in the tritone progression:
'. • 0
New patterns are developed by inserting one or more tones

either below each of the principal tones of the progression--
infrapolation, or above--ultrapolation, as well as any com-
bination of the three procedures.
Ex. 39. Infrapolation of one tone in the tritone progression:
I • y fo q•
~
Oltrapolation of one tone in the tritone progression:
"
Infra-interpolation in the tritone progression:
,,. . Q
117
We mention at this point that infrapolation and ultrapolation,
as well as any combination of procedures of which they may be
a part, transform a scale into a melodic pattern because they
cause changes of direction to occur other than at terminal
points. Consequently these procedures are not of great con-
cern to us for the purpose of this comparison, since many (if
not all) of these melodic patterns can be viewed merely as
permutations of one scale or another. For example, pattem
number 53, the ultrapolation of one tone in the tritone pro-
gression has exactly the same pitch content as scale number
1, the interpolation of one tone in the same progression.
Ex. 40. Pattern 53 Scale 1
=&
;; . : ► IE 1p I •
When reduced to sets, we discover that they are both 24 24,
and that the only difference that exists between them is the
order in which the pitches occur. Also, pattern number 570,
ultrapolation of one note in the whole-tone progression has
exactly the same pitch content as the semitone progression
(set XII) of which, in essence, it is but a permutation.
Ex. 41.
Similarly and conversely it can be shown that many

of Costlre's sets are mere truncations of a Slonimsky pro-
' ·,'
gression. For example, set 13 11 13 11 on C is basically
the whole-tone progression with suppression of the second and
fifth scale degrees.
118
Ex. 42. Set 13 11 13 11:
Slonimsky deals with the matter of harmonization as

it relates to the various scales and patterns by providing
some very basic supporting chordal patterns either based
solely on the pitch content of the scale (autochordal harmo-
nization) or based on materials foreign to the scale, or any
~ombination of the two. Cost~re, on the other hand, considers
chords in the same light as scales: abstract sets whose com-
P?nents are presented simultaneously (or vertically) rather
that successively (horizontally) as with scales. The matter
of harmonization is left entirely up to the composer: he
could, for instance, select one set for melodic use and an-
other, with either identical or opposite characteristics, for
harmony~
The chords appearing in Slonimsky's treatise under
the heading "Syntax of Chords" 23 can only be superficially
analyzed using Cost~re's method since these concrete ar-
rangements of tones would have to be reduced to abstract sets
in order that their essential characteristics be determined.
'
By so doing, we remove and discount one of the most important

'-.}
characteristics or properties with which they are endowed by

Slonimsky: voicing, that is, the manner in ~hich the pitches
, are spatially distributed. For example, the three chords
labelled respectively "Mother Chord", "Grandmother Chord" and
119
"Chord of the Minor 23rd" would all have the same character-
istics when analyzed according to Cost~re •s theory,· except
for the incidence of re-enforcement which would alter certain
.characteristics but would not highlight the design aspect on
which Slonimsky seems to place so much emphasis: set XII
which is tonally stable, polytonal, binary, of multiple
intervals, dense, cardinally balanced, non-transposing,
.
mod ul a t 1ng, ' 24 However, th ey are presented as
and non- t on1c.
independent entities by Slonimsky because of their design
peculiarities: the "Mother Chord" (Ex. 43a) contains all
twelve chromatic tones and eleven different intervals; the
"Grandmother Chord" (Ex. 43b) also contains all twelve chro-
matic tones and eleven different intervals but the tones are
so distributed that, above the tritone !_ eb acting as the
axis, there occurs a systematic and symmetric inversion of
the intervals found below the same axis; the "Chord of the
Minor 23rd" (Ex. 43c) also contains all twelve chromatic
tones but its particular property is that it also contains
four mutually-exclusive triads: G major, F major, E-flat minor
and D-flat minor.
'\
Ex. 43.
..,,.
24 oerived from the Analytical Tables of the Sets

at the end of ~ ~ st:Yles. • ••
120
Rather interesting is the concordance of terminology
relating to the Major and Minor Bitonal Chords: set 22 11 22
11 is bitonal and major, set 21 12 21 12 is bitonal and minor.
However, Cost~re goes on to give other characteristics of these
entities (we mention here those that are proper to the Major
Bitonal Chord): clashing (several foreign triads exceed the
density of the constituent triads on £-sharp, f, ~ and b);
revertible (its complement has identical characteristics and
·is identical to it): transitive (the densest tones in the
cardinal chart are foreign to the set, f and b); transposing
(its transpositions up or down a minor second and a perfect
fourth have a higher density); modulating (there are the
same number of intervening tones between the root, third and
fifth of each of the constituent triads); non-tonic (two
constituent triads share the highest density). We mention
that these characteristics are equally applicable to scales
numbers 7, 9 and 12 (interpolation of two notes in the tri-
tone progression), to patterns numbers 61,' 63 and 67 (ultra-
polation of two notes, tritone progression), patterns numbers
86, 91 and 92 (infrapolation of two notes, tritone progression),
patterns numbers 100, 101 and 105 (infra-interpolation) and
others, all of which are either permutations and/or transpositions
or different modes of the set 22 11 22 11.
Thus far we have observed no real conflict between
the data provided by Slonimsky's treatise and that provided
by Coatlr•'•• Rather, one seems to act very well as the
complement of the others by reducing any one of Slonimsky's
121
scales or pattern_s or cl'l'ords to its abstract set, one is
able to determine all of its cardinal properties, not just
the progression from which it was derived and through the
application of what procedure it was concretized; on the other
hand, although admittedly a lengthier process and perhaps a
slightly less useful one, once Cost~re's set has been selected
because of its particular properties, one is able to uncover
a great number of the permutations to which it can be subjected
·as well as some of the possible developments that it can under-
go without sacrificing unity of design (although it may under-
gp an integral intervallic change). However the essentiality
of the change would tend to vary, at least in this writer's
opinion, with the composer's attitude towards foreign tones.
As an example, let us consider the whole-tone set 11 11 11
1111 11 as it relates to pattern number 570, the ultrapolation
of one note in the whole-tone progression. When the latter
is considered as an abstract set it assumes the essential
characteristics of the semitone progression, set XII.
Set XII
But in a less strict sense it can be viewed as a simultaneous

employment of set 111111111111 (on C) with its- complement
(or transposition) in the mode of D-sharp, such as Slonimsky
does when he includes it as a complementary scale containing
122
two mutually-excl~sive whole-tone scales. (We recall that
this particular set is revertible and that, by definition,
its complementary scale has identical interval content and
characteristics). In the least strict sense it can be con-
sidered set 11 11 11 11 11 11 with the insertion of an ap-
poggiatura between each of the component tones.
In sum then, the unity of design that is provided
for in Slonimsky's approach is complemented by the unity of
intervallic and characteristic structure that is provided
for in Costere's, and vice versa; the abstract presentation
made by Cos~re is complemented by the concrete presentation
of Slonimsky, and vice versa.
There are other points of coincidence between Lois
et styles ••• and the Thesaurus • • • although they are not
of the same significance as scales and patterns, and sets:
rhythm, symmetry and complementarity. In treatises specifically
concerned with scales, and to a lesser extent harmony, one
.does not usually expect to find much discussion of, or much
emphasis placed on rhythm. Although Slonimsky does not treat
rhythm as exhaustively as does Cost~re, it is nevertheless
most interesting to note his inclusion of a section dealing
with the vertical 'aspect of rhythm as it relates to employing
scalar materials, 25 and the interrelationship of pitch and
rhythm.
While symmetry does not occupy the primordial rank
25 s lonimsky, op. cit. , "Polyrhythmic Scales, " page

224 ff., and "Polytonal Polyrhythmic Scales," page 226 ff.
123
in Slonimsky's outlook on scales and patterns as it does
in Costere's very approach to his subject matter, one must
not overlook the fact of its presence as a means of creating
unity of design. The principle of symmetry is applied first
of all in the development of scales and patterns derived from
. progression--symme
a b asic ' t ric
' . 1 a. t'ion 26 or mirror
' t erpo
in ' in-
' .
27 · · ·
terval progressions for example, and secondly to the develop-
ment or "invention" of chorQ.s such as the "Grandmother Chord 28 11
•
Finally, the matter of scale complementarity, although

again, not given the importance that it is in Costere's work,
·· 29
is dealt with by Slonimsky. As wa~ the case with many of
·the other elements of mutual interest, Slonimsky's presentation
took the form of concrete formulae (in this case, two-octave
scales in which the tones given in the second octave formed
the complement of.the tones given in the first), whereas
Cost~re's consisted of an abstract application of the principle
to all scales, but emphasizing in particular those hexatonic
sets having the particular property of being their own comple-
ment: revertible sets.
It would be presumptuous to conclude that"'both writers
are in agreement concerning all matters within the common
I
26 Insertion of notes at equal intervals from respective

· · . pivotal point&(, resul t~1;1~ in invertible progressions. See
'Thesaurus • ., I
• page
.
v111.
27 sc~les and patterns in which the descending figure
is · the melodic inversion of the ascendi~g one.:· 'l'h:e·saurus, viii •
. 28 see page 119 above.
' .
29
s1onimsky, ~- cit., page 188.
124
scope· of their writings. On the other. hand, . it ·appears ob..,.

. . . .
vious that among the three treatises published before Lois !:J:,
styles ••• that have been selected for discussion and comparison
here, Slonimsky' s The·saurus of Scales ~ Melodic Patterns
contains far fewer major points of d.i,.saccord than the other
two. That· it finds its complement in .Costere's Lois· et styles
••• is no doubt due to the fact that Sloni:msky's objective
more closely resembled that of Costere than did that of Mes~
siaen or Hindemith.
D. HOWARD HANSON
Howard Hanson's Harmonic Materials of Modern Music 30

I
appeared six years after Costere 1 s Lois et styles ••• and
parallels the latter.treat~se in many respects. Under-
standably, the formal treatment of the comm.on elements is not
identical, but again we point out that our prime objective
is to underline ~e major concurrences. that exist between
the two works, not to·discuss minor details of presentation.
Logically, the initial step taken by each writer is
to 11
••• reduce a problem of theoretically infini~e propor-
tions to a finite problem. 1131 Hanson's reduction process
consists of establishing a uniqueness- criterion for
.
.
various
entities based on their interval content. His analytic
symbols divulge the interval differences that a~e created by
each different component tone with each other component tone
30 Howard Hanson, Harmonic Materials of Modern Music

(New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 19b0).
31 · ... · ··~· ·
Hanson, · op. · cit. , page 7 •
125
in the sonority (through pitch-class equivalence all £'S,

for example, are held to be equivalent regardless of their
location in the sonority or the number of times that they
occur). Further, since an interval and its inversion are
held to be equivalent, one symbol serves to represent both
the perfect fifth and the perfect fourth ·(2), the major
third and the minor sixth (m), the minor third and the major
sixth (!!_) , the major second and the minor seventh (!_) , the
minor second and the major seventh (~)1 the tritone is re-
presented by the symbol t. An index (from 2 through 6 for
the tritone and from 2 through 12 for the other intervals)
accompanying the symbol serves to denote the presence in
the sonority of two or more of the interval represented
by that symbol (the index 1 is not expressed; the mere pre-
sence of the symbol representing a given interval-class in
the analytic symbol is sufficient). For example, the sonority
£ f bb would be represented by the symbol p 2s, indicating
that it contains two perfect fourths (£ to f and f to b-flat)
and one minor seventh (£ to b-flat). Cost~re, on the other
hand, bases the uniqueness of an entity on its pitch content
and describes it by its representative number of tones (14
14 11 for£ f bb), or in some cases by its related represent-
ative number of intervals (55 2 for the same sonority). The
latter, it seems obvious, is somewhat analagous to Hanson's
symbol in that it reveals what and how many intervals are
contained in the sonority: two intervals containing five
semitones each and one containing two semitones, for a total
of three. intervals. However, since Cost~re is primarily
126
concerned with pitch and not interval content, he rarely

employs the representative number of intervals. We mention
it here only to show that there exists an intrinsic relation-
ship between the two systems. In TABLE III, page 142 of the
present study, the reader will find the unique triads in the
twelve-tone system accompanied by Cost~re's, Hanson's as well
as Forte's analysis thereof.
Hanson's analysis does not take into account some
·of the factors that condition the particular "sound" of an
entity, factors such as doubling(s), accentuation (dynamic,
agogic, metric, etc.), highest- or lowest-sounding tones.
Cost~re's system, on the other hand, through the principle
of re-enforcement allows for the consideration of such factors,
most likely because of his concern for the relative stability
or dynamism of an entity, in addition to the mere fact of
its existence. The following example will serve to illustrate
the principle of re-enforcement. In discussing the closing
chord of Richard Strauss' Death and Transfiguration, Hanson
Ex. 45. Closing chord in Death and Transfiguration:
,.,
.
71"
r
,,
.... --
4!!1
--- r
r~
,
--
:!:
l'T
discounts doubli~gs, tripli~gs, etc. of certain component

tones, claiming that· "the interval c to s_ performs the same
I
127
function in the s·onority regardless of the manner of the

doublings of voices. 032 Conversely, Cos~re's analysi°s of
the same chord would not only take into account ·these and
s"imilar doublings, but also the fact that £ appears at either.
extremity of the construct. Consequently, the table of car-
dinal gravity of the triad c· ! [, in which £, · f, . .s. and b are
of equal cardinal density, would be modified accordingly,
producing a table that shows·£ and· .S. to be of the same, and
highest density, thus rendering the final chord more car-
dinally stable than in its abstract form, through the agency
of re-enforcement. 33
Ex. 46. The .cardinal chart of·£!.[, set 14 13 12 on G, in
its mode of C.
Cardinal table:
-2 (1 1 1) 1 -c~ 1) 2 (1 1 0 2)

I
Major: 5 (4 3 3 4 5 2 5 4 3 3. 4)
Inv. minor: ('S" 3 3 4 4 3 4 s" 3 4 2 2_)
--
Re-enforcement of:
c: 8 8 0 0 0 8 0 8 0 0 o- 8
e: 0 0 0 3 3 3 0 0 0 3 0 3
.s_: 4 0 4 0 0 0 4 4 4 0 0 0
Re-enforced
cardinal table: 14 (9 5 4) 4 (13 5),!i (5 4 0 13)
Re-enforc~d table of tonal gravity:

Major:\ · ·32 (27 14 18 22 31 14' ·32 23 17 18 22)
Inv. minor: I
·(~ 18 19 22 22 22 31' TI° 18 22 9 31)
I
.. ' .. ' ', ..

32 1 . •
H1on, op. cit., pages 7 and

• • .
a.
33
c d it~cardinal tones are re,..;eriforced by 8 units
128
We note that the effect of re-enforcement on the tonal

and transpositional gravity (in this case they are identical)
of the triad£! i is less significant because the entity
possessed tonal (it is a balanced set) and transpositional
(it is non-transposing) stability before re-enforcement was
even considered( there is, however, a decrease of two in the
humber of foreign perfect triads sharing cardinal supremacy
with £ ! i·
Obviously the theory of re-enforcement enables the
analyst to uncover certain subtleties concerning a given
sonority, but it also presents him w,i.th the concomitant prob-
lem of deciding when and by how much certain tones of an
entity should .come under its influence. It seems· cl·ear that
Cost~re's!interpretation of the chord presented above is more
informative than Hanson's, and that it more truly describes
I
the "sound" phenomenon. That Strauss chose to place a£ at
the lower and,upper extremes of the verticality in question,
and that he $:ected to provide it with seven £'s, five i's
and four e's must be more than sheer coincidence.
· After acquainting the reader with the bases of his
system of analysis, Hanson proceeds to a discussion of the
theory of involu~ion, a theory designed to underline the fact
" that every sonority in music has a counterpart ob-

tained by taking the 'inverse· ratio of the original sonority." 34.
(one for each of the additional· e's (6) and one for the c 'at
· each extremity of the sonorityf I and its cardinal tones-by 4
units. (one for each ·additional· 2,)1 and· e ·and its cardinal tones
by 3 'units (one for each additional· e)'.- .
34 ,,,, . ·
· Hanson,·~-· cit., page 17 ff.
129
More simply expressed, it is the theory of mirror relation-
ship that may exist between two entities: "The projection
down from the lowest tone of a given' chord, using the same
intervals in the order of their occurrence in the given chord,
we 'may call the invo1u•tion of the given chord. 1135 This
particular aspect of Hanson's theory is ·the counterpart of
what we find in ~~·styles ••• under the· heading"hor-
izontal symmetry" 36 and in tile study of mirror relationships:
" • • • for every sound complex there exists a corresponding
complex in which the intervals comprising the former appear
in inversion. These two complexes will be called relative
'
one t o the o ther, • • • 1137
i
Where Hanson provides for three types of involution
(simple, in which the involuted chord differs i n ~ from
the given chJd, isOlnetric, in which the involuted_sonority
has the same kind of sound as the original, and enharmonic,
in which the involuted sonority and· the original contain the
same tones in different octaves) , 38 Costare provides for two
types of relative entities _(symmetrical sonorities, in which
both contain the.same projection of intervals whe:ther read
upward or downward, and asymmetrical sonorities, in which
the previously described condition does not exist). To
. Hanson's simple involution corresponds Cost~re's asymmetrical
35 Hanson, loc. cit.

36
cost~e ,· Wis• '!:!:: ·s·tyles, • • • .I,· 5, 1 ff.·
-
37 . ·. · ..
Costare, op~· cit., x,· .§..,• 4.
38 .. - -.
Hanson, ~- gg_. ~ pages· 18 and 19.
130
relative sonorities. For instance, the simple involution
of the major-minor seventh chord g_ !!!. g_ bb is d f ab£., a
different type (half-diminished seventh) of chord. The two
relative sonorities are asymmetrical since in the former the
order of half-steps reading upward is 4 33, and in the latter
the succession of half-steps reading upward is 33 4; converse-
ly, reading downward, in the original the order of half-steps
is 33 4, whereas in its relative, the order is 4 33.
To Hanson's isometric and enharmonic involutions cor-
respond Cost~re's symmetrical relative sonorities. For ex-
ample, the major seventh chord a.!!!. g_ b involutes to db f ab c
producing the same type of sonority. The order of half-steps
in each sonority, whether read upward or downward is 4 3 4.
The augmented triad g_ ~ gt involutes enharmonically (as well
isometrically since the same type of sonority results) to fb
ab g,, and .. in each the order of half-steps is 44 whether read
upward or downward.
Those sonorities which Hanson labels isometric
(sonorities formed by combining an entity with its involution)
are also referred to by Cost~re as symmetrical sonorities,
since they contain the same order of intervals whether con-
sidered from the lowest tone upward, or the highest tone
downward. Isomeric sonorities (sonorities having identical
interval content but which are.not involutions of one another)
are not discussed as related entities by Cost~re owing to the
fact that each has a different pitch content than the other
and would therefore constitute unique pitch sets.
One final and significant observation must be made
131
concerning the attitudes of both theorists toward the mir-
ror process, beyond the mere formalization of the theory:
it is the emphasis that both Cos~re and Hanson place on the
' \ '
parity that must obtain between a sono~ity and its involution

or its symmetrical inversion. Hanson's statement:
In order to avoid any implication that the
involution is, so to speak, a less important
sonority, we shall in analyzing the sonprities
construct both the first sonority and its in-
volution upward by the 3§imple process of reversing
the intervallic order.
would appear to be a sort of symmetrical inversion of
Cost~re's practice of
• • • identifying minor triads by their highest-
sounding tone, the one we hold to be the real root.
In order to avoid confusion, we shall also use the
term inver·ted minor triad to recall its subservience
to the law of symmetry. Finally, from time to time,
we shall underline the major-minor symmetry by
spelling minor scales from their tonics downward. 40
Furthermore, in accordance with the practice suggested by
Hanson in the paragraph cited above, Cost~re includes in-
volutions in his tabl~ of sets as unique entities.
The theory of complementary sonorities (those sonor-
ities formed of the pitches in the twelve-tone system that
are not components of a given sonority, or, more simply,
those sonorities formed of the residue pitches) is another
element upon which both Cost~re and Hanson place much
emphasis. They both stress the peculiar relationship that
exists between two complementary sonorities, although each
39
aarmon'ic· Materi•als • • • page 21.
4·0r..ots· et· ·~t:l','l~~ ••• I, §_, 7.
132
from his own point of view. Hanson states that nthe comple-
mentary scale will always have the same~ of intervallic
analysis) that is, the predominance of the same interval or
intervals" 41 and that the "importance of this principle can
hardly be ov,~estimated, since it allows the composer to
expand any tonal re·gion with c·omplete· con·st·s•tency .- 1142 . Cos-
. tire says essentially the same thing when he writes:
We shall see that there exist some remarkable
affinities between two complementary scales: if
one is cardinally stable, for instance, the other
is also; if one is cardinally unstable, likewis·e
the other; and, the order of relationships of
their.transpositions is perfectly identical,
whe:ther we are considering rela~ionships by com- 43
mon tones, or relationships by cardinal attractions.
Particular stress is placed on the theory of comple-
mentation as it relates to six-tone sonorities, or hexads.
Again, while the formal preseritation differs slightly, the
subject matter is essentially the same. Both theorists
mention three basic types of complementary relationship as
being possible between two hexads: (1) the complementary.
hexad is merely a transposition of the original; {2) the
. complementary hexad is the involution or symmetri_cal in-
version of the original; (3) the complementary hexad bears
no relationship to the original:other than its identical
interval. content. The six-tone sonorities of the tirst and
second types are referred tolby Costere as revertible· scales
/
41aa·nnonic• Materials,· • • • p~ge 263 ~:
· 4·2H·annon•i~• Ma·te·rt·a·is ., · • • • !.2.£. cit.

43
: :t:ois: 'et· '.~·tyi~~ . . . III,~ ~, 3 ~
133
that are either symmetrical or asymmetrical, or that revert

to symmetrical inversions of themselves. Obviously, the third
type contains those scales that belong to neither of the other
two categories. Hanson's designations are much the same, but
he seems to imply that only isometric hexads may belong to
the first category. 44 It is true that the hexad selected as
an example of that particular type--p 5 m2 n 3 s 4 d--is an
isometric sonority, or in Cost&re's terminology, symmetrical,
and that the hexad selected as an example of the second type--
p3 m4 n 3 s 2 d 2 t--is not. However, if one considers the
asymmetrical set 32 13 21--p 3 m4 n 3 s 2 d 3--and its complement,
one realizes that even though the original hexad is not
isometric (order of intervals: 2 '1 4 3 1), the complementary
hexad is a transposition at the tritone, and not an involution
of the original.
Ex. 47. Set 32 13 21 and its complement:
. ii ~ r.i ~
IJi ; #ii ,. G
I
'
9
d
However, this and other possible discrepancies between
Hanson and Cost&re on the matter of complementarity does not
efface the striking similarity in their•basic approach to the
subject.
Other obvious similarities exist between the two
treatises. For example, both writers are concerned that the
44 Harmonic Materials, • • • page 250: "A more compli-

cated example of complementary hexads occurs when the original
hexad is not isometric."
134
subtleties of modal mutation 45 be fully appreciated, and

devote several pages to a discussion .of the subj_ect. Also,
both theorists allude to the. ·important role of complementary
sets of hexads in formulating symmetrical twelve-tone rows. 46
Again, both not only provide catalogues of the scalar pos-
sibilities in the twelve-tone system, but concur on the total
. 47
number of possible formations.
There also exist some less obvious similarities, one
of which we should like to mention at this 1 time. There would
seem to be no apparent counterpart in Hanson's system for
what Cost~re terms the vicinal relationship of transpositions,
and the somewhat related notion of scales-of limited transpo-
sition. Vicinal relationship, H:. will be recalled, is based
~n the number of common tones, if-any, that exist between a
given set and its various transpositions. However, Hanson's
analytical symbols themselves provide the same information.
For any given sonority it can be shown that transposition at
interval X will have as many tones in common with the original
' '
sonority as the index of interval X in the'analytic expression
of the original, except in the case of the tritone-where the ·-
number of common.tones will be double the index. If interval
45
Referred to by Hanson as modal modulation, it
consists of moving from one tonal center to another within
the same pitch set or series. · ua·rmonic Materials , • • • page
56 ff. ,, and· LOis et ·s·ty·les ·• ~. , IV, 4.
46Hannonic Materi~l~ ,· page ·373 ff., and Lois et
atyles • • • , VII, 3.
47irarxnon'ic Materi:als, • • • page '356 ff., and· Lois et
styles ••• , the synoptic table of the 351 sets. - -
135
X did not appear in the original sonority, there will be no
common tones between the original and its transposition at
that interval. For example, the whole-tone scale (m6 s 6 t 3 )
projected above a given tone will have six common tones with
its transpositions up or down a major third, up or down a
major second, and up or down a tritone. It will have no tones
in common with its transpositions up or down a perfect fifth,
up or down a minor third, and up or down a minor second.
Further, since th~ entity in question contains only six tones,
it is obvious that it is a scale of limited transposition.
On the other hand, the triad"p m n" will share one common tone
with its transpositions up or down a perfect fifth, up or
down a major third, and up or down a minor third. It will
have no common tones with any of its other transpositions.
Cost~re's table of vicinal relationship for the major triad
(set 14 13 12) yields the same information: 3 (0 0 1 1 1
0) indicates that the three-tone set in question shares one
common tone with its transpositions up or down three, four
and five half-tones; it shows that there are no common tones
with any of the other transpositions.
Obviously there also exist many differences between
Cost~re's treatise and that of Hanson: the pitch-orientation
of Cost~re as compared to the interval-orientation of
Hanson 1 the orderly derivation. of tonal materials by various
types of projection in Hanson, just as in Slonimsky, as
compared to the rather random derivation in Cost~re, .to name
but two. But the differences seem dwarfed· by the sirnilari ties
between ,the two. It would not be illogical to assert that
· 136
the differences tend to confirm the authenticity and original-

ity of each work on the one hand, while the similarities seem
to bear witness to the veracity and significance of their
content on the other.
E. ALLEN FORTE
' I.
Although Allen Forte's "A Theory of,Set-complexes for

Music" 48 postdates Edmond cost~re 's Lois !! Styles ••• -by some
ten years, it is interesting to note the many elements that
are treated somewhat similarly. Obviously there also many dis-
crepancies that transcend the mere formalization of the data
presented in each work. The purpose of the present section is
to underline the major concordances and to.explain some of the
differences between the two theories.
The major and primary concern of each of the writers is
to reduce the large number of possible combinations·of tones
in the twelve-pitch system (1,302,060,157 ordered sets according
to Forte, and close to 25,000 possible scales or unordered sets
according to Cos~re) arid to study the properties of each
distinct set and/or the relationships that exist between it and
other sets. The first step in the reduction process consists
of discounting the ordering or permutations of the elements of
each pitch-set 49 and it is here that we encounter the first
48
Allen Forte, "A Theory of Set~omplexes for Music,"
The Journal of Music Theory, volume 8, number 2, 1964 (Winter),
pages l36 to7:'83.
49 A ·pitch-set is defined in Forte, op. cit., page 138,
and similarly employed in part II of the presen-E7=iork as •any
collection of unique ·pitches (or, more correctly, unique
integers representing the residue classes modulo 12, called
"pitch-cla~ses" after Babbitt 1955) .".
137
discrepancy betw.een the two theories: . Forte contend's that
there are 4,096 (2 12 ) u~ordered pitch-sets in the 12-pitch
system, Costere contends that there are 2,048 (2 11 ). A recon-
ciliation is possible in view of the fact that Forte's total
.
includes transpositions
so and Costere's does not 51 (since· the
first element is fixed, only the eleven following elements are

subject to change).
As·concerns the formal expression of a given pitch-set
there is again a certain similarity between the two systems.
Forte expresses the pitch content of a set as a set of unique
integers called normal order wherein o- c 1 • Costire expresses
the pitch content as the representative number of tones, a
series of two-digit integers in which the odd-ranking digits
indicate those pitches used (beginning on c) and the even-
ranking digits those pitches unused, always in terms of conjunct
semitones. Taking, for example, the whole-tone scale, we
observe that Forte's normal order is: 0 2 4 6 8 10 = £ d ! f*
i* ~•, and Cost~re's representative number of tones is 11 11
11 11 11 11 = £ d ~ff~*!*· In short, the main difference
between th~ two is that Forte's numerical representation -
'
designates: actual pitches above any given base tone, whereas
I
Cost~re's ~esignates the number of pitches used and unused

above any base.
As thf~reduction process continues the essential dif-
1
ference between the two systems becomes more evident. In

Forte's theory the uniqueness of a given set is based on
so Forte, 2.2.· ill_., page 149.

51
Costire, OR.• cit., III, !, 1.
138
.interval content; in Cost~re 's theory the uniqueness of a given •·
set is based on its pitch content. Consequently, the number
of distinct sets accounted for in ?orte 52 --200--is lower than
its counterpart in Costere--351-because two distinct pitch-
sets may have identical interval content, as will be shown
momentarily. At this point we recall that the interval content·
of a pitch-class set is expressed as.an interval vector, that
is, the.intervallic ~i~ferenc~s that each pitch-class of a
given set·forms with each other.pitch-class·of the same set;
.in otl)er words', it is a set of unique integers expressing the
interval-class content of a set. It is analagous to Hanson's
analytic procedure but with a variation in the order in which·
the interval-classes appear: ·.·Forte's· interval vector expresses
the interval content ·in the order.of increasing size of the
intervals
.
(minor sec<?nd,
.
major•second,mip.or third, major third
I
and _perfectt fourth and thelr inversions, .and tritone) ~ Hanson's.

symbol expresses the. interval ·content. in . the ·order of increasin_g.
, ' , '
"dissonance" or ·decreasing "consonance"· (perfe<::,t f.ourth, major

third, minor third, major·secoricl, minor ·second·a:nd·their in-
versions, and tritone). While. the sixth term, thEf tritone,
occupies an. identical position in each.expression,· the first·
five terms are in a reverse order from one system to the other.
52 That different writers have laid claim to q higher .

number of distinct interval-sets is not of major·concern here.
since our objective is merely to relate. pitch-sets tQ interval-
sets and not to reconcile various yiewpoints concerning interval~·
set$; for example, Donald Martino, "The Source-Set and Its .·
Aggregate Formations," The· Journal of· Music .Theory,. Volume v,
Number 2 (1961), and Steven E. Gilbert,. "Tfie Trichord: an
Analytic outlook for Twentieth-Century Music:," PhD dissertation,
Yale University, New Haven, Conn., 1970, appendix A.
139
For example, the whole-tone scale has-the following interval-
O ·m6 n O· · s 6 ·.do t 3 , or · more
vector:· (060603). --Hanson, p ... · ac- · ·
6
curately, m6 s t 3 --which si_gnifies that it contains no minor
seconds (or major sevenths, its equivalent_ interval-class 53 ),
six major seconds (or minor sevenths), no.minor thirds (or
major sixths), six major thirds (or minor sixths), no perfect
fourths (or perfect fifths), and three tritones. The same
information, although not as readily accessible, is latently
contained in Costire's representative number of int,ervals, 54
which for the whole-tone scale is 222222. Upon examining this
number, it becomes obvious that the entity contains no inter-
vals comprising_an odd number of semitones, i~ also becomes·
obvious that no manner of .addition can produce an interval
containing an odd number of' semitones; it is however·somewhat
less obvious that the entity contains six intervals of two
semitones each (if we let,a,b,c,d,e and f represent the con-
stituent intervals,· we discern six major seconds: a, b, c, d,
e, and f); six major thirds {a + b, b + c, c + d, d + e, e + f
and f + a); and three tritones (a+ b + c, b +·e + d, and c +
d + e; note that d + e +fetal. are merely inversions of the
first three). Consequently, there does exist a relationship
between Forte's interval-vector and Cost~re's representative
number of intervals although the o.ne is more or less informa- .
tive than the other depending on the~ priori£! the system:
53 ·
Forte, ·op.· .:,!!· , pages 140 through 1·42.
54cosUre, op. cit., III, 1, Sand III, 2, 4.
·- -
140
the interval-vector is obviously interval-oriented, the re-
presentative number of intervals is basically pitch-oriented
in that its function is to give the interval, in semitones,
between adjacent elements of a given pitch-class set.
We return. now to the total number of distinct sets ac-
counted for in each theory. The difference can be related
directly to the uniqueness criterion of each: interval content
as compared with pitch content. Cost~re's total of 351 includes
Forte's 200 sets as well as the inversions, or better, simple
involutions 55 of certain original sonorities. For example, if
we.consider the traditional major and minor triads, we observe
that they have identical interval-vectors (001110) and are
considered by Forte to be permutations of one and the same
distinct interval set. However, because of the inclusion of
simple involutions in Costire's list of distinct sets, they are
considered by him as separate and distinct sets standing in
an inverted or involuted relationship to one another, a relation-
ship that is readily discerned upon· examining their respective
representative numbers of tones and intervals: major triad:
14 13 12 and 5 4 3; minor triad: 14 12 13 and 5 3 4. We ob-
serve that comparable representative numbers contain the same
integers in different order, an observation that is somewhat akin
to Forte's notion of equivalent pitch-sets 56 , although here the
two entities stand in a similarity relationship rather than
55For a synopsis of the theory of involution, see page

128 above.
56 Two pitch-sets are held to be equivalent if they
have the same interval-vector.
141
in an cqui valence relationship.
It seems clear that the differences between the two
theories stem from their very bases, but, they are not totally
irreconcilable differences because conversion from one system
to the other is a relatively simple process that could prove
to be extremely useful. Table III on page 142, contains all
of the distinct 3-tone sets proper to each system, along with
the Hanson analysis of e~ch of the structures. An exam-
ination of this table reveals the essential similarity while
respecting the individuality of the two approaches. Where two
realizations do not have the smoo pitch content, it is because
one is simply a transposition of the other (as in set 3-6), or
a transposed mode 9f the other (as in set 3-9: £ ~ 2, is the
third mode of £ f '!:._b transposed upward two semi tones) • Further,·
we note that when Forte's Interval vector and Hanson's analytic
symbol contain the integers 2 or 3, there exists only one
realization in Cos~re•s system. This simply means that for
a three-tone entity to be involutible, it must contain three
different interval-classes. Similar tables could be erected
for the other sets in the 12-pitch system and would no doubt
provide at a glance the relationships that obtain between the
pitch-set and interval-set theories.
In developing his set-complex theory further, Forte
discusses two significant relationships that are possible be-
tween two pitch-sets or interva11.:.sets: inclusion and comple-
/
. t , th e i nc1 usion re 1 a t'ion 57 is
1
mentarity. Th e f irs ' no t d'is-
' .
./
57 Inclusion relations depend on one set's being con-
tained in or contained by the other, one set's equivalence to
.f-ha ,.,.,f-h ,.. ,.,.,.. """ .f- I c:, ~ n ,,..,.,. ,..,,.h ,f-,... +-h ,..
142
TABLE III
DISTINCT THREE-TONE SETS IN THE TWELVE-TONE SYSTEM
FORTE C O S TE RE HANSON
SET N.O. I. V. REAL. R.N.T. R.N.I. REAL. ANAL.

1 sd 2
3-1 012 (210000)
-c -c d- 39 X 11
-C c*d
- -
3-2 013 (111000) c c 1d 1 c c*a* nsd
- - -- - 21 18 9 1 2
- - 28 11 9 2 1
-cab~
-- -
3-3 014 (101100) c c 1e 22 17 8 1 3 c c*e mnd
- - - - -- - 27 12 8 3 1 -CC-#-a -
---
1 t prod
3-4
-
015
-
(100110)
- -C --c -f 23 16
26 13
7 1 4
7 4 1
C
C
£#f#
£ 2_ -
C C#f#
3-5
-
016
-
( 100011)
- -C Cff#
-- - 24 15
25 14
6 1 5
6 5 1 - -#-
£ C 2_
pdt
-
-c -abbb
ms2
3-6 024 (020100)
-c -d -e 17 11 11 8 2 2
-
pns
3-7
-
025
-
(011010)
- -Cd-- -f 16 11 12
16 12 11
7 2 3
7 3 2
C 2_ ~
£ 2. b -
# t
~-8
-
026
-
(010101)
- -c d-- -fl 15 11 13
15 13 11
6 2 4
6 4 2
£ !f2.1·
C f a
mst
-
---
p2s
13-9 027 (010020) £ d 2. 14 14 11 5 5 2
- --1-
c f bb
c d#f# n 2t
3-10 036 (002001)
--- 15 12 12 .6 33
-C -f -a
3-11 037 (001110) C d#2.# 14 12 13 5 3 4 Cf 2_# pmn
- - - - 14 13 12 5 4 3 Cf a
- -- -
~-12 048 (000300) £ ~ 2.* 13 13 13 4 4 4 £ ~ 2.* m3
N.B. Column headings represent the following: SET -

the number attributed to the set by Forte; N.O. - normal order;
I.V. - interval vector; REAL. - realization in actual pitches;
R.N.T. - representative number of tones; R.N.I.·- representative
number of intervals; ANAL. - Hanson analysis of the triad.
143
cussed by Costere at all. However, as was the case with inter-

val-vectors, the information is latent in the Costere system,
albeit to a lesser degree of precision and completeness: by
comparing the graphic representations of each•givenset, one
can determine whether one is contained in, .contained by,
. ·. ' .
equivalent to or.incomparable to any other{s). But, such

questions as "in how many 4-element pitch-sets is the 3~eleinent
pitch-set A contained?" or how many 5-element pitch-sets does.
the 6-element pitch-set A·contain?" are not dealt with in
Lois et styles • • • • By comparing each of Cost~re's 351 sets
with each of the remaining 350.' it would be possible to list·,
the answers to these and similar inclusion questions, but the·
process would be a lengthy one indeed. In ·view of the fact
that Costere does dev:ote some space to a similar type of.
relationship--the cardinal and vicinal :relationships 58 that
existbetween a given entity _and each of its transpositions--
. one wonders· if the inclusion relationship b~tween one set and
another may not have been considered by Cost~re and sub-
.. .
. .
' .
·sequently dismissed• for one · reason or ·another. It, is more

. . ._.
likely, however, that it simply did not.occur to him.
The principle of complementation·i:ls.it relates· to
pitch-sets is treated in much the same manner by both ·writers.
for this reason· we ·shall not. di_scus.s it here.• As mi§ht be
expected, its application to· interval_-se-ts· is not dealt ·with
by CostE!re, again owing: ·to his preoccupation with pitc~-sets~
58 .. ·
Cos~re,· op.· cit., IV, ·6, · i and 2 .•
144
I
The Analytical Table ot
Sets, one of the most
I
significant features of Loij/et styles, ••• has no counter-
part in Forte's theory. While it is true that his theory
provides the bases for many potential relationships between
sets and that it mentions certain properties that may or
may not belong to given sets, these are expressed in mathe-
matical terms ·and do not have quite the musical relevance
that Costere's characteristics do, particularly for those
whose background in mathematics is weak. For this reason,
Costere 's theory is more approachable, even though it is
less formal. "It must be charged th~t a major fault of the
I
Forte theory is this: It accounts complexly for what may

be accounted for simply. 1159
On the other hand, it must be stated that both theories
complement each other and could be made to fun~tion together
harmoniously as a single theory of set-complexes capable of
dealing at one and the same time with pitch- and interval-sets,
its possible applications to the rhythmic element in music not-
withstanding.
F. GEORGE PERLE
The final work to be compared with Cost~re's Lois et

styles ••• , George Perle'~ Serial Composition and Atonality, 60
has been selected for the express purpose of demonstrating the
59
John Clough, "Pitch-Set Equivalence and Inclusion
(A Comment on Forte's Theory of Set-Complexes,) The Joumal of
Music Theory, volume 9, number 1 (Spring) 1965. - ·
60
George Perle, Serial Composition and Atonality,
second edition (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of Cali-
fornia Press, 1968).
145'
basic incomparability of Costeire's system and one geared spe-

ficially to serial techniques, dodecaphonic·and nondodecaphonic
alike. We are not implying that Costere's system of analysis
is insufficient or inapplicable in the realm of serial compo-
sition. We infer only that it is concerned with different
aspects of the tonal resources tban the usual serial analytical .
systems. After a moment's reflection the reason for this
incomparability becomes clear:· Costere 's system is based on
unordered pitch sets while the underlying basis of the serial
technique is ordered pitch and/or interval sets. As Perle
states, "An unambiguous ordering is assumed; • • • 1161 He sums
up the dichotomy between the two systems when he writes: "~e
specific ordering of .the notes ·is·a necessary consequence of
the concept of the set as a
unitary structure whose elements are
not ftint::tionally diffei:entiated.fl62 With reference to twelve-
note sets in particular, it is obvious that such terms as
retrograde, inversionand retrograde-inversion are meaningless.
unless a specific orclering
. .
is imposed· upon the twelve elements
in o;rder that a prime form ·result.
In addition to.the.aspect of order, other ·factors pro- ·-
. . " . ' . ' . '
hibit a reconciliation between the: systems advanced

. . by Costere
' '
and Perle respectively,the two.most.noteworthy :being the dif-

ferent interpretations of the :tex-m atonality and the stable-
dynamic property of tone complexes that Costere considers so.. ·
61
-
Perle,· ~-· cit., page 2.
62 Perle, op. cit., page 5. ,
-
146
primordial and that serialists seem to refute.
Costere describes the atonal style as follows:
The atonal style !!_ characterized ~ ~ rejection
of any interference whatsoever ~·~harmonic pheno-
menon, in ~ far ~ tonal prolongation of the tones
brought; into· ~ is concerned, ~ · o f which is devoid
of anything that is not proper to ~~substance.
[Italics are CostE!re 's] . . · .
The style is manifested by an organization of the
music around a tone, or a group .of tones, or even the
totality of the constituent tones, from which the per-
fect. triad in ani of its forms is naturally or artifi-
cially excl)"'ded. 3
\ I
Perle's description is more vague and unspecific:
The atonal composer, however, can take for granted
nothing except the existence of a 9iven limiting sound
world, the semitonal scale. Aside from this assumption,
it is impossible to state the fundamental conditions
of atonality in general, except in a negative way, merely
stipulating tne aosence of a priori functional con- .
nections·among the twelve notes of the semitonal scale.
Musical coherence requires additional limiting factors,
but these are not reducible to a set of foundational
assumptions in terms of which the compositions that are
collectively designated by the expression ''atona1 61usic"
can be said to represent a system of composition. ..
He further states that
• • • there are certain ambiguities, depending upon how
one choses to define."tonality." ·Contemporary musical
developments have made it evident that triadic structure
does not necessarily generate a tone center, that non-
•.triadic harmonic formations may be made to func~ion as
referential elements, and that the assumption of a twelve-
tone _comg 5ex does not preclude the existence of tone
centers. . · .
Any attempt at reconciliation of the two viewpoints would be
futile. Even if it were not entirely fruitless, it seems
63 . I
· Cost~re, ~., cit., VI,/ 5, 1.
· 64 Perle, ·2£· :cit., page 1.
. /
65Perle, ~-- cit., page 7.
147
doubtful that the reconciliation.would be of much benefit.
However, one wonders if Costere's basic premise that
a natural law of attraction governs the movement of tones could .
not be made acceptable to·at least some aerialists by strongly
emphasizing the opposing notions of cardinal and modal ·style
that are contained within the system. Serial technique is
predicated on the fact (or assumption!) that all tones of the .
set are equal and non-functional, and, as such, would seem to
refute the very theory of cardinal attraction. But according
to Cost~re, music is not bound to.. submit to the laws of
cardinal gravitation: it may evolve "according to the very
laws of the gravitation of tones" 66 .or it may "react against
the forces of cardinal attraction, or, more precisely, [ it may l
disrupt their natural course, aJ.tering their direction." 67 In
the former case, the music is said to be in the cardinal style,
in the latter, in the modal style. Since by its very nature
the modal style is a reaction against the cardinal style, it
may aptly be associated with atonality and serialism which are
reactions against tonality·and chromaticism. Costere himself
pro~ides for the inclusion of atonality in the mod~l style:
" •• ·• there are other confines of the modal style: they are
the non-functional harmonies which occupy the extreme limit
of atonalism. 1168
But even if this particular facet of Cost~re's theory
VI, ~, 1.·
VI, 3, 1.
VI,· 3, 2.
148
were incorporated into the se·rial analytical technique, there

...
would still·be no·complete.:reconciliation possible until such
time as Cost~re 's. approach were modified to all·ow for the .
inclusion of ordered sets.
It must be pointed out however. that Perle and Costere
. . . ' . '' . . ' .
are not incontpatible ·from the precompo'sitional point of view.

, I • . .
We. refer nO'\Pi to the relatio~ship th~t e~ists betwe.en Perle's

so~rce-sets 69 of the combinato;ia1 type 70
and· their Costere
equivalents •. Perle_px-esents the condi.tions for•combinatoriality
. . .
as follows:
·••. ., (1) in. order to·. effect C011U?inatoriality between
a prime set-form and _an inverted set-form,·or between.
equivalently related-set-forms, the content of one
half must be the inversion of the content of. its other
half; (2) in order to effect combinatoriality between
two set-forms that are related as prime .to retrograde-
inversion, the content of each·half of·the set must
be statable as its own ·inversion; (3) in order to ef-
fect combinatoriality between two transpositions· of
a single set-form, the content of one half of the set
must be a transposition of the content.of the other
half. The all-combinatorial set fulfills all three ·
· requirements rand the· semi-combinatorial set but one J • 71
The six all-combinatorial sour~e-sets presented by
6i 'Source set'! denotes a set considered only in terro,s

of the content of its hexachords and its combinatorial [see ·
following note] characteristics are independent of the ordering
imposed on this·content." Milton Babbitt, "Some Aspects of
Twelve-Tone Composition," ~ Score ~ I. M. A. Magazine, June
1955, page 57, footnote 7. ·· .
70 Babbitt, ~-cit.page 57, footnote 6: "'Semi.:.combina-
toriali ty' indicates the property of creating • • • secondary ·
sets, or aggregates, between a specific pair of forms (in the.
case of hexachord semi-combinatoriality) 1 • .'all-combinatoriality' ·
denotes the possibility of const~cting· • • • secondary sets
or aggregates among any pairs of forms _of the sets, at one or
more transpositional levels~ 'Combinatoriality' is the.generic
term including both the others."
71Perle, 22,.· £ll·, page 97.
149
Porle--and Babbitt 72 --are discussed by Costere as revertible
symmetrical scales, or, in Hanson terminology, isometric
hexads. They are, in the order given by Perle: 11 11 11 11
11 11, 22 22 22, 33 33, 66, 41 14 11 and 21 11 12 1111.
Semi-combinatorial hexachords of the first type mentioned
above can be found under the heading of "scales that revert
to their inversions," under complementation. The set 31 13 22
is an example of this type for it can be shown that the first
six tones of I 1 are identica~ to the last six tone of PO or
vice versa. Semi-combinatorial hexachords of the second type
are non-revertible sets and are not included in the section
on revertible scales. One must go to Costere's catalogue and
select a non-revertible, non-invertible six-tone set to con-
struct this type of twelve-note row. 53 13, it can be shown,
is a non-invertible, non-revertible set that produces a semi-
combinatorial set in which the first six tones of R-I 5 are
identical to the last six tones of PO, or vice versa. And
finally, semi-combinatorial sets of the third type are what
Cost~re refers to as asymmetrical revertible scales, such as
32 13 21, in which the first six tones of P6 are equivalent
to the last six of Po, or vice versa.
The three- and four-note source sets discussed by
Perle, although not specifically singled out by Cost~re, are
readily retrievable from his catalogue of sets. Any con-
72 .
Perle, page 97 and Babbitt, page 57. While the
source sets given by each are identical in pitch content, the
numbering varies from one to the other. Perle's sets 1 2 3
4 5 6 correspond to Babbitt's set 6 5 4 1 2 3.
150
invertible tetrachord that can be trarisposed up or down four
half-steps (a, the table of vicinal relationships of the
entity readily provide this information) is a source-tetrachord.
They are sets.12 12 12 12 (number 1 in Perle) ,·24 24 (number 2),
,
48 (number 3), 2116 11 (number 4), 14 1112 11 (number 5),
and 34 14 (number 6). Similarly, any non-invertible triad
that can be. transposed up or down three half-steps is a source
triad: 13 13 13 (number 1), 39 (number 2), 17 11 11 (number 3),
and 14 14 11 (number 4).
Costere stresses the almost syste:ma,~ic use that dode-
caphoriic composers make of revertible. scale·s for each half of
. 73 .
the row , but, as we have already stated, he does not mention.
the potential of·non-invertible triads and ·tetrachords for
. designing segmental rows.
The final observation.that we should like to make
concerns rhythm. .While Perle (and others) often refer to the
serialization of rhythm, no systematic presentation or discus-
sion of this particular aspect of serial composition seems to
occur·. In this respect, Costere''s work could prove most useful
to the composer because of thE:,substantial. amount ·~f information
provided therein concerning the manipulation of rhythmic sets.
As has been shown above, it could also prove useful as a source
of "sources" even if the composer were to reject the character-
. . .
istics and properties that Cost~re attributes to the·various
sets •.. From the; point of view e>f the analyst, however,· Lois et
·. styles ••• can only be viewed a$ a different kind of analytic
. 73 costE!re, 22.· cit·. , VI, 2., 5, footnote 9.

151
system that divulges a different kind of information, parti-
cularly when applied to serial music, as the analyses that
follow will no doubt show.
G. TOWARDS A SYSTEM OF ANALYSIS
For the present at least, Edmond Costire's Lois et

styles ... is basically a theory of harmony and related musical
phenomena, since only he himself has employed it as a system
of analysis, and then only to brief fragments--at least that
·is all we have access to--the sample analysis that we provide
herewith is completely experimental and conjectural in nature •
.
Because of the complexity of Cos-tire's theory taken as a whole,
it was felt thJt restricting the scope of this application
would lend more significance and intelligibility to the results,
as well as provide some hint of the potential latent in the
theory.
Three pieces of contrasting style-periods were selected:
"Variation 25" of J.S. Bach's Goldberg V~iations, "Prelude to
Act Three" of Richard Wagner's Parsifal and "NUmber One" of
Arnold Schoenberg's Sechs Kleine Klavi9;st6cke, Opus 19. our
analysis attempts to differentiate stylistioally among the
three employing Cost~re's notions of qardinal, tonal and
transpositional stability. Obviously, then, no claim to
completeness can be made until all aspects (modal scales, re-
enforcement, rhythm, etc.) of Cost~re's theory be applied.
' \
'-
Our initial step was to reduce each of the pieces to
a succession of abstract sets based on what we considered to
be the essential structural entities in each. In Bach, for
152
example, right- and left-hand materials were considered

separately; in Wagner and Schoenberg, sets were based on fewer
component elements in areas of rhythmic inactivity because of
the effect that even one new tone can have on the overall
sonority. On the other hand, where rhythmic activity increases,
the sets tend to number more elements and occupy more temporal"
space. After the sets had been determined, we referred to
Cost!re's analytical tables for the answers to the following
.
questions relative to:
Cardinal characteristics:
(1) is the density of the constituent tones at least
equal to that of the same number of the densest
foreign tones, making the set dense or cardi-
nally stable?
(2) does the density of the same number of densest
foreign tones surpass that of the constituent
tones rendering the set transitive or cardi-
nally unstable?
(3) does one constituent or foreign tone surpass
all others in density making the set one of
cardina.1 polarity?
(4) is the set followed by another in which, is
present one or more of the densest tones on
the cardinal table of the latter, in which
case we shall refer to the set as cardinally
functional?--a term which is not Cost~re's.
Tonal characteristics:
(1) does the set contain the densest perfect triad(s)
or fifth(s) making it tonally stable?
(2) do one or more foreign triads or fifths equal
the density of the densest constituent triad(s)
or fifth(s) making the set ba·lanced and also
tonally stable?
(3) is the densest.triad or fifth--foreign to the
set making it cadenti•a1 and tqna·11y unstable?
(4) are two or more of the densest triads or fifths
' \ .
153
foreign to the set making it clashing and

also tonally unstable?
(5) does the set contain one or more perfect
triads making it triadic ( a generic term
to cover Cost~re's maJor, minor, binary,
bitonal, polytonal classifications)?
(6). is the set void of perfect triads making it
non-triadic (as above, to include Cost~re's
atonal ana neutral)?
(7) does one constituent triad or fifth--two in
the case of symmetr~cal sets--surpass all
others in density making it tonic?
(8) do two or more constituent or foreign triads
or fifths share the highest density making
the set non-tonic?
'Transposi tional characteristics:
(1) is the density of the set at least equal to
that of its densest transposition making it
transpositionally stable?
(2) does the density of one or more of the set's
transpositions exceed its own density making
it transpositionally unstable?·
It was clear from the outset that the results of our
analysis should reflect some of the contrasts that exist
among the three compositional styles under consideration;
after all, the three pieces were selected because of their
contrasting characters. Furthermore, our primary intent was
to show that Cos~re's theory had the advantage of rendering
possible an evaluation of div~rgent musical styles using
consistent terms of referencer of seconda:n, importance would
be the actual concrete data which.issued therefrom.
74
74 A complete list of set_s and thei~ characteristics

as well as a summary of the characteristics of the sets em-
ployed in each work can be found in Appendix I, page •
154
TABLE IV
COMPARATIVE TABLE OF STYLISTIC FEATURES

BASED ON COSTERE' S CRITERIA FOR STABILITY
CARDINAL TONAL TRANSPOS.

• - )
Dense Polar Func'al Stable Triadic Tonic Stable
'
A. 59.6 35.9
-
85.7
-71.9 -87.8 65 52.6
B. 41.6 36 80.7 29.3 83 28.1 31.4
c.
-78.7 -54.5 71.8 63.6 69.6
-69.6 -66.7
\
A. Variation XXV of Goldberg Variations (J.S.Bach)

B. Prelude to Act III of Parsifal (R. Wagner)
c. No. 1 of Sechs Kleine Klavierstdcke (A. Schoenberg)
The numbers are percentages representing the number
of sets meeting the conditions described in each of the
columns. The highest percent.,ge is underlined in each case.
155
However, when the results of our inquiry had been
tabulated and condensed into a single table (table IV, page
154) in view of facilitating a comparison of the three sets
of data, the actual factors contributing to the style con-
trasts assumed an unanticipated and surprising degree of
importance. For example, because of the traditional tendency
o~ considering Schoenberg to be more dissonant than Bach or
Wagner, one would have anticipated that this particular
.
characteristic would be translated into Cost~re's terminology
as "unstable". But, of the three criteria serving as the
bases of stability (cardinal, tonal, and.transpositional),
Schoenberg's style proves to be the most stable in two. The
sets that he utilizes are consistently of greater cardinal
density than those of Bach or Wagner, and they are consistently
less transposing. Furthermore, his sets are more frequently
of cardinal polarity and tonic. It is also surprising to
note that his sets are more consistently tonally stable than
those of Wagner, and only to a slightly lesser degree than
those of Bach. As may have been expected, his sets are much
less triadic and cardinally functional than those of Bach or
Wagner.
On the other hand, it is interesting to observe that
Wagner's style is less stable in!.!!_ respects than that of
Bach or Schoenberg. This would reflect the traditional ten-
dency of placing him between the poles represented by Bach
and Schoenbe~g, .but here· we have more concrete terms of
reference in so doing.
156
Finally,. and not unexpectedly, we see that Bach employs
sets that are more cardinally functional, tonally stable, and
triadic than those of the other two composers.
The conclusion to be drawn from this restricted
analysis would seem to be that the major difference between
Schoenberg on one hand, and Bach and Wagner on the other, is
that the former's style is much less dynamic, (or more stable)
than the latters': the pitch-collections employed have a
much greater tendency to be concentric, or internally-oriented,
than eccentric, or externally-oriented (tending to progress
to other sets). As compared to Bach,. Wagner manifests a
tendency toward instability in all respects. As a consequence,
we must abandon the reflex of equating dissonance with
instability when talking in general terntB, for as we have seen,
Schoenberg's dissonan~ style is·actually more stable in sone
respects than the more consonant styles of Bach and Wagner.
Although the results of this trial analysis may not
be of the greatest consequence (indeed it was not our intent
that they should be because of the voluntary restrictions that
were delineated at the outset), they do tend to confirm
Coste re's contention that his system is universally applicable.
We were able to use terms of reference that were consistent
and continuous from one piece to the next.
8. In conclusion
Throughout his Lois et styles des harmonies musicales,
Edmond Costere illustrates how his theory of harmony serves
not only to justify many of the unexplained decrees advanced
157
in standard treatises on harmony, but also to explain, or at
least shed some light on some of the conventions practiced in
non-traditional styles. These illustrations very often require
a substantial amount of tangential discussion and explanation,
but the ultimat~ goal is always clear: the formulation and
defense of a universal theory of harmony. Obviously, Costere
I
himself is convinced of the credibility of his claims.

Our chief objective J, this study was to test further
the veracity of these claims by reviewing the logic of the
basic premises of his system, and by comparing his points of·
view with those of other modem theorists and composers
..
whose points of view were already accepted, or refuted, and
by attempting ·an analysis, albeit limited in scope, of three
complete pieces of contrasting style (we recall that Costere's
analyses dealt only with fragments of, and not complete
pieces).
It was interesting to observe the many parallels that
existed between his theory and those advanced by Hanson and·
Forte as concems unique interval-class content and set theory
even though Cost~re 's appeared several years earlier; his basic
compatibility with Slonimsky as concems catal9gues of scalesi
although he seems to have been unaware of the latte~•s work;
the basic incompatibility of his system and that of the dode-
caphonists (as formalized by Perle), an incompatibility based
more on the ordering of sets than on harmonic or· rhythmic
factors; his basic disagreement with Hindemith's theory of
rootness, a disagreement shared by many other theorists; the
enormous impact that Messiaen seems to have had on him and
158
the extent of which may never really be known, since it would

almost appear that Cost~r~•s complete catalogue of sets and
their characteristics is an expansion of Messiaen's "charm
of impossibilities."
The results of our analyses, as limited as they were,
augured well for the analytical potential contained in Costere's
theory. While Lois et styles ••• is essentially a theory
of harmony, there seems little doubt that, after more ex-
perimentation and modification, a viable and universal system
of musical analysis could be devised. Becoming conversant in,
and being able to accurately interpret Cos~re 's terminology
is the major obstacle to this end, but, it is not an insur-
mountable obstacle: its insurmountability shows a marked
tendency to decrease in inverse proportion to one's familiarity
with the system, a fact to which this writer can now attest.
APPENDIX I
A. SUMMARY OF THE CHARACTERISTICS

OF THE 58 SETS USED IN
VARIATION XXV OF J.S.BACH'S GOLDBERG VARIATIONS
·cardinal characteristics :
Right hand: 15 dense, 14 transitive, 20 polar (that is,
of cardinal polarity), 9 non-polar: 23 func-
tional, 5 non-functional.
Left hand: 19 dense, 9 transitive, 15 polar, 13 non-
polar: 25 functional, 3 non-functional.
total: 34 (59.61) dense, 23 (40.41) transitive,
35 (61.41) polar, 22 (38.61) non-polar,
48 (85.71) functional, 8 (14.31) non-
functional.
Right hand: 23 stable--10 tonally stable, 13 balanced, and
6 unstable--3 cadential and 3 clashing; 27
triadic, 2 non-triadic; 16 tonic, 13 non-tonic.
Left hand: 18 stable--9 tonally stable, 9 balanced, and
10 unstable--9 cadential and 1 clashing; 23
triadic, 5 non-triadic: 37 tonic, 7 non-tonic.
Total: 41 (71.9%) stable--19 tonally stable and 21
balanced, 16 (28.1%) unstable--12 cadential
and 4 clashing; 50 (87.81) triadic, 7 (12.2%)
non-triadic; 37 (651) tonic, 20 (351) non-tonic.
Transpositional characteristics:
Right handa 15 non-transposing, 14 transposing,
Left hand: 1S non-transposing, 13 transposing,
Total: 30 (S2.61) non-transposing, 27 (47.31)
transposing.
159
160
B. THE 58 SETS USED IN

VARIATION XXV OF J.S.BACH'S GOLDBERG VARIATIONS
AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
Right hand
Meas. Beat Set Characteristics
1 1-3 31 11 11 22 transitive, polar (d), non-
on ct functional; balancea, triadic,
non-tonic; transposing
2 1-3 31 11 11 22 transitive, polar (c), non-
on B functional; balanced, triadic,
non-tonic; transposing.
1-3 32 21 j2 dense, polar (d), functional;
1 on C tonally stable; triadic, tonic;
non-transposing.
1-3 82 11 dense, polar (c), functional;
on G balanced, triadic, non-tonic;
non-transposing.
6 1-3 52 11 jl dense, polar (d), functional;·
on C cadential, triadic, tonic;
non-transposing.
7 1-3 81 21 dense, polar {band d), func-
8 1 on A tional; tonally stable, triadic,
tonic; non-transposing
9 1-3 81 21 as above;
10 1-2 on A
10 3 81 21 dense, polar (a and c), func-
11 1-3 on G tional; tonally stabie, triadic,
12 1 tonic; non-transposing.
12 2-3 51 11
on C
i2 transitive., polar {d) , functional;
balanced, triadic, non-tonic;
non-trans:posing •
13 1-3 5111 j2 . transitive,_ polar (s_) , functional;
on F balanced, triadic, non-tonic;
non-transposing.
14 1-3 X 2 dense, non-polar, functional;
15 1 on Gt tonally _stable, triadic, tonic;
non-transposing.
161
15 2-3 71 22 I dense, polar (d), functional;
16 1 on C tonally stable; triadic, non-
tonic; non-transposing.
17 1-3 42 11 jl transitive, polar <i>, func-
on F tional; cadential, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
18 1-3 31 21 21 11 transitive, non-polar, func-
on G tional; clashing, triadic,
19 1-3 71 13 dense, polar (b-flat); func-
20 1 on A tional; tonally stable, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
21 1-3 2116
on B
al dense, non-polar, functional;
clashing, non-triadic, tonic;
non-transposing.
22 1-3 dense, non-polar, functional;
balanced, non-triadic, tonic;
non-transposing.
23 1-3 51 11 22 transitive, polar (c), func-
24 1 on D tional; balanced, triadic, non-
tonic; non-transposing;
25 1-3 31 11 ,1 22 transitive, polar (g), non-
on F functional; balancea, triadic,
non-tonic, transposing.
26 1-3 3111 11 22 transitive, polar (f), non-
on E functional; balanced, triadic,
27 1-3 42 31 11 dense, non-polar, functional;
28 1 on c balanced, triadic, tonic; non-
transposing-
on D tional; clashing, triadic, non-
tonic; transposing.
29 1-3 411111 21 dense, polar (d), functional;
on c ·tonally stable; triadic, non-
tonic; transposing.
30 1 22 21 21 11 transitive, non-polar, func-
on G tional; balanced, triadic, non-
tonic; transposing.
162

30 2 21 11 21 11 11 dense, polar (b-flat and d),
on A functional; tonally stable,
triadic, tonic; non-transposing.
30 3 2121111111 transitive, polar (~and a),
on F functional; cadential, triadic,
31 1 22 21 11 21 transitive, non-polar, func- l I
on A tional; balanced, triadic,

tonic; transposing.
31 2 2111 21 1111 dense, polar (b-flat and d),
on A functional; tonally stable,
31 3 22 21 21 11 transitive, non-polar (function
32 1 on A inapplicable); balanced, triadic,
Left ha.nd
1 1-3 21 21,113 dense, polar (~), functional;
2 1 on F cadential, triadic, tonic;
transposing.
2 2-3 21 21 11 13 dense, polar (f), functional;
3 1 on E cadential, triadic, tonic;
transposing.
4 1 on D cadential, triadic, non-tonic;
non-transposing.
4 2-3 22 21 21 11 dense, polar (d), functional;
5 1 on D balanced, triaaic, non-tonic;
transposing.
5 2-3 31 12 !l 21 transitive, non-polar, func-
6 1 on B tional; cadential, triadic,
6 2-3 3112 11 21 transitive, non-polar, func-
7 1 on C tional; cadential, triadic,
7 2-3 2114 .3 dense, non-polar, functional;
8 1 on F balanced, 'triadic, tonic;
transposing.
8 2-3 22 212111 dense, polar (d), functional;
9 1 on D balanced, triaaic, non-tonic;
transposing.
163
He..u,.. Characteristics
9 2-3 31 31 ,3 transitive, polar (d), func-
10 1 on C tional; tonally stable, triadic,
tonic; transposing.·
10 I 2-3 22 112111 11 dense, polar (f and a), func-
11 1 on E tional; tonally stabie, triadic,
11 2-3 X 2 dense, non-polar, functional,
12 1-3 on c 1 tonally stable, triadic, tonic;
non-transposing.
13 1-3 26 22 I dense, polar (~ and d), non-
14 1 on F functional; tonally stable,
non-triadic, tonic; non-
transposing.
14 l½-3 26 22 f dense, polar (a and e), non-
1~ 1 on G functional; tonally stable,
non-triadic, tonic; non-
transposing.
15} lX 15-3 31 11 21 12 dense, non-polar, functional;

16, 1-3 on C cadential, triadic, non-tonic;
non-transposing.
15} l½-3 21 13 jl 11 dense, polar (d), functional;
16, 2X 1-3 on F tonally stabie~ triadic, tonic;
non-transposing.
17 1-3 32 11 11 12 dense, polar (f and i>, func-
18 1-2 on F tional; clashing, triadic,
18 2½-3 25 21 11 dense, non-polar, functional;
19 1-2 on E balanced, non-triadic, non-
19 2-3 X 2 dense, non-polar, functional;
20 1 on D tonally stable, triadic, tonic;
non-transposing.
20 2-3 22 21 gl 11 dense, polar (b-flat), func-
21 l on B tional; balanced, triadic, non-
tonic; transposing.
21 l½-3 26 22 dense, polar (a-flat and e-flat),
22 1 qn G non-functional; tonally stable,
non-triadic, tonic; non-transposing.
22 l½-3 26 22 dense, polar (b-flat and f), non-
23 1 on A functional; tonally stable, non-
164 .

23 li-3 21 13 21 11 dense, polar (e-flat), func-
24 1 on G tional; tonally stable, triadic,
25 1 on G tional; clashin9, triadic, non-
tonic; transposing.
25 2-3 21 21 11 13 dense, polar (c), functional;
' 26 1 on B cadential, triadic, tonic;
transposing.
. 26 2-3 21 21 11 13 dense, polar (b-flat), func-
27 1 on A tional; cadential, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
27 2-3 51 11 i2 transitive, polar (~), func-
28 1-3 on F tional; balanced, triadic,
29 1 non-tonic; transposing.
29 li-3 31 31 3 transitive, polar f~), func-
30 l on F 1 tional; balanced, triadic,
30 li-3 31 12 11 21 transitive, non-polar, func-
31 1 on C tional; cadential, triadic,
31 l½-3 21 11 14 11 dense, non-polar; balanced,
32 1-3 on A triadic, tonic; non-trans-
posing.
' \
165
C. SUMMARY OF THE CHARACTERISTICS

NO.l OF SCHOENBERG'S SECHS KLEINE KLAVIE&STOCKE
26 (78.7%) dense, 7 (21.3%) transitive;
18 (54.5%) polar, 15 (45.5%) non-polar;
23 (71.8%) functional, 9 (28.2%) non-functional.
21 (63.6%) stable--15 tonally stable, 6 balanced--and
12 (36.4%) unstable--2 cadential, 10 clashing;
23 (69.6%) triadic, 10 (30.4%) non-triadic;
23 (69.6%) tonic, 10 (30.4%) non-tonic.
22 (66.7%) non-transposing, 11 (33.3%) transposing.
166
D. THE 33 SETS USED IN
NO. l OF SCHOENBERG'S SECHS KLEINE KLAVIERSTUCKE
0 6 31 22 13 dense, .polar (~-sharp) , non-

l 1-3 on G functional; balanced, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
l 4 35 13 t dense, polar (e), non-functional;
on D .balanced, non-triadic, tonic:
non-transposing.
l 5 14 14 11 dense, polar (c), non-functional;
on G · tonally stable-; non-triadic,
non~tonic; non-transposing.
.1 6 15 15. transitive, non-polar, func-
on C tional; clashing, non-triadic,
non-tonic: transposing.
2 1-3 23 22 12 dense, .non-polar, non-functional;
on E· clashing., triadic, tonic; non-
transposing.
2 4-5 23 21 ¼3 · dense, po1·ar (~) , non-functional;
on F . tonally stable, triadic,. tonic;
· non-transposing.
2 6 39 ·dense, polar • ( d) , functional;
on C# clashing, non-triadic, non-
tonic;. transposi:ng ..
3 1-3 27 21 # dense, non-polar, functional;
. on C . clashing, non-triadic, non-
LEFT.HAND
3 4-6 31 26 b dense, non-polar, non-functional;
4 1-3 on B tonally. stable, non-triadic,
RIGHT HAND
3 3-6 31· 14 12 dense, non-polar, functional;·
on G balanced, triadic, tonic; non-
transposing .•
on E balanced, triadic, tonic; non-
transposing.
167
Meas. Beat Set . Characteristics
BOTH HANDS
4 4-6 62 11 tl dense, polar (e), functional;
on C balanced, triadic, non-tonic;
non-transposing.
5 1-4 XI 1 dense, non-polar, non-functional,:
on B tonally stable, triadic, tonic;
non-transposing.
5 5-6 71 22 dense, polar Cf-sharp), func-
on F tional; tonally stable, triadic,
non-tonic; non-transposing.
'
1-3 91 11 I transitive, non-polar, func-
on C tional, tonally stable, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
7. 1 42 24 b dense, n9n-polar, functional;
on A clashing, triadic, tonic;,
non-transposing.
\
7 2 22 12 i2 11 transitlve, non-polar, functional;

on D clashing, triadic, tonic;
transposing.
8 1-1¼ 71 22 dense, polar (£-sharp), func-
on F tional; tonally stable, triadic,
8 l¼-2 23 21 j2 dense, polar <s.>, functional;
on F tonally stable, triadic, tonic;
non-transposing.
9 1-2 23 11 14 dense, polar (d), functional;
on D tonally stable-; non-triadic,
10 1-2 72 21 t dense, polar (£-sharp), func-
11 1 on C tional; tonally stable, triadic,
11 11-2 41 23 Jl dense, polar (d), functional;
12 1-2 on C tonally stable-; triadic, tonic;
.non-transposing.
13 1 24 21 jl dense, non-polar, functional;
on G clashing, triadic, tonic;
transposing.
13 2 31 13 i2 dense, non-polar, functional;
on C tonally stable, triadic, tonic;
non-transposing.
168
Meas. Beat Set Charac·teristics
on E tional, clashing, triadic, tonic,
transposing.
14 4-6 13 12,211 transitive, non-polar, non-func-
on C tional; cadential, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
15 1-2 23 11 !4 dense, polar (dl, functional;
on E tonally stable; non-triadic,
15 3-6 52 11 ,2 dense, polar (e-flat), non-
.16 1-2 on C functional, clashing, triadic,
16 3-6 43 32 t dense, non-polar, functional;
on C . balanced, triadic, tonic; non-
transposing.
17 1-3 21 11 ~l 14 transitive, polar (e-flat),
on E functional; cadential, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
17 4 32 11 i4 dense, polar Ce-flat), func-
tional; tonally stable, non-
on E
17 5 3113 !3 transitive, polar (e), func-
on E tional; clashing, triadic, tonic;
transposing.
17 6 32 11 !4 dense, polar (e-flat), function
on E non-applicableT tonally stable,
non-triadic, non-tonic; non-
transposing.
169
E. SUMMARY OF THE CHARACTERISTICS

THE PRELUDE TO ACT THREE OF WAGNER'S PARSIFAL
37 (41.61) dense, 52 (58.41) transitive;
32 (361) polar, 64 (641) non-polar1
72 (80.71) functional, 17 (19.31) non-functional.
'
26 (29 .3%) stable--11 tonally stable and 15 balance.d--
and 63 (70. 71) unstable--26 cadential and 37 clashing1 :r
74 (831) triadic, 15 (171) non-triadic;
64 (71.91) tonic, 25 (28.11) non-tonic.
28 (31.41) non-transposing, 61 (68.6%) transposing.
170
THE &9 SETS USED IN

THE PRELUDE, 'l'O ACT THREE OF WAGNER'S PARSIFAL
Meas. Beat · Set Characteristics

1 1-4 23 12 13 dense, polar Ci-flat and b-
on F. flat), non-functional; tonal-
ly stable, triadic, tonic;
non-transposing.
2 1 1s 11 b3 transitive, non-polar, func-
on B tional; cadential, non-triadic,
on E tional1 clashing, non-triadic,
3 1-2 22 12 12 11 transitive, non-polar, non-
on C functional1 clashing, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
3 3 13 13 ~l 11 transitive, non-polar, func-
on G tional; cadential, non-triadic,
3 14 12 11 11 dense, polar (b-flat), func-
on F tional; clashing, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
4 1 14 11 12 11 dense, polar (f and b-flat),
on F functional; tonally stable,
non-triadic, tonic; non-trans-
posing.
4 2 13 11 ~2 12 transitive, non-polar, func-
on G tional; cadential, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
4 12 12 !2 12 transitive, non-polar, func-
on G tional, clashing, non-triadic,
4 3 13 11 !2 12 transitive, non-polar, non-
on A functional; cadential, triadic,
tonic, transposing.
5 1 15 12 12 transitive, non-polar, func-
on D tional, clashing, non-triadic,
non-tonic1 transposing.
171
-Meas.
5
Beat
2
Set
14 12 63.
Characteristics
dense, non-polar, functional;
on E balanced, triadic, tonic:
non-transposing.
5 3 14 13 12 dense, non-polar, functional;
on B balanced, triadic, tonic,
non-transposing.
5 4 14 13 12 as above.
on G
6 1-2 13 11 12 12 transitive, non-polar, non-

on C functional; cadential, triadic,
tonic: transposing •.
6 15 11 t3 transitive, non-polar, func-
on F tional; cadential, non-triadic,
non-tonic: transposing.
6 3 14 14 ,1 dense, polar (£-sharp), func-
on C tional: tonally stable, non- .
triadic, non-tonic; non-
transposing.
6 14 11J211 dense, polar (£-$harp and~),
on F . functional; tonally stable,
non7triadic, tonic; non-
transposing.
6 4 13 12 .2 11 transitive, non-polar, non-
on F functional; cadential, triadic,
tonic: transposing.
6 23 13 J2 dense, polar (c-1:11harp), non-
on C functional; caaential, triadic,
7 1 13 13,111 transitive, non-polar, func-
on F tiona:J.1. cadential, non-triadic,
non~tonic; transposing.
7 2 13 11~212 transitive, non-polar, non-
on B · functional; cadential, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
7 22 13 ,3
on F
dense, polar (~), functional;
cadential, triadic, tonic:
non-transposing.
7 3 23 12 13 dense, polar (d and e-flat),
on D functional: tonally stable,
triadic, tonic; non-trans-
posing.
172
8
-
-Meas. Beat
1
Set
15 12 12 transitive, non-polar, func-
on E tional; clashing!, non-triadic,
on F balanced, triadic, tonic;
non-transposing.
8 3 14 13 ,2 dense, non-polar, functional;
on C balanced, triadic, tonic;
non-transposing.
8 4 13 12 12 11 transitive, non-polar, func-
on D tional; cadential, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
9 1 14 111112 dense, polar (c), functional;
on C clashing, triaaic, tonic;
transposing. ' ·
on G balanced, triadic, tonic;
non-transposing.
9 23 12 13 dense, polar Ci and a-flat),
on G functional1 tonally stable,
9 3 22 12 14 dense, polar (c), non-functional;
on G cadential, triadic, tonic; non-
transposing.
9 14 13 12 dense, non-polar, functional;
on D · balanced, triadic, tonic; non-
transposing.
9 4 22 12 14 dense, polar (c), non-functional;
on G cadential,. triadic, tonic; non-
transposing.
9 13 11 12 12 transitive, non-polar, functional;
on o cadential, triadic, tonic;
transposing.
10 1-4 22 12 zl 11 .transitive, non-polar, functional;
on B clashing, triadic, tonic; trans~
posing.
11 1-4 22 21 jl 11 transitive, non-polar, functional;
on B balanced, triadic, tonic; trans-
posing.
173
12 1-4 41 22 J2 transitivei non-polar, func-
13 1-4 on C tional; clashing, triadic,
14 1-4 412212 as above.
15 1-4 on D
16 ·1-2 41 22 i2 as above.
on o.
16 3-4 41 22 12 as above.
on E
~eft hand (piano reduction)
17 1-2 . 22 13
on C
il 11 transitive, polar (d), func-
. tional; clashing, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
on B tional: clashing, non-triadic,
Right hand
17 1-2 transitive, non-polar, func-
tional; clashing, triadic, non-
tonic; transposing.
17 3-4 91 11 b transitive, non-polar, func-
on B tional; tonally stable, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
on B balanced~ triadic, tonic;
non-transposing.
18 13 11 12 .12 transitive, non-polar, non-
on G functional; cadential, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
18 2 14 12 13 dense, non-polar, functional,
on B balanced, triadic, tonic;
non-transposing.
18 3 ' 13 11 !2 12 transitive, non-polar, func-
on D tional; cadential, triadic,
tonic, transposing.
18 4 13 12 i2 11 transitive, non-polar, func-
on G tional, cadential, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
174
-Meas. Beat Set Characteristics

18 4i 13 11 12 12 transitive, non-polar, func-
on G tional, cadential, triadic,
tonic: transposing.
19 all 41 22 j2 transitive, non-polar, func-
on C tional1 clashing, triadic,
20 all 51 21 ~l transitive, polar (f), func-
on E tional; cadential, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
21 all 81 21 I dense, polar (~-sharp and b),
on F functional; tonally stable,
triadic, tonic1 non-
transposing.
22 all 81 21 dense, polar (band d), func-
on A tional; tonally stabie, triadic,
23 1 42 12 J2 dense, polar (a and b-flat),
on G functional; clashing; triadic,
tonic; transposing.
23 2 42 12 gl transitive, non-polar, func-
on B tional; clashing, triadic, non-
tonic; transposing.
23 3 41 21 j2 dense, polar (a), functional1
on G balanced, triactic, tonic;
non-transposing.
23 4 42 42 f dense, non-polar, functional;
on F clashing, triadic, non-tonic;
non-transposing.
24 1-2 22 2112 11 dense, polar <i and£~, ~unc-
on G tional; cadential, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
24 3-4 24 13 11 transitive, polar (b-flat), non-
on A functional; clashing, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
25 1-2 21 12 13 11 transitive, polar (~-flat), func-
on D tional1 clashing, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
25 3-4 33 21 jl dense, non-polar, functional;
on F cadential, triadic, non-tonic;
non-transposing.
175
-Meas. Beat Set Charact·eristics

26 all 22 21 21 11 transitive, non-polar, func-
27 1-2 on G tional; balanced, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
3-4 42 12 12 dense, polar (band b-flat),
on A functional; clashing; triadic,
tonic; transposing.
28 1-2 22 21 ~2 11 dense, polar (b-flat and e-flat),
/ on B functional; caaential, triadic,
/ 28 3-4 24 13 11
tonic; transposing.
transitive, polar (d-flat),
on C non-functional; clashing, tri-
adic, tonic; transposing.
29 1-2 21 12 13 11 transitive, polar (~-flat), func-
on F tional; clashing, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
on A cadential, triadic, non-tonic;
non-transposing.
30 all 22 216111 transitive, non-polar, func-
31 1-2 · on B tional; balanced, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
31 3-4 41 21 22 dense, polar (b-flat), func-
on A tional; balanced, triadic,
32 all 22 21 ~l 11 transitive, non-polar, func-
on B tional; balanced, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
33 all 22 12 gl 11 transitive, non-polar, funq-
on B tional1 clashing, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
,
on A tional; clashing, triadic, non-
tonic; transposing.
34 3-4 41 22 21 :dense, non-polar, non-functional;
on F tonally stable, triadic, tonic;
non-transposing.
35 1-2 22 11 a2 11 transitive, non-polar, func-
on I (B) tional, clashing, triadic,
tonic, transpoeing.
I
176
Meas. Beat Set

3-4 41 22 12 transitive, nonRpolar, func-
on C tional~ clashing, triadic, non-
tonic; transposing.
on D tional; clashing, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
36 3-4 3·2 12 !3 dense, polar (e), non-func-
on E tional, balanced, triadic,
on D tional; clashing, non-triadic,
on A tional, clashing, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
38 all 13 12 i2 11 transitive, non-polar, func-
on E tional; cadential, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
39 all 42 12 82 dense, polar (d and e-flat),
on D non-functional, clasning,
triadic, tonic; transposing.
40 all 12 12 12 12 transitive, non-polar, func-
on E tional; clashing, non-triadic,
41 all 42 12 &2 dense, polar (band c), non-
on B functional; clashing; triadic,
tonic; transposing.
42 all 12 12 i2 12 transitive, non-polar, func-
tional; clashing, non-triadic,
on D
43 all 42 12 12 dense, polar (a-flat and a),
on G functional; clashing, triadic,
tonic; transposing.
44 all 13 11 12 12 ·transitive, non-polar, non-
on A func~ionalr cadential, triadic,
tonic1 transposing.
45 all 21 12 12 12
on C transitive, polar (d-flat),
functional; clashing, triadic,
tonier transposing.
177
46 all 14 13 ·12 . dense, non-polar, function non-
on A applicable; balanced, triadic,
APPENDIX II
PERTINENT CORRESPONDENCE
'\
I}5 boulPvnrd l~nflpn.il PAR IS (q6PmP)
lfl 27 janviPr 1971 · . ·. 179
Mon~iPur BRIAN J. ELLARD

DirPctPur du Depru-tPmPnt
dP MUSIQUE
UNIVERSITE DE MONCTON
C ANAD A
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A la rPtraitP ftn mai 1976.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Costere, Edmond. Lois et styles des harmonies musicales.

Paris: Pressestmiversitaires de France, 1954.
Mort ou transfigurations de l 'Harmonie. Paris:

Presses universi taires de France, 1962.
Forte, Allen. "A Theory of Set-Complexes for Music,"

The Journal of Music Theory, Vol. viii' No. 2
(Winter 1964), 136 to 183.
Hanson, Howard. Harmonic Materials of Modem Music.

New York: Appleton, Century _and Crofts, 1960.
Hindemith, Paul. The Craft of Musical Composition.

Translated by Arthur Mendel. New York: As-
sociated Music Publishers, Inc. , 1945.
Messiaen, Olivier. The Technique~~ Musical Language.

Translated by John Satterfield. Paris: Alphonse
Leduc, 1956. ·
Michel, Fran~ois (ed.) Encyclopedie de la musique. Vols.
II and III. Paris: Fasquelle, 1958. ·
Perle, George. Serial Composition and Atonalit~. 2nd
edition. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University
of California Press, 1968.
Slonimsky, N·icolas. Thesaurus .of S,eales and Melodic
Pattems. New York: ,:CoI'eman-Ross Co., Inc., 1947.
184
~
7
I
(
PART II:
A TRANSLATIQN_
,.,
I
LAWS AND STYLES
OF
MUSICAL HARMONY
The genesis and characteristics

of the totality of.sets,
scales, chords, and
rh!fthms
PY
EDMOJP COSTERE
,c;'·c-~
TABLE OF CONTENTS
THE PROBLEM • • .. . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . 1
BOOK ONE THE BASIS OF ALL HARMONY • • • • .. • • 5
. Chapter I. Fundamental Notionsi • • • • • • • • .5

Chapter II. The Harmonic Scale • • • • • • • • • 17
Chapter III. Cardinal Relationships • • • • • • • 21
Chapter IV. The Perfect Major Triad • • • • • • 35
~hapter V. The Basis of Minor:
Horizontal Symmetry • • • • • • • • 44
Chapter VI. Tei_npered Projections • • • • • • • • 58
BOOK TWO SOUND-COMPLEXES OR SOUND-LOC~ '. .. . .. . 65
Chapter I. Preliminaries • • • • • • • • ·• •. : 65
Chapter II. Stabil'ity and Dynamism. • • • ., •. . ._ 67
Chapter III. Characteristics of l!lajorand
of Minor. Scales • • • • • • • • •.~ . 8 2
Chapter IV. The Diatonic Scale. ·• • • • • ,. • • 88
Chap~r V. Diatonicism or Polyvalence • • • • • 100
I .
BOOK THREE SCALES. • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • • • • 104

Chapter I. The Theory of Scales • • • • • • • • 104
Chapter II. Classif;i.ca:tion of Scales According
to Appec;1.J!!an~ • • • • • • • • • • • 115
Chapter :III. Clas~ificat'on of Scales According
to · s ~ t . . . • . . . . . . . . 125
I
,I Chapter IV. Classification of Scal~s According
I
I to the Function of the Perfect
Triads. . . . . - . . . . . . . ._ . 135
Chapter V. Classification of Scales According
to· Certain Functions • • • • · • • • • 140
'I
Chapter VI. Classification of Scales According
to Their Cardinal Gravity • • • • • 147
Chapter VII. Classificatiqn of Scales According
to Their Tonal Grav-i ty. • • • · • • • 153
Chapter VIII. Classification of Scales According
to Their Transpositional Gravity •• 160
BOOK FOUR TOWARD ORGANIZED MUSIC • • • • • • • 166
Chapter I. Progress ions • • . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Re-enforcement. . .
. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Chapter II. 171
Chapter III. Chords • • • • • 186
Chapter IV. Mocies • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 214
Chapter v. Tonal Relationship • • • • • • • • • • · 245
Chapter VI. The Relationship of Transpositions
of the Same Set • • • • • • • • • • • 251
Chapter VII. The Relationship Between
Different Sets • • • • • • • • • • • • 259
Chapter VIII. Tempered, Non-semitonal Projections. 263
Chapter IX. The Architecture of Tones • • • • • • 269
BOOK FIVE RHYTHMS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 27 8 ,
BOOK SIX HARMONIC STYLES • .. ...• • • • •

• • • • 288
Chapter I. Preliminaries • • • . . • • • • • • • 288
Chapter II. The Cardinal Style. . • . • • • • • • 291
Chapter III. The Mocial Style . • • • • • • . • • • 303
Chapter IV. The Tonal Style . •. • • • . • • • • • 310
Chapter V. The Atonal Style. . . • • • • • . • • 316
BOOK SEVEN CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • 331
SYNOPTIC TABLE OF THE 351 SETS.• . . . . . . . . . . .. 338
ANALYTICAL TABLES OF THE SETS • • •. .......... 414
REFERENCES • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 424 I I
"The musician of our era has lost
hope 'in the music of the past,
and questions·everything".
Roland Manuel
(Plaisir de la Musique,
Feb. 1, 1953.)
T HE P ROBL E M
In the face of harmonic practices that run the gamut

between tonality and atonality, dodecaphony and diatonicism,
natural and tempered scale formations, half-tone, quarter-tone,
and other fractional divisions of the octave, the musician
that clings to a classical doctrine of harmony is paralyzed
by everything that is foreign to it. Seeking an alternate
. 1
solution, he beco:mes thoroughly disconcerted. He finds him-
self groping at the meroy of fashion, chance, allegiance, or
perhaps he is spuq::-red on by a deep motivation, the extent of
which he will never ~ully realize, a motivation that he will
no dol:!ht st+ain if he does not ignore it.
If he resents the constraints or that doctrine, he·
would do well at this point to examine his conscience.
First of all\, l~t him banish all preconceived not:ions;
the n9tion of perfect triad, . . rejected by atonality; the notion
1cf. particulafl:Y Jean Bartaud, R~flexiens sur la mu-

s:rv- I; Gisele ,»,rel-et, .Es}•~•ti~ue ·et ·cr~·ation· mus·ica~ Jacques
ley ,· Tra;J.t~ fti:S•tor!gue cl ·ana!'ise music·aleJ Charles Koech-
lin, .•Evolution de l 'harmon:.le; and0h·.ttA. ·ae· 1' 1harmonie; Paul
Landormy, Ia· MusTgue· .fr·a:n·Qaise· ipras· D-ebµii'y; Arnold Schoenberg,
Pr~face pour trois ·satires; Emi e Vuillermoz, Histoire de la /
· muslgue, etc.
,
I
. · . ' '' .·. •'. ., •. ':'fl;'' ,, . : ' ,' ·,' : ' ' '
.of diatonic ee:ile •. fo",;~ to aerial J.e,chniqµe; the notion of
. . -. . . ; -. ·. _-'.: .. ·:· :_- ·. ',: ·::;;/_:\~::\"_:: _- ,_ \. ;/-.-: -, ' ,_·, \ ·_. ----~::_:'-- i:· .. )."
l semi,t.onal. s,oa;i,:;jo~tt~~, :lgne>red ~~n>·~~. e,x4tic, ~usical
. . '' 2 . ' ' ' '. \:} ·, ,' .• ' . .·.•. ' ·.· ·' ' . > . .t . ' ..· ·. ·,. •··· • . : ·. . ' . .. . '
'styles .. andrej$C:t,$d ain
1 acou~tieian:s,: as bi. cet:1;
we11 as ~e
. ch'ampions.
...
?,f\;CJ~~~::~;. or. other· such· fractional .intetvallic
uhii;s.
.
·These .
.
~oti,..
_,.
mltlJt Jll be abarnton•d .s~· 'th.at we, may
,\. .. . ' "":·: ': :<·: ;
'erect upori, certun tiaaio. ttuths the ·ahdwer to this fwidamental .
ql:iestion:
·Ar-. ~~,-,., •·or are thexa hot,: laws: a:>itul\Qn to all of
·~.c <:/"·.:,:----:: ·. ·• .... - . . - / ; ·. - - - -
. these diwt91!t~'-aips . '• •••,-,•(,•"•,',, •,':•i'-'•'•
a tbat ·transcend th~ techniques them-
• • ,••,~
.-ives?
The. ~- pf ·thia',wbrk is to dlecover. the common bases
, . ·, . :.' . ,, . . . . . . :I ·. . . . . . .
'of all styles. :of:
. ' . -.
m-qsica.i .harmony
.' ,_ .~ '
by-
•'
;seeking
.,
out. the principles
',' '.. '
,~•t 'regulj.te
'•';.'·• '
.·
the vi~'1a1:· affinity ·that €ones,• have ·for one
' - . '','
Dur+rtg·· the ~~e of hi:s. rellding~ the informed rea~r.

will encoun,,wr se'V$tal basic tr\alsJRS t. . for 11lis: tile author
. '.· .·• \ ·. . . ,r _,,.:,,<: _.· ·.· .//'.'.: ·. . . ,· . .
apoldgizi\l.,:iri ad~•qt.ti ·-··.But·.they areithe eo.int of departµre
•for atgumeJit•. b:aj:1,ld. •~· .the .only ·. physlcal ;and acoustical laws
• ,' '··; .,, ,- ,.-:• .·; . ,\ . ' ' 1; : '
.
. :whose ®vctio~nt .
the.fauthor feEl!ls f,t' .necessary
- " :(~;~, _:,._-:t -. '::· .L\ -- .
.
t.e. :observe, in '.
-~ i-,-, . . . , . _ .
.'.
·:'
'
I -. '
"
. - -~'
"'
:· : I
. tae•;•ve,:y .Order in wfiiel'i th~y

. ' ·, i
pt'esented~
. . .
·are . ,
.·. . . .. . l •·-'·. : ..· . . . . . ·. :' . . :. ,
Bfs-torieal and e:thnic cons:ide'ratlons could hav.e l>een
' .·• ,• ' ·.. : ' . '. . . /
.· avoit~d f<>r the.· following .reason: they lfck the strict objec-
t,i,vity th~t tr~11j!,j~sal11,ll 'fl,el). PEf!r,ientf~. principlf!s that ·
' I
------------ .. ,I
2
. . Hotably ~e S•iaiaese p:rojecti~ 1 _ .'shms to· be in
•~n tbs of oc~yes 1 ·iA• Mf;!a ~ Sl~ o / . . . ot\l.on in fifths
. ~, ~tavat/.r•t;e~,' \J;J;i P~, · a · ~t· c ~,_,n· . ' sth.•t···Ma·i·ue·.
,.J"'i ~~!:'!;~:j;i
·B.·
11
o~e _ ''1li:"tf'd.
3
must stand on their own merit as the ineluctable·consequences

of irrefutable facts.
on the other hand, such considerations prove to be
most meaningful and most convincing when they are used to ver-
ify the principles being presented.
When the laws~ cardinal gravitation are presented
herein as the very source of the immanent relationships of
tone-. it is not as a capsule statement of the consequences of
the general law of universal attraction. The behaviour of
these laws within the confines of an already-proven harmonic
technique can best assess their pertinence.
Herein lies the marvel: as a resu+t of the singular
effect of cardinal attractions on the diatonic substance, all
of harmony is reborn, based· on their laws.
It is not enough to say that these laws were in .force
in the music of the past •. They exist as the very basis of its
harmony, just as if.its craftsmen had secretely perceived
their authority all through the leavening of the sound matter.
Better yet, beyond the diatonic framework, they regu-
late compositions that are furthest removed from it, even though
they be in the deepest confines of dodecaphony, whenever these
compositions tend to be ordered according to the yery immanence
of the tones that are employed. 3
3 .
Cf. in Book VI, chapter 11, paragraph 3, the discus-
sion of the theme of Variations for Orchestra, op. 31 of Arnold
Schoenberg, a work in strict serial technique,.which neverthe-
less strictly follows cardinal determinism, since the last note
of each phrase, and the fundamental tone of the supporting
chord are in each.case either one or the other, and occasional-
4
And so,.not only do these laws explain and justify an

en tire traditional technique that, up to this point, had as
its only substantiation the force of usage, but further, they
appear as the basic laws of sound progression, and henceforth,
far beyond the limits of diatonicism, they are essential to
the study of all projections and all scales, of all chords and
of all progressions, as the veritable bases of the dynamics of
sound.
ly one and the other, the most cardinal note in the phrase, or
in the chord.
See also the analyses of the exerpts of the works by
Bartok, Stravinsky, Darius Milhaud, Honegger, Hindemith, Mes-
siaen, Jolivet, Boulez, etc., in VI 2 !, VI 3 !, and VI 5 7.
B OOK I
T HE BAS I S O F A L L H A R MO N Y
CHAPTER I
'
FUNDAMENTAL NOTIONS
1. Audible Sound
The first and foremost requisite in our quest for an
harmon1c science is objectivity. We must restrict our study
of tones to the intrinsic relationships they have with one
another, while being careful to avoid all subjective judge-
ments. If there do exist laws of harmony, it is most certain-
ly not from impressions subject to all manner of fluctuation
. 1
that they shall become manifest.
However, when the eighty-eight notes of the piano key-
board are expanded to include the entire gamut of possible
tones, some subjective considerations must be dealt with: we
bring them to mind at this point, then we shall set them aside.
All sound is the result of vibration in an elastic
body, and these vibrations are measured in terms of a number. /
But, these vibratory phenomena exist only in as much
as they are perceived as sound phen9mena by the human ear.
Hence, given a body successively capab1e·of all periods
1cf. Armand Machabey, Sommaire de la m{3thode en musi-

col9g:ie, and Trait, de la critique musicale; Etienne Sounau,
l'avenir de l'Esthit!que":"
I
6
of vibration, from a fraction to a quasi-infinite nwnber of

vibrations per second, we observe first of all that below six-
teen cycles per second, the human ear perceives nothing but
beats.
Consequently, it is only from approximately 16 c.p.s.
[cycles per second]upwards that vibration is perceived as a
continuous tone, the lowest tone in the entire gamut.
But this is not the only limitation in the sensation
of sound. The human ear ceases to perceive high frequencies at
approximately 36,000 c.p.s. Acutely high frequencies are so
thin cUld shrill as to escape hearing. It is true that certain
ultra-sounds are heard by other animals, but they are lost to
the human sense of he~ring.
2. Perceptible Intervals
To this first limitation of the boundaries of the realm
of sound, we add another which is also related to the physiolo-
gy of hearing as we currently understand it.
2
The action of the miniscule vibrating filaments of the

.....
basilar membrane on the cells of Corti enables the ear to rec-
ognize sound. Through the agency of a nerve-end anchored to
the basilar membrane, each cell evokes a sensation of one sin-
gle tone having a fixed period of vibration.
The localisation of sound occurs along the basilar
membrane, from the entrance--its narrowest point--where the
2 '
Cf. Van Esbroeck and Montfort,·_9!'est-ce gu7 ou7r
juste? Brussels, 19'46; and Hedon, Pr,c1s de la'1)hys10
Paris, 1950. - -
1
ogie,
I,l
But, wl-utt
'
1, ; l ~ ~ t . in
-. . -, ' -\ - '
~
'.our ·cux:~•rit· di&cussion, is
. .- i' - ' '- . '
tha:t ,a t~ne, ·p~·k.as it mi.gn:~t be, -~fects. not on1y the cell'
I :: ' . -· , '.'.- , - , .l' - I -•:
.. ·for which it was · i.nj;eQdeil,,'::}.)\lt also tfie .cells on!Ye.ither side

' '-~- '· ,., _·. ' ·_\:·· '.\- -:~- <~ -- - - - ',' .. ' . -:-_=;-.:--:"t, ,. , . ' ' \
of the main cell, ,tbei2r n~er ~ing dependent om the inten-
sity of, the tone. ·
The slmu.l:tartebuj'~rception·of.these closely..;related
freque~cies eng·r• ,:, ' •I , ,•,
a :ceitain. ambi.~ity'that ·accounts for
' '
certain. impre~i$i;~na
-~
in·· O\IX"·' hearing.•
.
A highly::..:i.11lpc>rtant rionsequ;iice aeriY8S•' ft:om this am-

· biguity: .th$ int.tli..i.y of ail ihte~als so narrow as to cause
.'
a,n overlap. in ~.perception of the two ccaponents of the
in~etval.
'
In [fat.ct:, ·tt is, impossible to :P.~~int accurately the
' .
al■e of tlllln~al with 1fllilm tlli.• :9~~~"" distOrtion
begi~, be.cause .the· inargin· .of·· uncerta~~ty /vrries .not only with.
_tile; int~nsit~~~: the _•o~d at the soUX"Cf;J,''}1ut also·-with the
audL:tave sens.~i.·vi ty .~f , the subject. . / .
' However',"·,on'e· interval has, traditi~lly been us·ed ·as
, . ' , . . , .. . . ; \;, . .. . .. • . . . l . .\ / ·. " • '.! . , •
a .standard:
4
the ;comma of Aristoxenu.s whtch has the
'·. . ,, ',. ·•
ratio 81/80 .
!
and in whio~.i tli• ,respeqt!,'8 ?!riods of· vibration 'of each of
/ • :·ooiaponf!ilts i~:<el;,• ~d: .so c. p. s. · /
1
'!hi• 1~~1 mey.be"conside;red a ~ t unrecognizable
• ;r,\ "• - • , •
~):t;e.:ua~i~,~ar, ·an4 we shail.re\~n it'·iiere'as our s~and:..,

. ', ,.· . ' .
.x}J'...
8
ard, no matter how precise or imprecise it might be.

In sum, this margin of uncertainty in the auditory
phenomenon emits one rather concrete directive: to avoid,
henceforth, in the study of sound, employing intervals whose
two components are closer together than the two components of
the comma.
3. The Harmonic Series

We return once again to our original consideration:
that multitude of audfble tones that exists between the lowest
and highest notes of the piano keyboard.
Even when we restrict our thinking to the keyboard, we
encounter a monolith of sound which seems to defy all analysis.
Which intervals will c.ome to the surface, limiting us to which
tones among so many others?
One primary acoustical truth can provide the answer to
these all important questions; it alone is sufficient. If
certain individuals, because of a particular esthetic, choose
to ignore its consequences, none can deny its existence: the
immutable harmonic series.
No matter what t.he natural enµssion of a tone, it is
always accompanied by a cortege of higl\er tones projected ac-
cording to a pattem ~f intervals whose names have become par-
tially consecrated through usage: the second harmonic is an
octave above the first, its fundamental; the third and the
"
fourth harmonics are a fifth and an octave above the, second
respectively, the fiftp and the sixth, a major tl}.ird and a
fifth above the fourtp, and so on and so forth, always follow-
I,l /
9
ing the same regularly decreasing pattern of intervals.

This harmonic echelon is exactly the same as that con-
tinuity of tones whose frequencies are in an increasing arith-
metic progression, that is, tones of frequency F, 2F, 3F, 4F,
SF, etc. , that are produced by the regular fractioning of pipes,
or vibrating strings of the following lengths: L, L/1, L/2,
L/3, L/4, L/5, etc.
This same pattern, projected to the limits of audible
,
sound, is applicable to any tone used as a fundamental.
The following is the harmonic series of c: 3
If the fundamental c comprises F vibrations, and cor-

responds to .a string or a pipe of length L, the second'£ com-
prises 2F c.~.s. and the length of the string is L/2; the
first 2_ has lF c.p •. s. and its string length is L/3; the third
c has 4F c.p.s. and i.ts string length is L/4, and so on. Con- -.,.
sequently, the e_ighth nQte, which is once again c has a f re-
quency of BF c.p.s., twice that of the p~evious c and four
times that of the second£: its string length is 1/2, 1/4, and
1/8 that of each of the preceding e's.
One n~ed only kno~ the order of harmonics in·order to
be able to calculate the frequency and stri'll~ length of'any
3
The notes th~t are blacked-in are foreign to the dia-
tonic temperament and traditional notation; the others are just
within the tolerance of a comlna.
10
harmonic in relation to its fundamental.
The distance between each successive harmonic is meas-
ured in terms of the number of vibrations, or the length of
the strings of the two component tones. The successive ratios
of the harmonics in the series are then: 1/2, 2/3, 3/4, 4/5,
5/6, and so on, in a regularly decreasing pattern.
Each musical instrument is constructed in such a way
it '·filters [ or re-enforces] more or less, several of the har-
moni'cs; it is the absence [ or re-enforced presence] of these
harmonics that gives the instrument its characteristic timbre
for any given pitch. Nevertheless, in principle, the emission
of any fundamental tone is always accompanied by the chain of
its harmonics, always projected according to the same law.
This is the only natural law in the realm of soupd,
and it is from this law alone that all conclusions and con-
sequences should be d~~wn. 4
4. The Identity equivalence* of Pitches at the Octave

----------
To simplify matters, we shall refer to the fundamental
tone as the firs~ harmonic. The pitcb aios~ clo~ely related to
it is the one an octave above. The freq:uencies of the two
pitches have the ratio 2/1, inversely to.the length of their
4cf. H. Bouasse, Acoust~gue musicale; Jacques Chailley,

Trai te his torigue d I analys,e musicale i,t Th. Dubois,. Trai te d 'har-
monie (NQt.:i.ons pr@Iimlnaires); Ma:uribe Emmanuel, Histoire-de la
lancne· musicale; J. '."'.'l>h. Rameau,· ·Gen~r·atl:ons· ~11r;:mpn1.cr:es ,! etc. -
. . *Trahs lator •·s footnote: ' ~l though A:e term identit~, in
its strictest •~m1e, means absolute s~ness or eq.uality, 1.t
seems preferable to employ the term equj.vate:nce in this context
because Q~ tl'\e secondary meanings andconnotations (personality,
individuali fy') that ha~e been associated with iden•tity through
usage. ·
11
strings. This is indeed a simple relationship, if such sim-

plicity does exist.
If we go up an octave from this second harmonic, ei-
ther by doubling its frequency or halving its string length,
we arrive at the fourth tone in the series: it bears the
same relationship to the second that the second bore to the
first. Likewise, between the fourth and the eighth harmonic
there is an octave, a doubling of the frequency' and a similar
halving of the string length. The same is true between the
eighth and sixteenth harmonics, the sixteenth and thirty-
second harmonics, etc.
Moreover, within each successive octave, the series
contains all of the intervals of the previous octave: the
interval between the second and third harmonics, the fifth,
reappears in the third octave between the fourth and sixth
I
harmonicsi in the fourth octave, between the eighth and twelfth
harmonics; in the fifth octave, between the sixteenth and
twenty-fourth harmonics, and so on. The interval between the
fourth and fifth harmonics, the major third, reappears in the
fourth octave between the eighth and tenth harmonics; in the
fifth octave, between the sixteenth and twentieth harmonics,

etc. Each new interval reappears in its respective position
in the succeeding octav:e.
Better yet, each tone in the harmonic series engenders
in turn a new progression of harmonics all of whose pitches
belong to the original series, and which is developed accord-
ing to the same laws as the original, with the same repetitions
from octave to octave.
12 /
Consequently, in the harmonic series of.£, every third

component (marked i>. belongs to the harmonic series of i= ~,
~, d, i, b, d, etc. and every fifth component (marked e) be-
longs to the harmonic series of e: ~, =., b, =., i--sharp, b,
etc., and every seventh component (marked vii) belongs to the
harmonic series of the seventh harmonic, and every ninth com-
ponent belongs to the harmonic series of d (marked d) etc.
In essence,. everything happen~ as if the octave was
an entity capable of transposition by degrees.
The principle of equivalence 2! pitches!,:!:. the octave
may be a little uncertain. But it is so well justified by
the observations made above, that it ought to be adopted as
an axiom by virtue of its being a necessity of harmony.
Through it, the many problems that are 1contained within the
range of audible sound could be concentrated into one single
interval occupying one eighth of tlae entire gamut.
5. The Neces.si ty of Temperameqt

As is, is the harmonic series satisfactorily usable
for musical composition? Obviously not!

Given £ as a fundamental, it will set the tone for the
succession of which it is the germ.incl). element Of tj:ie tonic,
and the resultant succession will const4-t~te its tonal pro-
longation.
I,l
13
What are the resources of the whole for composition?
To an empty first octave between two £' s, we add a
second octave in which there is a~, a third that is enriched
by an~ as well as the seventh harmonic, to which we shall
give the provisional name of !-half-sharp, since this tone
does not come within a comma of being the same as any of the
diatonic pitches in common use. Above and beyond the pitches
of the previous octaves, the fourth octave contains ad and a
b, as well as two other pitches foreign to the diatonic·sys-
tem: we shall name them £-half-sharp and !-half-flat. In
the ox:der of their appearance, the eight pitches of this par-
ticula~ octave are: £, d, ~,£-half-sharp,~, !-half-flat,
a-half-sharp, and£· The fifth octave adds eight new harmonics
to this array, almost all of which are foreign to the diatonic
system.
As such, we have an absolutely unbalanced whole, from
an all-too-sparse low register, to an all-too-dense high reg-
ister.
The principle of equivalence of pitches at the octave
enables up to fill in the void at the bottom of the spectrum,
by reducing the whole into a single octa,t"e_.
. . . In order to have
a sufficient numb~r of ~ones with which toiwork, we shall choose
either the fourth octave, whose eight pitches approximate the
familiar c scale, or one of the higher oq_taves. However, we
s.hould not go too high before mak;i.ng. our sel,ection,
•" ',."''
not ,only /
.
because of the limit~. of the hearing range, l:>U.t also because
of the .increasing complexity of the harmonic problems and dif-
ficulties of manufacturing instruments, composing, and per-
T _1
14
forming music in which there is such a high density of very
narrow intervals.
Selecting the fourth octave of the series, we achieve
a homogeneity with a system that contains all of the harmonics
of£ up to the selected limit, but it contains three times
fewer harmonics of i, and five and seven times fewer harmonics
of~ and ~-half-sharp. Not one harmonic of any of the other
constituent tones is included.
In this scale of the fourth octave of the series, the
harmonics of other constituent tones are b, harmonic of i and
~' and d, harmonic of i·
Fig. 2
~-half~sharp; t-half-flat
This dearth of harmonics other than those of the fun-

damental irremediap!y limits the scope of such a system in
that it restrains tlle evolution from one series to another, or
in other wor~s, fr0,~ one tonality to another.
But, there are inconveniences other than this tonal
uniformity:
Within each octave, the width of the successive in-
tervals is constantly regressing, since the law of harmonic
projecti,on so dictates. There is coni:requently a discontinui-
ty between the end of, one octave and the beginning of the next,
or on either side of .each succeed_;ing tonic c.
Finally, if one selects such and such tones from the
system to construct an ascending succession of intervals, why/
15
is it not just as satisfactory to hold to the downward pro-

jection of thes·e same 'intervals? There is no functional ne-
cessity prohibiting it. But the very texture of the system
is opposed to it at this point, owing-to the inequality of
its intervals.
Tonal uniformity, discontinuity, uninver~ibility:
these are the defects of a system based exclusively on natural
harmonics. These defects underline the imperious need for a
.
homogeneous system of intervals which would permit transposi-
tion to all constituent tonalities, and inversion. Intervals
that are at the same time continuous and invertible cannot be
anything but equal.
Temperament is the necessary equalizer of all conjunct
.
interva 1 s. 5
6. The Comma
Such an equalisation of the sound gamut would be in-
compatible with the progressive distribution of harmonic in-
tervals if it were' not. for the fallibility of. the human ear.
But, as we have seen, ~cute or shrill intervals are not accu-
rately perceived. And so, in ~rder to incorporate the harmonic
projection into a scale of equal primary intervals, our equal-
isation admits all tones that approximate the natural harmonic
tones within a certain margin of tolerance.
;I
5
c~. parti9Ularly Mauripe Emmanuel, H~s·toire de la
langue musicale 1 Van Esbroeclc and Montfort., Qµ}·est-ce ue ] uer
1 1
t';1f~e? Charles Lalo,· 2·1&1en·t& d· 1 une· es·th,•J:i§uexinisica e sc en-
ti ·1.gue; Matyla Ghika,· Essai· · ~ le ey·tfune.
I,l I
16
Even though this extreme tolerance varies with the

listener as well as with the intensity of the perceived tone
or its frequency, we must select and hold fast to a determined
interval that can serve as a standard margin of approximation
for the coincidence of natural harmonic tones and the tones of
one or another tempered scale.
The unit most commonly accepted is the comma, of which
we have already spoken. It is certainly criticizable since the
.
true reason for its ratio of 81/80 was to justify the cycle
[or circle] of fifths, the traditional generator of the dia-
tonic-system: this was a result of holding as negligible the
difference that had to be accounted for between the
pure major third--between the fourth and fifth harmonics of
the series--and the artificial major third--derived from the
cycle of fifths: the ratio of that negligible interval is
precisely 81/80.
Nevertheless, it is generally accepted that, experi-
mentally, the comma does constitute a sµfficiently imperceptible
difference for the human ear. Ana the imprecisions inherent in
the margin of auditive perception permit us retain the tradi-
tional value of the oonnna, if we may be permitted such a sub-
jective notion. I
Harmonic series, equality oi octaves, te:inperament, and
comma are among the essential notions of all harmonic systems. 6
:I
6
cf. ~articularly H. Bouasse, Apou·st'ique mu•sicale;
Charles G~iel, · Acou·st;L'que· must·ca·1e; Paul Rougnon, · Princip·es
de ·1a lf\\1Sique. '
I,l
CHAPTER II
THE HARMONIC SCALE
1. Definition
The four~ octave of the harmonic series, considered
in isolation, constitutes an eight-tone scale that roughly
approximates the normal scales. Within its succession of the
eighth to sixteenth harmonics, it contains the fourth to
i
eighth harmonics of the third octave, as well as the harmonics
,1:
of the first two octaves, giving !!!, of !!:!!.: first •sixteen h·ar-
. l
monies.
This scale, the only one provided by nature, we shall
call the Harmonic Scale.
Ou-r study of this scale will con$ist of defining the
properties and limitations of the entir~ harmonic series. Be-
cause of the necessities of temperament, its constituent tones
will henceforth only be considered within any tempered projec-
tion to whiah it can be incorporated.
2. Projections Proper t o ~ Harmonic Scale

In ord~r to determine if the harmonic scale can be
'
in~E!rted int.o a given tempe/rojection, one need only,, cal-
1
f cf. Prudent Pruvost, · ·1a MUs;ijue· r&n:ov~; P. -J. Richard,
· !! G·anune, etc.
I,2 17
18
culate the primary interval and its multiples of each tempered
projection and compare them to the closest intervals in the
harmonic scale. The set that contains intervals that are
respectively equal to each ·of the intervals of the harmonic
scale, within the margin of a comma, will include the entire
harmonic scale.
Ignoring tempered projections based on very narrow
intervals, since they would only lead to a multiplicity of
technical problems of all kinds, 2 successive comparisons of
the harmonic scale with tempered projections of various unit-
inte~als reveal only one single projection capable of incor-
porating the harmonic scale: the quarter·-~ p·roje·ction,
that projection containing twenty-four equal intervals to the •~
octave.
NATURAL HARMONIC TEMPERED HARMONIC DIFFERENCE

SCALE SCALE
natural value of the value of the .same in- between natural
intervals between c tervals for all of and tempered
and each of the the tones in the intervals; should
tones of the scale quarter-tone pro- not exceed the
jection comma: 1.0125
2 C 2 1
E'-half-sharp 1.9414
1.875 E' 1.8877 1.0068
o-half-flat 1.8341
o-flat 1.782
1.75 a-half-sharp 1.7311 1.0109
a 1.6819
1.625 a-half-flat 1.6340 1.005
· 2_-sharp 1.5875
2_-half-sharp 1.5423
,,
1.5 . 2. 1.4984 1.001 I
I
. [continued.]
2cf. I l 5.
I,2
1•.·i
;{
/
19
£-sharp 1.4143
1.375 · £-half-sharp,· . 1.3740 1.0007
f 1.3329
· e-half-sharp 1.2969
1.25 ·e 1. 2600 1.008
· e-half-flat 1.2241
e-flat 1.1893
a-half-sharp 1.1554
1.125 d 1.1225 1.0022
d-half-flat 1.0905
·c-sharp 1.0594
c-half-sharp 1.0293
1 C 1 l
The tonic c of the harmonic scale is identical to th.e

first pitch of the quarter-tone projection; the~ is identical
to the fifth pitch; the~ is identical to the ninth pitch1 the
£-half-sharp identical to the twelfth; the~ identical to the·
fifteenth; the _!-half-flat identical to the eighteenth; the
_!-half-sharp identical to the twentieth; the b identical to
the twenty-third; the twenty-fifth degree in quatter-tone pro-
jection returns us to· the tonic£ of the harmonic scale.
3. Characteristics 5:?! tll~· H·armoni<: Scale

We are now in a position to apprecia~e the resources
of composed music whe~ it is integrated into a system wherein
all is subordinat~d to the spontaneous gush of natural har-
monics at the same time as to the necessities of.composition,
with a tempered projection susceptible to any transposition
and to all symmetri~~--the quarter~tone projection--and a
scale, the Harmonic ,Sc.~le, endowed with all the appearances
of perfection as the barely-altered product of n~tural law.
Emanating from the very .fundamental that it prolongs,
this scale embraces a concept fundamental to all music, even
I,2
l .
20
'
if the'latter' ' _!
be,st.ri~tly,'citonal (sihce
·--,.· . ·. :, ' ,,, ,,
Oft$' CaJlJl).Ot
.'\ !· :
9onceive
, I , , • . .. ;_ . . ,, j'-. __ '. ,} _·. ; ·. f : ' .
.·... all'$)!·~
· of atonal~ty.wj.thqut· it)·~ the. ccm~pt '«:>f(;t#! .·,
, , 1 I, •
1~al~\1 is ....e vhole ef ,me_lodic ~d hafmonic 'pbenom-
everyttftng 'in it:• is bas'ed 'on the tone,: that: is its germinal
. . . . ·.· ·.· ,. ·.. . .....
· / ' . . .·.. ;
t1lement, the• ap~~t ~ter of attract'~bil .~fcl) it appears to
•nbt contain s;t.iii:t~fJoilslY: !B!, most ~mi1l.iite· afii:rmation and· .

. .(.' ' _- . " . . . _;-:)·-:·,.:--;,7 .. ·'·.. ' . -~:.' ·-. ' -\ _·- "'~;,,\. ·:4; ,.,- ~~~: ~> _· -'~:>. ! '
'!!!,!·. basie prindtaf'i'Of it$._OWI\: at•asf~·•tfori\' .
' . . • · .. ·· '.'·'' .~ ' ' ---;- ,· • '\ ,'(' ! ' ; . . '
· ·. 'l'llis p#nt:~ple n,g.ates _the viexy· tqn;al s®stanee of the ...

. 'hamonic,:sertes.,. ,and·gi,,_s, bltth, ·as, li'~· Sh~ll. s.e, to, the lines
'of force that are·in~~ven withln· ft.~.
l '
,,
'I
I
I
',' '
CHAPTER III
CARDINAL RELATIONSHIPS
1. Dynamism in Sound
,
All music consists of alternating periods of tension
and repose.
Melody and rhythm are subjected to it. Harmony no
less eludes the restraints of this law that controls every
aspect of Art.
In harmony, the law of tension is manifested as cur-
rents of attractive force which converge on one tone, and
then another, independent of all melodic and rhythmic impetus.
If these forces are concentrated on certain predeter-
I
mined tones in a sound entity, they can make these tones the
center of gravity of the entity. Depending on the placement
of this center of ~ravity in relation to the wnole, these at-
tractive forces are able to condition the s·tability or the
instability o.f the entity and control i-ts harmonic dynamism.
These lines of f9rce follow tl}e direction of the at-
traction that is manifested from pne tone to another, apart
from any me.lodic or rhythmic propensity.
Our pi:ql:>lem her~ is to seek out the very basis of this
immanent attra·ction.
its solution can be derived fropi one of the most gen-
I,3 21
22
eral notions in all of. knowle~ge: the law of universal attrac-

tion.
This law of mutual attraction is the law of the short-
est distance between two points. In music the shortest dis-
tance between two points is the interval that separates them.
However, this distance can be measured from two points
of view: the concept can be applied in terms of the order of
intervals in the natural projection of overtones where the
first interval is the octave. But since the two components of
the interval of an octave are held to be identical, we proceed
to the,next interval, the fifth and its inversion the fourth,
which would then constitute the shortest distance possible,
from this first point of view.
The concept can also be applied from a linear point of
view within the framework of a given chromatic projection where-
by a tone is connected to the two tones on either side of it
/
according to the size of the unit-interval; this interval then
constitutes the shortest distance. 1 This duality is the per-
manent locus of all music.
The following basic law of harmony results: MUTUAL
RELATIONSHIPS OF PRIMARY AFFINITY EXIST ON THE ONE HAND BETWEEN
. 1c£. 1;otab~y Gi~ele Brel·et,· le Te!JlPs~ musical; Jacques

Chailley, Tr·ait~ h·rstor1:gue d· 1 ·ana·1yse musical; Ernest Closson,
Esthetigue musi·cale; Edward Gariel, ~ System of Harmony~
Helmoltz [ sic} Die !ten.re' von del) 1on:ene:mpfindun·gen; Charles Lalo,
El~nts d'une esth~tigue :m:us'i·c·a1e sc'ientifigue; Louis Laloy,
Arrsto:xene de Tg:~t:Ef;. -Lou1.s l,ucas.,· .. 1·.•Acoust:igue· :p:ouve'lle;
Armand Machaoey, Hls·tbi•re·.. ·et ·§volut'iSn·.. des· .. to·rmu-i·es· .muslcales;
Boris de Schloezer,'..1·n:tr<1duct:ioh· I ·Je·an=slba·sti'en· l3'ach; Igor
Stravinsky, Po~tigue mu1;'icale, e t c . - -
I,3
23
TWO TONES A FOURTH OR A FIFTH AJ?ART, AND ON THE OTHER, BETWEEN
TWO TONES SEPARATED BY THE UNIT-INTERVAL OF THE ADOPTED PRO-
JECTION.
2• The Cardinal Tones of a Given Pi•tch

So, from any given pitch, there radiate four lines of
opposing force: upward toward the fifth and the first chro-
matic tone, and downward toward the fifth and the first chro-
matic tone in that direction.
The four notes thus defined may be considered as the
four cardinal points of the tone in question. They shall be
referred to as that tone's "cardinal tones"; "cardinal attrac-
tions" are those immanent attractions by which they are linked
to the primary tone.
For example, for the pitch c
- irr the"
half-tone projec-
tion, the cardlnal tones would be: f, b, d-flat and 2_. For
the pitch din the quarter-tone projection, they would be:
2_, d-half-flat, d-half-sharp, and· a.
fig. 3
,, a
f ~II 19
f1
The same is true of each and every tone: four lines
of cardinal force evolve around it, delimiting the plane of
its primary affinities, independent of any harmonic, rhythmic,
"
or m~lodic prop~nsity.
The cardinal notes· of the twelve tones of the half-
tone projection are as follow/:
I,,3
I
,'/ . .!·' ·,,·,
. ' ,,
: ':I' 24
pulse ~oreign to its" nature', a comp1il¥' of two,o~ more tones

<tan be··an·alyHd ·'.fn ~e. S,amf.i way"
In order: to •uncover •the subtle affini:ti~S: of such an
entity, one need only detemi.11e the· cardinal reiationships of
·,
. each _t,f the. cons~l~11int tones, because/ strippe~ of its unes-

'
sent.is.ls, the ·. complex ia :the sum of its c~'s-tit~ent tones , arid
''1t111 affinit!es , the sum 6f their affind.tie!:l.
For e ~ l e , let 1us consider the: ehtity: ·c-ci within
; ' '
the h~f•tone
, .
.~ ,,' ' ) ;
pJX>jecti.on~
' ,' , /' .. .
, ,,
i As a 'result. of ltbe plre~ence of these

' , ' ,' -- ,
, i , '., , , ' I , ,
'two tones"l,the. :f~llQW:ing: not~s in the pr~j.~pti~ ~ill be af-

. ' ' i
I
· fe-~ted: ·
fig. 4
I,3
I
25
In this table showi~g the cardinal reaction of c-d on

its environment in the half-tone proj~ction, f, as a cardinal
tone of c is cited once (hence the coefficient 1); ~ is cited
twice, once as a cardinal tone of c, once as a cardinal tone
of d · (hence the coefficient 2) ; b is cited once as a cardinal
tone of c (coefficient 1) fs d-flat/c-sharp is cited twice, as
a card.inal tone of each of the two components (coefficient 2);
d-sharp is cited once as a cardinal tone of d (coefficient 1);
a is cited once as a cardinal tone of· d (coefficient 1); c and
dare each cited once as components (coefficients 1). All of
the other tones in the projection are given a coefficient of
O since they bear no cardinal relationship to either cord.
._ . ---------~-- - ···--~- These observations can be condensed into an octave
wherein each tone is given the coefficient it earned above:
I
&1 1
µ J µJ J µ
2 1 1 0 1 0
-~
2
p~
0 1
~
0
~
1
The series of twelve numbers representing the cardinal

relationships of a tone complex with each of the twelve half-
steps in a projection is called the "c·ax:d.inal t~le" of that
corr,tplex. The numbers that rep~ent the component pitches of
th~ entity stand freely; th/numbers representing 1:,he other
,i
pitches _in the projection appear in parentb.esis. The numbers
representing the tones of highest cardinal density are under-
. I. '.3
.,.
.' 26
-. f I
l O 1)
A aillpllt ·~if.aa,i!ft
. -
o~,. ·~1e ·,t~le
.
re'Mais the follow-
' ' ~ ·," ,,
. ing facts:
;i..: t!i,:tsM,\;r~- '§e~:,1~itllbeen adopted, by
the to~l/~umb,r of figures. us.cf; since ·,each ·.figure

corret~ .
·to .on~ }.fca'lt\' d~eeJ
·:~
' ~ ~
the~~'b9r,of· ~= .
. .
2.
·~J\~. ·-,~.":0".. -,f·:-.,:,.,- ·.·- ; ~ -_ "' "'
ts.kl ;the
.
~puM·• c9lex under
-·,,, .. ' - .' ' . '.
·. 9<>nltid.eratton, .t·by/the n ~ r _0,f· f~res , standing

, .. ,:,--·. [\.:~
alone, ()Ut.side panntheses;.
3 •. t.he·,,1.~;:•~t: the·. 'in~rva:i•· 'SGWfE:«ting. the comeonents,
~-;. 1 . • -~ ~ '., ':'· : • --.,. '. . ~
· by(~e ~~r. of' figures betwe~ 'the. co~onents;

4. . , n~ ~ cudilfal relationshi~B exisfh9. ~ithin
~ ®!Flex. '!tse'lf., by the •~. of
1
r·he f~ee-standing
fi➔ ,,cnot in parentheses1
. 5. ~ ·nLr, QI cardinal rolat.ttinsn~ps exi11ting outside
i
:, J ..
1
-~-
~ ·cOJiMb
~ ·.
iu81£
·.· . , by_· the sa: of.,J the figures
; '•
.. in pa-
I
rent:hestis'; . /
6. th• ,'locati:on
.. -
·Of
·. '
the'
';.
tones .2! highest
'. . ' ' t .
Calf'dinal attrac-
'.
· tion, :be: they ~ompo~erit .or not,/ by the underlined
figures.
observe that the cardinal table of an entity w~ll al:-
. . '
wafs comptiae -.>totai ·nwnber of relations~ips eq~l to· five , ·

. : '. . . ' "/ '·
..· fact, the ta.ble::,will increase .

by . five ,;cardinal
. '
unit• for e~h
27
And finally, notethat any cardinal table prepared·in
thi~ manner will be ·equally.val.id within th«! same·projection
for·complexes that are ident.icai·in their intervallic·struc-
ture. For example·, the .cardinal ta,ble· that we ·pi'.ep~r~d for
£•d will be just a~ vaiid ·for -a-flat::--e.;.flat,' d-e, o~· any other
' ,·· ·,, . ...... : ,"!"'- . .- ......... '. ' ·,,
· entity whose two eomponentJ~ ·are· a majo~ sec;;ond. apart
· 4. . Some Ex~ae,.'. ·.'et. ;·cardi.n'al·..~ab:les

We shall now-proceed by establishing a double-entry;
I
1 table_
.
containing horizontally,
, .
the
I
totality
.
of. the. diffei:-en/t
I ,
. I ,. .
tones in the environment in the1 fonn of a complete chromatic.
scale, and iiertically, the t/es of the entity wider consf'd-
.eration. .
. ' ' . '
' .I!
Oppositll each,tone in 'j:he·vertical coltmln we write
~ . I
down its . affinities. with. each ·Of the. cllromatic t;ones: ·r··e
number 1 bidi~tes
. . an'' instance of ·affi~ty,
. . rio· numbe~ ··o
. I o
I
I
The ·. sum of· t}:le n~rs ·in. e~ch of. the vertical. columns ,
· one f~r '
each·.. degree:'qf, the. chromatic· -~rejection.~ indicates.
'' ··, • ' • , j ' '. • '. .
the .
·number of cardin<t.\,-rela.tionships. that·exist'between this tone.
, . • : ,:, , , I , ' ,I,: !,• .. , ·, . ._..;
1
: '
a.n.q the.. en,tity ..}¥!in<J.'.

. ·.,
examiA~ •.·
,: . .., - ··.•,
' .
28
l 1 1 1 1
l
1 1 1
/1
I
1 1
1 1
1 I i :, ' ' '.l 1
1 , : 2) . 1 C3 I 1)
. - I
2 : (1 2) 1 (~)
i
J,
fig •.7
.i.ti!! il J'~. b 1 ]. 1'•. 1 1

2. l· 1 1, ' 1; 1
e 1 1 1 ,;
1. 1
C i . t. 1 1 1
Card!nal table -of . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
. . . ~t-!.1-9:;t:b 1)' .·2 2}
·3
- (.l l '(2
. i ,·
2 'll 1 1)
·-3
l· 1 " 1 . ·l. ·
1 1 · 1
'l 1 1 .' · 1
1· ·l 1 .1
l. t· 1
l 1
1 l
;
3 '(3) 3 (4)
.\
. (4) .•. 2 ,' ('4) , 1, (4), 2 -"5 2· 1 (4)
' ' ''f
'i'' ·'
C
....... \. I • . ' '
'., ·.••1 I• 1 •
I ' , • .:
29
5 • · ca·rdinal Den•sity
The card'i:nal densi•ty of a pitch can only be considered
in terms of its function in relation to a given entity. It is
the number of re·lationships of c·ardinal ·a·ffinity that exist
between all of ~ ·componen·ts· ·of· ·the ·entity ·and the tone it-
self.
In the cardinal table of any entity, each number in-
dicates the cardinal density of the correspondiag tone in
relation to the entity as a whole.
EXAMPLE: In the major-minor seventh ch8rd
. that appeared in the previous paragraph (£_-e-.9.-b ) ,
whose cardinal table we recall here:
~
i1 µ .J ~ J J ~ J @~ ~
2 {1 1 2) 1 <i 1) 2 (1 2) l (3)
the non-constituent tone f has a density coefficient

of 3, since c, e and b-flat each have one cardinal
affini-ty with it, givI"ng a total of 3. ...
On ;the other hand, the component tone b-
flat has a cardin.al density of only 1, since it ·
has no ca~dinal affinity for any tone other than
it.self itt the given complex; j_p other words, it is
nei the·r a half-step or a fifth below or above any
of the component tones of the entity.
The cardinal density of a complex is equal to the sum
of the densit~es of each of its cpmponents. It represents
the total number of cardinal relationships that exist among
the component tones .Q:f tQ.e complex.
EXAMPLE: Jn the aforementioned major-minor
seventh cho~d, the sum of the cardinal 'densities ,is
6: '
2+1+2+1.
,.,
The number 6 represents the four lines of
force originating from the component tones as they
react on one another on one hand, and the two lines
I,3
I
30
of force that are projected from £ to·_ s: and_ s: to
con the other.
6. Cardinal Stabili t:{ ·and cardinal Ins tab'il'i ty

If the cardinal density of an entity is high in rela-
tion to the twelve half-steps of the projection, it means that
the complex itself is particularly rich in attractive potential,
compared to the tones that are foreign to it.
The network of cardinal forces that exist within the
complex tend towards the components ~f the complex itself.
This affirmation of the essentiality of its components assures
the complex of a functional cohesion, conducive to its own
stability.
But, on the other hand, if the density of a sound
complex is low in relation to the twelve degrees in the half-
tone projection, it means that the todes foreign to the com-
plex are rich~r in cardinal attractions, and it is towards
these that the network of -<:ardinal forees in operation will
tend.
Unable to fin~ within itself its center of gravity,
the c::oll_lplex will tend to seek its balance on the densest of the
forei.gn t:ones. Consequently, the entity is the seat of a
I
dynamic centrifugal force that provokes its own instability.

,What then is the criterion for estimating the stabi-
lity or instability of a complex?
It is simply the comparison of the cardinal density
of the entity itself with the density of a ·llk:e number of the
------
de~.:sest foreign tones.
I,1
I
I '
I
'
31
Obviously this comparison will only work when the

number of constituent tones is lower than the number of for-
eign tones.
When the complex comprises more than half of the pos-
sible tones--for example, seven units in the half-tone pro-
jection--we compare the density of the seven constituent tones
'
with that of the five foreign tones plus the two :ldensest con- j~~
•./.
stituent tones. Or else, we compare the density''of the five

leas·t dense component tones with that of the five foreign.
tones, which is essentially the same process •
EXAMPLES: The previously mentioned major-
minor seventh chord:
@~ ~
11 µ 2 (1
J
1
pJ
2) 1
J
(3
iJ
1)
~
2 (1 2)
.~
1 (3)
is cardinally unstable because its density (2+ 1 + 2

+l = 6) is lower than that of the four densest for-
eign tones, that is, e-flat, f, a and b, whose total
density is 2 + 3 + 2 + 3-= 10 cardinal unI'ts.
The same is true of the scale examined in paragraph 4.:
,1 J J µ J J
2 (4) 2 (4) 1 (4)
'~,.
2
4 -J
5 2
.~
(4)
i;J
1
~
(4)
it is cardinala¥ unstable because the density of the

five foreig.{1 tones (4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 = 20) is superior
to that of the five least dense component tones (2+ 2
+1+2+1-8).
On the other ha~d, the diatonic major scale:

',
;J ~ J iJ w jJ J
4 ( 2) 3 (2) 4 3 ,( 3) 3 (2) 3 (3) 3
I,3
32
is cardinally stable :since the density of the five

foreign tones (2 + 2 + 3 + 2 + 3 • 12) is lower than
that of the five ·1east dense constituent tones (3~
3+ 3 1-- 3 T 3 • 15)
7. Inertia
It appears then as if the stability and dynamism of a
given sound complex are the result of the incidence of its
cardinal forces.
But, stability and dynamism also depend on the projec-
tion that has been adopted.
First of all, although conjunct cardinality exists in
all scales and projections, the cardinal attraction of the
fifth is not always present. The third-tone projection, those
projections with less than nine degrees to the octave, as well
as those containing eleven, thirteen, sixteen and twenty-three
tempered intervals per octave, all contribute to a weakening
of cardinal attractions since none of them can accommodate the ,
fifth within the margin of a comma.
Consequently, cardinal impetus has free reign only
within projections other than the on$s enumerated above.
Even within these projections, cardinal impetus doe.a
not remain·constant.
Let us take, for instance, a projection that is frag-
mented into a large number of eq\lal intervals to which we as-
sign the value N. What will the cardinal reaction of a complex
peculiar to the half-tone projection be within the framework
of this new projection? ·
First of all, the ·component tones will lose some of
their cardinal density by virtue of the disappearance of car- /
.,
33
dinal attractions based on the. semi tone. Within the context

of the smaller interval projection (size N), these semitonal
cardinal affinities will be exercised in favour of foreign
tones.
As far as the total number of foreign, tones--which in-
creases as the basic unit-interval becomes smaller--is con-
cerned, the lines of cardinal force emitted by the complex are
spread over these new tones without favouring any one in par-
ticular. And despite the piecing out of centrifugal attrac-
tions, the number of tones indifferent to the complex only
increases (the tones which have no a!finity whatsoever with
one or the other of the. component tones) .1.
EXAMPLES: . The ·cardinal table of the di a-

tonic [ major] scal.e incorpQra1:,ed into the half-tone
projection:
4 (2) 3 (2) 4 3 (3) 3 (2) 3 (3) 3
becomes:
3 (1000601) 3 (1000001) ! (101) 2 (1001001) 3
(1000001) 3 (1001001) 2 (101)
when incorporated into the eighth-tone projection.

The density of this scale drops from 23 to
19. The density of the foreign tones drops to 7.
And, out of 41 foreign tones, 25 have no affinity
with the tones of the scale •.
The cardinal table of the seven-tone scale
examined in section 4 along with the major scale was:
2 (4) 2 (4) 1 (4) 2 5 2 (4) 1 (4)
· in the half-tone projection. In the eighth-tone

projection it becomes:
2 (100200.1) 2 (1002001) 1 (1002001) 1 (101) 3
1 (101) · · 1 ( 1002001) 1 (1002001) •
I,3
34
.i
Its. own density is reduced from;hS to
11 cardinal units. · That of the seven deri~est
foreign tones· is only 12 units. Of the 41 for-
,I eign tones, 22 have no affinity with the tones
of the scale.
Consequently, when an entity is placed in a tempered
projection of intervals that are too narrow, its potential is
atrophied and immobilized, and its dynamism disappears as a
result of weakening centripetal forces, dispersion of centri-
fugal cardinal currents, and increasing insensitivity among
foreign tones. The two notions, stability and dynamism, that
owed their very efficacity to their opposition, here tend to
become one: i•nertia.
I,3
CHAPTER IV
THE PERFECT MAJOR TRIAD* .
1. The Instability of the.Harmonic Scale in the

Quarter-tone Projection
If the harmonic scale were stable and organically cen-
tered around the fundamental tone from which it emanated, it
would,be the consummate model of tonality because of its tonal
cohesion.
For this, the cardinal density of its fundamental
would have to surpass that of all the other component tones,
or at least be among the densest, and the cardinal density of its
eight components would have to surpass that of any combination ..
of the same number of foreign tones.
But, such is not the case. 1
The cardinal table of the harmonic scale as it fits
into the quarter-tone projection produces the following results:
*Translator's footnote: In the French system of musi-

cal terminology, triads containing a perfect fifth are referred
to as perfect triads--major or minor--, those containing a di-
minished or augmented fifth are referred to as diminished or
augmented. Our English system retains the diminished and aug-
mented captions, but perfect triads are referred to simply on
the basis of their gender: major and minor. Henceforth in
the present work, we shall follow the English practice.
1
cf: Th. Dubo~s , · Trait& ~' harxnonie :· ·: ·e~ti'liminai~es :
Jacques Chai lley, · Tr·art,· historique· d' an·a·1rse mustc·aie.
I,4 3s I
,I
. 36
[N .B. In the following table+ • half-sharp, J6 = half-

flat]
b ••• 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
~
a 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
t+ 1 1 1 l 1
e 1 1 1 1 1
1
-
d
C 1 1
1 1 1
1
1
1 1
2(2 0 2)2(2 0 2)2(2 2)1(2 1)3(11)1(!)1(1 2)2(2)
Not only is the fundamental tone£ inferior in density

to~, one of the other component tones, but it is surpassed by
a non-constituent tone,!, which is twice as dense.
Not only does the scale itself have a low density:
2+ 2+ 2+ 1+ 3+ 1+ 1+ 2 = 14 cardinal uni ts out of a possible
40, but further, it is surpassed by all sorts of combinations
of the same number of foreign tones, some combinations .of
which comprise as mariy as 18 cardinal units.
EXAMPLE:
fig. 10
Certain combinations of eight ~onstituent and foreign

tones contain as many as 19 cardinal uni ts, such as the trans-
position of the harmonic scale up a fourth or down a fifth.
This means--and we mention it here to dispel all ambiguity--
' I
that the transposition of the harmonis scale to f for example,

contains more cardinal attractions th,an the original scale on
c. However, once the original tonic,·£, is dismissed, the
I,4
37
harmonic scale projected from f will be subject to and must

assume the same cardinal table as the original scale which
comprised 14 units of cardinal density, and it will also be
subject to the same propensity for transposition up a fourth
or down a fifth as the original, and so forth.
We draw from this the following important conclusion:
THE HARMONIC SCALE AS IT EXISTS IN A QUARTER-TONE
CONTEXT IS NEITHER STABLE NOR PARTICULARLY TONAL.
2. The Instability of the Harmonic Scale, in Natural Values

The above conclusion accurately describes the harmonic
'
scale in a quarter-tone context. But, are its implications
all-embracing? What would happen, for instance, were the har-
monic scale examined in its original purity, within the con-
fines of the natural harmonic series?
The problem here is a difficult one, since no matter /
what system of tuning or temperament we select in order to
comply with the exigencies of composition, 2 this scale will
always be more or less out of tune.
In order to safeguard· the integrity of the natural
intervals contained in this scale, we would require a perfect.
coincidence of these intervals w~th those in the adopted pro-
jection, a coincidence that could only be achieved in an in-
finitely-fragmented projection. But then the law of inertia
that affects all projections of extremely narrow intervals
,,
would interfere with any notion of stability. 3
2
cf. I 1 5.
3
cf. I 3· 7.
38
There is only one solution: to examine the natural

harmonic scale ·within the framework of a non-tempered natural
system based on the harmonic series itself.
The harmonic scale, by definition, is found in the
octave between the eighth and sixteenth partials; it is en-
countered again between the sixteenth·and thirty-second, the
thirty-second and sixty-fourth partials, etc., with its full
complement of new partials.
Beginning with the sixteenth harmonic, each subsequent
octave can be.considered a completely closed system, complete
with its own laws, where the natural harmonic scale could be
i
encountered over and over again, in the same way as any entity
could be encountered over and over again from octave to octave
within the confines of a tempered projection.
According to the law of shortest distance, cardinal
relationships will tend on the one hand towards the fifth
aboveor below, and on the other, in this particular hypothesis,
toward the closest harmontc.
Our investigation into the staqility of the natural
harmonic scale will take place between the ,a;i.xteenth and thir-
ty-second harmonics, since this is the first octave in the
series in which harmonics appear that do not belong to the
scale, providing us with a set of constituent and foreign tones.
The following is the cjinal table of the natural har-
monic scale, based on the ci/mstances out.lined above: ''
fj;g. 11
''
(Fee page 3!}
I,4
39
notes rep resented are approximate

~ ba. ~ #a- P!t
.
~ 2!;
'
~ -6-
?:i~~~c:?J_-~ ~ la~
--6·
, l ~ ; U;
l']'"
15th partial •• ~.0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
14th partial. .•• 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 d,}Y 0
13th partial ••.• 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 :, 0 I
12th partial •••• l 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 "0 o· · o

11 tl1 partial. ••• 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
10th partial •.•• 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 o· 0 0 ·o 0 0 1 0
9th partial .••• 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
8th partial .••• l l 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Cardinal table
of th~ natural
harmonic scale: ·2 (2) 2 (2) 2 (_!) 1 (2) 3 (2) 1 (_!) 1 (2) 2 (2)
And so, just as in the quarter-tone projection, the

density of the fundamental tone (2 cardinal units) is exceeded
by its fifth--twenty-fourth partial--(3 units), and by two fo-
reign tones--the twenty-first partial-- (3 units), and the
twenty-seventh (3 units).
Also, the density of the harmonic scale is only 2 + 2 +
2 + 1 + 3 ~ 1 + 1 ~ 2 = 14, while that of the eight non-
constituent tones is 18.
THE BASIC INSTABILITY OF THE HARMONIC SCALE HAS BEEN
PROVEN BOTH IN A QUARTER-TONE CONTEXT AND IN ITS NATURAL CON-
TEXT.
3. The Stability of the Perfect Triad

Does the foregoing discussion suggest that the entire
harmonic series is deprived of that tonal cohesion which is
_supposed to be its apanage [ intrinsic property J? Indeed not!
The study of the cardinal relationships contained in
the first fifteen partials of the series does not necessarily
affect the characteristics of the first fourteen, or the first
I,4
40
fourteen, or the first nine.
In fact, whether it be in quarter-tones or natural

values, the cardinal tables of the seven different pitches in
the· first thirteen harmonics, the six different pitches in
the first eleven harmonics, ·the five different pitches in the
first nine partials,· the four different pitch.es i:Q the first
seven, or the· .three different pitches of the major tri·ad in
the first five harmonics reveal
. .
a progressive·
.
alteration.
. . '
As it unfolds, the harmo~ic series , which is ini tiaily

tonal and stable, gradually loses contact with the fundamental
tonality and, under the impetus of cqmplementary ha:rmoniccom-
. . . . '
ponents which cling to. each tone, inflects its cardinal action
more and more on f~r~ign tones until it eventually dies out.
Proof of this can be obtained .simplf by consulting
the cardinal tables of each tone of the series· at various
stages of its development, examining them, as we did with the
entire harmonic scale, first ·within the quarter-tone projection
and then, within the confines of the fifth octave of the series,
in natural values.
CARDINAL TABLES IN THE QUARTER-TONE PROJECTION:

I
.£ ,£+dbd)6d d+eb?~ f)zSf f+f#/s_ g_+aba)zSa a+bbbbb bt
1. Of the seven different pitches within the first

13 harmonics (eliminating the 15th harmonic
[from the natural'harmonic scale]):
2 (2 0 2)2(2 0 2)1(2 '.2)1(1 1)3(11)1(!)1(1 1 1 1)
2. Of ~ !!,! d'i·f·fe-rent pitches within the first 11
I,4
harmonics ·(eliminating the l~th harmonic):
- -
2(2 0 .1)2(2 0 1)1(2 2)1(1 1)3(1 0 0 3)'1(1 1 1 1)
.
,·
3. Of ~ 'five di'fferent pitches within the first 9

harmonics (eliminating the 11th harmonic):
2(1 0 1)2(2 0 1)1(2 l O O l)!(l O O !)1(1 0 1 1)
4. Of ~~different pitches within the first 7
harmonics (eliminating the 9th harmonic):
· ! (1 0 0 1 1 0 1) i'(2 1 0 0 1) 2 ( 1 0 0 2) 1 ( 1 0 1 l)
5. Of the perfect triad (major):
2(1 0 0 1001)1(11 0 0 1)2(1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1)
CARDINAL TABLES IN NATURAL VALUES, in the fifth oc-

tave of the harmonic series:·
fig. 13 [ notes represented are approximate ]
!>ft~lat,
'::!I-
! ~ a #a C, Q #a• ·~ RQ. A #a. i,e.
Of its first:
V
1. 7 tones ••••• 2 (2) 2 (2) 1 (3) 1 (2) 3 (2) 1 (3) 1 (1 1 1)
2. 6 tones ••••• 2 (2) 2 (2) 1 (3) 1 (2) 3 (1 0 2) 1 (1 1 1)
3. 5 tones ••••• 2 (2) 2 (2) 1 (2 0 i) 3 (1 0 2) 1 (1 1 1)
4. 4 tones •. ~\••• 2 (1 1 1) 1 (2 0 1) 2 (1 0 1) 1 (1 1 1)
s. 3 tones •• ~ •• 2 (1 1 1) 1 (1 0 1) 2 (1 0 0 0 0 1 1)
(major triad)
And so, up to the fifth partial, whose combination

with two immediately preceding partials produces the major
triad, the stability of the harmonic series is absolute:
the cardinal density of the funda;rqental tone--which has be-
come the root of the major triad--yields to no other compo-
nentr' also, the cardinal density of the whole exceeds that
of all other possible three-tone combinations.
I,4 .
l
42
Instability begins to. appear ~n the se~ies with the
seventh partial.
Up to this point, cardinal attraction was inflected
on the tones belonging to the triad. Henceforth, that at-
traction will tend towards foreign tones, while at the same
time, the fundamental will abandon its cardinal supremacy.
When we add a tone [ the seventh harmonic ] to the
major triad to form the chord that could be called an "har--
.
monic seventh chord"--a play on words which calls to mind
the closely related "dominant seventh chord 11 --it seems as if
the seventh partial introduces a germ of tonal disaggregation
to the whole.
This peculiarity of the seventh partial is revealed
by an examination of the cardinal table of the first four
different tones of the harmonic series in the quarter-tone
projection: in relation to the chord£,!,~, ~-half-sharp,
two foreign tones, !-half-sharp and~ manage to equal the
density of the fundamental£, while at the same time, mul-
tiple combinations of four foreign tones, b, d, !-half-sharp,
a for example, attain the same cardinal density as the com-
plex itself.
The cardinal table of these same harmonics consider-
ed in natural values is just slightly less fascinating: one
foreign tone, the twenty-first partial, manages to equal the
density of the fundamental, and suffices to rob the complex /
of its cardinal supremacy over all other four-tone structures.
THUS, THE FUNCTIONAL STABILITY OF THE MAJOR TRIAD
I,4
43
ERECTED UPON THE FUNDAMENTAL OF THE SERIES HAS BEEN SHOWN

SUPERIOR TO THAT OF ALL ITS OTHER HARMONICS.
owing to this stability and its position of primor-
dial importance in the series, the major triad is well-equip-
ped to act as the essential basis for any strictly tonal
system.
It acts as a natural extension of whatever note may
be its root; it acts as the perfect expression of that note's
tonality which it animates whenever melody and its intervals,
rhythm and its accents, harmony and its persistence are joined
with it.
I f'4 I
CHAPTER V
THE BASIS OF MINOR:

HORIZONTAL SYMMETRY
l. Generalities
Two points are symmetrical in relation to an axis if
they rest on a straight line perpendicular to the axis, and
if they are equidistant from the axis on either side. Two
designs are symmetrical to one another if all of their points
are respectively symmetrical.
In musical syntax, there exist two types of symmetry:
horizontal symmetry, in which tones themselves and their
• c1
height are set against one another, is expresseq in terms of
interval inversion t or mirror] ; vertical symmetry is expres-
sed in terms of recurrence when stacks of intervals are set
against one another, and as retrogradation when rhythmic pat-
I
terns are set against one another.
We alluded to horizontal symmetry, the only one that
need concern us here, when we were discussing and examining
the natural harmonic series. 1 When viewed as a locus of com-
posed music, the series proved itself rebellious to the
notion of symmetry owing to the regula,rly decreasing si'ze of
I,5 44
45
its constituent intervals and their incommensurability within
the octave.
It became obvious that the stack of adjacent intervals
that separated the overtones between a given high point and
a given low point had to be considered just as legitima,te for
use as an entity as that stack which ascended from the same
low point to the same high point. It was precisely to satis-
fy this requirement that equalisation of intervals throuqh
,
temperament came about.
Applied to the harmonic scale which, we recall, extends
from the eighth to the sixteenth harmonic making use of,all
of the adjacent intervals contained in that span, horizontal
symmetry produces a scale that contains the identical intervals,
but projected in the opposite direction:
fig. 14
IN NATURAL VALUES IN QUARTER-TONES
.
"i I I
-
l
.- " - -- -
•
~
-- r,
-- ...
--
w-
I - r-. "
r r- "
...
.,
.. ..
I 1 I
..'
1
.
.. -- ·~ -- -- l'- - ..• -- -
~ H
• ... ·-
-
4 j •
2.
- ---- ----- - -------- ---
The Natural Bases of the Inverted Harmon,i:c Scale
Is there any acoustical justification or such a pro-
I
jection? In other words, does there e~ist in nature a down-

ward projection of the same intervals (octave, fifth, fourth,
major third, minor third, etic ••• ) that we"~~countered in the
natural overtone series?
Its existence has been attested to as a natural pheno-
l 5
46
menon not only by theorists who have referred to it, but also
- 2
by performers who claim to have actually heard it. Others
simply deny its existence.
There is no need for us to enter into that controversy
here.
One simple observation, it seems, sufficiently justi-
fies an inverted harmonic projection: the perfect identity
[ sameness J of numbers between the rising progression measuring
frequency and the falling progression.measuring string lengths,
as well as between the rising progression measuring st~ing
lengths and the falling progression measuring frequency.
In effect, the arithmetic progression: 1, 2, 3, 4,
etc., when it refers to frequency measurements, produces the
major harmonic series, beginning, for example, on c:
I
1 2 3 4 5 6 . 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
(in cycles per second)
OR
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l 1 1 1 1 l 1 1
2 3 4 5" 6 7 if J Io IT 12 IT IT 15 IT
(in effective string _lengths)
fig. 15
-------------- -~~_,..i:=~-==-==-='-=--=--_-e-=-.="'-=::"'brJ::::"...=-...=-•~,.J;::--o-=----o-=--fr-f§--=--.-,,,...:::;-0!9--..W..b"=,i1h'9ti:=-c,-:=_0"':=..+=t-ch----1----'--k~-=-A-=--~-
• The same arithmetic progression: 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.

measuring the lengths of vibrating strings produces the minor
harmonic series, also beginning on c:
.,
_ 2 Cf. Derode, Introduction a l'~tude de l'Harmonie,

Gevaert, Trait~ d 1harmonie th&orique et pratfque, Vincent
d'Indy, Cours ~-composition muslcaleT"'van Ot~ingen, Harmonie
.......,......,_____
SyEit!mei Hugo Riemann, Catli7-lsipe de l 'acoust1que1 Tartlnl,
......
'l'ratato di musica, etc. · -
r,s
' .
. '
.4,7 •.
'l .,
7 8 9, 10 .11 12 .13 /14· 15 16 · . I .
• ... OR .. ' .. .I
1 .. 1 1 ' 1 1 l .1 l 1 1 1 1f i 1 1 ·
··f . .J . ,:r·· 1"' 111 urnn nnn tt.
(in• cycles pei,-, aa~d}. /
~ .•; fig .l~, .
.· . . . . . I
· .Similarly, ·tbe,opposite __ prog~_~si~: :1-; 1/2, lJ/3,
1
etc. me~iires th'e le~'.fths ,of. ;ibrating• ~t;ings. in: the mf jor
r
_harmonic lJ.81i.&jl, ;ind the:fxeq'uei)cies of the ,partials i1 th~
.minor series .· . .' . . ·. ·, . · . .
.· · : •. .· '
· .. · . / ·
. ., · ' • : ' , : .
Not Qnly\.~o suct(:¢orrelationsf
'', . • •, - ,'~\. ,,,,··:. ,::::., • .• ' '. ·1··~- __ , : ·• . -'<,: •• r: •. :·-~~\
con~r
·/<_'.
:
with. the concept
'. .
of .,a quasi-nat;.UJ;aL ~•cen~irfg seti~s, ·,wh.'i,c:h iB symmetrical
no- ·for ne>te. to•.. ·:~· q•ndinj ,series;'iias~ing' ~rom a fundament~l
' ' ' • • > • '• ':•; :••,{ • :•,,, ,<'l •'• a\/• I > .'•,. / •, ..; • '• ' ,• • : • f • • •
. pitch, but. also .t!hey "j.1:ify tl\e n:otiQn, of.inversion· expounded .

at the. same t:;i.mea: as··: ·tll:a:t '.'~/ te~erame~t:), by. ~irtue ~J· ·which ¥,e :. ,
. .. '. ' ' .-L ': ·. , . ,, ><· ; . ' . .· .' '
look •upon · ~y"s.uceess:ion · .Qf.· inwrvals ·;-as:· an .invertible . sys te~ ·
, • • • • ' • >' • • • ¥'" ''.; . ,/ ' :· : .. · ~ :,, . '. :; :I.,.'. '; . ; . . ,: ·. t, : • ' • ' •••
1
justifiab],y· £,l(piorab1~:"ei~r:µ~~~· 6r,.·oownwarc1S .• ··
; ·, '• • '. .:·· "·> '· · .. :·. ' •', 1 1 \
11
: -~,·:: •• , • _..:;.:.·i'.'. ,-· .,~_.' .;·,. :_. ·,,:,::;
• '.
,,
'1
3. The MinOE· Triad · '.· , .•1 .:

-~ ', • ··--'. '·-- t,,·_ ··· /'::~•- . · , , .. ··.,: :r,,,, ·._· : ,\:;: .. ·,'/'.,1,. ", '· . !:·,· ~~-;-i··•-~
. Wl,len &9~11:Lng. :the 'inverted . seti.es •.·(fro1n big~ ~~ l~) ;, ,.; . :··
'~ . • : _'_:•_• ·;: • ' '-,,\,\·"·•_: ,_,: ' '•/ •, •.. ~:_•-.•~•,r. ,• •• • /•.'I,,•,,,...,•, '._I ''i' ,1 ', '•/!I_.:
,..
.we discovex- thetsaae 1>rept>nderan·ce .of :let,. 3rd_,: ·5th. and 7th:
degrees in· tile inverted :h~rmohic ·:so~le_. es. ·in. t~~ ·.~a~u~~i ·h·~r~.
monic. scale, .·due to ~e p~~existenb.l:-of:.these -~g.rees in.·,
. preceding octaves of· the ···series. , · .. './ . , ':,.:: · · . 1. ..
.. 'nle entit~ forlll4:ld b~·:·~e.-.lst, :3.~d, ·and· s·t:h ~ciale- de;..'.·:
· .grees of the haraonic

: .
.a ni~jor· triadf, ,the entity
. . . . : '\ ' . .
s·c::afe:''1i~s
.' ... '• ' .
1
'
. ... ' '
formed by the same.·de~• in the inverted·harmonic scale is
· ·. ,,. :::· .. ,.-, , ·.:·· · t.:/::·:r:):·Y'... ,.::,:
a minor tr?-ad, whidlCrepreSE!!nts · an_ exact· inv.·tliiion of ,the.:
48
.•.
former: a major thir4 followe&:by a minor third.
This triad had already achieved an integral existence
in the natural overtone series and in the harmonic scale as a
result of the combination of the tenth, twelfth, and fifteenth
tones in that particular projection. But, as a result of the
symmetry that at the same time sets it against and draws it
nearer the major triad, the minor triad now takes up a posi-
tion of prime importance alongside the major.
In order to distinguish them, henceforth the natural
harmonic series and the harmonic scale will be referred to as
major;. the inverted series and the inverted harmonic scale
will be referred to as minor.
The former took root .in the major triad that was formed
by the first five overtones in the natural series. Similarly,
the first five tones of the minor series comprise the three
components of the minor triad, the uppermost of which is the I
point of departure, and, in a manner 9£ speaking, the source. 3
4. Symme,try in Sound complexes

Owing to the equality of tempered intervals, for every
sound complex there exists a corresponding complex in which
the intervals comprising the former appear in inversion.
These two complexes will be called "relative" one to
the other, by analogy.with the usual nomenclature referring to
,1
3cf. particularly Gevaert, Traite d'harmonie th€orique
et pratigue; J.-~h. Rameau, Nouveau sfiltlmi ~ musique.th§ori-
qu7, and G6n~rat1on harmonique1 Hugo emann, l'Harmonie s1m-
pl1fi~e, ElLi.ents d 1 esth,tique musicale, and oTctionnaireae
musigue; Ernest BrTtt, 1~ ~ d 1 Apollon, Louis vuillermin-;-
-
Traitl§ d'harmonie ultra=iioaeme7
I 5
'
!
.
other mind~.
. . < . . ·. l' . ' " I
But;, there
.·
some. compµ9xea
ate......... /
tnat
. ..
are .·.identical
. ·. .
toI
their inversions;, sirice'th•y contai~ ,Olt:.either s'ide of -an 1hor-
1zon~1 IWS.• the ... pfirjef oo. Of tiitenralB: · abo~ thr .
axis on one hanc:l,:}bel~ it on the other:,. .. These<·sonorit;:i,s
·are symmetricaf_ to·'t:fiem1~lvea; In this- ~ase •the axis o,_.sym-
=~s:t:;:t,, ~lex. itself;·' Other
✓- ' ' • • •
' ' ' *···' . / . . '.

th~ All, compres
. .: . , .. I .
In -~s6'~~t-r~tili8 ,} th,at l;S, ,when •· complex[ _is ,cons id~ .
~ • 1-:~t·t: . t'<:._ ·:•f '<' • ' ' •• _: ··,_ :_ :~- -~J::·:_ -. •... ,' • :
· · . · . encl as a. st,ic:t •ol' predet~~n•d it\,tcviiJ :i-athe.r than an : ..
• • . , .•. • , ,. , . - . _·:: '·'r· .•, ·. -" , . .
en.semble •of p.i:'e~te~neq !.tones, \the·re'>'is .for· lmy asymmetrical

·. •, . : . . ' ·... ; ·..... : ,, /',• < ' ,> ·', : ' ·..• ·. . .. ' ', : ... ·. . . ' .·. '
·c:omplax only. on$:~ co'i"~ipon<ilng :relati'VEI en~t'ity: that one
.. ' .. . \': \i i : •• ; • . . . • : ' ) ' .., . . ' . .. •
oori'sisting. of the ')f~· intervals;·, inye·fye\'l. ·· :~ot ,eiample ,. the

. , . · ' ., . - _, --~~-:.~':'~-. . . J,\,;; , . " , . • ·, _ _.,_\~_ ·' ~. ',•, ,.:• '• , • • , . , '. • ,
as oending .· p'l:'oje ctfon f:~ m~j or.

l , ,
third · ..;.t,~nci;-';:tpird, - · mill0,r ··thi x-~

· be·oome~ · ntinp~ ·third.•: niin~~f-
• I· ~- ::
~~~d · ~ · ~j~i···-~i;-cf by ,; ·, ·°;. ;. .:? •
i~versior;i •.
,, .· HQWever·~ in ·con'Qxete teriils/whe:re 't;he ·s.<>n~~ity .''c e g_·..
b0 is cond!~ea:vih1i'in;aii~•:,'·,~~te·::;,d~~~-"1n.-:ptl~eiple~~~ . ',•: ,'·.· , ·
many .mlati~;',QQniple'i~•. :~-: . the~~;{a·~:·\~;~:i: in': •:tM-:.i~mpex:e~·.-... . , '. ,\ "- •,, · I I 1
. , ; .:-. . . ;_,' '. ' t- - . \ . • ' •_ • • ·. ·~· ;.._ •-:·: \; .',._: '\.'. , , . _:. •. . \ •.;. ',.- ', •.·I :' ' •: ·,•, . • ' •: .•
scale, ~it· is,..~l~<• in tl)e, ,;,ra~f-~~'/Jh:oje~iorr, and., twe~.ty~ ·

. t: . <t, -, •, ,; . > <:~; 'is;; :1·. " ? •'?_'. _. ..,.·.\,'..- ~ •.. " , .< +:/ : >~~i;_ ' ~ •'' . ' . . '•'" . ' ' .· '' : . ,.
four in tbd. quarter:.1tt ' .
p:toji,cti,~~·,;
.
· - ' '
/• <
. ,. ·"··. r.
_.·B~LES·:. ,,1 t
· ·,. fig. 17 · ~ sy~t4ea,1 en~ity

< 4 · haJ.:,~s ~ps ' 1.
. · .: l,h1a~~steps,
· ~is of symmetxy=tf~·e.~~t•::PS
::ft .1..~S wcps · .· , t'41
3 1\.-.lfl!"'StepS.
li,_lf4•'~p,,
.
. .4 " • .-,_,;:_- _l
., ··, . , !:' :.::.-.--~ .
,,," .;·:-.' '; -•, ,,-
' .·. ;;
.I
Transla"lc,r' s footnote: · Since ·• "Jymnietricct:l" implies·
50
fig. 18 . An asymmetri.cal entity

3 half-steps
t,;
'i'•
3 half-steps
9
4 half-steps
Axis of symmetry ___'.11'1-' @)t• 19
4 half-steps
3 half-s.teps
3 half-steps 0
0
0
@)
OR
~ &a
'
0
a
etc.
5. · The Law of Synnnetry

Within any symmetrical entity, to every major triad
there corresponds a minor triad that is its relative; to every
minor triad there corresponds a major triad that is its rela-
tive.
In two asymmetrical entities relative to one another,
to every major triad in one, there corresponds a minor triad
in the other that is relative to it: to every minor triad in
one, there corresponds a major triad in the other that is its
relative.
Can these purely formal correspondences be complemented
by functional correspondences, in tents of cardinal values?
In other words, ca.n the observations made regarding the car-
that the complex contains an axis of sy~try within itself

(for if it does not it is called asyif11118trical) we shall here-
after refer to these sonorities simply as "symmetrical" to
avoid the confusion that might result from the redundant
"symmetrical to themselves". /
I.5
i
I
;
51
1,
dinality of a given pitch in relation to a given ~ntity
:;,.
be
reasserted regarding the related pitch in the re1'itive entity?
,l /
Indeed, since it is as if a mirror had been placed

along the axis of symmetry, thus changing the direction, of the
projection of intervals, without altering the size of any of
the component intervals.
We are led then to this important conclusion, the
basic law of symmetry:
THE CARDINAL TABLE OF A SYMMETRICAL ENTITY WILL ALSO
BE SYMMETRICAL.
THE CARDINAL TABLES OF TWO ENTITIES THAT ARE RELATED
TO ONE ANOTHER WILL BE SYMMETRICAL TO ONE ANOTHER.
EXAMPLSS:. On the axis of symmetry £, the
s~etricalbinversion of the seventh chord £ ~ 2.
b is d fa c.
--- -
The perfect symmetry of their cardinal
tables is obvious when the table af one .is read
from left to right, and the t~ble of the other,
from right to left.
,1 µ '3 .p J J
bb • • • • • l 1
,□ ~ ~,; J
1
:~ ~
1 1
. s.
·e
.....
.....
1 1
1 1 1
.1 1 1
1 1
C . .... 1 1 1 1 1
Cardinalb table of' .. .._
c+e...-.2_...-b : 2 · (1 1 2) 1 (3 1) 2 (1 2) J. (3)
Cb
a
.....
..... 1
1
1
+l 1
:t 1 1
1, 1
'l . . . .. 1 1 1 1
. . .. .
1
d l 1 1 1 1
Cardingl table o
d"'"f+a +c: (3) 1 (2 1) 2 (1 !) 1 (2 1 1) 2
I.5
52
. Similarly; ,tft,i,;,f~iilal .faille ot•. ~. ! i ~· is identical
wh•ther read·• from. lef:t1 't~.· right.,·
',
o~: rig~t,'~)l_e_f_t. 4
-t"t
j ,,
The r4tison. is ~at thitf'pa.rtiaula.r

. ,·
00mplex is symmet-· } ' '
rical: the :qj.s lietJ.

.
between f arid" ---
-
f;...sharp,
.
· anct' becomes .iden- . - ' ' '
. tical "tb .the aJCiS Of: ~e'.chrOliUl~ic p:tojectio~ from C to .b on

titbich· the pr~~.ei}J!dinal. 'tal>1e. ia• bas~d~: ·.
. , . I
The diatonic major s,cale ia: e9ually symmetrical, along
'' . ' ' . ·,
,' ' . . · ·, ·\-:\~,\, •. ·,, "i''·\,. ::
with .its cax<ltina1· table •.
, I
;. ·a.owev1~:;'_ in order ·io witne~~-. this• :sy~try, the scale ·
and' its,-.cardi.l ~le ·~ust beextehded beyond, the octave:
- . ' . •· ·' ' ! •
(2) 4
<'r~es ~ t are i:6l1atives o'f one' :artoth~r i~ a symmet-
. . ' '. '. .· . ' ',. ' i ' '
,· ' ' rical Of)inplGX,' or in
' ' J ' : '
·:t?o '. symmetrical [ rJlfti ve l entities will
',,. ! ' ' ' ' •
, hav9 ~ s~":.,cai:ainal coefficients. ·'l'h~ ·a~.~ true. of any
·. C!Clilb+on of tbei... _relative c;m,.stible't tones, and of any

-·-·: - - - .-.- . i:--.--. ,. - . - - -_ - . - '- . _, . _I___ . . " - - - .,
perfe~t;, CQli#tit..uent. triads tha.t •. a,q . .inVGr$ipns of one another.
•....·.·.· · .· I·"nfi·e·•···.n···e··. ·· ·.•1:.· .· .:.a.·.'1.·•. ·.··.· t.e.~ •.".•AN.Y. PROt,....~~.·· ·•.·.

1
¥. 't, ·J\,LI,. ;R.·. PART OF. ANY
:::~~?,:r:r:k:t·::~~~ED. ~ . . I
. 6'. . Termirtolg,t; Related,:~ Minor •· ·., / .
"•·~~'·t'~i=•\l~:{:;' J~~j;{o~~-J/;~q:, inajor and minor
·. are oppOaite l)Ole•· {lD'·~l~? tonal -.usi~. Anywhere that sym-
' ,:. :'...;try' is'

. fcttm'1'
' , , lie''•·:it :1 Ii t•o eaiiplexes'
'. ' ''!I!': ,. :,· : ' '· , . one >th• in~-
.....~ion .of.· ''ll'"ii ... ,,
' ,. . . ., - .. .:1· -·-·::·:. ' ''· .- .:l I,. I • • •• _·'
·. the othe,zi,
• • • • • ' •
:,el.:' ~ii-I!&
•• j
t, ;SX.tfj'Q~l c:<>atplex, major triads iwill,
' ·:, • ~- , • • , • •
' ...,
·,
53, ·
\o'
, :rf·,:.\· · ·, \:·.·/>· .·.~:•.; \:.:. -.:. :~> ··--;::•:(<<- fr·,:

0 ,, -yf ·/ · '
··t.hal~fpr,;e:"···r,·:·••·•·.'5
. ~ , .·.· :. .,. ·. r·· ..".
. ,~, ..; i~: r~ot
·/• :1t:·t?:'."'·~:_._ .:of.: .. · ·.
,1po$it:ion·;· wtth ·'t~ - • , 'tn4xa . . ,c,· ·c;.:f~t•i•a· 'respee- ..
.tively by ~:~,,~i:~!t4:anllia~4~,~;,~cing_ the_ tot&i···
of a fifth,: ~-~•~l OCCllf an ·:f«. . . '~ttttJ!': trj.ad which., ·
lri.1'1· llirro,: t , . \ :~-i~ major.. . ),:'~.:{:i·.~--·L, . ;!r .. ;,'· . . . · I'·
•.•· · ·• '•''"' :~~'t· .•:, . •·i, _, .. ,_.··:;·:<,•i•c,.),c,,)i'.i:<,,;;_,.),' ·, ;,, •ii\, , ..

~e' ·: . •~~• app.tari. il~ti,}f~j~: :d?fnward, ,·. . · ~, ; .•
· •1. ,·.f::;{i-i~.i\(/:i.~t,•,;,),\'.:_:",:.Y.,,;A(.;"'r/; ·, i· ,,.:,;·" .
10
' -,, \<·,;·,·.:;<:,:,;:;::.>{,,\:+:~s:}.f::~-'.><-,·;·":··: , ; ' 11 ''::
.
1 ,1•. ;,, '
~d the con . tlJt-~: '.,ones wi:11 ne ,' . tutl i -~ '£11'' the': :0 OS ite' .
,·
.,.!.!'',
order: ! t ' i .: .·
,}_: • '.I ,_.t\·1<.'. 'f,$l
t=be ., . • i !~ a,, 'i~he \Jt~~- ~·s<!, •d, the

:tn root· .
~ '\,•,.,',:::~.~:~'/:~\.::>:;.·• ;,),\~';,\"\ / '
. ',"··• ,.·••<:<'~;,;::>\/;•,.:i"'··,:•
·•<_,{; I, ' • ' •'
i• .£• · _It· .itt,:';J'f:fact~· tlli: 1'11ifhest~f1.1idlng·pi:t.ch' of the in-
verted h~~~}~t-t\,~ :·~• ·th& - ~ of the series,

. 'and u ·•oeh,. ·\:#9QJ •f the. triail. t:/ .•· · · : · ·· ·
' . :<:•>· t'.· ..' .. · ' '. • . ~- <>"; ,•:
. HoweV6~~j-~it.iPfta1 WfafJ. •J\g: :tmp-o.ed :an opposing
·. . ;..- -- --- . ··/:t-~\~<:.:._~:>:··_:-;·>·-'·~--._-:-__ · --·· _•-, , -: -.:· .<:~::~_/:1~-::..-.-·:-:v_--,~;-:t~:_A:::<_/ ·· ·. \ ·,
·n-.nc.1'.•iuz.-e ·~;·-:<;~tmte Qf 'th•'<t\dJjcxf.~·triad, based .on
·. -. : -_ .~-~- - _.,·-> :~---· .. ,;ir_:. /.:{_.:·)-~:_·:_.:. >_::'._:·.·:.,-::_.~-.--. _<_ .;. · .-~. . ,•i.\i;'.,._-~•~;.::~{!:{::/-·.:·~.~:'.\~<>•::.,: .~ . . · ·
. the major 'Wbe'tabl'. f 'is coft1id«txa~ 'tfie''·~t ., and 1
C the fifth '
::: a.&E3~::~+l:r:!:eu::
, ,~i/4Jat~io ~!•:.ef~ai~~ ·· ·. , · , · ·,:- ;\
m~
. ll,i~'•~~~~a:"•~~kf
Hl'ies ·. and the . tc:ni-.t·:-btpoi-tfU'lce
~~~•1' . h ~ i c
\of "tl!•·\a~~nQt .fun·ction · ad-
equately explaitJ■'..·••• (\• .~~stom.·5: ·· '.: ". . . . .
' ~~-~}i}~:~.:~t~)i~o~ld a,it~u;,l~ the law of
· , '.,.fr,,
·,I,S.
54
symmetry in its own domain, by virtue of which all of the

laws and rules that are applied to major can, and should.be
applied to minor.
For practical reasons then, it would seem that we
should abandon traditional terminology. 6 For, if we do not,
it would be too difficult to classify major and minor triads,
two inverted entities, or a symmetrical complex according to

their roots, as they relate to one another on either side of
an axis of symmetry.
Henceforth in the present work, minor triads shall be
identified by their highest-sounding.tone, the one we hold to ,
be the real root. In order to avoid confusion, we shall also
use the term "inverted minor triad" to recall its subservience
to the law of symmetry. Finally, from time to time, we shall
underline the major-minor symmetry by spelling minor scales
from their tonics downward.
7. The Essence of Major and Minor

Is the major triad the sole manifestation of major
7
gender, as would be the minor triad of minor gender?
First of all, we must determine the very essence of
major and minor.
Since the major triad is not at all artificial, and
6 As early as 1890 Hugo Riemann had adopted this in-

verted terminology, but was not followed. Cf. his Manuel de
l'harmonie, Leipzig, 1902.
- 71t is by design that this word is used here to char-
acterize Major and Minor, because ~tis not impossible to link
these two complementary and opposite notions to the ontology
of contrast and to the union of masculine 3-:'.~ Fe~inine.
I,5
55
since it is :zeciuytt,itrtj, o/ '~i~aj_. of .
th~ a fifth' ..f the
fi,rst five owrtones,, o:f' tfte.·ti.atntonta se.rtes, it m'.llst b
't . · . . . . · - ·. · V . · :, ' · - ' ' . ,. \ i ·. . . ·;
side.red pu~lt.'and ai91y·as the •·primordial' man~festat
~c,r: <Jendfir, ' . . . .. .. . .... , . . . . i
I ,:· _,·· . ·.: . '>_ .-_ ._ -:. ;, - :· • •:. I '
-. - We .muat,·qonclude that;·
,· TBJf.MMOR.6.oiR·.Is·'tnininP.IEtl WI1l'i
,' , '• , "-,,_;· -_·.-, J '• • ~ ·, "'•t , ''fl; • ,-
!J.'Hl UPWARD '·PRO ·
• •· : ',-
:JBC'l'ION OF .TD -NAWUML

.
~HE MINOR GENDER '
i-ON:tc· sE~E~·,:
': <t ~ ~, '\- ,_·t
IS·
IOBNTI~IED WI'tij ,•·1,~-· INVE~D, 'OOWN'1,ARD•·JS~~lON . . :
f '< •
·. Major
I
so~•'.:,~..·.:\~~-·reai~y:·~~~~-, o~er th~- ·those
_-. -:~' . ,; -, _ . :• ,· "' ~ fr~ _, :•· . , \,· . ' • :,:• ,k~:": • -~• , '. ·, ,
l ;
·· ·
scales tha~ we a±saover· ·from octave· to octave in the h'armonic - ,
' ' . ,:._ ,·,:,, ·•-~. :·i« .. '· ,;·.,:. ',_i·:,::'.~;' .', \'·.. ·. :.' ,' '
., -series.·· And·,it: <±• ,with:in)tlit!t .·,u,art.e~~t.one pi'oje~tiqn that
. .... . . . : .·. ··>.·. ,; . . . . ,:· t.·. ,> . . . :r '·, ./ . .·
tile· most char,ilc,-.~~•1c,:.o~ .~i:•r ~9im,9;t/,;, •:, •. .· . .- , ~
,,. . ., ,-.~~~;~r. _,:\_
~'<_>"i·r·,~;~j~::-:(. ' >,:_~3.t~ '••i;/;:,-·:l-ii•'~tc:A~~ -}~+<·· t'·_··_-,_.·, ,'._,',_k, ,.<. ,,",,
. ibe ·. ~oux:-f°'~ .· ~~~is( .~~,ie,.: .,·:~ 2, ~; ·.i;, .'',!--ih'.alf~~~atj>:;£.. . . :-/ ·;,·
The ~ight•t.~~
: _,
h•tc;r,~ale:, £/'2.,
/" :~-\ ·-~> ' : ·.' . -~ \:;!:_);,,_,:,.~:-
!,· £~half~sh:arp··,·•, ii:' '.
., " ·,· -~ ;·• ::·.. '. ':: ' • . ...•
,:',it I
' ' :,. 'a•hal~-~{lati if..half~shaxp; '
• ' ~~• • ,, , • , - ' -. • ' '
1' I
~• well as th• ·i),.verted·~.-.tio:r' sca1eiei:·~· c,: ·a,.;'.f'lai :·t,

;:, 1· , : ~ l' t,<• -~ .,,,-· ·•,,.-•"'.',_-..:·.• .•':-- •:~~""!!"'!•,:.>•-_-,':/'' .. ~•
t
f
·',
d-tialf-• .
-1,. 11,,1 _, ,,{-·•, ;,,• ...~ .
.· ·shit¥"n c'.:. ,:c··

r-r• _,., •--~·• b~'flat
_ . ' a-flat'''.i,\::
f,~ _ -- • ,. ··
.., /
•,• ·. ' • '' ·;•_t • -. ' '' •' ', • I ' ', .• ,•:, ,. •' • ' '- • ,
·. , · ·ifhal f..;. ~la~--~- '£.,'. !,-half~•ifla'.t,.;

l ~ ,' ,
d.:..hat~.shazp'.~ d"~fii.at, c. • ·, ·
.fig. '19
- ; .. ·-,,:" . ;:·:/}},, :. : ,-
_, ·: '
'
I '
•' .
l
I
56
One of the most convinci~g manifestations of the anti-

nomy of the two genders lies in the fact that, except for the
tonic£, major and minor do not have one single tone in common.
Moreover, this opposition is somewhat traditional,
since minor generally serves to represent states:of depression,
from melancholy to despair, and major generally tepresents the
opposite states. 8 Here again, homage is paid toltheir implicit
;;:,
symmetry.
Does this homage correspond to a profound truth?
Even without attributing the clear-cut distinctions
to the two genders that we often do, it is clear that the mere
opposition o.f their directions can un_doubtedly explain their
antagonism.
The idea of major seems inseparable from the ascending
propensity of natural harmonics. In the major triad, the
third leans more toward the fifth than the root, since, in
the half-tone spectrum, it is separated from the former by
only three half-steps, whereas it is separated from the latter
by four. Because of the decreasing size of the intervals in
the ascending series, it follows that each subsequent harmonic
is drawn towards the next highest by reason of its closer
proximity to it than to the one immediately preceding.
Conversely, in the minor triad, the chordal third tends
toward the low register, as is the-case with each component
,/
8cf. Ernest Closson,· Esth,tigue musicale; J. Combarieu,

· Histoire· de· la mu•sigue, volume I; Maurice Emmanuel, H'istoire
du langagamiis1-cal; Lionel Landry,· ·1a: ·sen·s'ib'i'l•it~· mu•sicale.
I,S
/ 57
of the inverted series. /

There are thousands. f forms of major and minor scales,
from the most hybrid, to the mere opposition of the two har-
monic projections. But, if their tendency is upward, they
partake more or less of major gender; if their tendency is
downward, with all the interpretive shadings that can be at-
tached to the opposing concepts of rising and falling, they
partake mo~e or less of minor gender. 9
It is in the expressive or symbolic values attrib-
uted to each of these directional oppositions that we uncover
the true characteristics of major and minor.
Here, function and tradition come together again. 10
9 This reference to the traditional vocabulary does not

prevent one from saying that he "descends II from the lower to
the upper register and that he "ascends" from the upper to the
lower register, as perhaps the Ancients Greek did. What is
important here is the diametrically opposed directions of major
movement, and minor movement.
lO Cf. Fe tis, His toire gil!n~rale de la mus ique, vol. 111;
Maurice Touze, Pr~cis de musique int~griI'e-;-etc.
I,5
CHAPTER VI
TEMPERED PROJECTIONS
1. Tempered Projections Proper to Harmony

We now possess all of the constituent elements of an
harmonic syntax: temperament, which responds to the practical
necessities of composition; comma, which provides the limit
of tolerable approximations; harmonic series, which is as-
serted on the bases of its acoustical veracity, to which we
will be referring constantly.
However, we have observed that only.the first few har-
monies, specifically those that produce the perfect triad, *
constitute the absolute expression of the concept of tonality,
which, according to the principle of unity, answers a need for
sound polarisation around certain pitches, and the concept of
stability, which, according to the general law of tension and
relaxation, answers the need for carrying dynamic contrast to
its limit.
. /
Andnow, we s h a 11 procee d to the stud yo f the function
of the perfect triad. 1
*Translator's footnote: "

we revert .to the term "per-
fect triad" at tnis juncture primcU"ily because it includes both
major and, inverted minor types. When a specific type is alluded
to, we shall use only the adjective characterizing its gender,
as previ~usly stated.
Cf. I 3 7.
58
59
Certainly music.could subsist without this particular

construct., but -the very haxmonic being of the perfect triad
has given music its fullness of life: the mos~ striking con-
t;asts.between the.negation and affirmation of this triad's
tonal stability, and·between· the manifestations of its major
and minor genders. . .
Thus, in the following formula, one.finds an equal
balance o.f temperament, comma, and perfect· triad; it is the
most basic tenet of all organized music:.
THE TEMPERED PROJECTIONS THAT LEND THEMSELVES MOST
PROPITIOUSLY TO HARMONY ARE THOSE THAT CONTAIN THE INTERVALS
OF THE PERFECT TJ.UAD, WITHIN. THE MARGIN OF TOLERANCE . REPRESENTED
BY THE COMMA.
2. The Perfect Triad Within Those Tem~red·Projections Capable

of ·Incorporating It
As was the case with the harmonic scale, the solution
to this problem lies in a confrontation of the component inter-
vals of the perfect triad: the pure perfect fifth, and the
pure major third: in other words, a comparison of_ l.5 and 1. 25
with the comparable intervals in the various tempered projec- .
I
tions.
If we restrict ourselves to projections of intervals
that are not too narrow, those projections based on unft inter-
vals between the half- and the quarter-tone, there are only
six projections capable of accommodating the perfect triad,
\✓- ,·
within the margin of tolerance provided by the comma. They

are those projections containing twelve, •fi•fteen, nine·teen,
I,6
60
twent:t-~, twenty-~, and twentt-~ equal d~grees within

the octave.
'Any of the above projections may be selected for ver-
ification, or even a projection of smaller intervals than the
quarter-tone, providing it can accommodate the perfect triad.
However, in selecting a projection of a unit-interval
smaller than the quarter...;tone, one should keep in mind the
inertia that arises from projections of intervals that are too
. 2
narrow.
The notion of inertia will be clarified when comparing
the ca~dinal table of the perfect triad within each of the
various projections mentioned above.
In the projection containing twelve half-steps in the
octave, the major triad c e 9:. exercises a double attraction
to 9:. (through the presence of£ and 9:. in the triad), b (through
~and£), f (through e and£), and£ (through c ands:_),· and~
single attraction to all the other pitches of the projection,
except b-flat, which is a cardinal note of neither£, nor~,
nor i·
So, in the remaining projections receptive to the perfect
triad which are narrower, the number of pitches having no affin-
ity to the components of the pertect triad can only increase in
direct proportion to the number of degrees in the projection:
in the twelve-tone scale, only qne tone was without affinity;
in the fifteen-tone scale there are four; in the nineteen-tone
projection there are eight; in the twenty-one and twenty-two-
6
61
tone projections there are nine; and finally, in the quarter-

tone projection there are eleven tones with no affinity for
the components of the perfect triad.
Conversely, the number of tones with a cardinal coef-
ficient of 2 remains at four in the twelve-, fifteen-, and
nineteen-tone projections; this number is reduced to two in
the twenty-one-, twenty-two-, and twenty-four-tone projections.
This progressive at:ophy of the intensity and number
of cardinal affinities is the result, as we have seen, 2 of,
the spreading out of the cardinal table over a larger number
of conjunct scale degrees. Since for a given complex the
total number of cardinal attractions that exist within the
chromatic projection is constant (the number of compone·nts in
the complex multiplied by five--the number of cardinal rela-
tionships peculiar to each component--), their dissipation
cannot help but weaken the force of attraction.
The following law of harmony can be formulated:
THE INTENSITY AND THE NUMBER OF CARDINAL RELATIONSHIPS
VARIES INVER,s.ELY WITH THE NUMBER OF TONES IN THE SELECTED
TEMPERED PROJECTION.
Such is the~ of inertia in projections.
3. Distinctive Characteristics 2£_ Tempered Projections

And so, in reviewing the totality of tempered projec-
tions, from those with the lowest to those with the highest
numbe;r of steps per octaye, (the highest being the fifty-six-
I,6 I
62
tone projection which has as its unit-interval, the comma),

we observe tht the half-tone projection seems to be the ful-
crum between the tonal dearth of the former, since they lack
a perfect triad, and the progressive cardinal degeneration of
the latter.
The perfect triad appears for the first time in the·
half-tone projection, the first augury of tonality; here the
rushing currents of cardinal affinity are maximally realized
in conjunction with the stablest of sound complexes, since the
cardinal affinities are exerted most strong~y on the component
tones themselves,· and the most dynamic of entities, as a
result of the violent _imbalance that. is provoked by the revers·e
propensity of-cardinal flux toward foreign ·tones~
If the accent is to be placed on a harmony that is at
· once logical and expressive, discursive and constructive, one
must confine himself to the half~tone system. Henceforth, this
projection will constitute the framework within which we shall ·
operate.
However, for those who enjoy the cosmic murmurings and
-
abstract music of the spheres,/ we shall discuss later on the
conditions under which narro~~r projections will prove useful. 3

Among these, the quarter-tone projection occupies a
privileged position, since it is the first one to be receptive
to the hannonic scale, the eight tones ·of the fourth octave of
the harmonic s~ries, containing the first s·i~teen overtones of
. the series •
· 3Cf •. IV 8.
63
As far as smaller projections are concerned, they lose

more in pungency than they. gain in evanescence. Musically
weak, they tend towards the hazy immobility of nothingness.
4. Conclu•sions
From our opening investigation of the very souree of
the substance of sound, to our concluding comparison of various
tempered projections and the search for their coincidenee with
the ~irst few harmonics of the series, 1where have we been headed?
To theivery core of the most current musical system,
- --------
that ·of the tempered half-tone projection and its perfect triads.
This direction was not followed simply to provide an
exercise in humility: its most important aspect was the weight
-.of such a perfect encounter with tradition, of the principles
that were little by little expounded, and justified, to the
point where now they assume the force of laws:
LAW OF THE CARDINAL GRAVITATION OF TONES;
LAW OF THE INSTABILITY OF THE HARMONIC SERIES;
LAW OF THE TONAL STABILITY OF THE PERFECT TRIAD1
LAW OF SYMMETRICAL AGREEMENT;
LAW OF THE INERTIA OF·PROJECTIONS.
If these laws seem to ~cur with those that were

adopted by our forefathers,? shall see that they are also
capable of universal application to all music, even if it is
foreign to the half-tone system, or the perfect triad.
,1
In the study of sound complexes and scales that fol-

lows, one of these laws, the law of the cardinal gravitation
of tones, will supplant all the precepts of diatonicism: these
I,6
64
precepts shall be relegated to the ranks of only one of the

many contingencies of this law.
rl
I,6
I
BOOK TWO
S O U N o·-c O M p· L E X E' S · o· R · ·s· 0 U N D-L O C I

-
. CHAPTER I
PRELIMINARIES
Our discussion of the foundations and the framework of -..

harmony will now give way to the study of groups of tones.
However, before considering these complexes in a con-
crete musical context, either linearly as successions of or-
ganized tones or .spatially as chords, we must examine them in
their most abstract context: the· sound entity.
A sound entity, or sound locus, is a grouping of tones
in a-purely isolated state: these tones are all equal to one
another and are stripped of all that is not essential; they
a-re examined outside any pre-existing tonal context, completely
free of any melodic and rhythmic influence.
Such a strict procedure requires the banishment of all
academic reflexest and it attempts to liberate the entity from;
all contingencies. Our aim is to analyze its immanent reaction
on its immediate environment, the temp~ed projection in which
it is situated.
The study of a sound entity is achiev:_ed by means of a
set which represents all of the different pitches in the entity
reduced to one octave, as a succession of intervals.
II,l 65
66
And so, any melody that evolves from the diatonic scale
of C, as well as any chord that contains the seven tones of
this scale, constitute a sound locus. It is represented simply
by the abstract table of cardinal relationships of the set
£def~ ab, its seven constituent tones condensed into one
octave.
In compliance with usual terminology, entity and set
will be presented under the generic heading "scale", any time
the possibility of confusion might arise.
II,l
CHAPTER II
STABILITY AND DYNAMISM
1. Generalities
The cardinal table of an entity provides the key to
all of its latent harmonic possibilities.
Each tone of the chromatic projection is given an
index that represents its cardinal. density, that is, th~ total
number of cardinal affinities that exist between it and any
or all of the component tones of the entity.
Scanning the table, we are given the cardinal density
of the entire complex, as well as that of each of its compo-
nents·, or any other combination of tones and its components,
in relation to the original entity.
The constituent or non-constituent tones having the
highest cardinal density are underlined, no matter what their
materialisation into concrete tones might be, since we are
dealing here with a table that is transposable.
Consequently, not only will the table enable us to I
determine the stability or instability of the entity, on the
basis 0£ whether the densest tones are constituent or not, it
also enables us to determine the direction of the cardinal cur-
rents within the entity, and the intensity of the cardinal
relationships that link it to all other entities.
II,2 67
68
The .actiOJ) of 0.ardina•l ~'ttractibn• Within the entity,

' '
as well as ~ · rGlatiya~~ep~t.y,
. ' . ' '·.~; ,,/ \:;! _7:! :·\. ··:::i ._
a.£ tfi•
. '\ \·,: _,;- ., •.
co~~ent pitches, will
"~-. : . . .
1
enable· us to •~s_.;i::
,,
.,.s0111e·
.
of'
'•' l.~
tbt3 'mQ(ia1" and tonal questions
.
that
' : ' .. .. ,, - . . -_ ·~_: \ .
will J;>e raisedazid,atutliect·1ater on.
I ~-. - :- :;·- ·' ,
The p\1Xiibiae\,of the\present ~h•pter: ·is to study the ex-

.. / ., / )•:_: ~:-,,:·~-- ." . ·_, _, . - . -r:· -~-_)•_ ,:·. '. ,· •.:~\< . _-·-: .\• ·_. ,
ternal incldenoac;9-t,•.ca:rdinlll
. . . -\, : - .. ,:,~
att:raption''U\1\~rent
. 1·.·. .
in the·. com-·
. ·. . . .· . . . ' \•\, :_~- '. ; .
binati.on of tones :qf" the en~ity, by d'&termining the limits of ·
its dynudsm~ and. the de~ree of its ·stabili.ty.,

. . ,· .. ' ; . . . . ) . .
However; the c~ntrirugal • •
dynamism /of an en.tity can
I •
be
Vif!Rfed in
.
various
I
lights:
1:··
1, '
1. · ~latiy•· to. ·ano'~er· ~entit ',il quick. glance at· the
ca:d11naI ral,Ie, , for e2tqp .f!, . wtll •reveal· which three-
.~q~ en~~i of for~ign .tones wftl ··,pe ·most clo~el'.Y
rel•ted t;o the entity in quet;;t1t>n,/ on the basis of /
the in:t.f»1si't.y ,of their recipr<>¢~1 cardinal relation-
. ship$1 ot it{w~l:1 al$e> .reveai:~h two,tone entity,
fQre4
to
or~ c::om~n t, -.:wi11 · ®;
... enf. .c.,... . ,}>.ased.· .~n, th.. ·fit .
relll()te ly related
ence Lweakness ]
tn. _~
3:-l\~,.
of ,~ c~d:L · l relatrionehips.,.
,, .
.'
.
·, ' ·,
.. EJCARpLE:* ' , ·•. ' ' I: . ' '·. ' .

iJ-flJ'•J:-~ :f ~-··,<13 i\Ji4· J
2. ( 1 1 2) 1 · (,! 1)·12_(1 I
2) 1 {~)
The•fhree-tone fobed.gn a9pegation most

~losely related. tc E: !:. g:.b. (whose ·cardinal. table
· . in the half-tone pEojecti,.on appeacX"s above) is .
ei.ther f a b, .or e i f b • The most remote entity
, containTng two consi;l."tuen.t and two· non~onstituent
· tones is any cOJJtbination ·of e 'U.d b7f lat with two
of the following tones: ~-fI'at, 2,~t-flat,.!_:flat.
The.organic stability of the entity ob-
' *Tran•i~,,••. f~tnote: ' 'in t;h·, ·.c:>~igj.nai :version, this

. exemple was CC)ftt,IJ~ io • fOCl)tnot~ •. \ ·:In the' pr•e·11t tianslated '. · ·
:Versi~ it aeetned more·useful to include it, in tile body of ~-
work.
.
· ·. : · · .I
r.··.
·II,2 . . ·;.
i'
69
viously depends on the comparison of its own

density with .that of the entity comprising
the most cardinal foreign tones·. ·
2. Relative.:!:Q the totality of perfect triads:
the relativeaensity of tne cons€1€uent perfect
triads determines the tonal hierarchy of the
modes of the entity that correspond to each
triad. The relative density of the foreign
perfect triads fixes the degree of tonal sta-
bility of the entity, at the same time as
the degree of remoteness of their conclusive
resolutions. ·
3. Relative to the transpositions of the entity:
the density' or-each of its transpositions enables
us to determine its degree of proximity to and
remoteness from the entity in question.
2. Cardinal, Tonal, ~ Transpositlonal Gravity

Every entity is endowed with a cardinal center of
gravity based on its intrinsic cardinal relationships, ·a tonal
center of gravity based on its cardinal relationships with the
various perfect triads, and a transpositional center of gravity
based on its cardinal relationships with its own transpositions. ·,
The center of cardinal gravity of an entity is deter-
mined by comparing the density of the largest number of densest
foreign tones with that of the same number of the least dense
constituent tones. If the density of the latter surpasses that
of the former, the center of cardinal gravity lies outside the
entity i1=,self, and it is cardinally unstable. If the density
of the former is equai to, or greater than that of the latter,
the center of gravity lies within the entity itself, and it
is cardinally stable • 1 ,,
1Thus are summed up the notions presented in I 3 6. /

I
70
by comparing the cardinal va1q.e of each of the constituent
perfect triads with that of the fore~gn perfect triads. The
perfect triad (or triads) with the highest cardinal index (or
indices) is identified as the center of tonal gravity. If
the center of tonal gravity lies within the entity, there is
_,
tonal stability; if it lies without, there is tonal instability.
The center of transpositional· gravity is determined
by comparing the density of the entity in question with ,that
of all of its transpositions to other degrees in the projection.
This center of gravity is found wherever the highest cardinal
density exists.
'
3. The Table of Tonal Gravity and the Cardinal Chart
In order to avoid repetition in the future where the
study of the cardinal, tonal, and transpositional gravities of
perfect triads and harmonic scales is concerned, we shall at
this point, once and for all, illustrate the procedure to be
j . .
used in establishing the tables of gravity particular tofeach
entity.
The cardinal, tonal, and transpositional gravities of
an entity are derived from its cardinal table wherein the
density of all constituent and foreign tones appears.
Let us take as an example th~ entity c-d, 2
[ see chart on page 7i] I
II,2
71
Cardinal table: 1 (~) 1 (1 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 1)
1. CARDINAL GRAVITY:
Density of c-d: 1 + 1 = 2
Density of the two densest
foreign tones: (2) + (~) - (4)
Conclusion: cardinal instability

2. TONAL GRAVITY:
Density of the perfect· major triads:
cb e ~ 1 ( 2) + (0) + (2) =(3)
' d f# a + ( 1) + - (0) = ( 3)
~ f ab 1 + (0) + (1) = ( 2) -
~ 9.# b ( 1) + (~) + (0) = ( 3)
e 9. b (0) + (0) + (1) =(1).,
fb ab cb 1 + (1) + ( 1) - ( 3)
51 b d (~) + (0) + (0) - ( 2)
9-i, b
a c# ~
e +
1
( 1)
+ ' (~)
(0)
+ ( 1) .. ( 4)
= (2)
-ab 1 +
C e {2) + (0) + ( 1) - ( 3)
b f# 1 + ( 1) + (0) = ( 2)
b ~# f ( 1) + (0) + ( 1) = ( 2)
Density of the perfect minor triads:
b
~ ~ ~ 1 + (1) + (2) .. ( 4)
d f a (2) + (0) + - (0) = (2)
~ fi, ~ 1 + (1) + (1) - ( 3)
e g_ b (1) + (0) + (0) -(1)
etc.
The information obtained thus far can be condensed into

a single table in which each perfect triad is represented by
its root, accompanied by the index of the triad's density.
'JpJi,l Jj~ JJJfJ I

Cardinal table: 1 (~) 1 (1 o 1 ·o 2 0 1 0 1)
Major triads: (3 3 2 3 1 3 2 4 2 3 2 2)
Inverted minor: (2 3 3 2 2 3 2 4 2 3 1 3)
72 '
The .above combination of the cardinal table and the

table of tonal gravity constitutes: what we shall :'.refer to as
I
I •
the entity's "cardinal chart". As was the case in the cardinal
.... ,\
table, the number indicating the density of the i¼iads,,
);,
of
which the entity components are members, stand fi'~ei the number
indicating the density of triads which contain at least one
tone which is foreign to the entity appear in parenthe&is1
the numbers representing the highest densities are underlined.
The table of tonal gravity of the entity c-d denotes
the instability of this unit: its most closely related perfect
triads, on the basis of strong cardinal attraction, are those
with g: as their root, that is g: ~~,and the inverted minor g:
b
~ ~· On the basis of very weak cardinal attraction, its most
remote.triads are the major e· 2,1 b, and the inverted minor
eb bbb.
- 2. -
3. TRANSPOSITIONAL GRAVITY:
Cardinal table: I (~) I (1 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 I)
Density of the transposition~:

'• ;.
1 half-step: (2) + (1) - (3)

2 half-steps: -· 1 + 0 :(I)
3 half-steps: (1) + (1) = (2)
etc.
The establishment and explanation of the· tables ··bf
transpositional gravity will be dealt with in the chapter
treating of scales· and their classification according to
II,2
't~ansposi tional· gravf ty. 3
. '
~. I :
.4. 'lhe. c«dinal','

..
'l'on~l:~.,,.(I ·--p·os·tt1on·a1.
·.
~rav'iti-es
. - .
.·. ·:i! .the ..Perfeot .,it·~ . .

. .· · .·.. The ._triaa und~r· co,nsid~r~.tion: here: is·!:. ! s.1.
-. 'f[.'jtj;:iaLir l;~ :~r j:jl'-~ rJ~ ;,

~ . . .~ . .
Cat:dinal· table,··· ·2 .Jl. ·l' 1r ,:l {; '. l). 1 ! ...<+. l .0 2)
'<· ! •..;.
•. >
CARDIN~
- ··-,-
:-YJ'J;r'r!:
,- . ·!' '.
· ·.: :,:· .·.. ',·
, , ' I • .
Den~ity of ltJie ·.. · ,<:,· · 1. ' ',•.
perfect .triacJ:: ,., &i;. ·:· .. +:. , \',. -'· , ~· 5 ...

· :·Deuity of the
tii~\;Ly(· , . . · 1
J,;- !· · '· · · ·, ':1",; ·,'· •· , ..
densest f. orei'rm_.
,...
. . : ·....._:_'·.·.., .,, ·_;·,-,
·, t
·.·_:1·. '·• .·
:'. . '.
·,,'.i
'.: .. ·';
tones: · · .. :.·,·:::.. ·. ·, ··(-2)•+· . . (lL ·\+'.(2) .. = ·5 .... · .. ··,
. OOncllUli~n:: ~$rdin~l-)J~abf:1.iti' \· ·. . . . ,1';::·· ... ·•r·,·:··.-..-;: · : ''•'. ~:_,:· ::~.·.· .
. '. . . .. i It ' . / .
\i·: ,, :-,- . .r\ ' •
. . -!'\ .,. ' :"'t:: .. ,v.'

. TON.AL ~VITT: · · :.. : \ .: ..
; . /'• ·',ll \' . ' , .
· , Density· of. the perfect.

.
'triads·: ......
' . . ' '
In Major: · ~- (4.·
..... ~
3 · 3
l ' . , .
4
•
5 ..·2.
. ....,
.·Inv. minor:. ( 5 :i3 · .3 '4. ., 4 3, 4
ConclWJion: · tollal· .stability, '.'wi·t.h_·a,'.~rnp~s,ity t~r~

the. perfect .m~j:o~ .tr!ads:'. ~~uall; ;,-;eft~rf!~· to _,fl~· ~·aoird,nant" and
. •sub•dcmu.n'ant", as - •.
well :a.·: t~~rd'·the'··i~~l'rie:ct\~~6.t .·t~!,ads .f· , '.
,·
.
1.
. '. . '
· b ·b ·
!. . £, £ !.. · '.i, ~ !. 2, b ..
In this o,is~,· trartsp0sitional. gravity turns ,out .to be··
the same as tobal gravity since, in~• jus:t aa in the·otber,

\ ' ,1 r.'
we are comparirig ~ den~i ty of the triad in· que~t.ion with, .. '1\·· ,( ·

, . - . ·• • • t . -~ ·: • • ' • • ;. . • . ~ ,: ' • 1 ' •} • ·, .' ' .' ,:: ••'
that of all th~· other major triads •.. :· ... ,· ·,. ·.·,, .:
·. ,..
. 3 f. III 8 2·.
74
• . , I .·
cardinal Tabi1u 2 c1·: ·!) 1· (1 . l ' . 1f l (2 .o 1 · 1)
Density. of the·per;•ct triads: . j/ -
i
In Major:
Inv. minor:
·Here, .'
as well, there is. tonal ;balance, with a propen-
• ' ' i - ' ~ .
. . s.i ty' .towa~ th• -~•~4omip,i.nt iUtd Jl'1P:.4Qtpinant triads, as

well ·as ctc>Wai-cl tb•·~jor 'tzi~ds ~.e\ii:·i··;.,(i,
., , ., { ><.. ,;t. ~ ~~:•.:,'./..;/·,., .-- ~
and ab
' .... -
c. eb •
~
s·. 'rhe,~.t~J~~'':·~~, ana··~--~~~tlonel Gra~ties -~

. ···E.!!!.···_p9UJ:!~t• B. .tc.s,SCale .
. '!hie
.. ·. .·.. >:{ ·. : '. . .
~i101~·;••ettie.
can bit~•te~ 'in ·the thix-d oc-
' . . ' • . ... ' ·.· ~ .· __., . . \ . ' ' . . ·. .
tav• of th• o ~ e series.' .· I.t con~a·inf. the foui:th, 'fifth , ·
; •• 1 'i
:aixth and jJevinth t.rmonica-, and ~ shall refer to as the/· it

. . . .:
. :. \' ../. 4 . ', , , . . . .. . I
harmonic ·seventh: scale.· · We shall exairdneft:··1n the quarte~
,: tone· pr~ject;.ion, since· it: cannot be inCOZ'pOX'&ted: into ~e . /· ...
. . .. . . ' . •.I
_half-tone projection ~ith~n our stand&~ unit of tolerance/
' the CORIiia. . . . / . . . , ,·
. . . I ' ' I
Its components are:. 01 e _a· .a + • ·-
/
fig-, 20 . . ./ - .lI .
Ca . . . ..
.I
·. 1<1- o o 1.1 o. 1Jf(f; o·o 1>!<~/0°:0
. .
2>,1<1 o 1 . .'
.l)en,•i~Y of tbe e:cal4:1! =· .. .

•. . '
j
~
.! ·+ · . .i .· + ·. , l: _: .+ l .
, •Density· o_f tfie four ·most'Clltd~al .fo~ign ion.es:
, , _:·.:· ·.· j .·,. ! .... , _·· ...... 1··+··· ,·• 1 ',: :'_+ .. ·2·· .. '=· 6
t'.' I , \,i
75
TONAL GRAVITY:
Density of the perfect triads:
Major: 5 (4 1 0 3 3 3 2 2 3 5 2 1 1 4 3 2 2 3 3 4 1 1 3)
Minor: (3 1 2 2 4 2 3 2 5 4 2 0 2 3 4 3 1 2 4 2 1 2 4 4)
At first, its characteristics seem to resemble those

of the major triad from the standpoint of stability. However,
.,
such a comparison is only valid when it is made within the

same projection.
The harmonic seventh entity partakes of the inertia
of projections of intervals smaller than the half-tone. Its
tendency towards instability can easily enough be shown in
relation to the major triad, if the latter is also inserted
into the quarter-tone projection.
An examination of the cardinal table of the major •
triad in a quarter-tone context is sufficiently convincing.
WW JPiJP □p 3,~~p □ ~ap;1~p~ J~

Cardinal table:
2(1 0 0 1 0 0 1)1(1 1 0 0 1)2(1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1)

Major: 5(3 1 0 2 1 2 2 2 2 4 1 0 1 4 2 2 2 2 1 2 0 1 3)
Minor: (3 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 4 2 1 0 2 2 4 3 1 1 3 0 0 2 4 3)
I
6. The Cardinal, Tonal, and TransE2sitional Gravities of
the Cadential Seventh Chord i n · ~ ~ - ~ Projection
The chord to which we refer as the cadential seventh
within the half-tone projection, is the closest entity to the
harmonic seventh chord. We shall avoid its usual name, dominant
II,2
76
seventh, in order to dispel any diatonic connotation.

EXAMPLE: · £ e· [ bb .
Cardinal table: 2 (1 1 2) 1 (3 1) 2 (1 2) 1 (~_)

Density of the chord: 6
Density of the four most cardinal foreign tones: 10
.Major:
5 (5 4 5 5 7 3 6 5 4 5 6)
Inv. minor: (6 4 4 6 5 5 5 6 3 6 4 6)
Here, instabilitI is evident in each area of gravity,
but most notably in transpos1't'1ona1 gravi·ty, S where 9 units
are attained when the chord is transposed a fourth, and a
fifth.
It is interesting to note the privileged position of
the triad f ~ £ aJnOng the seven perfect triads whose density
exceeds that of the constituent major triad£ e 2,: with its
density of seven cardinal units, it ·surpasses by itself the
density of the four-tone entity under consideration.
It is toward f ~£more than any other sonority that
£ ~ ~ bb gravitates, thus realizing the perfect authentic
cadence which is the basis of traditional harmony.
The inverted minor complex,· c*· e [ b for example,
5 In order not to overload the charts, we have decided/

not to figure out the table of transpositional gravity, which
each individual can establish himself;. -according to the prin-
ciples given in paragraph ·3. Moreover, it is given for each
set in the.synoptic table of scales in the Appendix, according
to the simplified formula adopted in III e· !•
II,2
77
contains the same dynamic properties, as its cardinal chart

shows:
Cardinal table: (3) 1 (2 1) 2 (1 1.) 1 (2 1 1) 2

In Major: (6 4 6 3 6 5 5 5 6 4 4 6)
Inv. minor: (6 5 4 5 6 3 7 5 5 4 5) 5
The most cardinal cadence is the one that terminates
on the minor triad b d ft , of which c* ~ .i b is the true
dominant seventh by virtue of the law of symmetry.
Be it in major or in minor, it seems as if the pitch
added to the perfect triad to form the cadential seventh
chord--the b-flat added to£~ i, and the £-sharp added toe
i b--tends to blur the tonality of the perfect triad, disag-_
gregating it in favour of the tonality of the sub-dominant. 6
7. Cadential and Harmonic Sevenths

Does the cadential seventh owe its power of generating
instability to its analogy with the harmonic seventh, its most
clos~ly related entity?
No doubt it does, since instability in the harmonic
series began when the latter appeared. However, the perturbing
ferment that is exuded by the harmonic seventh is peculiar
not only to it: this pitch is no more, or no less cadential
in terms of the perfect triad than any of the other pitches in
6 cf. I 5 6 on the denominations of inverted minor.
T_2
• f . . ' ' . . .
the quarteraiton, •'

·~otiMtn:''thu.,a•-~~¼•t as
• ,,• : • • - •:• ')•:,".;it•••• ', • ,•J h, S •~ • ,
this one,
1
deprived of
'
ca~dinal. ,, , -•
affinlt.y ~bli'~e ,;t:fect tti·ad.
,'I< /r,">~.\ ._,.4f'': . ' ,tfc\- .__ .:.:. "; '; ' " l
11\ - , '
In fac,t, we are .appx-oi°'~,,.tlte s~c:~t of. the tonal

- : . -~''""-' ·. ,·,, . .,.,:,,-
dynamism of the half•tone projection: ·· if that pitch which.·
forms a caden-tial. seventh when 'added to a perfect triad.. tenqs
to disin•tegrate the 'tonality of the.1;':pei;(ect
.,·,.
triad,
. ..... it• is ,) ,
,, l' • "·-·
simply bec::ause it is the only tone,,in th~::,.'tWelve-tone projec-

tion that is incai,apleof even the most nij.nimal ..cardinal
~ .
relationshipwith•that. triad. . . '

A similar def icienciy of primary
• - • I ' '
. ' , . ·. '
the latter to pl.ay an exceptional ~o.ie in· the half;..ton~ pro-
• - ·'· t
jectiqn of whichit'is coi'lsequently oneof the'. most original

' f' ' .
elem&nts.
~ ' :{~-~-'
In fact/whilttit has alisolu~t: ·no cardinal relation-· • • \,''C¾, •.' j
.. '
ship with :the" perfect

• •
tri&a, .its ver[ preJa~Ce
• 7. • • • : • ,• •
'produces an
.· index of ~ n ~ l affinity ·with . all of :the o-ther perfect triads,
ma-j_or or_.mJ;nor', a.id, with :tegard to eig~t 1:-9f these other tr~ads,
·. . a ~ouble in~:'·qec\1~•· ... •:C()ns~ent1f/'1~:/~one .-b-fl~t,' ·having
n~ cardinal ·link'Sfi;· ~~jnajor tri;•d;.Sr /~ · i.~ compri11es two
I ·.- .·'-"'··. . .. ·. ., , , .}: ! . -- ·.
e~n:ar:• re:J.ati-.nships with eadl of -t,he !fol:lbwing perfect major
~i~:. 1 - . --. - - .· ,·: ·_ h ; . .·• - • · II . . .
(:
,·1
. . . · s~, ~•· ail ~HEO ·perfect mjfr tri.; only one is

··counted among the m9t ~rdinai of E. !. 11,,. and it is ! !. £•. This
-is the deep meantn9_ of at·t~ctive for~ which, by the ·very. fact··
I
79
of the b-flat, joins£~ i bb and f ~ £·
8. Cardinal, Tonal, and TransP9siti'on·a1· G·ra'Vities ·of the

Eight-~ Harmonic Scale
Let us take for example the harmonic scale£ d ~ f~
i a'(, at b: ·
fiq. 21a
~ ipµPJP¢PJPJWP~~iEPP~P j~
Cardinal table:
2(2 0 2)2(2 0 2)2(2 2)1(2 1)3(1 1)1(!)1{1 2)2(2)
Major: 7(5 3 4 8 4 4 5 5 5 8 4 3 5)7(5 3 5 6 5 5 5 4 5)

Minor: (5 4 6 4 6 5 3 5 8 5 3 5 6 5 5 5 3 5 8 4 3 5)7(5)
Density of the harmonic scale: 14
Density of the eight densest foreign tones: 18

,
Cardin~l and tQAal instapili~y are both manifest; so

is transpositional instability 7 which exerts itself most spe-
cifically towards transpositions up and dP'Wii a fifth, a major
second, and a qqarter-tcm~, each of which attains 19 units of
cardinal density.
Consequent~y, within the eight-tone ha,rmonic scale,
th~ flow of currents of affinity converge more forcefully on
s: ,than
'
on £, although the lt.tt
r i~ actually the funda~~ntal
o~ tonic. Also, this flow
',
nverges with ~quai force on the
Ji
I'
perfect triads a e <;J, g b d, e g b in such a way that the tonic
7cf. I 4 1 and 2.
80
perfect triad has no tonal su~remacy over the other constituent
perfect triads. 8
But the primary propensity of the currents of affinity
is external. They are concentrated on!, and on the foreign
perfect triads d ft a, fa c, ace, and d f ·a, but tend at
the same time towards numerous aggregations that are foreign
to the scale, or toward certain transpositions that surpass
the original scale in cardinal value.
In the eternal search for the center of gravity that
it does not contain within itself, the harmonic scale only
waver~ on its own components, thrusting itself most forceful-
ly on such and such entities of higher cardinal value that
lie outside the scale, or on such and such transpositions of ...
higher cardinal density, these transpositions, in turn, are
subject to the same organic instability, lest they are able
to resolve themselves on one of the,four terminal perfect
triads where they eventually find their balance, but only at
8
The same study of the cardinal, tonal, and transposi-
tional gravities of the harmonic sc~le.cannot be countenanced
in natura·l value$ (cf. I 4 2) !;iince the non~tempered set formed
by the sixteentli to thirty-second harmo~ics is far from con-
taining the various major and miner triads. of its sixteen
degrees; and, it is completely devoid of any transposition of
the harmonic scale that it incorporates.
However, the only elemen,:p;._ that we can draw from it
confirm exactly the nations drawn.:from the quarter-tone pro-
jectiQn. '
In fact, for ~be natura~ harmonic sca~e of C, the per-
fect triads--c !. g_ (llarmonics 16, 20 and 24) , .· .[ b d (ha_:i;monic,
~4, 30 az:id 18f ano- !'2.. b (ha:r::monics 20, 24 and 3O)--all have,
Just as in rhe•-qv-arter-tone projection, th1 same cardinal
density, which exqeeds as well that of· e.~ · g (harmonics 20,
25 and 30), the only pe+fep.t. triad in this projection which
is foreign to the harmonic scale in question.
II,2
81
the expense of their own disintegration. 9
The harmonic minor scale. is subject to the same rami-

fications, as shown in its cardinal chart:
Cardinal table:
(2)2(2 1)1(4)1(1 1)3(1 2)1(2 2)2(2 0 2)2(2 0 2)2

Major:(5)7(5 3 4 8 5 3 5 5 5 6 5 3 5 8 5 3 5 6 4 6 4 5)
Minor:(5 4 5 5 5 6 5 3 5)7(5 3 4 8 5 5 5 4 4 8 4 3 5)7
.,
9we shall see in IV 2 5 that, in sum, by re-enforcing

the tonic, the propensity of tne scale will be even stronger
toward the perfect triad of the sub-dominant.
I
II,2
CHAPTER III
CHARACTERISTICS OF MAJOR AND MINOR SCALES
1. The Problem
This study of the harmonic scale enables us to under-
line all its charms.
Not only does the harmonic scale benefit of the pres-
tige of being a fact of nature, not oply does it illustrate
)
tl1e very design of the eight-tone major scale, not only does
it provide the maximum expression of major gender, it manifests
itself as the very source of integral cardinal thrusts that
render it particularly dynamic, even though it fell slightly
short of fulfilling the hopes that had been founded on its
tonal constancy.
Owing to the complexity of its intervals, it cannot be
inserted into the half-tone projection.
What scale can be found within the confines of the
half-tone system?
The essential characteristic of the natural harmonic
scale is that it constitutes the very essence of the major
gender, as opposed to its symmetrically inverted scale which
is the very essence of the minor gender.
The question here is: _..._ ______
-Do there exist in the half-tone
Erojection two inverted scales that~ capable i n ~ ·of
III,3 82
83
becoming· the PROTOTYPE.S. 2!_ MAJOR ANO MINOR?
2. The Characteristic !'ones in Major and in Minor·

First of all,
------
certain tones are endowed with the same
strength as the perfect triad itself: they are those tones
of the harmonic scale which manage to find a place in the
half-tone projection, as the perfect triad did, within the
marginal standard of tolerance.
In C major these tones are: ~, d, =-'
g, and b; in C
inverted minor they are: 1 c, b-flat, ~-flat, f, and d-flat. /
fig. 22
These five-tone sets represent the sc~les typifying

major and minor genders, within the half-tone system.'
To complete them, we need only refer to the notion of
cardinal tones: based on their cardinal value, we select
tones from the haPllOl'lic scale in the quarter-tone projection
that are capable of insertion in tlle half-tone projection, and
substitute them for the component tones of the quarter-tone
harmonic sea.le that are foreign to ~e half-tone system.
For instance, in the cardinal table (quarter-tone con-
text) of ttie harmonic scale on c,·the densest cardinal tone is
a: a fifth above and below ~ an4 e respectively, and a second
•• I
above and below a-half-flat and -~-half-sharp respectively thus
1
That is, let us no~ forget, the usual F minor, with
the tonic pei:fect triad f ~ c. · Cf. I 5 6.
II,3
84
providing a total of 4 cardinal units.
Likewise, e-flat is the densest cardinal tone iri the
inverted harmonic minor scale ·on g.
-.
Consequently, among six-tone scales, the following
two on C constitute the typical major and minor scales:
fig. 23
3. Prototypes of Major and Minor Scales

The above six-tone scales have no common tone othe·r
than the.fundamental c.
Since they each comprise six tones, they employ all
of the tones in the half-tone projection except f-sharp. So,
a seventh tone, f-sharp, added to each scale, will provide
them with a common tone, which, through the action of sym-
metry, is equidistant from the inverted tonics, c.
These are the two typical and characteristic seven-
tone expressions of major and minor gender, projected from a /
tonic c:
fig. 24
Once ~gain we reflect tradition: these two scales,

the diatonic scales of F ~nd B, have ·always been, more or less
considered the most major and the most minor respectively, of
II,3
85
I
' ' .' ' ·2

all the anoient. iao4ea: ..
fig. 25 .
4. The cardina.-1~ • fotlctI}~a· tr~s2'!fj{i~rutJ:· Gi:aji ties ,, ,.;,, ' ' . . ;-. ·,,;_.
~ the P~tO£r,ee• 'ol Maj~r and·::-1nbr'· Sdales

; . __ , ... ·· . _, ·:-c :.- : . · , . ·; · ', .:--·t-:-·". -\> ·. . :;
we shall'!!x.-tne·the major scale tr,ensposed to_.:
.. fig. 25a
·. ! ·. ;f ,i·<j:ilii ·. ~·· il!•:!fif~ ~~ : •

. ..,.. . . . . . . . .· . I
Cafdinal ttl•: .. •3.. (3) 3 (2) 3 (3) 3 ! 12~ I3 (2) 4
Major:·
' Minor, .. , (1 !i · 9 8) 9 (8)10 .(9 8 9 '7)!!:

nen•ity 'of the' five; foreign tones:_ 3 :~ ~2>r- 3 - 2 ~ 2 • '12
_Dena i ty of 'the ,;five leae t dense const~tuft to.nes : . ·
. · · · , . .· 3 :- 3/.; 3· - 3 - 3 • 15
. ' ' ' ' ; '' ·,;, .
is assured,
' ' . ' ' ' '
cardiflal atabili"7J:' apd the: density of the .

: . J ' ' '
" set is in balance 'inth that of its tr.anspositions

I
aj: the fourth ·
i
.and at the fifth.
Concerning. ,tona:l. gravi.ty, .t:he ·::toil~i~g observation
. is made: 'for eac::b ma.j o;r triad ·there· is a ~nor triad with the
• . • . • . r . • , -· . , , ,
s.-e c~dina.1- coefficieG;·, ~d their roots am .symmetrical in

relat,ion to the axis·
. -d: '_P 'major and -B. i n v ~ minor:,: C. major,·_.' '' .
III;
. Il,3.
86
and E inverted minor, G major and A inver.ted minor. This is

a result of the scale 1 .s being syrranetrical, as will be shown
by extending it beyond the octave and examining it on the
axis d. 3
The consequence is of capital importance: the same
tones can be used to represent the typical scale of either
.,_,
gender, depending on whether they are projected upward from

f, or downward from b.
MOST OFTEN IT IS NOT THE ENSEMBLE OF TONES IN A SCALE
THAT REVEALS ITS TRUE GENDER, BUT THEIR CRYSTALLIZATION AROUND
ONE. PERFECT TRIAD OR ANOTHER.
' Diatonic Scale

5.
--- ---- -- -- ---- ---
The First-fruits of the
This is not all that is revealed by the table of tonal
gravity of the present scale.
Even though the constituent perfect triads f ~£,and
~ g,b are the most major and the most minor respectively, they
are, not the most cardinal: the former is surpassed by c e g,
'
th~ latter by the inversion of/2 e g, that is a c e. 4
,
I
/ If the scale is to ~ g~ven-its
/
strongest tonal ex-
dression, either core must l;>e established as tonic, since
it is around these tones that the densest affinities revolve,
and on them that the densest affinities are concentrated.
It is now that the diatonic scale of C appears, in all
its tonal splendour, along with 'its inverted minor:
I
I 4
Which i~ the ·substitute tonic in the German pedago-
gical technique.
II 3
8.7,
.~
e
d
cf
e
c ·s
S,/!.. .f.
a ·i·•?.·e
b
0
2•
I.
.
i'he oara1:al-in~itj'g ! <j_: ~ its relative ! i b,
once they becQme. ·to~ic, . surpasses .not: only that of ! !. d and

all the other c011st:Lt'Q.eh'; perfe.ct t~~s·,
.
b~t: also that7of
' '-,. ~ - - - -
. I
all the. foreign perfect triads·, the cde~sest ~f wh~ch 2
. card~a1' :Mita. ltlwer. than th.e tonic :triads:.
Such·: a strong flow of -7ar~:linal e:urrents toward the
·.'perfect' tri.ada of ctiAajor . ·•·aijd ·~ in~tb:iq:· ll!nor is 'a glowi~g
'.: l!lani'f~~t~tfon--:of _'.~-i -~~_fe0,t, ~tabil~tt.· of ~e. 'diatonic 'major
s.paie and j:ts ~ti{caily. i~w..:rt~(t . tatflor~ .,aQ well. ae of the .
'" . . . . . ·. . •. '' . ·;. .•· ·'. ~, ' ! . . '. :; ; . . '' . :. : ' .
tonal stJ:ength. 'that, :1_. ,:<U,relope.d;,witnl.n :.1;hem.• by these· tw9':
.. in t: . . ' . I~ , ; '.. 'i; . . . /. . ,; , . . ?;:J ): . • , . . • ... ".
-~pos 'g ·. -~~ .' . . ';:,··)'•;-: .. , I''
:~: '" I. ..
~ •! ',11 ·.•
' i
II,3 , ,I
CHAPTER IV
THE DIATONIC SCALE
1. Definition
The term "diatonic 1scale" is commonly used in two dif-
,
ferent ways.
It may refer either to the traditional major scale
alone, as defined by its succession of intervals, or to dia-
tonic system as a whble, that is, this same projection of
intervals, willfully extended beyond the octave in such a
. way that it contains all of the Greek and Gregorian modes,
depending on the positioning of the iriitial tone and the notes
of stress.
In the first case we are referring to one of the
transpositions of£ d ! f ~ ~ b £, as well as its altered
minor under its three forms: £ d_ eb !_ ~ ab b c, or c d eb f
_s: ab bb £; or c d eb !, ~. !. b £•
In the second case,
f
the scale called "Jnajor" is only
one of the diatonic modes, three of.which are m~jor: the ones
on C, F, and G.
With the progressive dis appearanq~ o.f all the modes
oth~r than tho~e. on C ar;td A, we have COJ)\8
I
.to use the terms
mode and gender interchangeably.
Pro;!.ectio'i' supposes 7 l i t y of intervals , thus , we

It,4 88
;
89
- i
reserve this term for the, general framework of a'.musical sys-
~t,-:
tern in which temperament equalizes· ·chromatic suchessions 'of

intervals: half-tone projection, fifteenth-of-an-octave·pro-
jection, etc.
Set is the abstract representation of a sound entity
as a succession of intervals within one octave {usually).
The set may begin with any one of the constituent intervals
[with no attention given to root or tonic].
Mode takes the component intervals of a set and de-
stroys their equality, by indicating_a tonic or a root.
It is the succession of intervals of a set, going
from the tonic or the root to its repetition in the next oc-
tave.
Scale is the concrete representation of a mode as a
succession of actual pitches, as suggested by the intervals.
2.
---- - -- ----- ---
The Genesis of the Diatonic Scale
All traditional music is based entirely on the 'dia~
tonic C scale. In tlle present work, we have striven hard to
justify this unique entity by various theories. In actual
fact, this scale has little by little asserted itself over
the other plainchant modes on account of its cardinal supremacy.
The Greeks, who included the study of numbers and
sounds under the same heading, made significant advances in
the application of arithmetic knowledge
- to vibrating strings.
, ,
'I
They were not ignorant of the quarter tone, and diatonicism
was but one facet of their song, the essential vehicle of
musical expression at that time.
II,4·
90
Their diatonic system comprised a certain number of

modes that can be looked upon as so many borrowings from that
diatonic set, according to the where the first note was ,placed.
Without entering into detail, suffice it to say that
these mode~, whose expressive qualities, final notes, and even
names are. subjects of controversy, survived in plainchant
I
with various mutations, and under j~led names. 1
But, little by little, with the appearance of poly-
phony and its harmonic implications, the mode of C asserted
itself with all the vigour that its unconsciously-perceived
cardinal primacy would allow.
Even the mode of E and its perfect triad~ c !. had to
yield to C despite their ca~dinal equivalence. The priority
of ascending harmonic currents that very often interfere with
the due process of symmetry, was so vigourously asserted that
the E modality never reappeared, except as an alteration of
the major scale, mode C; with a as tonic and~£!. as its
tonic triad.
The historic origin and the cardinal formation of the
usual diatonic scales enable us to dispel the misunderstandings
that have accumulated as far as their justi~ication is concerned.
It is no less inadmissible to explain the genesis of the scale
£ d !. f _g:_ ~ a, £ by the. cycle of fifths, the deficiencies of
1c£. particularly Antoine Audia, les Gammes mus'icales;

J4:1cques c~ail+ey, ~ ~\Mli;tue me~ie,val.e; Ernest C~osson, Esth~-
~ mus:;i.cale; J. Comb,arieu, Histolre de la musique, vol. I;
Noroert Oufourq, la Mu,s:i.que, des ·Qr19:1rtis rnos jo~s; Fetis,
Histoire. generale de 1~ mus•iq\ie; vol. II! 1-Pal;ll Gilson, Trai te
d 1 1iarmon1e (III); Auguste Le Guennant, la Musique monodique·;
El1.e Pioree, Essai de technique !!, !!' esthetique musicale.
91
which many theorists.have already denounced: with f arbitrar-

ily fixed as the generating pitch in the cycle, tlle pitches
•c
in the cycle are out of tune with the correspondi~g pitches

,,. . it
in the overtone series by ,one co:mma1 the initial!
...., and the
;.,~
concluding e-sharp in the cycle are o~t of tune by' more than
,;
one comma. 2
3. 'The Characteristics of the Diatonic Scale

Defined solely as a succession of intervals, the "dia-
tonic set" comprises several remarkable properties.
First of all, it is symmetrical.
Duly extended from one tone to the symmetrical tone
which is its relative, it consists of intervals whose succes-
sion will be identical whether·read from left to right, or
right to left.
The root, the third, and the fifth of each perfect
triad occupy positions that are the exact inversions of the
positions of the root, the third, and the fifth of the relative
perfect triad.
For the diatonic set with no sharps or flats, the fol-
lowing designs obtain [ T - tone · S - semi tone J:
c to e: T T s T T T s T T
d to d: T S. T T T s T
f to b: T T T s T T s T T T
.9. to a: T T s T T s T T
;I
2
cf. particularly Vincent d' Indy, Trait~ ( sic J de com-
position musicale, vol. Ii Lionel Landry, la SensibilitrmusT-
cale; Prudent Pruvost, La Musique r&lov~e.-
II,4
92
The modes of F and B~of this set provide the prototypes

of the seven-tone major and minor scales.
Its table of tonal gravity underlines its eminent tonal
stability, since the constituent perfect triads are at least
equal in cardinal value to the foreign perfect triads. However,
two constituent triads surpass the foreign triads by I cardinal
unit; two other constituent triads surpass the foreign triads
by 2 units.
lP J ~ J J 1J J u~ ~ ~
Cardinal table:
In Major:
' 4 (2)
11 (7 ,
3
9
(2)
8
4 .3 (3)
9) 10 (8)
3 (2) 3
9 (8 9
(3) 3
9 8)
Inv. minor: (9 8 9 7) 11 (8 9 9 8) 9 (8) 10
This cardinal supremacy of the C mode explains and le-

gitimizes the sovereignty with which it has been invested.
One other fact worthy of note contributes to this
cardinal supremacy: the table of tonal gravity of the perfect
triad 3 indicates that the perfect triads of the same gender /
that are most closely related on the basis of their cardinal
relationships are those that tradition has already revered
under such names as dqminant and -sub-dominant.
-----
The ~ajor triads richest in affinity with£~~ are
~ b ~ and f ! £i the minor triads richest in affinity with a
c e are d f ! and ~ .9: 2,. ·
So, if we- .combine all c:>:f the component tones of the
T A
93
thre.e major triads around a tonic £ !. .i on one hand, and all

the components of the three minor triads around -ace
- ~ as tonic
on the other, we arrive at the diatonic scale in the mode of C
and the diatonic scale in the mode of E.
Without bringing in such disputable elements as the
cycle of fifths, we can legitimize the diatonic set and trans-
late its genesis on the basis of the essential threesome of
tonic, dominant, and sub-dominant and the affinitive links that
explain and justify it.
I
4. Agreement Between the Normal Rules~~ Diatonic
Major Scale~ t h e ~ of Cardinality
Not only do the links of cardinal attraction suffice
to legitimize what we have called the "tyrant C", but also they
manage to justify the majority of its most Draconian decrees.
A very.important first consideration upholds the car-
dinal supremacy of the normal tonic perfect tr~ad within its
own diatonic scale. A second, no less essential consideration
supports the constitution of the diatonic scale: the tonic-
dominant-sub-dominant threesome.
But there are other considerations that are far from
being negligible.
Not only does this scale contain the most cardinal
tones of its tonic triau: £, f, .9., and b for£~~, but three
of these,~, b, and fare the basic componegts Qf
.
the tradi-
, I
tional dominant seveath chord, .9. b d f, .of which the suppres-

sion of .only d alone is tolerated by standard theoretical
i
treatfses. There is no need to single out the exceptional
II,4
94
importance of this chordwhose cardinal relationship~ make

evident the supremacy of its cadential power over £ ~ s_, 4
of which it may be said that all traditional music plays on
its alternation with the perfect tonic triad.
Furthermore, the four most cardinal tones of the
perfect tonic triad are all members of the dominant eleventh
chord, the cadential power of which is widely recognized, and
whose cardinal density, in relation to the perfect triad,
I
cannot be surpassed.
Moreover, standard treatises assign an essential role
to b, one of the four richest tones iJl·terms of cardinal value
to c e g, that of "leading-tone", imposing on it •a mandatory
resolution that exactly duplicates its cardinal attraction to
the nearest tone.
On the other hand, the only tone with no cardinal af-
finity for a perfect triad is foreign to the diatonic ·scale
b-flat for£~~, and f for~ b ~, and it is precisely this
tone which, when added to the said perfect triad, transforms
' .
it into the cadential dominant seventh, disaggregating the
original tonality in favour of that.of its most closely related
cardinal triad, the sub-dominant.
Finally, let us not forget that the most closely-re-
lated major triads of the tonic major triad are those of the
(
dominant and sub-dominant: these along with the dominant

seventh chord constitute the very essence of traditional har-
mony,-· In closing, let us underline the fact that the most
4Cf. II 2 6.
remote chord from the perfect tonic triad is the triad a tri-
tone away, just as had been preached in the traditional trea-
tises: this remoteness is based on the meagreness of its
cardinal ties with the tonic triad.
,l 5. Agreement. Between the Normal Rules of the Traditional

Minor Scales and the ~ of Cardinality
In traditional harmony, the usual minor scales are
also subservient to cardinal law. However, this subservience
is less evident because of the fact that the nature of these
scales has been via.lated by the powerful major. 4 bis
THE MODE ON A
One form of minor scale corresponds exactly to the

synnnetrical scale of the traditional major: its component
pitches are the same, only the placement of its tonic has be~n
changed.
The symmetrical minor scale suggested by the minor
tonic triad c eb i (whose real root is i> is : i f eb d .£ bb
ab S.·
In the traditional system based on major, the tonic is
c and the scale .:aeads as follows: .£ d eb f i. ab bb .£.
But, always the same pitches are.present, the !;>aine
triad is tonic, and the cardinal ~elationships ·remain unaltered.

Through the action of the law of synnnetry, all of the
observations made in connection with ·the diatonic major ,scale
of C remain true here: the cardinal supremacy of the tonic
4bis~ Cf. esp~cially P.J. Richard, La Gamme.
II
96
triad, the presence within the scale of the tonic triad's most
cardinal tones, that is, i, d, a-flat, and£, as well the
presence of its most closely related minor triads: i, ~b, d,
and f ab c.
Even in their most traditional context, which is based
on the major mode, rather than being symmetrical to it, the
cadential dominant chords contain the tones that are most car-
dinal in relation to the perfect tonic triad: ~ b d f, ~
b d f ab, or ~ b d f ab c.
But the law of symmetry, contrary to common usage,
shows ~s that here, where everything is inverted in relation
to major, the dominant triad is f ab£, the sub-dominant triad
is i bb d, and the cadential dominant chords are:
d f ab £, the real dominant seventh, 5
ab £, the real dominant ninth,
each of which contains three of the most cardinal tones of the ·,
tonic perfect triad, and
f ab £, dominant eleven th which
contains all of them.
Tonic The most inverted inverted inverted minant

cardinal dominant sub- seventh, ninth
tones dominant and eleventh
5The traditional composers occasionally used it as 1
such. Cf. insofar as J.S. Bach is concerned, particularly

Prelude VIII of the first book of the well-tempered Clavier,
and preludes numbers 6, 12, 14, 18, and 24 of the second book,
fugues number 16 of the first book and number 14 of the second
book, etc.
II, 4
I
97
THE MOST USUAL FORM OF MINOR
Cardinal chart of the scale c d eb f ~ ab b c:
Cardinal table:! (3) 3 3 (3) 2 (3) 4 3 (2 3) 2

In Major: (ll 8 8 10 8 8 9) 9 10 ( 8 8 8)
Inv. minor: 9 ( 8 10) 8 (9 8 8) 11 ( 8 7 9 9)

Density of the five foreign tones: 3 ~ 3 + 3 + 2 + 3 = 14 /
Density of the five least dense constituent tones:
3 + 3 + 2 + 3 + 2 = 13
This scale shows evidence of a certain cardinal insta-

bility as well as a certain transpositional instability, sine~
its transpositions up and down a fifth, 22 cardinal units each,
exceed the density of the scale itself which has only 21 units.
From the tonal point of view, the tonic minor triad
eb surpasses all of the other constituent perfect
-
C ~
triads in cardinal density: f a b £, !.b c b ! b , ~ b d, and

ab C e b However, one foreign perfect triad, and only one,
•
manages to equal the cardinal density of the tonic triad: it
is the major triad.£ ! ~-
Consequently, this scale i_s less minor than the pre-
ceding on!='., since it, }eam~ as much toward £ e ~ as .£ !b ~
whose only advantage is its very presence in the scale. 6ti
Just as the ~eceding minor scale did, this one contains
II,4
98
the totality of the most cardinal tones of£ eb i= i, s, a-
flat, and£, as well as all the components of its real cadential
dominant chords:
2b
a C
f i° c.
Its essential characteristics can be summed up as fol-
lows: it is asynnnetrical, tonal, organically unstable, with
a propensity towards transpositions at the fifth, and a tend-
ency·to transmute into inverted major; it comprises three
minor triads and two major triads, the most cardinal of which
is the,us~al tonic minor triad.
THE THIRD FORM OF MINOR
The cardinal chart of the scale c d eb f ~ a b c

is as follows: 7
Cardinal table: 4 (2) 4 2 (!) 2 (3) 3 (3) 2 <.1) 2
Table of tonal gravity: I

In Major: (11 7 9 9 9) 8 (9)' 9 (9 8 10 7)
Inv. minor: (9 7 11 7 10 8 9) 9 (9) 8 (9 9)

Density of the five foreign tones: 2 t 4+3+3-t- 4 = 16
Density of the five least dense constituent tones:

2 +-2+3-t-2+- 2 • 11
;I
7
An in-depth study of this scale can be found in my
article: "Substance de la composition musit:-ale et Mutations
harmoniaues, ~thmiques et m~iodiq;ues" in the issue of Poly-
phonieevote to "compositional techniques". (Richard Masse,
Editeur, Pari~. 1953)
II,4
99
Thus, it is the seat of a cardinal instability all its
own, at the same time showing a propensity of great strength
i
toward transp~$itions at the half-tone, the minor third, and
the fifth which exceed its density by as many as 5 cardinal
units. 1
b
Here again, in terms of tonal gravity, the triad c e
__.2. is the most cardinal of the constituent triads, along with

.2, · b d, its re_lative, owing to the symmetry of the scale. On
the other hand, the scale,tends to cadence on the foreign
major triad c e .2,, and its relative minor, .2. bb d. The at-
traction of these two triads is particularly vivid, since
their cardinal co-efficient exceeds that of the tonic triad
by two units.
The reason for this is that we are dealing with the
scale of C major, in actual ~a/ with a single alteration,
the' mediant, the only charac/istically minor note of the
en tire aggregate.
1
The action of cardinal attractions under-
'
lines the resulting modal ambiguity, as well as the constant
tendency of this scale toward either C major with a mediant
alteration, or D inverted minor by transposition, or change
of scale.
The characteristics of this thi_rd scale can be summed
up as follows: it is symmetrical, tonal, unstable in all
respects, cap.ential, with a tendency towards major if it is
centered on its most cardinal minor tonio, or tow4.rds minor if
- it is centered on its most cardinal major tonic,
~
tt contains
i.~
/ two major triads and two minor triads 7 the most cardinal of
which are the.usual minor tonic triad and its relative major.
II,4
I
CHAPTER V
DIATONICISM OR POLYVALENCE
Must we admit, as do the proponents of classical har-

mony, that there exists only one scale, the diatonic scale,
of which all others are but alterations?
The question is not as irrelevant as it may seem.
If there is but one scale, then all of harmony is
subJect to its laws.
If not, then each scale becomes an individual entity,
generating laws that are peculiar only to it.
We can say that the diatonic set is one of the richest
in tonal potential, but there are others that either equal it,
or even surpass it in this respect.
* :
EXAMPLES: the scale we cal141 21 13 (on B)--
Cf. I.:tI 1 !--in which the major triad c ~ 2_ exceeds
by two units the density of all the otfier constituent
perfect t~iads, or the scale 32 21 22 (on B) in which
£ e ~ sh~e~ this same privilege with its relative
minor fa c, or the scale 22 22 22 (on B) in which
the densityof each of the constituent perfect triads
without exception exceeds that of any foreign perfect
triad, etc.
fig. 27.
41· 21 13 (on B) ~2 21. 22 (on B) 22 22 22 {on B)
*Translator's footnote: in the original version, these

examples were given in f9otnote; it was deemed more useful to
present
!
them within the body of the work in the present version.
II
101
Certainly this became self-evident in our study ofwos t

the typical major scale. If the number seven is fateful, it
is not necessarily determinative; it is just as permissible
to hold to major prototypes of five or six tones per octave1, Ill,,
or to select the eight-tone major scale, the most closely-
rcl-ted to the natural harmonic scale.
EXAMPLES:* [ Cf. Translato~•s footnote ,p~ge lOQ1J
fig. 2 8
Besides, did not the diatonic scale forsake all of

its rights to hegemony when, by means of passing tones, ap-
poggiaturas, alterations, Neapolitan sixth chords, or [ major-
minor-minor] dominant ninth chords, it incorporated all of the
pitches of the half-tone projection? 1
Already, countless exotic or synthetic scales have
acquired the right to be cited among standard scalar formations:
the Chinese pentatonic scale, the whole-tone scale, Hindu
scales, scales of limited transposition, etc. 2
1
c£. in particular Vincent d'Indy, Traite [sic] de com-
position musicale, vol. I: Charles Lalo, Elements d'une estflr-
tique musicale scientifigue; Rene J:,eibowitz, Schoenberg et ~
ecole.
2
cf. particularly E. Borel, la Musigue turgue; Ernest
Britt, la Lyre d'Apollon; Bel~ne de Callias, Magie sonore;
Norbert Dufourq, !!, Musigue des origines ! !!2!. jours1 Maurice
Emrnanu~l, Histoire de!! langue mu~icale1 Rodo~phe d'Erlanger,
la Mus1gue arabe; Paul Gilson, Trait€ d 'harmonie; Georges de
GTroncourt, G~ographie musicale: Raoul-and Marguerite d'Harcourt,
la ~iusiqu:. des Incas, Louis Laloy, la Musique chinoise1 Rene
Lenorrnand, Etude !E!. l'harmonie modeme: Maurice Le Roux, In-
II,5
102
So, the few aggregations and scales that we have

studied thus far have sufficed to reveal the antinomy that can
be created by the slightest variations within themselves. As/
slight as these variations may be, they can destroy the es-
sential characteristics of the scale by giving birth to others
that are completely foreign to it, destroying the original
entity's chances of survival.
In fact, the wide variety of properties that the
diatonic scale is incapable of reconciling, creates of each
entity a world apart.
Even though it may contain only a few pitches, any
entity is admissible. The systematic employment of such and
such a projection of intervals from one octave to another
constitutes a coherent ensemble, subject to its own laws.
The diatonic system falsely t~ied to reach beyond its
own boundaries. The cardinal predominance of£ and e in the
diatonic scale of C does not imply in the least any supremacy
of the third over the fifth of a major triad, for instanca.
It is only within its own cardinal table that the character-
istics of the perfect triad can be appreciated as such; and
we shall see, 3 when dealing with triadJ in first and second
inversion, that the role of the fifth will take precedence
troduction ~ la musi~e contemporafne; Ma Hi~o-Ts'iung, la Nu-

s1~u7 chinoise; Clau · Marcel-Dubois, la Musique de l'Inde;
o ivier Messia7n, T~chni<J':le ~ mon langage musical; Serge
-..Moreux, L~. Musique ~aponaise; Prudent ~ruvos.t, ,!! Musique r~-
nov~e ~ Anar~ Schaef ner, la Musique noire 2, •Afrique.
3
cf. IV 3 6.
II,5
103
over that of the third.
Let us beware, then, of academic reflexes that tend
to relate all things to the diatonic scale, when we examine
the 351 possible scalar constructs. 4
But here, the simple play of cardinal attraction suf-
fices to enclose them in a system in which the diatonic scale
with all its norms, is but one, among 350 other entities.
Complementary scales; retrogradable scales; scales
of limited intervals; scales of limited transposition; sym-
metrical scales; asymmetrical scales; median scales; atonal
scales; neutral scales; tonal scales; major scales; minor
scales; binary scales; modulating scales; scales of tonal
imitation; dense scales; transitive scales; scales of cardinal ·,
polarity; cardinally balanced scales; tonally stable scales;
clashing scales; cadential scales; balanced scales; tonic
scales; transposing scales; fundamental modes; derived modes;
polar modes; harmonic modes; cardinal modes; this is the un-
precedented catalogue ~nto which can be entered the 2048 ways
of covering the distance 2f !!!_ octave, using only the half-
tone· p_rojection.
rl /
4such is also notably the case with traditional ter-

minology as it relates to inttervals and chords, which we shall
avoid, since it is only valid within the diatonic·scale.
II,5
BOOK THREE
SCALES
CHAPTER I
THE THEORY OF SCALES
i
1. The Numbef of Possible Scales

In the half-tone projection, what is the total number
of possible combinations of intervals that will bridge the
interval of an octave, from one£ to another?
There is only one twelve-tone scale, the chromatic
scale.
On the other hand, there are:
Eleven 11-tone scales;
fifty-five IO-tone scales;
one hundred and sixty-five 9-tone scales;
three hundred and thirty 8-tone scales;
four hundred and sixty-two 7-tone scales;
four hundred and sixty-two 6-tone scales;
three hundred and thirty 5-tone scales;
one hundred and sixty-five 4-tone scales;
fif~y-five 3-tone scales; and
, eleven 2-tone seal/ ,
a~· well as one 1-tone scale;8's represented by the two e's
delimiting the octave.
f
To what can we attribute the strict and exact equality

'of 6- and 7-tone scales, of 8- and 5-tone scales, of 9-' 1 and
3-tone scales, etc.?
In taking inventory of the totality of scales begin-
III,1 104
105
ning on c and continuing on upward one octave, we select one
fixed tone, the initial£, from among the twelve tones, the
multiple combinations of which we wish to establish. Conse-
quently, it is only from among the eleven remaining tones that
subsequent scalar components can be selected •.
We can represent this ensemble graphically as a series
of twelve adjacent rectangles, each of which corresponds to
one of the chromatic steps in the half-tone projection. For
a given scale, the component pitches are represented by light
rectangles, the foreign pitches, by dark rectangles. The
vario~s arrangements possible, of light and dark rectangles
are consequently limited to the eleven rectangles that follow
the first one: this particular one will always be light, since
it represents the initial tone, c.
And so, no matter what design is created by these
eleven rectangles, there will always exist a complementary /
design, and only one, in which light and dark rectangles are
interchanged. A pattern consisting of 5 light rectangles fol-
lowed by 6 dark ones will always have one, and one only, com-
plementary pattern consisting of 5 dark rectangles followed
by 6 light ones.
In the graphic representation of.the diatonic scale
on C: *
0 X O X O O X O X O X 0
the eleven rectangles following the initial rectangle r~pre-
*Translator's footnote: For obvious typographical

reasons, white rectangles will be represented herein by the
symbol "O", ~lack rectangles by the symbol •x•.
III,l
,l
senting care as follows:

X 0 X 0 0 X 0 X 0 ·x 0
and the complementary pattern will be:

0 X 0 X X 0 X 0 X 0 X
This is the reason for the identical number of combi-

nations of 6- and 7.-tone scales, 5- and 8-tone scales, etc.
2• The Number of Distinct Sets

What do these two thousand and forty-eight possibili-,
ties actually represent?
First of all, they represent approximately one twelfth
of all the tonal possibilities in the half-tone projection,
since in principle, each of these is capable of twelve trans-
positions producing a total of close to twenty-five thousand
scale possibilities.
But above all, we must realize here and now the op-
position that exists between the two accepted meanings of the
term scale: set on one hand, and ~ on the other.
These two thousand and forty-eight alignments of as-
cending or descending pitches represent as many different
modes. Each mode would extend from a given pitch selected
as tonic, to its homonym one octave above. However~ a number
of these modes only represent different aspects of the~,!!!,
according to the d~gree on which they begin.
For a given set, there ~xis;t. as many different aspects
. 't
[ versions J as there ~ist tones in the set, in the same as-

cending or descending form.
According to this principle, there are but rare ex-
III,l
107
ceptions that hold that a specific projection of intervals be
repeated regularly not only from octave to octave, but within
each octave, every three steps, or every two steps, or every
three half-steps, or every step, or every half-step.
Taking these sets "of limited transposition" 1 into ac-
count, and incidentally they are _fifteen in number, the true
number of possible sets is reduced to three hundred and fifty-
one:
80 sets of six intervals per oc 2ave,
66 of five and seven intervals,
43 of four and eight intervals,
19 of three and nine intervals,
6 of two and ten intervals, and
the sets containing one, eleven, and twelve intervals per oc-
tave.
Here, these scales are examined as abstractions, inde-
pendent of tonality or of tonic, under the form of sets of
intervals. I
For every seven-tone set there is one five-tone set
which consists of those pitches of the twelve half-step pro-
jection that were not constituents of the seven-tone set. The
two complementary sets will always total twelve, corresponding
to the nwnber of half-steps in the projection. This is why
complementary ~ets of fiv~ and seven tones, four and eight
tones, etc. have the same number of possibilities.
1
cf. Olivier Messiaen, Technique de ~on langage musical;
refer also to III 2 5.
2
cf. Piu Se~ein,. Introduction a une co:p;naissance scien- ·
tifi9ue des faits musicaia;, and les ~tliim!Tcomme introduction
phys1que-r-1 1 esth§tique; tienne Spu~au~ la Correspondance
des Arts.
III,1
108
3. The Graphic Representation of Scales

These adjacent rectangles, each of which represents one
degree in the half-tone chromatic projection--component tones
by light rectangles, foreign tones, by dark ones--have just
explained some of the peculiarities regarding the number of
possible scale combinations.
At the same time, they constitute the most abstract
representations of different scales.
Twelve dark and light rectangles, duly distributed,
suffice to define a given scale. The ascending order of the
component pitches is represented left to right, just as at
the keyboard.
But, two modes that are completely distinct from one
another should not be interpreted as two different sets, when
dealing exclusively with sets. To this end, each set, con-
sidered as an abstraction, will always be represented by the
same figuration, according to the following convention:
EVERY GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF A SET SHALL BEGIN WITH
THE LONGEST SERIES OF LIGHT RECTANGLES CONTAINED IN THE SET,
THAT 'IS, BY THE LONGEST SERIES OF CONJUNCT SEMITONES • If there
exist several series of the same number Qf semitones, one of
these shall appear at the head of the set, under conditions
that<$hall be determined when we discuss the numerical repre-
sentation on tones.
A single rep~esentation for each set disperses all /
ambiguity.
Concerning the representation of a mode that is selected
from among several possibilities.within the same set, the design
III,l
109
shall begin with that tone that corresponds to the tonic of

the mode. This mode's graphic representation as a scale w~ll
consist of thirteen adjacent rectangles, beginning with the
tonic, and continuing upward to the latter's octave repetition.
EXAMPLES:
The set of the traditional minor scale
I
0 0 X X O O X O O X O 0
The usual mode of this scale in C.
0 X O O X O X O O X X O 0
b
C f 2- a b C
4. The Representative Number of Constituent Degrees

Only a few of the three hundred and fifty-one sets
have names: diatonic set, traditional minor set, whole-tone
set, Chinese pentatonic set, etc. To christen each and every
one of the others would be vain and pretentious.
We shall simply refer to them on the basis of one of
their most obvious characteristics: their numerical repre-
sentation.
There are two acceptable representations, one based on
the location of component tones, the 0th.er based on the sizes
of intervals.
The first is derived from the graph~c representation
of scales.
i
It consists of a series of numbers, each of which cor-
responds to .a series.of adjacent rectangles of the same colour.
The first digit gives tt;~ number of adjacent light rectangles,
the second the number of adjacent dark rec~angles, the third,
III,l
I
110
the number of adjacent light rectangles, and so on, from left

to right.
All digits of odd rank (first, third, fifth, etc.) re-
present light rectangles, all numbers of even rank, dark rec-
tangles. The former indicate the component tones of the scales,
.the latter, the foreign tones.
EXAMPLE: the diatonic set.
B C D E F G A
2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
So that the representative number may be read more
easily, the digits are grouped in pairs in such a way that
each pairing represents an actual pitch, or a series of con-
junct chromatic pitches.
Also, so that there, will be but one representative
number for each set, the following convention is observed:
the ,set is given its highest arithmetical expression.
Consequently, the representative number of the dia-
tonic set is .21 11 21 11 11, the digits of which yield the
number 2,111,211,111; it is not 21 11 11 21 11 since the
digits yield the number 2,111,112,111 which is lower.
In this way, the graphic representation of a set, in
which ther~ exist several series of the same number of conjunct
pitches, is specified. One choses the graphic representation
" i
that corresponds to the highest arithmetical value as expressed

by the representative number.
When ~e of the modes of a given set is to be repre-
sented, a complete scale is used, from tonic to tonic, and the
T
111
representative pumber is derived accordingly.

For example, the diatonic scale on C is represented
by the digits 11 11 21 11 11 2, that of its mode 9n D by
11 21 11 11 21 1. We are already aware of the symmetry of
the intervals in this last mode, symmetry which is evident
here,· owing to the fact that we encounter the same digits
whether the representative number is read from left to right ...
or from right to left.
An examination of the representative number reveals
other particularities of the mode or set. We mention in pas-
sing tJ;lat in the half-tone projection the total sum of the
digits will always be twelve, and that the sum of the odd-
ranking digits corresponds to the number of component tones
in the set.
Henceforth, unnamed sets shall be refer+ed to by their
representative number of tones, as we have defined it.· Its
correlation with the graphic representation of scales enables
us to associate the two symbols. Moreover, it facilitates the
transition from one set to another where complementary or sym-
metrical3 sets are concerned, as we shall see; in addition, it
will facilitate the unveiling of certain correlations that
exist, where rhythms are concerned.
When giving concrete examples of scales, in one or
another of their transpositions, we.shall refer to the set by
its representative number of tones, followed by the name ,of
the pitch on which the set begins.
III,l
112
Thus, we would say that the scale used by Chopin in
his Fifth Mazurka (bb £ ~b ~ f ib bb) is drawn from the fol-
lowing set: 33 11 22 (on E); and if necessary the mode could
be designated by the scale: 11 22 33 1 (on B-flat).
It is difficult to imagine a more satisfactory procedure
for referring to the three hundred and fifty sets that remain
nameiess, and for identifying nearly twenty-five thousand dis-
tinct scales.
5. The Representative Number of Intervals

-Nevertheless, there exists one other numerical repre-
sentation that will be given preference over the above any time
we are considering a chord or a predetermined ensemble of tonep
extending beyond an octave, rather than a set of tones, arranged
within an octave: the representative number 2f intervals.
It merely enumerates the series of intervals contained
in an entity, from th.e lowest to the highest tones, using the
semitone as its unit of measurement.
The figuration for the diatonic scale on C would be:
2 2 1 2 2 2 1, .corresponding to tone, tone, semi tone,
tone, tone, semitone. Its most simple expression consists of
grouping like digits together: 22 1 222 1.
The representative number of intervals suffices to

describe any set, on condition that each has a unique repre-
sentation, based on the highest arithmetical value of its com-
;
ponent digits; such was the case with the representative number
of tones as well.
Consequently, the diatonic set would have as its re-
III,l
113
presentative number of intervals: 222 1 22 1. This order of

intervals represents the set in its total abstraction, and
at the same time, one of its modes: the one on F. Any other/
ordering of the digits would indicate. another mode, such as:
2 1 222 1 2, on D, the symmetry of which is here again obvious.
For each scale, the number of digits indicates the

number of degrees in the octave; here again, the sum of the
digits is immutably twelve, the twelve half-steps of the
projection.
When the representative number of intervals serves
to de~ine a determined chord, not reduced to an octave con-
text, the case is different: the chord which Gevaert calls
"minor ninth of the first species" has the following figur-
ation: 4 333; and if we are thinking specifically of~ b
d f ab, we refer to the chord as 4 333 on G.
As we have said, the representative number of tones
see~d more propitious for.denoting sets and scales, because
of its concordance with their graphic representation, making
it all the more evocative.
However, the representative number of intervals has
a broader base of application since ii is not restricted to
an octave context. It •is most useful in considering plane
harmony, melodies, and above all, chords in all of their
inversions and voicings,fincluding· root position J.
With the introduction 0£ ninth chords into traditional
.harmony, termino].ogy
, "'
varies according to the authors. Figur-
ation by interval avoids all possibility of ambiguity. This
III,l
)
I 114
- t
'
is the terminology we shall employ in the particUlar case of

J
chordal formations.
III,l
CHAPTER II
CLASSIFICATION OF SCALES ACCORDING TO APPEARANCE
1. The Number 2£. Steps Per Octave

Sets are classified according to the number of steps
per octave. There are: I
lone-step set,
6 two-step sets,
19 three-step sets,
43 four-step sets,
66 five-step sets,
80 six-step sets,
66 seven-step sets,
43 eight-step sets,
19 nine-step sets,
6 ten-step sets,
l eleven-step set,
1 twelve-step set.
Graphic figuration enables us to discern at a glance
the number of tones per octave: the number of light rectangles
in the set of twelve adjacent rectangles.
EXAMPLE: the Chinese pentatonic scale:
0 X X O X O X X O X O X
The reprE;1sentative number of tones is equally reveal-

ing of the number of degrees in the scale: the number of
digits of odd rank. The representative number of intervals
provides the same information, based on the number of digits.
For the Chinese pentatonic scale, the representative
number of tones is 12 1112 11 11, andt the number of odd-
/.
ranking digit!! is five; the representative number of intervals
115
116
is 3 2 3 22, and contains five digits.
2. Complementary Scales
Two scales are complementary if, when added together, I
they total the twelve steps in the half-tone projection, with-
out having a single note in common. All of the foreign tones
of a given scale produce that scale's complement.
One peculiarity of the diatonic scale and the Chinese
pent~tonic scale is that they are complementary scales of one
another.
In the graphic representation of a scale, the sub-
stitution of light rectangles for dark, and dark rectangles
for light ones will produce the scale's complement.
The representative number of tones produces the same
result by interverting the figures of odd and even rank: this
can be achieved by sliding each digit'one rank. For example,
the representative number of tones of the Chinese pentatonic
scale is: 12 11 12 1111; the representative number of its
complementary scale, the diatonic scale, is: 21 11 21 11 11.
The representative number of intervals of a scale also
enables us to determine that scale's complement, but only by
i
/, means of a ra'l::p.er complex procedure which it seems useless to
present here.
For every five-tone scale, there exists a complementary
seven-tone scale; for every eight-tone scale, there exists a
.. ,four-tone complement, and so on. These correspondences al-
lowed us·to explain the fact that the total number of possible
five and seven-tone scales, of four and eight-tone scales, etc.,
III,2
117
. 1 1
. 1'dentica.
is
The cardinal charts of two complementary scales are
also complementary: if the density of a tone within the
context of a given scale is 5, the density of the related
tone in the complementary scale will be O; if the density of
a tone within the context of a given scale is 4, the density
of the related tone in the complementary scale will be l; if
the density of the first is 3, that of the second will be 2.
In other words, the density of a tone in one scale, plus the
density of the related tone in its complementary scale will
always total 5 cardinal units, since this figure represents
the density of each of the tones in the chromatic half-tone
projection, the sum of two complementary scales.
EXAMPLE:
Cardinal table of the

diatonic scale: 4 (2) 3 (2) 4 3 (3) 3 (2) 3 (3) 3
Cardinal table of the Chinese Pentatonic
scale:
( 1) 3 (2) 3 (1 2) 2 (2) 3 (2) 2 ( 2)
-
Also, since the density of each perfect triad re-
I
presents the sum of the densities of its components, the total
density of a given triad, when considered in its relation to
two complementary scales will always equal 15 cardinal units
(3 X 5). Consequently, the tables of tonal gravity of two
1cf. III 1 1.
III,2
118
com~lementary scales will also be complementary.

EXAMPLE: Table of tonal gravity
of the diatonic scale:
1µ J #J w J #J ~ iJ ~ w~
'
. In Major:
Inv. minor:
11 (7
(9 8
9
9
8 9)10 (8)
7) 11 (8 9
9 (8
9 8) 9
9 9 8)
( 8) 10 I
Table of tonal gravity of its complementary
scale, the Chinese pentatonic scale:
In Major: (4 8 6 7 6 5) 7 (6 7 6 6 7)
Inv. minor: (6 7 6 8 4 7 6 6 7 6) 7 (5)
We shall see that there exist some remarkable affin-

ities between two complementary scales: if one is cardinally
stable, for instance, the other is also; if one is cardinally
unstable, likewise, the other; and, the order of relationships
of their transpositions is perfectly identical, whether we are
considering relationships by common tones, or relationships
by cardinal attractions. 2
3. Revertible Scales
Not all of the 80 six-tone scales are complements of
one another.
Some of these scales have the property of being their
own complementary scale: the set created by the six constituent
tones is identical to the set produced by the six foreign tones.
The pattern
,,.,..
~
created by the light rectangles of a~-
vertible scale duly extended beyond the octave is the same as
2cf. III 6 1 and IV 6 4.
, III,2
119
the one created by the dark rectangles that constitutes its
complement.
For some of these, the representative number of tones
itself reveals the revertibility of the scale, since the pat-
tern of digits is re-iterated after five (the prototype of
six-tone major and minor scales: 21 11 12 11 11); in some,
the pattern is re-iterated after three digits (the scale 31
23 12; the scale 32 13 21; the scale 41 14 11); in others,
the pattern is repeated after each digit (the scale 11 11 11
11 11 11, the whole-tone scale; the scale 22 22 22; the scale
33 33c and the scale 66).
Other'scales are asymmetrical, and have as their com-
plementary scale their own inversion. The two scales are
thereby revertible to one another. They are included in the
--
following list:
21 11 11 12 11 and 21 12 11 11 11, ,.,.
21 11 11 11 12 and 22 11 11 11 11,
21 21 12 12 and 22 12 11 21,
21 12 21 12 and 22 11 22 11,
22 21 11 12 and 22 22 11 11,
31 13 11 11 and 31 11 13 11,
31 13 22 and 32 23 11,
31 11 11 13 and 33 11 11 11,
31 22 13 and 33 12 21,
32 11 23 and 33 21 12,
41 11 14 and 44 11 11,
42 24 and 44 22.
EXAMPLE: in the following illustration, some
of these scales appear in their most cardinal modes,
transposed to C; they are followed by the transposi-
tion or the inversion that is their complement:
Revertible Revertible
symmetrical scale asymmetrical s~a~e,
·'
' '
fig. 29
21 11 12 11 11 32 13 21
(6-tone major and minor prototypes) I
TT _2
120
I
;
Scales that reverL their ~ symmetrical
/
I
inversions under complementation
fig. 30 I
-Ji,JJJJfiggJAJ4ill1JlJ~
31 13 22 22 11 11 11 11
In the four examples above, the scales

paired with one another are complementary, i.e. they have no
common tones. But for the first two pairs, the 9ame set
!
reappears, transposed a tritone; in the second t~o pairs, the
symmetrical inversions of the sets appear.
The cardinal charts of revertible scales contain the
same peculiari~y as the charts of complementary scales; the
density of tones that are respectively complementary always
totals five, and the density of the perfect triads 9f which
they are the roots, always fifteen.
EXAMPLES:
~ @ j
1µ J p j J ~ Q=4)
'
Table of cardinal gravity for the scale 21 11 12 1111:
3 3 (2) 3 (2) 3 (2 2) 3
Table of cardinal gravity for its transposition at the tritone:

(2) 3 (2)
(2 2) 3 (2) 3 2 3 3 (2) 3 (2) 3
Table of tonal gravity for the scale: 31 13 22
In Major: (7 8 6 8 8) 10 (6 6 7 9 8 7)
Inv.minor: 8 (7 6 8) 9 (9 5 7 7 9 7 8)
III,2
121
Table of tonal. gravity for the scale: 32 23 11 (the inversion

of 31 13 22) :
In Major: (8 7 9 7 7 5 9) 9 (8 6 7) 8
Inv.minor: (7 8 9 7 6 6} 10 (8 8 6 8 7)
As we shall see, revertible scales play a vital role
in the rows of dodecaphonic compositions.
4. Scales of Multiple Intervals, and Scales of Limited

.Intervals
The variety afforded by different intervals favors
the richness of musical expression. However, the limitation
of intervals may be the source of expressive experiments.
In terms of interval content, each set has its own
individual character, ranging from the multiplicity of inter-
vals contained in the chromatic scale, to the scarcity of in-
tervals contained in scales of very few tones.
Here, the representative number of intervals can dis-
close all of the possible intervals contained in an entity:
each digit corresponds to a given interval, the sum of two
or more digits corresponds to another, etc. If a particular
interval is absent from a set, not only is the digit represent-
ing the number of semitones in that interval absent (that is,
7 for the perfect fifth, 6 for the tritone, etc.), but in no
way can that interval be manufactured by combining any number
of consecutive digits in the representative number.
Scales that are at the same time revertible and sym-
metrical, are all of limited intervals: the scale 66, for
instance, whose representative number of intervals is 7 11111,
III,2
I'
122
i$ deprived of the
{
tritone,L is also true of the scales
I
41 14 11 and 21 11 12 11 11, whose respective representative

numbers are 5 2 111 2, and 3 22 1 22.
The scale 33 33, whose representative number of in-
tervals is 11 4 11 4, contains no minor third (three semitones)
nor major sixth (nine semitones).
The scale 22 22 22, whose representative number of
intervals is 1 3, i 3 1 3, contains no tritone, no major second,
no minor seventh.
';..
The whole-tone scale 11 11 11 11 11 11, whose repre-
,,,
sentative number of intervals is 222222, contains neither a
,I
perfect fourth nor a perfect fifth: as a matter of fact, it
contains no interval comprising an odd number of semitones.
fig. 31
66 41 14 11 21 11 12 11 11
fig. 32
33 33 22 22 22 I 11 11 11 11 ~1 11
5. Scales of Limited Transposition

The fifteen scales of limited transposition 3 contain
the same pattern several times within an octave.
3
so named by Olivier Messiaen in Technique demon lan-
~ musical. - -- --
III ,2
123
If the pattern is repeated twice, each transposition
at the semi-octave, that is, the tritone, will contain the
same tones and intervals as the original. Consequently, this
scale would have only six rather than twelve distinct tonal
versions. The following scales belong to this category: 13
11 13 11; 15 15; 21 12 21 12; 22 11 22 11; 24 24; 31 11 31 11;
33 33; 42 42; and 51 51.
If the same pattern occurs three times within an oc-
tave as in the scales 13 13 13, 22 22 22, and 31 31 31, the
scale can accommodate only four different transpositions.
If the pattern is re-iterated four times within the
octave, as with the scales 12 12 12 12 and 21 21 21 21 for
example, the scale is capable of only three different trans- ·~
positions, since the same pitches will recur in every trans-
position at the minor third.
The whole-tone scale 11 11 11 11 11 11 contains
the same pattern repeated six times within the octave, and. is
consequently capable of only two different tonal placements.
EXAMPLES: in the following illustration,
these scales appear in their most cardinal modes,
transposed to C major [ sic J •
the scale 31 11 31 11
fig. 33
I
six transpositions only owing to the fact that
the same pitches recur at the tritone.
III,2
124
the scale 22 22 22
four transpositions only because the same pitches

re'cur every major third.
the scale 21 21 21 21
fig. 35
three transpositions. odly. _since the same pitches

recur every minor thir.
All of the graphic or numerical representations of
these scales will reproduce these repetitions of interval
patterns faithfully, just as will all of the cardinal charts.
III,2
CHAPTER III
CLASSIFICATION OF SCALES ACCORDING TO SYMMETRY
1. Intercalated Symmetry and Median Symmetry

There exist two types of horizontal symmetry, depend-
ing on the location of the axis that serves as the point of
imaginary mirroring: one is intercalated symmetry, where
the axis is interpolated between two tones, the other is
median symmetry, where the axis is superimposed on a tone.
This is easily illustrated by opposing even intervals
(one, two, three whole-tones etc.) and odd intervals (one,
two, three half-tones, etc.) as they occur in the half-tone
projection to which we have confined ourselves in this trea-
tise.
The fifth, an odd interval by virtue of its seven half-
steps, as encompassed by£ and~ for instance, is provided
with an axis of symmetry that is located on neither e nor e-
flat, but between them. This is intercalated symmetry.
On the other hand, the next largest or next smallest/
interval, eight or six semitones, has an ax.is of symmetry
located one for the interval c - a-flat, and one-flat for
the interval c - a-flat.
In these three examples, the tone that is symmetrical
to c is successively ~-flat,~, and ~-flat, depending on the
III,3 125
126
location of the axis of symmetry which is shifted one quarte+-

tone for each of the adjacent intervals.
This observation remains true for any design, no
matter how great its complexity: for each displacement of
the axis of symmetry by a quarter-tone along the half-tone
projection, there occurs a new transposition of the design
of which it is the basis of symmetry.
For entities that are symmetrical to themselves, the
axis occupies a fixed position, equidistant from the related
pitches, either on a median tone which ,is the hinge of the
symmetry, or intercalated between the two component pitches.
EXAMPLES:
1. Asymmetrical sets which are inversions of one
another:
Median symmetry Intercalated symmetry
1J ...
fig. 36
II l
j
2. Symmetrical sets:
Median symmetry Intercalated symmetry
(diatonic set) (major-minor 6-tone
prototype)
fig.· 37
In median symmetry, the interval separating the two

inverted pitches comprises on even number of half-steps and
III,3 I
127
an odd number of chromatic pitches. [ c to~, for example,

contains four half-steps, and five pitches: £, £-sharp, a,
d-sharp and~].
In intercalated symmetry, the interval separating
the two relative pitches comprises an odd number of half-steps
and an even number of chromatic pitches. *
2. Recurrence~~ of Symmetry at the Tritone

When a symmetrical design is repeated or projected
several times, axes of symmetry are called into play twice:
once within the design itself, once between two successive
designs.
Such is the case with all symmetrical sets when they
are repeated from octave to octave: they contain two axes
of symmetry which are equidistant, per octave.
For the diatonic scale on C, these axes are located
on d and ~-flat (median symmetry).
For the six-tone major-minor prototype referred to
above, they are located between f and ~-flat, and band c
(in~ercalated symmetry).
This property is not peculiar to symmetrical designs.
It is absolutely general and derives from the fact that an
axis of symmetry is displaced by a quarter-tone every time a
half-tone modification occurs in the interval between two
entities which are inversions of one another in relation to
I
*Translator's footnote: in the original intercalated
symmetry was erroneously described as containing an even
number of half-steps and an odd number of chromatic pitches.
III,3
128
the axis. When the modification of the interval reaches one

octave, the axis of symmetry will have been displaced only a
tritone.
To sum up, IN MUSICAL SYMMETRY, ANY DISPLACEMENT OF
THE AXIS OF SYMMETRY BY A HALF-OCTAVE RESULTS IN THE REPETI-
TION OF THE SAME PITCHES, ONE OF WHICH WILL BE CARRIED OVER
INTO THE NEXT OCTAVE.
3. _Symmetrical scales
The notion of symmetry enables us to classify scales
into two categories: symmetrical scales, of which there
'
exist 95 distinct sets, and asymmetrical scales, consisting
of the other 256 possible sets.
The set of a symmetrical scale contains the same suc-
cession of intervals ascending or descending, from the start-
ing point to the axis of symmetry, and from the axis of sym-
metry to the terminal point, whether the symmetry is median
or intercalated.
Graphic representation of these scales manifests
their symmetry quite clearly, as it is renewed every tritone,
or every six rectangles.
EXAMPLES: the diatonic set:
+
0 0 X O X O O X O X O 0
+
I
III,3
129
The set of the six-tone major-minor prototype:
+ 0 0 X OX OX XOXOX
0 0 X OX OX X OXOX
+
Their representative numbers, either of tones or of
intervals, illustrate the same symmetry.
EXAMPLES: the diatonic set:
I
1 22 1 222 (1 22 1 etc.)
Representative number of tones:
2 111 2 1 1 1 1 1 (2 1 1 l 2 etc.)
N.B. The underlined digit represents the
axis of symmetry.
The set of the six-tone major-minor prototype:

1 22 ~ 22 (1 etc.)
2 1 1 1 l 2 l l 1 1 (2 etc.}
Finally, the cardinal and tonal tables of symmetrical
scales are equally symmetrical, based on the same median or
intercalated axes, recurring at the tritone. Symmetry is
equally manifested in the tables df tonal gravity between
major and minor tonics •
.EXAMPLES:
Cardinal chart of the diatonic scale (median symmetry):

[ see page 130]
TTT "l
130
Cardinal table: 4 (2) . ( 3) 3

3 (2) 4 3 (3) 3 (2) 3

+ + j
I
In Major: 11 (7 9 8 9) 10 ( 8) 9 (8 9 9 8)
Inv. minor: (9 8 9 7) 11 (8 9 9 8) 9 ( 8) 10
The set 21 11 12 11 11 (intercalated symmetry):
Cardinal table: 3 (2)

In Major: 9 (6
3
8
(2)
7
3 (2
8
+
8
2)
6)
1
9 (7
(2) 3
8
(2) 3
7 7)
Inv. minor: (7 7 8 7) 9 (6 8 8 7 8 6) 9
Once again,. the law of symmetry 1 finds its full sig-

nificance: IN SYMMETRICAL SCALES, RELATIVE PITCHES WILL HAVE
THE SAME CARDINAL DENSITY. /
TO EVERY MAJOR TRIAD THERE CORRESPONDS A RELATIVE
MINOR TRIAD WHOSE CHARACTERISTICS ARE IDENTICAL, AND VICE-VERSA.
4. Scales with Median Tones

Some scales that are symmetrical to themselves partake
of intercalated symmetry~ others partake of median symmetry.
As we have already seen, 2 scales of median symmetry
1 cf. I 5 5.
2
cf. III 3 1 and 2.
III 3
131
have two axes of symmetry located on two tones a tritone apart.
l If one or the other of these tones happens to be a

I member of the' scale, it will act more or less as the pivot
'
. }
around which the tones of the scale are arranged~ ascending
and descending, based on the same intervals.
,J
Such is the case with the diatonic set on C, for ex-
ample, which unfolds its intervals identically on either side
of d.
There are fifty such scales with median tones. 3
Independent of any notion of cardinality, the sym-
metrical activity of which the median tone is the center may
tend to endow this tone with a preponderant, pedal-type role,
)
or even a tonic role, in the broadest sense of the term. 4
4. Scales That ~ Relative to, 2E. Inversions of One Another

For every asymmetrical~, represented abstractly by
its succession of intervals, its graphic figuration, or its
representative numbers, there exists a corresponding relative
or inverted set, and only one, which is in all respects sym-
metrical to it.
In symmetrical scales, it is very often useful to
continue their figuration beyond an octave, in order that the
symmetry become more obvious. Each set must be presented in
3 cf. Analytical Tables of Scales in the appendix.

4
cf. for example Bela Bartok's Fifth String Quartet
or his Mikrokosmos 141 for piano, certain elements of which
have been analyzed by us in the article "Substance de la com-
position musicale, et mutations harmoniques, melodiques et
rythmiques (Polyphonie, Richard Masse, publisher, Paris, 1953.).
III,3
132
its mode, the representative number of tones of which will

produce the highest numerical expression, according to a pre-
viously established convention.
To find the inverted set of a given asymmetrical set
under the form thus agreed upon, it is useful to extend the
graphic and numerical representations over two octaves.
EXAMPLES: The sets of the most common
minor scale and its inverted scale.
Graphic representations:
Minor scale:
IOO XXOOXOO XOX
0 0 X X O O X O O X O X
Its inversion:
0 0 XX O oJx OX O OX I
~1~
1 3 1 2 1 22, 1 3 1 2 1 22, on one hand, and
1 3 1 22 1 2 on the other.
22 ____~~
21 ______
21 ........, 21 21 1.1 on one hand, and
22 21 11 21 on the other.
Cardinal tables:
4 3 (2 3) 2 4 (3) 3 3 (3) 2 (3) I 4 3 (2 3) 2 4 (3) 3 3 .{3) 2 (3)
and
.i 2(3 2) 3 .i (3) 2-(3)3 3(3)
III,3
,I /
133
Tables of tonal gravity:
Minor scale:
In Major:
9 10(8 8 8 11 8 8 10 8 8 9)9 10(8 8 8 11 8 8 10 8 8 9)
·Inv. minor:
11(9 7 9 9)9 (8 10)8 (9 8 8)11(9 7 9 9) 9(8 10) 8(9 8 8)
Its inversion:
In major: 9(9 9 7 9)11(8 8 9)8(10 8)
Inv. ,minor: (11 8 8 8) 10 9 (9 8 8 10 8 8)
When thinking in terms of concrete scales of actual

pitches rather than abstract sets, for evecy asymmetrical scale,
depending on the location of the axis of symmetry, there will
be twelve corresponding scales, either inversions or relatives,
that are symmetrical to it in all resoects.
EXAMPLE: The most common minor scale, inc eb ~
fig. 38
Only scales of limited transposition have fewer rel-

ative scales, since the number of transpositions is the same
for its relatives as it. is for the scale itself.
All of the properties of the original scale can be
found in its inversion.
The law of symmetry once again is capitally manifest;
its effect on these scales can be formulated as follows:
III,3
134
WHERE TWO SCALES THAT ARE SYMMETRICAL INVERSIONS OF

ONE ANOTHER ARE CONCERNED, RELATIVE PITCHES HAVE THE SAME
CARDINAL DENSITY.
I
FOR EVERY MAJOR TRIAD, THERE IS A CORRESPONDING MINOR
TRIAD WITH IDENTICAL CHARACTERISTICS, AND VICE-VERSA.
III,3
I
CHAPTER IV
CLASSIFICATION OF SCALES
ACCORDING TO THE FUNCTION OF THE PERFECT TRIADS
1. Atonal Scales
Atonal scales are completely deprived of not only
perfect triads, but also perfect fifths.
In essence, every hint of tonal strength is banished.
However, cardinal affinities do remain, although latently;
and, numerous combinations of foreign tones are subjected to
tonal attractions that ought to be either underlined or
squelched.
Including scales of less than three tones, there exists
a total of thirty atonal sets, each of which is composed of
elements that are borrowed from four basic atonal sets:
the whole-tone set 11 11 11 11 11 11;
the so-called diminished seventh set 12 12 12 12;
the five-chromatic-half-tone set 57; and
the set 31 15 11.
EXAMPLES:
fig. 39
11 11 11 11 11 11 57
III, 4 . 135
136
All other atonal sets are only fragments of these.

They are:
13 11 11 11 11,
13 11 13 11,
13 13 11 11,
13 13 13,
15 11 11 11,
15 11 13,
15 12 12,
15 13 11,
15 15,
17 11 11,
17 13,
18 12,
19 11,
1 XI,
21 15 12,
21 18,
22 15 11,
22 17,
27 12,
27 21,
28 11,
2 X,
31 17,
37 11,
39,
48.
I
2. Neutral Scales
Perfect triads in neutral scales are represented by
their root and their fifth: their third is absent. These
empty fifths are neutral, since they are neither major nor
minor.
In all, there are only fifty-three neutral sets, all
based in entirety or in p~rt on one of the following fundament-
al neutral scales:
33 33,
34 32,
75.
Examples of these scales in their most cardinal mode,
transposed to C - Gare:
III 4
137
33 33 75
fig. 40
Each neutral scale is the seat of a tonal ambiguity for

each constituent fifth, ambiguity between the major tonality
of which its lower component is the tonic, and the minor to-
nality of which its upper component is the tonic. However,
this ambiguity is alleviated by an awareness of cardinal at-
tractions.
I
'
In effect, everything depends on the foreign major
triad whose root is the lower component of the tonic fifth,
and the foreign minor triad whose inverted root is the upper
component of this same fifth.
If these foreign triads have the same cardinal coef-
ficient, there is, in principle, balance between the two
latent functions, major and minor, and the fifth is conse-
quently as neutral as is possible.
But, if the fifth leans more towards major, as a result
.I
of the tones of the scale being stronger in cardinal affinity
to the major triad, its neutrality is decreased; the same is
true if there is a stronger tendency toward the minor triad.
EXAMPLE: In the set 33 33, two of the consti-
tuent fifths lean towards major, the other two lean
towards minor.
'1 ~ J
Cardinal table: 3
s 3 (2 0 2) 3 5 3
J
(2 0 2)
,,,, In major: 8 10 (8 7 5 7) 8 10 (8 7 5 7)
Inv. minor;_; 8 10 (8 7 5 7) 8 10 (8 7 5 7)
III,4
138
The totality of cardinal relationships at

work in this scale render tge fifth c - g_ richer
in cardinal affinity ~o £
5 · g_ (10 units) than
tg cbe g (8 un~ts), d .f ~ (10 units) than to
d f a (8 units). Since we are dealing here
with a-scale of limited transposition, the same /
I
will be true at the tritone.
In the tables of tonal gravity of neutral scales, the
constituent fifths stand freely (since there are no constituent
perfect triads) to draw attention to them, that is they occupy
positions outside parentheses when they should really be
inside them •
. 3. Tonal, Major, Minor, and Binary Scales

Any scale that contains at least one perfect triad,
major or minor, is said to be tonal. Tonal scales constitute
the majority of possible scales since they are represented by
two hundred and sixty-eight of the possible three hundred and
fifty-one sets.
Among asymmetrical tonal sets, some will be more
I
specifically major or minor, either on account of their most

cardinal triads, or because they contain only one perfect triad.
Occasionally, it happens that perfect constituent triads
are major and minor at the same time, owing to the presence of
both major an_4 minor thirds between the extremes of their tonic
fifths. Such chords as c e eb g_ are binary. We call binary
those scales whose most cardinal perfect constituent triads are
so constructed.
Note that a binary perfect triad will lean more towards
major or minor, depending on the relative density of the two
perfect triads so engendered.
III,4 /
:j
l
139
EXAMPLES: the following are tonal or binary

scales that tend more significantly toward major;
they appear in their most cardinal mode, transposed
to c · e g:
fig. 41
31 11 11 11 41 11 32 31 13 22
The first set contains only one perfect triad

and it is major. The second contains six perfect
triads, three of which are minor; however, the set
is major based on the cardinal supremacy of one of
the major triads, c e g. In the third set, c e
~ is again cardinally-superior to the two oth~r
constituent perfect triads, e ~ £, and c e ~'
the latter forming with it a binary perfect triad.
Because of the cardinal superiority of c e ~'
the scale is binary with major tendencies.
I.II,4 I
CHAPTER V
CLASSIFICATION OF SCALES ACCORDING TO
CERTAIN FUNCTIONS I
1. Modulating Scales
When a set contains several perfect triads, each of
these can successively become the tonic triad, no matter what
its cardinal value. And the choice of the root of one of
these as the scalar tonic unleashes one of the modes of the
set.
Going from one mode to another in this way constitutes
what we shall call "modulation 11 , since, in spite of its
usual sense, this is the etymological meaning of the word. 1
So, music in a given mode centers on its tonic by means
of melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic a~centuation. If the mode
is tonal, its melody, its rhythm, and its harmony will tend to
emphasize t h e ~ ' fifth and third of the perfect triad, and
even its cadential seventh in the case of an "harmonic mode 11 • 2
In order that a modulation as we understand it be most
effectively executed, that is passing from one mode to another,
I
1
cf. Jacques Chailley, Traite historique d'analyse mu-
sical; Michel Brenet, Dictionnaire pratique et historique de
musique.
2
cf. IV 4 6.
III,5 140
141/
the notes of stress in the melody of :the new mode should fall
on the characteristic tones of the tonality.
For this, we need only have the same number of scalar
degrees between the root, the third and the fifth, and where
applicable, the cadential seventh of the new tonic perfect
triad as we had in the previous one.
The diatonic set lends itself particularly well to
this type of modulation since the root, third and fifth of
the 'tonic triad are separated by a single tone in each of
the following modes: C e ~, G b d, F a £, a c E,
d f ,A, ore ~ B, and the melody preserves its tonal em-
phases from one mode to another.
The permanence of tonal emphasis can be maintained
without necessarily maintaining the initial order of tonal
functions. A musical phrase may go from tonic to mediant,
to dominant, to cadential seventh in one mode, and from dom-
inant to cadential seventh, to tonic, to third in another, or
from dominant, mediant and tonic of one perfect triad to tonic,
·~:
mediant and dominant of its inverted minor triad.

Furthermore, modulation can be carried out by inversion:
for every ascending inflexion there is a corresponding des-
cending inflexion, and vice-versa. Change of mode, or change
___ ----'.of_ gE:!nder modulations fall into this category. But, there can
also be inversion of the melodic cursus between modes of the
same gender.
In essence, A SCALE IS MODULATING 3 IF ITS SET CONTAINS
3 If this terminology seems too confusing in view of
I '5
142
TllI~ SAME NUMBER OF DEGREES FROM ONE CHARACTERISTIC TONE TO
l\NOTIIER IN THE PERFECT TRIADS (ROOT, THIRD, FIFTH, AND WHERE
APPLICABLE, CADENTIAL SEVENTH) EITHER ASCENDING OR DESCENDING.
Example: in the set 42 11 22 in its trans-

position where C ~ t~ is fOSt cardinal, modula- ' dll
tions on ~ ~ ~, f ~ c , and ~ g:_ ~ preserve

the position of melodic accents--on the charac-
teristic tones of the tonic triad.
, t..tll 1 I
fig. 42
Sets are more or less modulating, depending on the

number of perfect triads that fulfill the· above conditions.
The following is a list of modulating sets, in ad-
dition to the diatonic scale, the three traditional minor
scales, and the inverted major of the most common minor scale:
21 12 21 12, and its inversion. 22 11 2211,
21 21 21 21,
22 1112 12 and its inversion 22 12 11 12,
22 22 22,
23 21 13, and its inversion 23 23 11,
31 11 31 11,
31 31 31, ·
33 33,
42 42.
Neutral scales, which are often modulating since the

characteristic tones of the perfect triad are reduced to the
root and the fifth, do not figure in this list, nor do symmetri-
cal scales containing only two related perfect triads, which
must necessarily modulate from one to the other by inversion.
the traditional sense that the word "modulate" has adopted, the
term "scale of modal imitations" could be substituted for it.
III,S
143
2. Scales of Tonal and Atonal Imitation
Modulation, such as it has been presented, constitutes,

in sum, an imitation within the same scale, with a change of
I
'
tonic perfect triad.
But it might prove useful to the tonal continuance of
a mode to proceed to melodic imitations that are still artic-
ulated on the original tonic triad, within the same set.
In imitation~ inversion, articulation of the mode
can be sustained in any tonal scale, at least on the root
and fifth of its perfect triad. But only "scales of tonal
imitation" assure the permanence of the original tonality in
parallel melodic imitations carried out within the same set,
since they contain, for one or more consti~uent perfect triads,
the same number of constituent tones between one or the other
of their components: root, third, fifth, and, at times, ca-
dential seventh.
Among the most characteristic, we distinguish three
categories.
Some sets contain a pure and simple equality of degrees
between each of the essential tonal functions of all the con-
stituent perfect triads. Such are the!sets 21 12 21 12 and
/.
33 11 11 11 arid their respective inversions 22 11 2211 and
-..,
31 11 11 13, as well as 22 21 12 11.
EXAMPLE: 33 11 11 i i in its transposition
to Ce g.
'fi_g. 43
•
T
144
Other, sets contain an equality of intermediary degrees

between tonic,. dominant, and upper tonic on one hand, and
mediant, tonic, and upper mediant on the other, as in the sets
21 21 21 21 or 3111 31 11; or between tonic, dominant, and
·upper tonic on one hand, and dominant, mediant, and upper
dominant on the other, as in the sets 33 31 11 or 42 42; or
between tonic, dominant, and upper tonic on one hand, and
dominant, cadential seventh, and upper dominant on the other,
as ln the set 51 13 11; or between tonic and dominant on one
hand, and dominant and tonic on the other, as in the set 22
22 24, etc.
EXAMPLE: 31 11 31 11* in one of its trans-
positions in which c e ~ appears:
fig. 44 31 11 31 11
Other sets comprise the peculiarity that all of the

tonal functions of some of the constituent perfect triads,
when regularly laid out every two or three pitches, occupy
successively all of the degrees in the scale. The following
sets fall into this category: 21 11 12 1111, 22 11 12 21,
22 21 12 11, 23 21 11 11, 31 31 11 11, 32 31 21, 41 11 21 11,
51 42 and its inversion, 61 11 21 and its inversion, 61 32
and its inversion.
EXAMPLE: 41 11 21 il in a transposition in
which c e ~ appears:
*Translator's footnote: This set was erroneously

referred to in the original as 31 11 11 11, obviously a
typographical error.
III_, 5.
145
fig. 45 41 11 21 11
All the other scales of tonal imitation only contain

these characteristics in part.
The diatonic set is completely deprived of this char-
acteristic since in all of its modes, it contains five constit-
uent degrees between tonic and dominant, but only four between
dominant to the upper tonic.
Besides, it is this inequality that engendered the
very nature of the fugue since a subject, having evolved from
tonic to dominant, could not be reproduced within the nar-
rower confines as delineated by the dominant and the tonic
above it. The answer was forced into some sort of compromise
between interversion of dominant and tonic functions and simple
transposition of the subject to the dominant.
It is important to note the tonal unity of scales of
tonal imitation where fugal answers, by mutation at the third
or at the fifth, intervert the functions of the perfect triad
;
within the permanence of the same set of tones.

We mention as well the atonal unity of scales of ato~el
imitation where the observations made. concerning constituent
perfect triads can be applied to constituent atonal chords.
However, it is physically impossible to produce,a com-
plete inventory of these, since the atonal triad is far from
having the unity of the perfect triad: independent of trans-
positions and inversions, there exist 29 types of atonal
III,5
146 /
chords that are formed by combining a;1 or part of the components
. . 4
of three completely different sets.
4cf. IV 3 4.
....
CHAPTER VI

THEIR CARDINAL GRAVITY
1. Dense and Trarisitive Scales

To estimate the cardinal stability of a scale in which
the number of constituent tones does not surpass the number of
forei~n tones, one simply compares the relative densities of
the scale and the same number of the densest foreign tones,
as we have already seen. 1 If the number of component tones
exceeds that of foreign tones, one simply compares the rel-
ative densities of the totality of foreign tones and the
I
same number of least dense component tones.
A scale is dens.e if its cardinal. density at least
equals that of the combination of its foreign tones, it is
transitive if it does not.
The law of symmetry provides that if a scale is dense,
so also will be its inversion. If a scale is transitive, so
also will be its inversion.
Two complementary scales are both dense, or both
transitive because of the cardinal· correspondences that exist
between them.
1
Cf. I 3 6.
III,6 147
I
!
'
148
EXAMPLE: In the set of the Chinese pentatonic
scale, the complement of the diatonic scale:
3 (2) 3 (1 2) 2 (2) 3 (2) 2 (2 1)
the density is: 3 3 2 3 2 = 13, exceeding by
three units that of the five most cardinal foreign
tones: 2 2 2 2 2 - 10. Consequently, this
scale is dense.
,
2
This is true also for the diatonic
scale, and in the same proportion.
·,
In terms of cardinality, a scale that is!1i.:: dense is

stable a scale that is transitive, unstable.
These notions of stability and instability relate only
to the cardinal gravity of the set and have nothing to do with
the tonal and transpositional gravities of the set.
It is interesting to note that the Chinese pentatonic
scale, dense as it is, is not tonally stable.
Consequently, one must never speak of the stability
of an entity without first indicating the nature of that
stability.
2. Scales of Cardinal Polarity

When the density of one of the tones in the cardinal
table of a set surpasses that of all other tones, it is because
this tone is the focal point of the largest number of cardinal
attractions existing in the constituent tones: it is, then,
the essential attractive pole of the set.
If this tone is at the same time a constituent tone,
not only does it contribute more than any other tone to the
functional cohesion of the entity, it is the most natural
2
cf. II 3 4.
III,6
149
tonic of the set. That said to have a "tonic pole".

I'
'
I
When a set is symmetrical, there is usually a double
cardinal pole, as in the diatonic set [in CJ where the two
most cardinal tones are c and e. The scale is then said to
have "tonic poles 11 • On the other hand, there is one, single
pole, even in symmetrical sets, if the pole happens to con-
stitute the axis of symmetry, in the case of median symmetry.
Scales of·tonic polarity number one hundred and
fifty-three . '
i
EXAMPLES: the asymmetrical set of tonicJpolarity

17,'.
,;;
33 11,11 11 11:
Cardinal table: 2 5 2 (3 0 3) 2 {4) 2 (3) 1 (3)
the symmetrical set of double tonic polarity: 33 31 11:

Cardinal table: 3 5 3 (3 0 3) 3 5 3 (3) 1 ( 3)
the symmetrical set of tonic polarity: 31 11 11 11 11:

Cardinal table: 2 5 2 {4) 1 ( 4) 2 ( 4} 2 ( 4) 1 ( 4}
If, on the other hand, the densest tone of the cardinal

table is foreign to the scale, it contributes more than any
other tone to the functional instability of the scale, and
constitutes the most cardinal point of cadential termination.
This type of scale is a scale of extrinsic polarity.
There are only six of these:
13 11 11 11 11 19 11
13 11 13 11 21 21 13 11
17 13 22 11 12 21
They are all symmetrical, and they all contain two
poles of cadential termination, a tritone apart.
III,6
150
EXAMPLES.: the above sets in transpositions

in which c is one·of the poles of cadential ter-
mination:-
fig. 46
13 11 11 11 11 13 11 13 11 17 13J 19 11
tJ J J j I J p
21 2113 11 22 1112 21
Between these two extreme types of scales of cardinal

polarity there is an intermediate variety worthy of note:
it is that type of scale in which one of the component tones,
although it is not the densest tone in the cardinal table,
surpasses all other component tones in attractive potential,
I
and as such, acts as the most cardinal tonic of that set.
There are twenty-one such scales of balanced polarity.
In most of these scales, the most cardinal component tone is
equal in density to the most cardinal foreign tone(s), as,
for example, in the set 22 11 11 11 11:

Cardinal table:2 4 (1 3) 1 (!) 2 (3) 2 (3) 1 (4)
Then come the four scales of cadential polarity, in
which the most cardinal component ·is exceeded by one or more
foreign tones:
1.. 21 13 11 12 :
Cardinal table:3 2 (4} 1 (2) 1 (2) 2 (4) 1 (2 l}
III,6
151 /
and its inversion: 2. 22 11 13 11:
Cardinal table: 2 3 (1 2) l ( ~) 2 (2 ) l (2) 1 (!)
3. 212113 11:
Cardinal table: 2 3 (2) 3 2 (!) 2 (2 2 2) 2 (!)
4. 22 11 12 21:
Cardinal table: 2 3 (2 2) 2 (~) 2 (2 2) 3 2 (_!)

Notice that the last two have already been mentioned
as scales of extrinsic polarity.
These scales of cardinal polarity adapt themselves
best to the necessities of atonal polarity when harmony consents
to tonalism while at the same time rejecting the servitude of
the perfect triad. 3
3. Scales of Cardinal Balance

. In contrast to the above, there exist scales in which
the cardinal relationships are equally distributed among the
component tones, in which case their densities are identical.
There are thirty-three scales of cardinal balance.
;-
Among them, w~ cite the following sets, already alluded to

under some of the other headings:
11 11 11 11 11 11, 21 11 12 11 11,
12 12 12 12 12, 21 21 21 21,
13 11 11 11 11 , 22 22 22,
13 11 13 11, 24 24,
15.15, 32 13 21,
17 13, 41 14 11,
19 11,. 66, etc.
·,
Contrary to scales of cardinal polarity, sets of I
3cf. VI 5 3 and VII 3.

152
carqinal balance refute the establishment of a cardinal tonic,

and, as a result, are propitious to the most rigourous aton-
alism.
We shall see 4 that they are equally conducive, in
certain situations, to the establishment of chords of con-
clusive tendency.
I
4
cf. IV 3 14.
CHAPTER VII

THEIR TONAL GRAVITY
1. Tonally Stable Scales

I
r Where .there is cardinal supremacy of one or all of the
constituent perfect triads'over all of the foreign triads,
there,is tonal stability in that scale.
As a result of the convergence of cardinal attractions
on its constituent perfect triads, the scale finds its center
~··of tonal gravity within itself.
The diatonic set,,is tonally stable. But it is only
one of. eighty-~ sets of this kind, many of which exceed it
in tonal stability.
EXAMPLE: the set 31 23 21 in its transposition
in which c e a is the perfect triad of highest
density: 1 -
Cardinal 3 (3) 3 3 3 ( 3) 3

i'
:
In Major: 11(8 8 8) 10 10 (8 8 9 9 8 8)
Inv. minor: 10(8 8 8) 11 (8 ·8 9 9 8 8) 10
1Let us specify once and for all the conditions under

which the examples are given.
The twelve chromatic half-steps in the table of tonal
III,7 153
154
Its six constituent perfect triads surpass
all of the foreign perfect triads in cardinal
density,· It is at the same time symmetrical,
I tona],.ly·i:mitative, rather :m:odu1ating, dense and
I tonic. ·
.,
t
Despite the absence of complete perfect }:triads, can
a neutral set be tonally stable? Yes, providing one of the
perfect triads of highest density in its cardinal chart has
a root and a fifth corresponding to one of the constituent
fifths of the set.
EXAMPLE: the set 33 11 13 in its trans-
position wheres-~ leans toward major:
1 µJ iJ J J #J ~ ,w ~ #J ~
'
Cardinal table: 5 2 (2
Table of tonal gravity: *

In Major: 9 (6 6
0
4
2) 2
6) 7 (8
(4) 2 (2
6 7
0
4
2)
6
2
6)
Inv.Minor: 9 (6 6 4 7 6 8) 7 (6 4 6 6)
The two constituent neutral fifths, c-g and

f-£, are re-eniorced, the first by£ ~ ~-; the
second by f a c, the two most cardinal foreign
perfect trTads. -
gravity are always presented, starting from c. At the same

time, all the examples of scales are selected relatively to
C, CG, Ce g, or Ce ~-
If-the scale-is tonal, it is presented in its trans-
position in w~ich the con 8tituent perfect triad£ ~ .g.is
the most cardinal (or£~ i in default of a perfect maJor
triad). If it is neutral, it is presented in its transpo-
sition in which the constituent fifth c-g is the most cardinal.
If the scale is atonal, it is presented In its transposition
in which c is the most cardinal constituent tone.
In each case then, it is a question of presenting one
of .the modes of the set, and not the abstract representation
of the set as we have defined it, i.e., beginning by the
largest number of conjunct chromatic tones and by the highest
value of its representative number.
*Translator's footnote: Cf. III 4 2.
III,7
155
' 2. Clashins, Scales

When perfect triads that are foreign to a scale sur-
pass all of its constituent perfect triads in cardinal den-
sity, it is among these foreign triads that the center of
tonal gravity will be established. Its presence outside the
'
scale suffices to disequilibrate it, and to inflict it with
i
a propensity either toward such and such a compl@x erected
,;;
on one of the tones of the terminal perfect triads, or a

.
tendency to resolve on that perfect triad itself.
In any event, the scale "explodes" on foreign tones.
This play on words translates the scale's propensity toward
foreign tones which brings about its ultimate disaggregation.
The harmonic scales in the quarter-tone projection
2
were the first examples we encountered of clashing scales.
In the half-tone projection, there are eighty-four.
EXAMPLE: the set 22 11 22 11, which is
also asymmetrical, of.limited transposition,
revertible to its relative, major, tonally
imitative, modulating, transitive, and trans-
posing.
~ ,w ~ @ ~
I
&1 µ J ~ J J #J
Cardinal table: 3 3 (2 2) 1 {!) 3 3 (2 2) 1 (,!)
In Major: 7 (9 7 6 7 9 ). 7 (9 7 6 7 ~)
Inv. minor: (9 8 6 8 6 8 9 8 6 8 6 8)
It~ ~o constituent perfect triads, C ~ ,2.

and 2.b b d , whose densities are 7 cardinal units,
2cf. II 2 5 and 8.
IT.7
156
are surpassed by twelve foreign perfect triads,

six of which have densities of 9 cardinal units.
Owing to the dearth of perfect triads as constituents,
all .1atonal ~ are either clashing, or cadential.
3. i Cadential Scales
A cadential scale is/clashing scale in which one of
~he foreign perfect triads ~as a cardinal density exceeding
I
that of each of the others.

The tonal gravity of attractive forces born of the
scale weighs most heavily on this triad, to the point of top-
pling the scale in order that it might achieve its resolution
on this triad, after the example of the 11
cadences 11 of tradi-
tional harmony.
EXAMPLE: the set 21 12 11 11 11, which is
) asymmetrical, revertible to its relative, modu-
I lating, tonally imitative, dense, and transposing.
;
;~J#a ;J
Cardinal table: 2 (3) 3 (2) 2 (3) 2 4 (2) 3 (1 3)

In Major: 8 ( 8) 8 (7 ,7 8 6 10 6 8 7 7)
Inv. minor: (7 8 8 7) 7 (7 8 8 7 9 5 9)
In one of its transpositions in which the

perfect triad c e g is among the most cardinal
tonics in the cardinal chart, it displays its
basic tendency toward the triad g b d whose
density alone reaches 10 c·ardinaI units.
If the scale in.question is symmetrical, the strongest
possible cadence will be double: the cadence on the major
triad, and simultaneously on its relative minor. Such was
III,7
157
3
the case with the third form of the traditional minor scale.
ANOTHER EXAMPLE: the set 31 11 11 11 11,
which is symmetrical, modulating, tonally imi-
tative, transitive, transposing; there exist
only very remote transpositions {fourth or fifth)
or very close (tritone). It appears here in its
transposition in which c ~ ~ is tonic:
1µ J #j j J #J ~ ,w ~ #J ~
'
Cardinal table: 2 (4)
2 (4) 1 (4) 2 5 2 (4) 1 (4)
In Major: 8(10 8 10 7 10 7 11 8 9 7 10)

Inv. minor: (8 10) 8 (10 7 9 8 11 7 10 7 10)
Its cardinal chart indicates a stunning
gap between the density of its tonic triad
c ~ .9:. or its relative .9:. b d (8 cardinal
units) and the density of the ter~nal perfect
triad .9:. b _d or its relative£ ~ .9:. (11
cardinal uni ts) • /
As did tonally stable, clashing, and balanced scales,
cadential scales represent approximately one-quarter of the
possible tonal sets: eighty-~.
4. Balanced Scales
These scales are on the border-line between tonally
stable and clashing scale.
I
Cardinal attractions are spread out equally over the

densest constituent perfect triads, and the densest foreign
perfect triads with the same co-efficient.
This characteristic has already been shown by the
usual minor scale 22 21 21 11, whose constituent perfect triad
I
158
of greatest density is equal to its foreign perfect triad of

3
greatest density.
The total number of balanced scales is one hundred
and three.
5. Tonic Scales
It also happens that the cardinal value of one. con-
stituent perfect triad exceeds that of each of the other
con~tituent perfect triads. The lines of attractive force
will then converge on this one, designating it among all the
others as the source of greatest tonal radiation.
The scale is consequently tonic.
If a scale is symmetrical, this cardinal supremacy
'
will obtain for both the major triad and its relative minor.
Such is the case with the diatonic set. 4
After the example of this latter scale, a tonic scale
can .be tonally stable. But it can also be balanced, clashing,
or cadential. We have already noted that the harmonic scale
in natural values was of this type, namely, tonic and unstable.
All scales that contain only one constituent perfect
triad are also tonic; if they are symmetrical, they will con-
tain two perfect triads which are relatives of one another.
/
I
Neutral scales as well as tonal scales can be tonic.
They need only contain one single fifth, or else the perfect
triad which is encompassed by one of the constituent fifths
3
cf. II 4 5.
III,7
159
must. surpass the perfect triads encompassed in the other fifths
in cardinal value.
EXAMPLE: the set 33 24, which is asymmetrical,
of limited intervals, rather modulating, neutral-
major, dense, non-transposing; its closest trans-
position is at the tritone.
Cardinal table: 4 (2 1 0 2) 3 4 3 (1 0 2) 3
In Major: 9 (6 .5 5 6) 7 (8 7 5 4 6) 7 I
'
Inv. minor: 8 (6 6 4 6 7) 8 .7 (5 4 6 8)
In its transposition in which £-j tends

toward major, the most cardinal fifth is c-~,
with C as tonic: the scale is tonic. -
,i .
III,7
CHAPTER VIII

THEIR TRANSPOSITIONAL GRAVITY I
1. The Laws of Symmet3:Y Applied to Transposition

WHEN AN ENTITY IS TRANSPOSED UP AND DOWN BY THE SAME
INTERVAL, THE DENSITIES OF THE TWO TRANSPOSITIONS WILL BE
IDENTICAL.
Thus, the density of a transposition of an entity up

a minor second will always be equal to the density of its
transposition down a minor second; the density of a trans-
position up a major second will always be equal to the den-
sity of a transposition down a major second, and so on, until
we arrive at the tritone, where the transpositions above and
below produce one and the same scale.
This remarkable property of transpositions is the
result of the perfect symmetry that exists between the basic
cardinal attractions towards the minor second and perfect
fifth above on the one hand, and the minor second and perfect
fifth below on the other.
An evaluation of the cardinal relationships in the
diatonic set on C with its various transpositions provides

us with an example:
Cardinal table of the set:
III,8 160
161
!(2)3(2)! 3(3)3(2)3(3)3,!(2)3(2)! 3(3)3(2)3(3)3
Initial density:
4 3 4 3 3 3 3 ----------------------- = 23
Density of the transpositions to:
db: - 2 2 3 3 2 3 4 ---- - = 19
~:
e : - - -
3
2 3
43 3
3 2
3
3
3
4
2 ---
3 - -
-
------ -
- 21
= 20
e : --- - 4 3 2 3 3 2 2 - -- -- - = 19
fb: 3- 3 3 3 4 3 4 --- = 23
- - - - !2
- =
9:. : 3 2 3 3 2 3 18
~: - -
- 3 3 3 4 3 4 3 -- = 23
a.:
-~: -- - ---
2 3 4 2 2 3 3 = 19
- ---
- 3 3 2 3 4 3 2 - - - = 20
b : - -----3 4 3 2 3 3 3 = 21
E' . -----3 2 2 4 3 2 3 - = 19
2. Tables of Transpositional Gravity

It is simple enough to construct the table of .trans-
posi tional gravity of any entity once the densities of its
transpositions have been determined. The table of transposi-
tional gravity tells us at a glance the density of any trans-
posi. t'ion. 1
The law of sym.~etry simplifies its presentation even
further. First of all, we line up seven numbers: the density
of the initial entity, followed by the densities of its trans-
positions up and down a semitone, up and down a whole-tone,
up and down three semitones, up and down two whole-tones, up
and.down five semitones, up and down three whole-tones.
And so, for the diatonic set that we just examined in
1 It should be noted that, for a like number of degrees

in a set, the total of the densities of the twelve transposi-
tions2is constant. If the number of degrees is N, it is equal
to SN, i.e., 125 for 5 degrees, 180 for 6 degrees, 245 for 7
degrees, etc.
I
III,8
t,erms of transpositional
'
f
~ositional gravity is produced:
deiy, 162
the following table of trans-
23 (19 21 20 19 23 18)
In the same manner, the table of transpositional

gravity for the usual minor scale is constructed:
21 (21 20 19 21 22 18)
If the minor scale in question has a ·tonic of c eb

~, we may deduce that it will have a tendency towards trans-
. b b
positions to 'g b d and f. ~ c, by superimposing on the
i
.... table of transpositional gravity, the names of the tonics
1~';
that ..correspond to each number: 2 .,

,I b
f e e d
G a
-
C
21 (21 20 19 21 22 18)
3. Non-transposing Scales
A scale is ~-transposing if its cardinal density ex-
ceeds or is equal to that of all its transpositions. Thus
it enjoys perfect cardinal cohesion in its very texture, since
the cardinal affinities native to its component pitches con-
verge on the scale itself.
The cardinal currents in these scales coincide per-
fectly with the cardinal currents in scales having cardinal
stability, because it so happens that all non-transposing
scales are dense.
2
Let us recall that in minor, it is a question of
inverted-root, i.e. of the highest tone of the tonic perfect
triad. Cf. I 5 6.
III,8
163
The same concordance is almost always found between

noij-transposing scales and tonally stable scales, that is,
'
s~les in which cardinal grav.y(a.tion proceeds to one or more
of the constituent perfect ~ads. /
However, the same con-
I 3
dordance does not exist between dense and tonally stable scales.
4. Transposing Scales
When, contrary to the conditions outlined above, the
density of a scale is inferior to the density of one or another
of its transpositions, that scale is said to be transposing.
Deprived of the concentrative force of scales of
/ high density, its natural propensity pushes it towards its
.,..,
most cardinal transposition. But this new life only brings
~
about a precarious balance, since in its new trahsposition it

/ retains its essential texture and the same cardinal chart;
these will direct it toward yet another transposition for the
same reasons as the first, and so on, indefinitely.
Almost all transposing scales are transitive. However,
certain dense scales are also transposing, as is, for instance,
the scale 33 31 11, whose cardinal table attests to its density:
3 s 3 (3 a 3) 3 s 3 (3) · 1 (3.)
yet, whose transpositional table displays its tendencies toward

transpositions at the fifth, and at the minor second:
23 (25 16 18 16 25 22) •
Most transposing scales are also cadential or clashing.

All that is needed for this is that ~~e propensity of the
3 cf. III 6 1.
III,8
164 I
scale towards the ensemble of tones of one of its transposi-
tions coincide with its resolutive thrust towards foreign
perfect terminal chords.
Some, however, even though they are subject to this
propensity towards the ensemble of tones of one of the scales'
transpositions, remain stable as far as the tonal relation-
ships of their perfect triads are concerned. This apparent
contradiction derives from the fact that the scale and its
densest transposition each contain a certain number of the
most cardinal tones of the constituent perfect triads.
asymmetrical, tonally imitative, dense, and
tonally stable. It is presented here in its
transposition in which the perfect triad c e
~ is one of the most cardinal tonics:
~ #J ~
i 1~ J ~ J J #J ~ 1J
Cardinal table: 5 3 4 (2) 4 3 (4) 3 (3) 3 (3) 3
..,,,, ' Table of tonal gravity:

i
/, In Major: 12 {9 11 8 10) 11(10)10 {10)10 (10 9)
Inv. minor: (11 10 10 8) 12' (9 11 10 10)10 (9) 10

~.
Its cardinal chart displays its particular tonal stability on
£ ~ ~and~· £ ~, each of which surpasses the densest
foreign perfect triads by 2 cardinal units. But, according to
·------··--......---.•-··~·
its transpositional table: 28 {27 26 27 25 29 24) it
,-
suffers a tendency toward transpositions a perfect fifth above
and below.
There is no absolute coincidence between the organic
cohesion of a non-transposing scale and the tonal cohesion of
III,8
165
tonally stable scale; nor between the organic imbalance of a

transposing scale and the tonal imbalance of a clashing scale.
The rather exceptional correspondence between organic;
stability and tonal instability, or b$tween organic instability
and tonal stability derives from the different appearances
that music can take on as it strays from or remains fixed in
its tonal continuum, as the scale retains its identity as a
sort of sound region or has to rely on the support of its
perfect triads for its density.
III,8/
B O O K F O U R
T O W A R D O R G A N I Z E D MU S I C
CHAPTER I
PROGRESSIONS
1. The Law of Attraction

Whether we are concerned with cardinal gravity, tonal
gravity, or transpositional gravity, it is the difference in
the attractive potential with which an entity has endowed
its component tones and its foreign tones, its constituent
perfect triads and its foreign perfect triads, as well as
its transpositions, that regulates sound dynamism. The tones
richest in cardinal affinity constitute the natural terminal
for this dynamism.
The following law presides over this gravitation:
THE IMBALANCE THAT ISSUES FROM THE MINIMAL ATTRA.CTIVE
POTENTIAL OF LEAST DENSE CONSTITUENT TONES DIRECTS THESE
TONES TOWARDS THE DENSEST ONES IN THE ENTITY'S CARDINAL CHART.
EXAMPLES:
WITHIN AN ENTITY
The diatonic set of C:
4 1 µ J #J J J #J ~ #J ~ #J t
ca.rdinal table:
IY ,1
4 (2)
3/ 4 3 (3) 3 (2) 3 (3) 3
166
167

In Major: 11 (7 9 8 9) 10 (8) 9 (8 9 9 8)
Inv.minor: (9 8 9 7) 11 (8 9 9 8) 9 ( 8) 10
The five least dense constituent tones form
the entity known under the name of dominant ninth,
g b d f a, which resolves to the densest tones,
c or -e,-or-to the densest perfect triads£ e ~,
a c e.
The set 31 11 11 11 11:
Cardinal table: 2 (4) 2 (4) l (4) 2 5 2 (4) 1 (4)

In Major: 8 ( 10 8 10 7 10 7 .11 8 9 7 10)
Inv.minor: {8 10) 8 ( 10 7 9 8 11 7 10 7 10)
this set displays a tend~ncy toward g, the
fifth of th two constituent perfect triads£ ~
~, an¢l .s, · b 5 d.
OUTSIDE THE ENTITY
. This same set has an externalbteBdency toward

the tones of the whole-tone scaled e f g a b,
or the perfect triads of which they are the-roots~
mgst ipecifically however, toward~ b d and c
~ .S.· .
2. The Law of Balance

THE PROPENSITY RESULTING FROM THE LAW OF CARDINAL
ATTRACTION IS RECIPROCAL: HOWEVER, BALANCE IS ESTABLISHED
ON TBE MOST STABLE OF THE ENTITIES AMONG WHICH THE PROPENSITY
IS EXERTED.
IV,l I
168
Such is the result of the reciprocity of cardinal gra-

vitation2 as well as the ultimate consequence of the law of
attraction.
EXAMPLE: the major triad c e ~:
Cardinal table: 2 (1 1 1) 1 (2 1) 2 (1 1 0 2)
In its own cardinal table, its cardinal
density (2 + 1 + 2 = 5) is exceeded by that of
the aggregation g b f (2 + .2 + 2 = 6)
However, the cardinal chart of~ b f
denotes both its cardinal instability and its
propensity toward c e ~:
41 µ
Cardinal table: (~ 0
J #J j
1 0 2)
Jp
1 (~)
SJ
1 (1
~ @J ~
0 2) 1
~ , .i::r, ;
;",
In Major: (§_ 2 4 3 4 4 5 3 4 2 4 2)
Inv.minor: (5 3 4 2 5 3 5 4 3 2 5 4)
The progression£
-e g - g b f is particularly
rich in reciprocal cardinal attractions; its natural terminal

• however, is c ~ ~, [ because of its greater stability].
It also happens that no balance can be established on
I
the basis of cardinal laws alone, since the reciprocal movement
of attractive oscillation resulting from cardinal revertibility
forms a closed circuit that is indefinitely unstable.
EXAMPLE:b the tritone c ~b, which is unstable,
leans toward d f ~ b; but-the latter is also unb
stable and displays a marked tendency toward£ - ~.
2 cf. I 3 1 and 2.
ry, 1
-
I
I
169
Cardinal table of c C1
b•
·.ii!., •
1 (!. 0 ·0 0 2) 1 .(2 0 0 0 !_)

Cardinal table.of db f s_ b:
(!_) 1 (2 0 2) 1 (!_)··l (2 0 2) 1
3. Cadential Terminals
I
When two entities, between which there exist recipro-
cal bonds of attraction, a~e of the same nature, that is, when
they are both stable or both unstable, how do we select the
one that will be the natural focal point or terminal, according
to the law of balance? In other words, how can we determine
which one is the more specifically st.able?
The law of attraction could suffice to determine
the least stable by underlining its propensity for a constitu-
ent tone of greater density than any other tone in the entity.
EXAMPLE: the reciprocal progression£ ~ g_ -
£ f b. ~n ~e car~inal tab~e of £ ~ · .s_, £ .!_ £
surpasses it 'in cardinal density: 2 + 2 + 2 = 6.
Now if we examine the cardinal chart of c f
b, we discover that the density of c e i here is
greater than it was in its own card1nal table.
Cardinal table:
,1 µ J 3 (1 0
~
0
J J
2)
~ i
2 (2 1
,J ~
0 0
;J
2)
~:
Table of tonal gravity: [ Note that this is a neutral set].

In Major:· (! 3 2 ·3 4) 5 (5 3 3 3 4 4)
Inv.minor: 5 (3 3 2 5 5 4 4 3 2 2 5)
IV,l
170
The cardinal table of c f b reveals the

cardinal predominance of c, the-tone on which
the entity tends to resolve. This resolution
on c is even more easily affected since the
entity itself is really nothing more than a
combination of c and two of its cardinal tones. I
The entity's table of tonal gravity also under-
lines the imbalance that is finally resolved on
the most cardinal perfect triad, c e ~-
It does happen, however, that the law of attraction
proves to be insufficient in determining the more stable of
two complexes. When this is the case, the notion of distri-
.
bution will separate the two entities:
THAT ENTITY WHOSE DENSEST TONES ARE FURTHEST REMOVED
FROM ONE ANOTHER SHALL BE CONSIDERED THE MORE STABLE OF TWO
ENTITIES WHOSE STABILITY IS IDENTICAL IN ALL OTHER RESPECTS.
Their spatial distribution along the octave seems in
fact to provide a better gauge of their stability than does
their height distribution above a single point.
EXAMPLE:
Cardinal table of £ . ~:
2 (1 1 a o 1 1) 2 (1 o o 1)
Cardinal table of c db:

2 2 (1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1)
IV, 1
1
....
CHAPTER II
RE-ENFORCEMENT
1. Definitions
Thus far, sound entities have been examined in their
most denuded form, or, in other words, they have been studied
as successions of their different tones presented within one
octave and presumed equal.
Such a concept had as its goal to isolate the entity
I
in its most abstract form, removed from any previous context
that might tend to favour one or another of its component
tones. It was in fact necessary that absolute equality exist
among all of its components in the face of the cardinal law
in order that their action on themselves and on the sound
environment, as well as the reactions of the latter might be
studied and learned.
But when a sound complex is incorporated into real
music, the equality of its constituent tones is from then on
destroyed: melodic movement, rhythmic accentuation, harmonic
prolongation, all of these contribute to their inequality.
This inequality is provoked by the preponderance of certain
tones as they become tonic, and further aggravated by the
supremacy of the ascending projection of the natural harmonic
. 1
series.
1
cf. IV 3 5.
1 '71
172 /
Repetition, accentuation, an~ prolongation are all
examples of how a tone can be re-enforced.
2. The Effects of Re-enforcement

Re-enforcement accentuates the cardinal propensity of
the tones to which it is applied.
When a tone is re-enforced, its own density as well
as that of each of its cardinal tones is increased by the
same amount.
EXAMPLE: the diatonic set on C
Cardinal table:
t 1 µ J
4 (2) 3
µ J J 1J
(2) 4 3 (3)
~ ##
3 (2)
~
3
M~
(3) 3
Re-enforcement
of c: 1 1 1 1 1
Re-enforced
cardinal table: 5 (3) 3 (2) 4 4 (3) 4 (2) 3 (3) 4
In the original cardinal tables of sets, the density

of the tones.measured the potential with which each of them
was endowed as a result of the mere e*istence of the entity,
reduced to its simplest abstraction.
From the original cardinal table we derived: the
cardinal gravity of the entity, based on the relative density
of its set and its foreign tones; its tonal gravity, based on
the relative density of constituent perfect triads and foreign
perfect triads; its transpositional gravity, based on the
relative density of its set and its transpositions; and' from
these, the notions of cardinal stability (whether the scale
was dense or transitive), tonal stability {whether the scale
was,:tonally stable, balanced, clashing or cadential), and
IV,.2
173
transpositiona-1 stability.
Now we must try to determine whether or not the in-
equality of constituent tones that results from re-enforcement
will disrupt the classifications that were established, based
on the equality of these tones.
3. The Effects of Re-enforcement~ Cardinal Gravity

No matter what the set, any re-enforcement by one
cardinal unit of any constituent tone having a co-efficient
of 1 will increase the total density of the foreign tones
by 4 cardinal units.
Any re-enforcement by one cardinal unit of any con-
stituent tone having a co-efficient of 2, 3, or 4 will increase
the total density of the foreign tones by 3, 2, or 1 units.
Finally, any re-enforcement by one cardinal unit of
any constituent tone having a co-efficient of 5 will not
affect the total density of the foreign tones.
EXAMPLES: the cadential seventh c e g bb
1µ J µ j J #J ~ w~ MJ
Re-enforcement
o·f the e:
'
Cardinal table: 2 (1
Re-enforced car-
dinal table: 2 (1
1
1
2) 1
1 1
3) 2 (4
(~
1
1) 2 (1
1) 2 (1
2) 1
1
(~)
3) 1 (4)
1
Original set: component tones= 6 foreign tones = 14

Re-enforced: component tones= 7 foreign tones = 18
Cardinal table: 2 (1 1 2) 1 (3 1) 2 (1 2) 1 (~)
Re-enforcement
of C: 1 1 1 1 1
Re-enforced car- ·
dinal table: 3 (2 1 2) 1 (4 1) 3 (1 2) 1 (,!)
IV,2
174
Original set: component tones= 6 foreign tones= 14

Re-enforced: component tones= 8 foreign tones• 17
/
The diatonic scale on C
41 µ J JJJ J #J ~ @~
Cardinal table: 4 (2) 3 (2) 4
/
3 (3) 3 (2) 3 (3) 3

Re-enforcement
of d: 1 1 1 1 1
Re-enforced car-
dinal table: 4 (3) 4 (3) 4 3 (3) 4 (2) 4 (3) 3
Original set: component tones== 23 ·foreign tones = 12
Re-enforcement of c: 2
Original set: component tones = 23 foreign tones = 12
The set 31 11 11 11 11, in the mode of C major.
Cardinal table: 2 (4) 2 (4) 1 (4) 2 5 2 (4) 1 (4)
Re-enforcement
of .9:: 1 1 1 1 1
Re-enforced car-
dinal table: 3 (4) 3 (4) 1 (4) 3 6 3 (4) 1 (4)
Re-enforcement then can upset the cardinal hierarchy

of tones by transforming, for example, a cardinally balanced
scale into a scale of tonic polarity, or, by suppressing the
primacy of the natural tonic of a scale of intrinsic cardinal
polarity.
EXAMPLES: the set 32 13 21. Even though the
constituent tones all have the same density, ap-
propriate re-enforcement can concentrate the strong-
est web of cardinal attractions on any one of these
tones:
~JµJ~:l .q,J~~J»Wt
Cardinal table: l l l (2 2) 3 (2 2 2) 3 3 (2)
2cf. the preceding paragraph.
IV,2
,I
.175
Cardinal table.: 3 3 3 (2 2) 3 (2 2 2) 3 3 (2)

Re-enforcement
of c: 1 1 1 1 1
o-flat: 1 1 1 1 1
Re-enforced car-
dinal ·table: 4 4 3 {3 2) 5 (2 3 2) 4 4 (4)
The set 21 13 21 11:
~1pJpJJi3waJ~J
Cardinal table: 4 (2) 2 (2) 3 3 (3) 3 {1 2 2) 3
Re-enforcement
of e: 1 l 1 1 1
Re-enforced car-
dinal table: 4 {2) 2 (3) 4 4 (3) 3 {1 3 2) 4
In this transposition the cardinal pole

is c. A simnle re-enforcement of e suffices
to equilibrate the highest .cardinal values
on four of the constituent tones.
Can re-enforcement also affect the cardinal stability

of the entity?
To a very slight degree only, since such alterations
are essentially relative and affect the profound nature of
the ensemble only minimally.
As proof, we need only recall those sets all of whose
constituent tones have a density of 3 cardinal units or more.
Since re-enforcement of each constituent tone affects
the density of the set more than it does the density of the
foreign tones, we might imagine a constant increase in this
relative density with each successive hearing. Initially
transitive, the scales would become denser and denser.
However, this is not the case.
Even if the constituent tones were re-enforced ten-
IV,2
176
fold, the scale remains no more or no less transitive or dense

than before.
transitive:
Cardinal table: 3 3 (!) 3 3 (4) 3 3 (!) 3 3 (4)
Even when re-enforced tenfold, the relative

density of the component and foreign tones remains I
unchanged. I
Re-enforced car-
dinal table: 33 33 (44) 33 33 (44) 33 33 (44) 33 33 (44)
4. The Effect of Re-enforcement on Transpositional Gravity

When considered in relation to the eleven transpo-
sitions of a given entity, the effect of re-enforcement is
much more complex.
It is a fact that.the re-enforcement of a particularly
dense constituent tone will always favour the set at the ex-
pense of the foreign tones, and that the re-enforcement of a
constituent tone of low density will always favour the
foreign tones at the expense of the set.
But it is difficult, at first sight, to assess the
effect of re-enforcement on the ensemble of eleven transpo-
sitions, because of the tones that these transpositions have
in common with the original set, and because of the complexity
of cardinal ramifications that re-enforcement awakens in t...~em.
In reality, re-enforcement most often affects this
!
or that tran 9,position as· much as it affects the origina}
entity; thus, a transposing set generally remains transposing,
a non-transposing set, non-transposing.
Yet, when the density of a set is very close to the
.,. IV ,2
177
densities of its transpositions of highest cardinal value,

transpositional gravity can be bent one way or the other,
by means of appropriate re-enforcement.
EXAMPLE: the usual minor scale inc eb ~:
I
Cardinal table: 4 (3) 3 3 (3) 2 (3) 4 3 (2 3) 2
Re-enforcement -
of c: l 1 1 1 1
Re-enforced car-
dinal table: 5 ( 4) 3 3 ( 3) 3 (3) 5 3 (2 2) 3
Transposition to the fifth above:

Density based on the original cardinal table:
4 3 3 3 4 2 3
Density based on the re-enforced cardinal table:
5 3 3 3 5 2 3
Density of the original set:

component tones= 21 its transposition= 22
Density of the re-enforced set:
component tones= 25 its tr'ansposition = 24.
Conversely, when the density of a set is compared
with the density of one of its transpositions rather than
with all eleven, re-enforcement can generally invert the
direction of transpositional gravity.
IN ORDER TO INCREASE THE PROPENSITY OF A SET TOWARD
A GIVEN TRANSfOSITION, ONE NEED SIMPLY RE-ENFORCE THOSE TONES
OF LOWEST DENSITY IN THE ORIGINAL WHICH BECOME THE TONES OF
HIGHEST DENSITY IN THE TRANSPOSED ENTITY.
IN ORDER TO DECREASE THE PROPENSITY OF A SET TOWARD

. IV,2
.I · 11a
~' GIVEN TRANSPOSITION, ONE ;mED SIMPLY RE-ENFORCE THOSE TONES

' HIGHEST DENSITY IN THE ORIGINAL WHICH BECOME THE TONES
OF
OF LOWEST DENSITY IN THE TRANSPOSED ENTITY.
EXAMPLE: the diatonic set on C:
Cardinal table: 4 (2) 3 {2) 4 3 (3) 3 (2) 3 (3) 3

Transposition at
, the four th : .4 3 4 3 3 3 3
Cardinal table of-the actual transposition:
3 (2) 3 {3) 3 ! (2) 3 (2) 4 3, (3)
}
Re-enforcement of c and e will increase
the density of the original set; re-enforcement
of f and ! increase the den~.i ty of the transpo-
,I sition.
Cardinal table: 4 (2) 3 (2) 4 3 (3) 3 (2) 3 (3) 3

Transposition at the major
third: 2 2 4 3 2 3 3
Cardinal table of the actual transposition:
(2) 3 (3) 3 (2) 3 (2) 4 (3) 3
-4 - 3
Re-enforcement of c, f, and 51. increase

the density of the original set. No re-en-
forcement whatsoever will increase the density
of the transposition, in relation to the original.
5. The Effect of Re-enforcement on the .Tonal Gravity of

Clashing Sets
Clashing sets have no penchant toward tonal stability.
Only five such sets, 42 42, 42 12 12, 42 12 21, its
inversion I 41 22 12], and 51 51, can be stabilized on one
or another of the constituent perfect triads by means of
substantial re-enforcement.
IV ,2
. 179
EXAMPLE: the clashing 'set 42 42, which

is symmetrical, of limited transposition,
modulating, and tonally imitative. It appears
here in its transposition in which the most
cardinal mode focuses on c e g; this triad,
the densest of all the constituent triads, with
11 cardinal units, is surpassed by four foreign
perfect triads of 12 cardinal units each.
In Major: 11 (10 9 8 10 12) 11 (10 9 8 10 12)
Inv. minor: (12) 10 8 9 10) 11 (12 10 8 9 10) 11
However, appropriate re-enforcement can
help it achieve cardinal supremacy.
~ @~ ~ ~
iJ J J #J
Re-enforcement
of c:
of f:.
'
@)
Cardinal table: 5
1
1
1 ti
3 (2
1
j
2) 3
1
5
1
1 1
5 3 (2
1
2) 3
1
5
1
of g: 1 1 1 1 1
of n: (double) 2 2 2 2 2
Re-enforced car-
dinal table: 10 4 (3 2) 6 7 9 5 (3 2) 6 8
Re-enforced table of tonal gravity:

In Major: 21 (14 14 13 17 19)19(16 15 12 16 19)
Inv. minor: (20 15 14 13 18)17(20 17 13 12 17)19 ..,.
On the other hand, clashing sets approach, and some-

times even become cadential sets, when, through the agency
of re-enforcement, some of the terminal perfect triads are
removed from their positions of high cardinality.
EXAMPLE: the whole-tone scale c d e ~b ab bb:
Cardinal table: 1 (!) 1 {!) 1 (!) 1 (!) 1 (!) 1 (4)

IV,2
180
Cardinal table: 1 (~_) 1 (_!_) 1 (~) 1 (~) 1 (4) 1 (4)

Re-enforcement
of c: 1 1 1 1 1
of e: 1 1 1 1 1
of b-flat: 1 1 1 1 1
Re-enforced car- I
I
dinal table: 2 (5) 1 (6) 2 (.?) 1 (5) 1 (6) 2 (2)

In major: (6 ·9 6 9 6 9 6 9 6 9 6 9)
Inv. minor: (6 9 6 9 6 9 6 9 6 9 6 9)

In major: (9 13 8 13 10 15 8 13 9 13 10 14)
Inv. minor: (10 12 8 14 10 14 9 14 8 14 9 14)
Formerly, the scale clashed on all the

perfect major and minor triads that had the
roots: d-flat! ~-flat, f,.~, ~, and b. It
becomes cadential on the single perfect triad
f a c.
- -
The same considerations are equally applicable to
the harmonic scale in the quarter-tone projection; this
scale, it will be remembered, contains the first sixteen
overtones of the harmonic series within the margin of a
comma, condensed into one octave.
This scale is clashing, owing to an equal propensity
toward four of the perfect triads that, are foreign to it. 3
By means of appropriate re-enforcement, it can be made cadential
on one of these perfect triads.

In the following example, we observe that by a simple
re-enforcement of£, this scale's set on C becomes cadential
. on f a c.•
IV ,2 .,
181
Cardinal table: t
f
2(2 0 2)2(2 0 2)2(2 2)1(2 1)3(1 1)1(4)1(1 2) 2 (2)
Re-enforcement
Of C:
1 1 1 1 1
Re-enforced cardinal table: .....
3(3 0 2)2(2 0 2)2(2 3)1(2 1)4(1 1)1(~)1(1 2)1(3)
In major:
9(6 4 4 8 4 5 5 5 6 10 5 3 5)8(6 4 6 6 5 6 5 4 6)
Inv. minor:
I
l
(7 5 6 4 7 5 3 6 9 6 4 5 6 6 7 6 3 5 9 4 3 5)8(6)
And thus is justified the generally accepted notion

of a propensity within the harmonic series towards the sub-
dominant.4
6. The Effect of Re-enforcement on the Tonal Gravity of

Cadential Sets
Cadential sets can be transformed into clashing sets
through re-enforcement that will relegate the terminal perfect/
triad to a second-rank position.
EXAMPLE: the major-~inor seventh chord
c e g b •
Its most cardinal terminal perfect triad is
f a £· However, a simple re-enforcement of~
suffices to rob the latter of its cardinal Bupremacy,
hencefori5h shared by f a £, ~ b d, f ~ c,
and c ~ ~- Better yet, a double re-enforcement
4
cf. particularly Th. Dub~is, Trait~ d'harmonie: pre-
liminaires: Jacques Chailley, Traite h1s·tor1que d 'analyse mu-
sicale.
IV,2
182
of~ eliminates the triad f a c from the first

rank of terminal perfect triads altogether.
Cardinal table: 2 (1 1 2) 1 (3 1) 2 (1 2) 1 (3)

Double re-enforcement
of ~= 2 ·2 2 2 2 I
Re-enforced car-
dinal table: 4 (1 3 2) 1 (3 3). ! (3 2) 1 (3)
In major: 9 (7 · 8 7 7 9 5 10 9 4 7 8)
Inv. minor: (10 6 8 8 7 5 9 10 5 8 6 8)
Conversely, almost no cadential sets are capable of

being stabilized on a constituent perfect triad, no matter
what amount of re-enforcement be applied. Among the ones
that can be stabi.lized by simple re-enforcement, are the
following: 32 11 21 11 and its inversion; 33 21 21 and its
inversion; 52 11 21 and its inversion; and 51 21 21.
7. The Effect of Re-enforcement~ the Tonal Gravity of

Tonallv Stable Sets
Tonally stable sets are so well centered on their own
perfect triads that it is impossible to transform them into
cadential or clashing sets.
By way of exception, the following sets are capable
of becoming cadential through simp·le doubling or re-enforcement
of three or four of their component tones:
32
41
61
62
23
21
21
31
11 and its inversion,
11 11 and its inversion,
11 and its inversion, and
and its inversion.
I
f
l
.- IV, 2
t
183
EXAMPLE: the tonally stable set 31 13 22,

the inversion of 3.2 23 111 it is asymmetrical,
revertible to its relative, tonally imitative,
major-binary, dense, and tonic.
It is stable on c e ~ in the following
transposition:
11 '.
''
Cardinal table: 3 (3) 2 (2
-4 (1 2) 2 4 1 3) 3
Table of tonal gravity: 'I I U1c

. il.
In Major: 10 (6 6 7 9 8 7 7 8 6 6 6)
Inv. minor: (9 5 7 7 9 7 8) 8 (7 6 8) 9
.
But,. re-enforcement of d-sharp, !:.1 and b
convert it into a set cadential one 2. b.
Re-enforcement
of ~-sharp: 1 1 1 1 1
of e: 1 1 1 1 1
of b: 1 1 1 1 1
Re-enforced car-
dinal table: 5 (1 3) 4 7 4 (4) 4 (3 2 5) 5
In Major: 13 (8 9 9 15 11 10 10 12 10 12 13)
Inv. minor: (12 7 10 12 IT 10 12) 11 (11 9 12) 14
8. The Effect of Re-enforcement ~~Tonal Gravity of

Balanced Sets
Balanced sets find themselves here in a situation that
is completely different than that of all the other sets. Their
precarious position between tonal stability and instability
makes them, as opposed to the others, particularly susceptible
to re-enforcement.
~XAMPLE: the set of the most usual minor
scale.
5
cf. II 4 s.
IV 2 \
184
. In its tra~sition in which£ eb ~

is the most cardinal tonic, the scale tends
just as much toward the major triad,£ ~ ~-
Re-enforcement ofba-flat assures the tonal
stability of~ ~ g; a complementary re-
enforcement of d would produce the same
effect. On the-other hand, re-enforcement
of b renders the set cadential on£ ~ ~;
a complementary re-enforcement off would
do likewise.
=& 1pJ
@) #J r=J4¥j J #J J ;J J
Cardinal table: 4 (3) 3 3 (3) 2 (3) 4 3 (2 3) 2
Re-enforcement
of a-flat: 1 1 1 1 1
Re-enforced car-
dinal table: 4 {4) 3 4 (3) 2 (3) 5 4 (3 3) 2
In Major: (12 10 9 12 9 9 10)10 12(10 8 9)
Inv. minor: 10(10 11)10(10 9 8)13(11 8 10 10)
-,-
Cardinal table.: 4 (3) 3 3 (3) 2 (3) 4 3 (2 3) 2
Re-enforcement
of b: 1 1 1 1 1
Re-enforced car-
dinal table: 5 (3) 3 3 {4) 2 (4) 4 3 (2 4) 3
In Major: (13 8 9 11 10 9 11)10 11 (9 9 10)
Inv. minor: 10 (9 11) 9(11 9 10)12(10 7 11 11)
9. The Permanence of Essential Cardinal Functions

Apart from balanced sets which occupy a precarious
position halfway between stability and instability, and some
very.rare exceptions, cardinally stable sets, non-transposing
;
sets,', and tonally stable sets remain stable; and cardinally
uns_;table sets, transposing sets, and tonally unstable sets
re~ain unstable, no matter 7 t h e i r tone construction, Ilo
IV-,2
I
I
!
185
matter what tonics are selected for them, no matter what

rhythmic accents, melodic emphases, or harmonic prolongations
are inflicted upon them.
Such is the principle of THE PERMANENCE OF ESSENTIAL
CARDINAL FUNCTIONS, WITHIN THE PERMANENCE OF THE SAME SET.
However, re-enforcement is quite apt to upset the

cardinal order of the tones of the set, the modal hierarchy
of its perfect triads, the natural succession of its transpo-
sitions, and the rank of the foreign entities of cadential
termination.
We shall see that as a result of their being able to
consolidate the majority of secondary tonics and least cardinal
progressions, they manage to maintain the functional balance
of the non-cardinal structures peculiar to the modal styleF
under conditions that will be made clear presently. 6
I'f
!
!
I
r'
i
r
1'
I
i
I
t
I I
IV,2
f
i
I
. CHAPTER III
CHORDS
1. Consonance and Dissonance

Tone simultaneity presents a problem that had not
existed in tone succession: the musicality of the chord.
This is a complex question, since the chord can be
appreciated in two ways: vertically as an entity, or horizon-
tally as the fleeting combination of simultaneously unfolding
parts.
It can also be variously appreciated according to
its voicing within or beyond an octave, according to its
component intervals, the tones at either extremity, its
inversion or otherwise altered disposition of the same tones,
etc •••
Let us invoke at this point a few elementary notions:
that of beats, those parasitic noises that appear in a chord
in which the component tones are too close together; or that
of natural harmonics, the first few of which provide an ex- ,
ample of chord construction by stacking thirds and fifths;
or that of symmetrical minor, which can regulate the super-
imposition of major and minor triads by preferring to piace
the latter triads in the upper register, ·the former triads
in the lower register.
IV ,3 186
187
But the appreciation of chords is above all a matter

of hearing and of taste, both of which escape any study that
presumes to be objective .. We cite them here as potential
obstacles to certain chord combinations, without, however,
resolving the problem.
2. The Number of Possible Chords

Including octave doublings and inversions, the number
of p,ossible chords is almost unlimited.
But if these are reduced to combinations of different
pitches only, by admitting that doublings and inversions are
really only different versions of the same chord, and if we
abstract the twelve possible transpositions, we observe that
the number of possible chords is exactly the same as the
number of corresponding sets. The sucpessive or simultaneous
hearing of the pitches of a given set have no bearing what-
soever on that set.
In the half-tone projection there exist:
six two-tone chords,
nlneteen three-tone chords,
forty-three four-tone chords,
sixty-six five-tone chords,
eighty'"s'rx-tone chords,
sixty-six seven-tone chords,
forty-three eight-tone chords,
nineteen nine-tone chords,
six ten-tone chords,
one eleven-tone chord, 1 and
one twelve-tone chord.
The synoptic table of scales gives the complete list.
3. 'Graohic and Numerical Representation of Chords
1
ct. Loquin, l'Harmirendue claire.
I)l ,3
188
Reduced to their most simple expression, that is,

condensed into the same octave, chords are capable of the
same graphic and numerical representation as their corresponding
sets. Like their sets, each chord will be referreq.·to by
its representative number.
But, it is often necessary to present a chord in a
specific fonn.
Normally the chord c e ~ bb is referred to as a
dominant [ or major-minor J seventh chord; the chord c e g
b. ~ is normally referred to as a major ninth chord. This
terminology is traditional. But there are numerous chords
currently in use on whose designation theorists disagree;
many of these chords are presented under complex and ambiguous
titles.
To clearly present a given chord, we may employ the
' '
representative number pitches: 13 12 12 1 for the major-
minor seventh, and 13 12 13 12 1 for the major-major-major
ninth.
· But the simplest method of designating chords is to
use.its representative number of intervals, in half-steps:
for example, 4 3~ for the major-minor seventh, and 4 3 4 3
for the major ninth chord.
If by octave displacement an interval reaches or
exceeds ten, we must be careful that the two digits repre-
senting that. number not be confusedly interpreted as two suc-
cessive intervals. To avoid this possible confusion, we shall
employ Roman numerals for intervals containing ten or more
half-steps: XI 8 9 for f ~ £ !·.
IV,3
I
189
The representative .number of intervals of a chord
reveals the number of components tones in that chord at a

glance: we simply add one to the total number of intervals.
When representing a concrete entity, its numerical
representation is followed by the name of the lowest tone
of the chord: 4 33333 4 on C represents the chord£ ~ 51
bb db e 51 b.
4. ·The Classification of Chords

All of the categories that were applicable to sets
are equally applicable to chords:· complementary, revertible,
of multiple or limited intervals, of limited transposition,
of median tone, symmetrical, asymmetrical, inverted, relative,
atonal, neutral, tonal, major, minor, binary. It is simply
a question of reducing a chord to its set.
We observe, for example, that the number of different
atonal chords possible is twenty-nine, not counting transpo-
sitions and inversions, and they comprise all or part of one
or more of the following sets: 11 11 11 11 11 11 (whole-tone),
12 12 12 12 (tone and a half), 31 15 11 (c db eb a b, for
example), and 57 (conjunct chromatic half~steps). On the
other hand, there exist fifty-three chords containing at least
one fifth, and~ hundred and sixty-eight chords containing
at least one perfect triad.
Cardinal relationships proper to sets are equally ap-
pli~able, in principle and subject to the effect of re-enforce-
ment, to clashing, cadential, balanced, tonally stable, and
tonic chords, as well as to dense, transitive, and transposing
IV ,3
190
chords, and chords of cardinal polarity and cardinal balanpe.
The above observation can be supported by the cardinal charts,
taking into account doublings, of the chords irt question.
In this way, problems of resolution and progression
can be elucidated, as well construction by chord succession,
where each chord constitutes an entity subject by degrees to
the same transformations, transpositions, and mutation~ as
a melodic set. 2
5. Re-enforcement of Chords
The chord, a simultaneous [ as opposed to successive]·
aggregation of tones, conforms to the laws of attraction
governing those tones.
If it contains only differentiated tones, the same
cardinal affinities enter into play as in the set composed
of these same tones. If certain tones are doubled at the
octave, the set would normally be subjected to a correspond'ing
re-enforcement.
However, the normal play of cardinal affinities is
slightly more complex here, since there is one element falling
under the jurisdiction of cardinal law whose importance it is
very difficult to estimate: the re-enforcement that results
from certain privileged positions th~t chord members may occupy.
The privileged positions that suffice to re-enforce
the cardinal value of a tone are located at the top and at
the bottom of the chordal structure.
2
cf. IV 10 3.
IV,3
191
The highest note is often endowed with a privileged

C'Xnrcssive power as a result of the habitual placement of
the melody in the soprano voice.
But it is often the lowest tone that prevails, all
the more assertively since in its case we are dealing more
with a natural law than a common practice, at least anytime
it can be considered, to the slightest extent, to be the
"fundamental tone" of an harmonic series.
EXAMPLE: the chords based on the set 21 11
12 11 11, such as d f'' ! £ ~ i, ~or example.
Their normal resolution is indifferently
£ ~ 2,, !_ ! $1 ! £ ~, and d f !, all per-•
· feet triads having the same co-efficient, 9.
In Major: 9 (7 8 7 7) ! (6 8 7 8 8 6}
Inv. minor: (8 7 8 6) 9 (7 7 8 7) 9 (6 8)
However, re-enforcement of~, either
melodically at the top of the chord, as in
d f a c e g for example, or harmonical-
ly at the-bottom, as in 2. d f a C e
for example, renders the chord-caaentiaI on
c e 2., above all.
~ J @~ ~ ~
1,:tJ ~ J ~
Re-enforcement
of s:_:
'
Re-enforced car-
I!)

1 1
3 (2) 3 (2) 3 (2
1 1 1
2)
din al table: 4 (2) 4 (2) 3 3 (3) 4 (3) 3 (2 2)

In Major: 11 (8 10 8 8)10 (7 10 9 8 9 7)
Inv. minor: (10 8 10 7)10 (7 9 10 8)10 (7 9)
IV ,3
192
6. Chord Inversions
Examined in its abstract form, the chord remained equal
to itself no matter what its inversion. However, in its con-
crete form as an a~gregate of actual pitches, it is subjected
to all of the vicissitudes of re-enforcement, and especially,
as we have just pointed out, to the re-enforcement of its
I
extreme tones, since inversion displaces both highest and
lowest pitches.
Consequently, INVERSION OF A CHORD MORE OR LESS ALTERS
ITS NATURE, BY MODIFYING THE EFFECT OF CARDINAL AFFINITIES.
This law, of which some ~~eorists had an inkling, 3
finds all of its conditions of application and all of its
consequences in the cardinal table of the re-enforced chord.
EXAMPLE: the chord containing the seven
diatonic pitches of c.
Under the form-~ b d f a c e, it
tends most strongly towards£ ~ ~, owing to
the re-enforcement of~, if indeed the positioning
of this pitch at the bottom of the stack gives
it the apparent function of fundamental tone
[rootJ. But, it could lean toward a c e as
a result of the re-enforcement of a-as-in a
£ ~ ~ b d f.
Cardinal table: 4 (2) 3 (2) 4 3 (3) 3 (2) 3 (3) 3

Re-enforcement
of g: 1 1 1 l 1
;" Re-enforced car-
dinal table:.) 5 (2) 4 (2) 4 3 (4) 4 (3) 3 (3) 3
3
cf. especially Paul Hindemith, The Craft of Musical
Composition.
I
I
I
193

In Major: 13 (8 11 9 10)11 (9)11(10 9 10 9)
Inv. minor: {11 9 11 8) 12 (8 11 11 9) 10 (9) 11
The law of inversion obtains, even for less complex

chords, though the re-enforcement of the extreme parts is
less.
·,
We have already seen the cadential seventh chord sub- i7!
jected to it. 4
Even the perfect triad itself cannot escape it.
If e is considered re-enforced in the first inversion
of the triad c e 51., the tonality of.£ e g is relegated
to second rank at the benefit off a c and e 51. b towards
which the triad will tend to resolve.
On the other hand, the second inversion triad g c
e does not alter the tonality of'£ e 51. at all, no matter
to what extent 51. is re-enforced.
By this demonstration of the tonal importance of the
fifth of a perfect triad, cardinal relationships again justify 5
the tonal permanence of derived modes, centered on the fifth,
I
and explain the time-honoured confusion surrounding the root
and the fifth of the minor triad.
II
Cardinal table: 2 {1 1 1) 1 (2 1) 2 (1 l 0 2)
Re-enforcement
of e: 1 1 1 1 1
f
I
Re-enforced car-
dinal table: 2 (l 1 2) 2 (3 1) 2 (1 2 0 3) It
i'
4
Jt
... ·- l
cf. IV 2 3.
5Cf. IV 4 Is.
IV,3 f
I'
-=- 1
194 ·- tI
...... f

In Major:
Inv. minor:
6 (5
(6 4
4
3
4
6
6
6
7
4
2
5
6
6
5
4
5
6
4
3
6)
7)
I
!
I
l
Cardinal table: 2 (1 1 1) 1 (2 1) 2 (1 1 0 2) f
Re-enforcement
of .2.: 1 1 1 1 1
Re-enforced car-
·dinal table: 3 (1 2 1) 1 (2 2) 3 (2 1 0 2)
Re-~nforced table of tonal gravity: I

t
In Major: 7 (5 5 4 5 6 3 7 6 3 4 5)
.
Inv. minor:
-
<2. 4 5 5 5 3 6 7 4 5 3 6) I
7. The Stability of Chords !
i
r
As we have said, there exist three types of stability:
l
the cardinal stability of scales of high density; the non- I t
transposing stability of scales denser than their transpositions;
and the tonal stability of scales in which one or more of the
constituent perfect triads surpass all of the foreign perfect
triads in cardinal value.
In dense scales and in non-transposing scales, a closed
network of cardinal affinities is woven, . in ~hich can be found
the center of balance of the scale. In tonally stable scales,
the cardinal attractions cling to such and such a perfect
triad of the scale, assuring it of perfect tonal cohesion.
These related notions of cardinal, transpositional,
and tonal stability are not readily transposable to the matter
of chords.
To say of a chord that it is stable is to express an
even stricter property.
It is not enough to deprive a chord of its power of
IV, 3
195
disaggregation or transmutation, a power proper to clashing,

cadential, or transposing aggregations, in order that it be
·i stable.
To the idea of stability, we add at this point the
idea of rest or repose. The truly stable chord is one that
is conclusive, or at the very least, suspensive.
So, as dense or as tonal as a set may be, the simul-
taneous hearing of all of its tones does not generally provoke
an impression of repose. The chord thus-formed is endowed
with the resolutive tendency of the set towards one or more
of the constituent tones, or towards one or more of the con-
stituent perfect triads, those whose cardinal density is
highest. And this tendency will be even more strongly felt
under action of the inherent re-enforcement that results from
the mere superposition of chord tones, as we have already
pointed out. 6
8. The Perfect Triad

Is the perfect triad, major or minor, the very es-
sen9e of chordal stability as we understand it? It is neither
particularly dense, since its cardinal density is the same as
that of its transposition at the fifth and various other
combinations of three foreign tones, nor particularly refracto-
ry of clashes, since its density is equal to that of three
perfect triads of opposite gender.
I
But it does partake, and justly, of the. prestige of
6
Cf. paragraph 5 of the present chapter.
IV,3
l
',
':~
196 I f
that unique entity engendered by acoustical lawsl the set
of natural harmonics, of which it constitutes, in its major

form, not only the first which is cast, but also, and above
all, that part which is the most stable in the strictest
sense of the word. Isolated from the semitonal system, in
the abstraction of the sets most closely related to its
natural succession, we witnessed the perfect triad emerging
as the sole entity in the harmonic series whose density was
superior to all other three-tone aggregations, 7 and, in sum,
as that entity most capable of prolonging a tonic tone,
without affecting its tonality.
If its incorporation into the half-tone projection
tempers its cardinal stability by,a certain functional
dynamism, let us not forget that it is a result of the very
essence of the projection itself which we selected precisely
to avoid the inertia of more fragmented projections.
Further, we have already observed that the alteration
of the stability of the perfect triad was more apparent than
real: if its cardinal table contains entities of three
foreign tones that equal its own density, or certain ternary
combinations of constituent and foreign tones whose density
even exceeds it, we have demonstrated in fact that these
entities were less apt than the perfect triad. to provide a
.
t rue f unc t iona l st ab'l'
1 ity.
8 ll
!
I
In order to better appreciate its stability, let us
7
8
cf. I 4 !, and I 6 2.
cf. IV 1 2 and 3.
I
IV,3 l
t
t
l
I
',
197
,1,
proceed to a comparison of the perfect triad with: the seven-

teen other triads that the half-tone projection comprises.
/
9. The Other Triads

Among the seventeen combipations of three tones, other
I
than perfect triads, five are organically unstable, and six
are disequilibrated on one of the constituent tones. Only
the six remaining ones are comparable to the perfect triad.
Organically unstable chords.
EXAMPLES:
fig. 47
f
The first one is derived from the set 15 12 12.

Its cardinal table is:
1 (~ 1 0 1 ~) 1 (~ 1) 1 {l 2}
The second one issues from the set 13 13 13
and its cardinal table is:
The third is derived from the set 17 11 11,

and has the following cardinal table:
1 (~ 0 2 0 2 0 ~} 1 (~} 1 (~}
The last two issue from mutually symmetrical
sets, 15 1113, and 15 13 11. Their cardinal tables
are therefore symmetrical, and it will suffice to
present only one of them here:
1 (3 0 1 0 2 } 1 ( 2_) 1 ( 1 0 2)
None of these surpasses the possible minimum of three

cardinal units, and their instability is manifest, as long as
th ey are consi'd ere d in
. iso
. 1 a t·ion. g
9 cf. in paragraph 16 how they can be stabilized by

the set into which they are incorporated.
3 I
198
I
Chords disequilibrated on a constituent tone.
EXAMPLES:
fig. 48
~ ;;;;
-fr &8; s
-6- -fr
g I &t. I &at
All of these chords contain one common
tone, in this case c, and two of its cardinal
tones, and they all-tend to resolve to it.
Below is a list of their sets, and their
cardinal tables, enunciated from c.
The set 14 14 11:
1 (1 1 0 1) 2 (2) 2 (1 0 1 1)
The set 23 16:

3 (2 (1 0 1) 2 (2 1 1 0 1 1)
The set 26 13, the symmetrical inversion of the set

above;
The set 24 15: I
3 (1 0 0 2) 2 (2: 1 0 0 2) 2
The set 25 14, the symmetrical inversion of the set
above;
The set 39:
3 2 (1 0 1 1 2 1 1 0 1) 2
Chords comparable to the perfect triad.

EXAMPLES:
fig. 49
-fr -fr -fr
Here is a list of their sets and their

cardinal tables, enunciated from c:
IV ,3
199
.The set 2118:

2 <~> 1 (1 1 1 1 2 a 1 1) ~
The set 28 11: the symmetrical inversion of the set above;

The set 22 17:
2 {l 1) . 1 (~ 1 1 1 1 0 2) 2
l
I The set 27 12:
i
the symmetrical inversion of the·set above;

The set 16 11 12:
2 (1 2 0 1 1 1) ~ (~) 1 (1 1)
,I
The set 16 12 11: the symmetrical inversion of the set above.
Even though their cardinal value equals that of the

perfect triad, the first four are considered less stable
right from the outset, by virtue of the fact that in their
cardinal tables, the densest tones (coefficient 2) are closer
· · 10
together than the densest tones of the perfect triad.
It remains to compare to the perfect triad the two
b
chords£~~ and cg b, whose cardinal characteristics are
closest to it.
An examination of their tables of tonal gravity will
support the notion of their stability that was acquired from
glancing at their cardinal tables:
Cardinal table of c ~ a:
2 (1 2 0 1 1 1) 2 {2) 1 {l 1)
lOCf. IV 1 3.
IV ,3
200

In Major: 5 (4 4· 3 4 4 3 5 4 3 4 2)
Inv. minor: (5 3 5 3 4 3 4) 4 (4 4 2 4)
Cardinal table of c 9:. bb:

~ (1 1 1 0 2 1) 2 (1 1) 1 (2)
.Table of tonal gravity:

In Major: 4 (4 3 4 3 5 3 5 4 2 4 4)
Inv. minor: (5 3 4 4 3 4 4) 5 (2 4 3 4)
No doubt the stability of£ ~ a is re-enforced by

the latent support of c e 9:., one of the most cardinal
perfect triads in its tonal table, and that of c ~ bb is
likewise re-enforced by the latent support of the perfect
triad c eb 9:.. 11
But once incorporated into live music, their sta-
bility could find itself in difficulty every time, for ex-
ample, that£ 9:. bb appeared as one element of the major
cadential seventh chord c e 9:. bb, or whenever c ~ a
appeared as an element of the minor cadential seventh chord
b I
a c e 9:..
On the other hand, inc g bb, the b-flat is the
closest tone to the seventh natural harmonic of the funda-
mental c. Thus, if we allow£ 9:. bb to participate in the
harmonic' series of C, we must admit that it is further removed
from the fundamental tone than the.major triad, and that, in
this respect, it is blemished by the increasing tendency
11
cf. Scriabine, Poeme pour piano, ~- 59. For termi-
nology relating to minor, refer to I 5 ~-
IV,3
201
toward the instability that/,roper to the overtone series,

I
I
the further along its course it goes.

Therefore, it is, in sum, the major triad and its
inverted minor that hold the privilege of representing, in
its maximum fullness, the notion of stability as it can be
applied to a three-tone chord in the half-tone projection,
considered in isolation.
Yet, nothing forbids the employment of other chords
as suspensive~ or even conclusive chords.
'
10. The Conditions for Chords of Conclusive Tendency
J There is an imperious necessity for chords pretending
to possess conclusive powers to be identified with a parti-
cularly stable-set, in terms of its cardinal, tonal, and
transpositional gravity.
We state here once and for all that the choice of
such chords is certainly above all a question of taste, which
ought to be left to the appreciation of each individual.
It is nevertheless possible to present here two es-
sential cases in which isolated chords show a propensity
toward stability:
1. the chord has no other function than to
prolong~ tonic, be it a constituent tone,
a fifth, or a perfect triad;
2. it comprises tones in a state of cardinal
balance, the ones inrelation to the
others.
These two acceptations of the chord of conclusive
tendency are at opposite extremes from one another. But the
same chord can partake of the first or the second depending
IV,3
202
on the context, according to whether or not the progressions

which precede it tend to resolve on one tone or a constituent
perfect triad, or conversely, on the majority of constituent
tones, without favouring any one.
Among those chords having a function of tonal pro-
longation, some are more or less articulated on a succession
of harmonics; the others prolong a perfect triad, a fifth,
or a single tone.
11. Chords of Conclusive Tendency Forming the Tonal

Prolongation 2"£_ ~ Pitch
The chords examined here do not contain perfect triads.
They represent all the possible combinations of a principal
tone and all or some of its cardinal tones. The principal
tone is the densest of the entire carqinal table of the chord,
and the others play the role of tonal prolongation.
They are derived from the following sets: 33 11 13,
23 11 14 and its relative 24 11 13 for five-tone chords; 33 15
and its relative 35 13 for four-note chords; and the six
three-tone chords examined in paragraph 9.
The propensity of the ensemble of the chord toward the
densest constituent tone' renders it more or less cadential on
the perfect triads of which this tone is the root. In order
to safeguard the integrity of this chord, considered as a
ter~nal, one must avoid everything in its context that will
ten~ to resolve to one of the perfect triads.
Finally, note that balance is more difficult to achieve
when the number of constitu/tones of the chord is higher,
IV,3
,I I
I
203
since the propensity toward the principal tone increases as

the relative density of the ensemble decreases.
EXAMPLE~: the set 33 11 13, such as

C f. .9:. ~ d: I
Cardinal t'able: 5 2 (2 0 2) 2 (4) 2 (2 0 2) 2

'
In Major: (6 4 6) 7 (8 4 6)
-9 6 6 7 6
Inv. minor: 9 (6 6 4 7 6 8) 7 (6 4 6 6)
The set 14 14 11, such as C f .9::
Cardinal table: 2.. (1 1 0 1) 2 (2). 2 (1 0 1 1)

In Major: 6 (4 3 3 3) 5 · (4 4 4 2 4 3)
Inv. minor: 6 (3 4 2 4 4 4) 5 (3 3 3 4)
This chord, c f g, is particularly apt
for a conclusive function since it enters into
the framework of the others cases examined
equally as either a prolongation of one of the
two constituent neutral fifths!, or within the
/ harmonic series of F, or among the chords of
cardinal balance, by means of appropriate re-
enforcement off and .9:..
12. Chords of Conclusive Tendencx, Prolonging a Fifth

or a Perfect Triad
In' order that a chord serving as the prolongation of
a fifth or a perfect triad be able to emit a conclusive tenden-
r
cy, it ought to be formed from a dense and tonally stable set
IV ,3 .'
204
which is, at the same time, tonic. It will then be the tonal
prolongation of the densest fifth or constituent perfect
triad.
Among the chords enumerated as prolongations of a
tone, a few contain a neutral fifth which can play the role
of the tonic that they complete. Such is the case with the
three-tone chords closest in stability to the perfect triad,
such as c ~ bb or c ~ ~, whenever the context discards
their interpretation as cadential seventh chords.
ANOTHER EXAMPLE: the chords formed from
the set 23 21 13, such as£ e ~ b f.
Cardinal table:
- (1
4 1 1) 3 3 (3) 2 (1 1 2) 3
In Major: 6 6 7)
-9 (5 5 5 7 8 6 6 5
Inv. minor: (8 5 5 5 8 6 7 7 5 5 6) 8
13. Chords of Conclusive Tendency, Articulated~ the

Harmonic Series
The harmonic series reveals its instability along the
course of its development. But it is in terms of the function
of_the fundamental tone that this characteristic is manifested.
Moreover, music is not necessarily subjected to the
most cardinal tonics, and we shall see the large portion of
music in "modal style" that ignores them.
This is to say that elements of the harmonic series
can, under certain conditions, constitute a conclusive chord./
I
IV,3
I
I
I
205
EXAMPLES: the chord whose representative

number of intervals is 4 3 4, such 1 ~s c ~ ~ b.
Taken as a conclusive chord, it can be
considered as the combination of the perfect
triad c e ~ and the fifteenth harmonic of c.
It is equally in keeping with the double tonic
c ~ ~ and e ~ £, as its cardinal table shows:
I
I
~ JµJ p J flj J@ ;J f, Lt,
2) 2 (1
II
Cardinal table: (1 1 1) 2 (2 1 l)' 3
.I ,
-3
In Major: 7 (4 4 4 6 6 4 6 5 4 4 6)
Inv. - minor: (6 4 4 5 6 4, 6 6 4 4 4) 7
' !
The chord whose representative number 1 ~f

intervals is 4 33 4, such as c e g b d:
The d and the bare added to the-perfect
triad c e- gas the-ninth and fifteenth har-
monics-of-C.- It is also equally in keeping f
with c e g, g b d, and e g b.
Ir

- (2 2) 3 (1 2 1) 3
I
In Major: (5 6 6 6 7 5) 8 (6 6 5 7)
-8 -
Inv. minor: 6 .6 6 6 7 5 7 8 5 6 5) 8
The regeneration of the harmonic series on each of
12
cf. particularly Ravel, Jeux d'eaux; Honegger,
Cahier remand (Se ~iece), lst_Sonatafor vioTin and Piano,
Sonate transatlantique pour piano, etc.
13
conclusive chord, particularly in Ravel Menuet in
L~ Tombeau de Couperin, le Gibet in Gaspard de.la nuit; Stra-
winsky, Duo concertant for violin ano piano, Wind Symphony,
etc.
IV ,3
206
its own components 14 permits us to envisage further, under

the same conditions, chords of stacked fifths, such as c i
d ~, 15 c g_ d a ~, 16 consi'dere d as pro 1 ongations
. o f C,
or even G, D, A, or E, since in the harmonic series, the
density of the third at the fifth, exceeds that of the funda-
mental tone. 17 These chords enter into the scope of chords
prolonging a fifth or a perfect triad. They can also be
harmonized on several of their constituent tones at the same
time.
Finally, if we allow bb to be one and the same with
the seventh harmonic in the series on C, since it is the
closest tone to it, the chords c e e g_ d
could be interpreted as hannonic prolongations of c e g_,

rather than as cadential units. 18 Such is their conclusive
. . f icance
signi .· '
in . mo des. 19
th e h armonic
Likewise, g bb £, already examined as the closest

three-tone chord to the perfect triad because of its stabili-
ty,20 can be interpreted as the hannonic prolongation of
I
14 cf. I 1 3 and 4.
15 cf. notably Debussy Canope,, and Pour un tombeau sans
~ ; Honegger, S)pt pieces breves (number ..,-y-;-Toccata, Cahier
remand (number 3; Strawinsky, Chant du Rossignol (number 3);
Claude Delvincourt, Boccacerie (numbe~4) etc.
16 cf. particularly Darius Milhaud, 2e senate violon
~ pianoi Strawinsky, le Chant du rossignol{no 2) etc.
7 cf. I 4 1 and 2. .
18
cf. in particular Debussy, Nuages, Pour la danseuse
~ crotales; Honegger, Sept Pieces breves (no 3), Cahier
remand (no 1); Strawinsky, Duo concertant for violin and piano
(no 5). Descending harmonics: Florent Schmitt, Stele pour le
tombeau de Paul Dukas, etc. -
rr--
20cf. paragraph 6 of the following chapter.
Cf. paragraph 9 of the present chapter.
IV ,3
207
5:., 11 or s_, 21 as well as the tonal prolongation of the fifth

22
C - ~•
14. Chords of Cardinal Balance

The cardinal equality of their constituent tones is
in this case the essential condition of the conclusive tendency
of these chords. However, it is not sufficient, since, not
only must they belong to sets which are themselves stable,
but they must be preserved in context with their full structur-
al integrity as well, while avoiding all resolutive propensity
toward other tones.
EXAMPLES: the chord t4 3 44, derivei Isom
~e set 22 22 22, such as a c ~ i b d:
Cardinal table: 1 (2 2) 1 .3 (2 2) 1 1 (2 2) 3
The chord 7777, five consecutive fifths,

which belongs, for this reason, to chords
articulated on th~ 4harmonic series, such as
£ i d. a e b:
Cardinal table: 1 (2) 1 (2) 1 ('2 2) 1 (2) 1 (2) _,1

The chord 7 4 7 ,' derived from the set 25 23,
· . [ 11cf. Scriabine, Po~me ~ piano, ·op. 69.

. For termi-
nology relating to minor, refer to I 5 6.]
21 -
Cf. notably Dariu·s Milhaud, Saudades da Brazil
(no. 3)
22 . ,
Cf.; notably Albert Roussel,·l'Accueil des muses;
Strawinsky, Concertina pour guatuor ~ ~ordes; Arnold Schoen-
. berg, Me·nuet ~ piano, op. 25; Andr~ Jolivet, Danse ·fune-
, raire, etc. · · ·· · -
. 23
cf. notably Darius Milhaud,.Saudades da Brazil (no.S).
24Cf. paragraph 11 of the present chapter •
. IV,3
208
such as f · c e b: 25
-.
Cardinal table: 3 (1 0 1) ! ! (2 1 0 1 2) !
The chord 7 XI 7,bd26ived from.the set
24 24, such as f £ b. i : .
Cardinal table: ! (2 0 0 2) ! ! (2 0 0 2) 3· .
The chord 3 4 3, formed· ;,om the set
13 12 11 12, such as! £ ! i= v . 2
·,.
Cardinal table: ! (1 2 · 1) ! (! 1) ! (!) ! (1 !)
Finally, chords derived from.sets close to cardinal
balance will attain this balance through appropriate re-
enforcement.
15. Cadential Chords

. Among unstable chords, there are some that are es-
sential: they are those chords formed from sets whose natural
terminal of cardinal attractions renders them cadential on a
foreign perfect triad which is denser·than any of the other
perfect triads in the table of tonal gravity of the set, or
on two triads that are related to one another if the set is
symmetr;i..cal •.
The following table, under indicative.headings, gives
the nomenclature of cadential chords whose terminal perfect
25cf. notably Darius Milhaud, Saudades da Brazil (no.

11)~
26
cf. particularly Bela Bartok, Mikrokosmos !_!!; Andre
Jolivet, Mana (no.4).
2,,,.-::::- . .
Cf. particularly Debussy, Ce ~•a vu le vent d'ouest,
and l0e etude ~ piino; Strawinsky-;-Danse Russe from Pe-
t~ouchka, ~ 2, Apo on musag~te, and~ concertant pour
v10Ion et piano ( no.3); Tansman, Sonate transatlantiaue and
8th intermezzo; Messiaen, Preludes for piano (no.I an 3),
· Offrandes oubliees, and Vingt regards ~ i'Enfant Jesus, etc.
IV,3
209
triad is c e ~- They are classified according to the number

of constituent tones, and, for the ensemble of chords issuing
from sets hav'ing the same number of degrees, according to the
increasing cardinal density of the chord. The u,pper number
indicates the density of the chord, the lower one, the density
of the terminal triad c ~ ~, and where applicable, its
relative minor. If this density exceeds that of all other
perfect triads by more than one unit, a parenthetic -2 or -3
will specify by how much.
Each chord is presented in its most convenient graphic
form,., independent of any consideration of re-enforcement.
Two-tone chords which are cadential on c e g:
2 2
fig. 50
Three-tone chords which are cadential on c e ~:
7 7 7 7
fig. 51
ti ~
s.
+or
ba ~
6
III~ I
6
1"'
6
7 7 10
IV ,3
210
Five-tone chords which are cadential on c
fig. 53
11
11 13 13 13
,I
9 9 9 9 8
Six-tone chords which are cadential on c
fig~ 54
18 20
12 16 16
10>
(-2)
Seven-tone chords which are cadential on c e ~:
fig. 55
u
(-3)
11
Eight-tone chords which are cadential on c. e g:
fig. 56
IV,3
f
I
211
Nine-tone chords which are cadential on c
=========r
fig. 57 --~~-_-_--i_lf
•~ ,..orlis=
--),
13
But there are still numerous chords that\tend toward

~ a single perfect triad or two related perfect triads: those
formed of the tones in a set which is at the same time tonally
stable and tonic, since their most immediate resolution is to
one of the perfect triads they contain, or if the set is sym-
metrical, to two of their related perfect triads.
And so, the chord~ b d f a £ ~, consisting of
the seven diatonic tones, tends particularly toward c e ~,
28
one of the two most cardinal constituent perfect triads.
But the principle of re-enforcement that here favours c e ~
at the expense of a c ~, could push all other inversions

or voicings of this same chord toward other constituent per-
fect triads.
As for other non-cadential chords, which can be made
origins of a principal cadence through the agency of re-en-
forcement, they are innumerable.
In addition to the propensity of chords formed of the
tones of sets no matter what their density towards any parti-
cular cardinal aggregation in their chart, there is an infinite
28 cf. IV 3 6.
IV,3
212
choice of chords whose weak cardinal density or inherent

resolutive propensity dedicates them to the functional in-
stability proper to the transitive, transposing, or clashing
I
sets from which they issued.
In closing, let us mention the case of chords derived
from sets of extrinsic cardinal polarity 29 that tend to
resolve on a single tone, foreign to their context.
16. The Chord in Organized Music

We have encountered chords thus far, only in the iso-
lation of their own sets. Only the notion of re-enforcement
and the effect of inversion have hinted at its participation
in actual music.
However, once it is incorporated therein, the entire
effect of its context comes into play.
Henceforth, we shall necessarily have to distinguish
between cases in which chords can be analyzed as independent
entities, as in harmony based on chord successions, 30 and
cases in which they can only be analyzed in terms of the sounds
that precede, accompany, and succeed them, giving them their
entire significance.
i
Consequently, the chord c e, taken independently,
whose cardinal table is:
1 (1 0 1) 1 (~ 0 1 0 1 0 2)
has no stability because of its propensity towards f b, which
. 29 Cf. III 6 2.
30 cf. IV 9 3.
,,,. IV ,3
- --- - · - ~-------------------,
213
in turn is also unstable.
But, the same entity,£ - e, is easily stabilized
either in the perfect triads c e g or a c ~, or within
any set in which it is cardinal.
On the other hand, the cardinal table of the chord
c b, envisaged in its most abstract form:
~ 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1) 2
(1
allows us to bestow on it31 a certain balance on the two con-
junct tones that constitute it. In certain cases, we could
assure the stability of their simultaneous hearing, if each ,
one ~ppeared as the terminal point of preceding progressions;
however, it could also happen that this equilibrium could
disappear in favour of one or the other of these tones, or
of any other more cardinal tone, depending on the set that
is being used in the context.
In sum, one must never forget, when examining a
chord, to take into account its presentation which conditions
certain re-enforcements, and its context which imposes on it
some of its own laws.
31under the reservation of what was said above in

IV 1 3.
IV ,3
I
CHAPTER IV
MODES
1. Preliminaries
Mode is that characteristic assumed by a given set,
once a tonic is selected.
In light of the divergences that were manifested
where, the nomenclature and the interpretation of the diatonic
modes alone were concerned, one can easily realize the dif-
ficulties involved in presenting all of the possible modes
of each of the three hundred and fifty-one possible sets.
From this derives the imperious necessity of a strict co-
ordination of modal terminology.
One distinction must be clarified right from the
beginning between two related notions: modal scale and mode.
A Modal scale is the succession of intervals of a set,
going from one of the members of the set, the one selected as
tonic, to the corresponding tonic, in 1the following octave.
A mod~ is a modal scale, articulated on its tonal
content.
2. Modal Scales
Modal scales are subject to the following two mutually-
complementary principles:
1. TO EACH TONE IN A SET THERE CORRESPONDS A MODAL SCALE,
IV,4 214
215
OF WHICH THIS TONE IS THE TONIC.
2. FOR EACH GIVEN TONIC IN A GIVEN SET, THERE EXISTS ONLY
ONE MODAL SCALE.
Any note in a set may in fact act as a tonic, ini-
tiating a modal scale which is proper to it.
Therefore, for a given set, there exist only as many
modal i~cales as there are degrees in the set, no more.
Consequently, the diatonic set comprises seven modal
scales, those of C, D, E, et~.
Even sets of limited transposition cont~in, in princi-
ple, the same number of modal scales as degrees, since in sum,
there is a new tonic each time.
Nevertheless, in their abstract presentation, certain
modal .scales of sets of limited transposition are identical,
since by definition, these sets reproduce several times within
the octave the same succession of intervals.
The theoretical number of modal scales is not quite
the same as the total number of sets, each multiplied by its
number of components, that is, two thousand one hundred and
twelve; and it is here that we rediscover the two thousand
and forty eight combinations of intervals that cover the
same octave of twelve half-tones 1 , bearing in mind sets of
limited transposition.
3. Fundamental and Derived Modes

The same modal scale is capable of several modes, if
1 Cf. III 1 1.
IV, 4
216
its tonic is a member of several tonal combinations [ perfect

triads]. This tonic, if it does not, in fact, remain the
sole center of the tonality, can be prolonged in one or
several perfect triads, either complete, incomplete or complex,
or in one atonal chord.
In this way, the modal scale of Fin the diatonic set
of C can be appreciated as a tonal mode if its melodic, har-
monic, and rhythmic accentuations are articulated on f, a and
c. However it takes on the characteristics of an atonal mode
if they are articulated on f, band d, playing the role of a
tonic-triad.
Better yet, even when incorporated into a perfect
triad, the tonic of the mode could possibly not be the root
of the triad.
In this expanded concept of modal tonic, the mode
finds its axis on the third, or fifth of its perfect triad.
Such is the case with the modal scale of Fin the diatonic
set of C, when it is articulated on d f a taken as tonic.
The distinction between fundamental modes and derived
modes will clarify all of these concepts through the following
principle which serves to define them:
EVERY MODAL SCALE CONTAINS ONE SINGLE FUNDAMENTAL MODief,
THAT ONE OF WHICH ITS INITIAL TONE IS'THE ROOT OF THE TONIC
PERFECT TRIAD.
ALL ITS OTHER MODES ARE DERIVED.
EXAMPLES: modal scales of Fin the diatonic
set of C:
IV,4
217
fig. 58
fundamental Mode derived Mode derived Mode of the

mode from the from the seventh harmonic
fundamental mode fundamental derived from
of A mode of D the fundamental
mode of G
5. Classification of Fundamental Modes

The initial tone of a modal scale will serve to deter-
mine the mode: if it is the fundamental tonic [. root of the
tonic perfect triad or fifth] the mode! is fundamental.
This fone also determines major and minor fundamental
modes, polar modes, neutral modes, and atonal fundamental
modes.
In major fundamental modes, the initial tone of the
·modal scale is the tonic and root of a major triad, such as
·.
the mode of C in the diatonic set without key signature, in
which c is the tonic-root of c e ~-
In minor fundamental modes, the initial tone of the
modal scale is the tonic and root of a minor triad, such as
the mode of E, where e is the tonic-root of the minor triad
,I
2
a c· e.
When the perfect triad on the modal tonic is binarx,
by,virtue of the coexistenc~hi~ its fifth of a major and
'
---------
I
'
I
,IV,4
218
a minor third, it can be the origin of two different funda-
mental modes successively: the one based on the lower tonic,
which is major, the other based on the upper tonic which is
minor.
In the set proper to the usual C minor scale, such
are the major mode a b b £ d e b f ~ a b articulated on a b
c eb, and the minor mode eb d dbb cb !b ~ f eb articulated
on ab cb eb.
fig •. 59
On the other hand, when the tonic of the modal scale

is at the same time tonic-root of a major triad, and tonic-
root of ·a minor triad such as St. in the triads £ eb s_ and .s_
b d, the two triads find themselves placed at the two ex- /
tremes of the modal scale, as its two·symmetrical poles.
Simultaneously major and minor -as a result of its two
inverted tonic roots, the mode can be called polar.
Such, is the case with the fundamental mode g ab b c
b
d ~ f s_ of the preceding set, simultaneously major on s_ b
d and minor on c eb g.
fig. 60
Unique in its constitution, the polar mode has a

double interpretation. It is the sole example of an exception
IV ,4
I
I
219
, to the principle of a singular fundamental mode for a given
modal scale.
When a mode begins or ends on the inferior tonic or

the superior tonic of a neutral fifth without a third, it is
neutral.
) Such are three of the modes of the Chinese pentatonic
scale: c d f ~ a con c - ~; d c a ~
and~ a c d f ~i ~hich is polar on g - d and c - ~-
fig.
Finally, if the tonic is neither the inferior root of

a major triad, neutral or binary chord, nor the superior root
of an inverted minor triad, neutral or binary chord, then the
mode in its fundamental form can only be atonal.
Such is the case with the modal scale of Din the
diatonic set without accidentals. This view of the mode of D

was already familiar at the time of Glareanus, who refers to
it in his Dodecachordon (1547). Articulating it on d f b
d, this scale allows us· to confront a fundamental mode whose
tonic Dis neither the tonic-root of~ b d whose root is g,#
nor d f a whose inverted root is a. However, it does not
collapse with usage, since the tra_di tional mode of D articu-
lated on d f ~, finds its place here as a mode deriyed from
the fundamental mode of A.
5. Classification of Derived Modes

IV,4 '
220
Modes are derived if their modal scale does not have as

an axis, a tonic-root which is major, minor, neutral or atonal.
Except for polar modes, and neutral modes which, by
definition cannot be but fundamental, derived modes respond to
all of the modal categories.
If they are major or minor, the tonic of their modal
scale is centered on the fifth, the third, or in some cases
the cadential seventh of a perfect triad.
If not, then they can embrace all the varieties of
tonic, from a single tone to the most complex of multiple tonics,
whereas only the identity of the initial tone of the modal scale
with the tonic-root of a perfect triad can engender a funda-
mental mode, major, minor, or of the harmonic seventh or ninth. -~
6. Harmonic Modes
Even though it is one of the most unstable chords in
the half-tone projection, the cadential seventh chord can in
fact constitute a tonic with the same right or an even greater
one than any other aggregation appropriate to its context.
One must not overlook its proximity to the chord of
the harmonic seventh, formed of the 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th
harmonics of a fundamental pitch. So, if the chord which is
most closely related to it in the half-tone projection is un-
stable, it is not so in natural values.
In the harmonic series, the stability proper to the
I
perfect triad begins to disappear with ti.~e harmonic seventh
chord; but it really disappears in favour of manifest insta-
bility with the appearance of the harmonic eleventh chord. 3
3
Cf. I 4 3.
IV, 4
221
--
/ We may choose then, if cadential and harmonic sevenths
are deemed to be the same, to give the chord~ b d f the
strength of a tonic chord, with all of the strengths, suspensive
i
and ~ven conclusive, that the tonic chord possesses.

But we should avoid with utmost rigour the use of
i
an~( element that would give thf' chord even the slightest sug-
ge~tion of its cadential for:,{ by using a perfect triad of
'
cardinal termination. The slightest suggestion of c e ~
would compromise any tonal function awarded~ b d f.

Thus are defined major modes of the harmonic seventh,
and their inverted minors.
The same ambiguity allows us to envisage modes of the
ninth harmonic, such as those which inscribe themselves on the f
chord ~ b d f ~, under the same conditions of permanence.
As with all other tonal modes, the mode
4
of the harmonic
!
p, seventh or ninth is fundamental if the tonic root\of
,, its chord
1~''.
is the tonic of its modal scale. In the converse;:; situation, it

/ is derived.
7. [ Modal ] Terminology
In the case of derived modes, it is necessary to spe-
cify the modal scale and the mode.
Thus, for the usual diatonic mode of D, having its
I
traditional axis on d f ~, one would specify that he is speak-
ing of the modal scale of Din the mode D F A: similarly,
4
Cf. notably Debussy, Nua es, Pour la danseuse aux
crotales; Honegger, Cahier rom-a-nd..,,....._n_o rr;-ana Sept Pieces°"breves,
(no 4), etc.
l
I
IV,4
222
reference to the usual mode of E, having its traditional axis
one ~ b becomes: the modal scale of E in the mode of E G

B.
I
These formulae are necessary here in order to avoid
all ambiguity, and they are indispensable to the study of less
familiar sets.
On the other hand, the fundamental mode is the same as
its modal scale, since, except for polar modes whose tonics are
doubly fundamental, engendering two fundamental modes, there
exists only one fundamental mode for each tone of the set.
Where fundamental modes are concerned, we need not
refer to the modal scale; and if, in a given set, c plays the
role of tonic-root of a perfect triad complete, incomplete or
complex, or tonic of an atonal fundamental mode, the mode of
which it is the axis will simply be "the fundamental mode of
C" •
8. Modulations
Let us recall that "modulate" in the pure sense of the
word means to pass from one mode to another.
The progressive disaffection for modes other than C
, I
had rid this word of its true meaning, giving it the meaning of
a pure and simple transposition to another key.
With the re-appearance of modes and modal functions,
modulation must take back its etymological meaning: the pas-
sage from one mode to another of the same set is a modulation.
The passage from one key to another of the same or a different
set, by virtue of the same etymological process, is a dis-
IV ,4
223,
placement. 5
Ci vcn a melody in a certain set, modulation would con-
sist ~1en of an imitation of this on the other degrees of this

same set.
But the imitation is all-the-more pleasing if it
retains the placement of ioolodic accentuations on the essential
tonal functions. As we have seen, modulating scales 6 , as much
as possible, conform to this resolve by'assuring an equality
in the number of degrees between the tonal functions of each ·
of the constituent perfect triads, These tonal functions--
root, third, fifth and where applic~le cadential seventh--
may be either inverted or shifted. It is enough that the
points of stress in a ~1.ody not lose contact with any of them.
I
9. The Cardinal Value of Modes

.
Some modes are more or les~ cardinal than others.
Their cardinal value is measured by the density of the tonic
or the tonic triad.
However, when comparing in abstraeto the different
modes of a set, it is convenient to lay each one out on the
same plane.
Where a tonal ~ is concemed, that is, a set con-
taining one or more perfect triads, the cardinal value of each 11
mode is measured according to the density of the tonic triad

if the mode itself is tonal, or according to the density of
5
c£. III 7 2.
6 cf. I I I 5 !· As we have said: they who are haunted
by the usual meaning of the word modulate ~:ay simply refer to
these as scales of modal imitation.
IV 4
'l
I'
224
the neutral or atonal chord of the same number of tones--three

ll
t
--that serves to support it.
Therefore, in the diatonic set of C, the cardinal value
of the fundamental modes of C and E which is eleven, that of
I
the fundamental modes of F and B which is ten, and that of the
fundamental modes of G and A which is nine, are all the same
as the cardinal values of the corresponding perfect triads.
For the atonal mode of D, the cardinal value is the same as
that.of the chosen atonal chord, for exampled f b, which is
nine cardinal units.
I
, Where a neutral set is concerned, containing only neutral
fifths at the exclusion of perfect triads, the cardinal value of
each mode is measured according to the density of the two tones
of the neutral tonic chord if the mode itself is neutral, or,
if it is atonal, according to the density of the atonal two-
tone chord which serves to support it.
EXAi."ll!P LE :
In the neutral set 34 32, in its version in

which C G is one of the most cardinal tonics, the
cardinal value of the C mode and the G mode is the
~ame as that of their common fifth c g, thatbis,
in this case, 4 t 4 = 8, that of the D 3nd Ab modes
the same as that of. their common fifth d +,#5!. ,
4 + 3 = 7, and likewise with the modes of F and B.
Cardinal table: 4 ! (2 1 1 2} 4 4 3 (1 l} 3 I
Finally, we shall consider an atonal set. Deprived of I
t
fifths, the cardinal value of each mod~ is that of the tonic f
I
with which the: scale opens and closes.
IV ,4
225
EXAMPLE:
In the fqllowing presentation•of the· set
g 15 11, the mos.t. cardinal mode is that of C;
the least cardinal are those of E and A.
Cardinal table: 3 2 (1) 1 (1 l 2 1 1) 1 (3) 2

The most cardinal modes, enriched by the high relative
i
" density of their structures, need only· follow the natural
penchant of cardinai affinities.
However, the others can only subsist with any vigour
I
~
by avoiding combinations of tones that will provoke the reap-
pearance of the most cardinal tonics, and by insisting on
r
--·-~----,certain tones, the most propitious to their persistence, ac- I
cording to the resources pf re-enforcement.
I
10.
---- -- - ----
Cardinal and Non-cardinal Modes
7
---
As we have seen, re-enforcement plays its most ef-
fective role in the establishment of modes, by strengthening
'
the cardinal density of the aggregation serving as tonic.
But this effectiveness varies according to the modes,
whi;'ch can be divided into two c/tegories: cardinal modes,
th,ose which are of. highest c /ainal density or are able to
7
airive at this condition through appropriate re-enforcement of
one or more of the constituent tones; and !!.2!:,-Cardinal modes
those which cannot achieve cardinal supremacy, no matter what
7cf. IV 2 7.
IV,4
226
amount of re-enforcement be applied.

. . 8
We shall see that all of the .diatonic modes are cardi-
nal, except for the unique atonal mode and its derivations.
EXAMPLES: In the aformentioned neutral
set 34 32, all of the modes are cardinal. In
fact-;-inaddition to the modes articulated on
C and G, which are themsel¥es the most cardinal,
the modes articulated on F and B achieve cardi-
nal supremacy by the double ,e-enforcement of b,
owing to the density of b f (5 + 6 = 11) which
surpasses that of c ~ (6 +-4 = 10).
'
Cardinal table: 4 4 (2 1 1 2) 4 4 3 (1 1) 3
Re-enforcement
of b: 2 2 2 2 2
Re-enforced car- ...
dinal table: 6 4 (2 1 3 2) 6 4 3 (1 3) 5
Such is al o i511e case with the two modes

artigulated on D5 A by the double re-enforcement
of a.
On the other hand, in the atonal set 31
15 11, apart from thebatonal mode of C, only
tneatonal modes of E and A can become cardi-
nal through triple re-enforcement of the tonic;
but the cardinal instability of the entity is
considerably increased.
Cardinal table: 3 2 (3) 1 (~ 1 2 1 3) 1 (~) 2

Re-en~orcement
of e : 3 3 3 3 3
Re-enforced car-
dinal table: 3 2 (6) 4 (6 1 2 1 f) l (.§_) 2
I
Cardinal table: 3 2 (~) 1 (3 1 2 1 3) l (~) 2
Re-enforcement
of a: 3 3 3 3 3
Re-enforced car-
dinal table: 3 2 (f) 1 (f 1 2 1 f) 4 (f) 2
IV ,4
221
Thus, cardinal modes benefit of a privileged situation

which allows them to relegate the others to a position of
second rank, without there being any question whatsoever of
abandoning them, since their ambiguity can be appreciated for
itself.
The discrimination of cardinal and non-cardinal modes,
as well as the determination of the tones to be re-enforced
will be facilitated by the use of Modal Tables.
11. Modal Tables

Modal tables have as their goal to determine which
tones or groups of tones need to be r~-enforced in order to
' '
endow the cho$en modal tonic with the maximum cardinal density.
For a given .mode of a given set, they consist of the
cardinal relationships of each of the constituent tones with
the chosen tonic, and with the aggregation that prolongs it.
But, awareness of the particularly cardinal tones of
the other modes is equally necessary, in order that their
use might be limited.
To this end, it will be useful to set up in advance,
a Modal Table of Tones, in which the cardinal value of each
of the twelve chromatic tones appears, and a Modal Table of
Perfect Triads, in which for each perfect triad, the most
ca~dinal tones and perfect triads appear.
Modal Table of Tones /

,i
,
,I
[ see chart on page 228]
, IV ,4
1,
'i;
!
228 I
db eb i b bb b
C d e f f 9. a
-a
-b e i bb b
bl)• • ••• • • C
I:, ••••••• - e f -b a ~ b r
t,
~ ....... - d -b ~ ~ a ~ t·
a ••••••• - db e
;# 9:. ~
a \
t
gl .•..... g_' d 9:. a
I ....... db f p 9:. b
!
f
r ........ C -b e f p ~b I
~D ••••••• -- e f a b I (
~
- ab bb
~- ...... -
e •••••••
db
d
d ~
e
e
;# 9:. -a
I
d ••••••• £
C • • • • • • • • C
~
d
d
f .9:.
;b
b
13. Modal Table of Perfect Triads
u;ee tables on pages 229_)
14. Effects of Re-enforcement on Modal Scales

In an attempt to facilitate modal classification
within each set considered in abstracto, we have adopted a
definition of "fundamental mode" which is purely tonal rather
than cardinal. It depends on the role of the initial tone
of the modal scale as the root of a perfect triad or a fifth.
So, the fundamental tonic triad thus defined does not
generally represent the most cardinal constituent tones of
the seti and within this set, other chords with the same number
of tones will most often exceed it.in pardinal value.
The result is that fundamental modes are almost al-
ways less cardinal than certain derived modes, duly re-enforced.
However, the most cardinal tonic triad in turn forms
-. IV, 4
229
MAJOR T.RIADS
Most Most cardinal triads

I Cardinal
tones
I Non- ·j
cardinal
tone
major I minor
~ J
fl j p #j ~ I #~~
I
pa • ~ J ~J !
b-~ I~ § 11ITT@¥J
@~ J
,
~ i§ I §
~- ff§
@)
j I #§ ti=1
~ I ~J
6
I
~w ~ 6~ .j ~~ I c@ t~ I BFooJJid l
--· -i
·~ i
~ ~
!
~ I J #J J I #§ I ~tijj #~ ''
'~
@) ~ I ~ ~ #J ~ ~ I Ii
!
rn ,lo,
~1 i~
&§ ~ ~ ~~ I ~I
§
I ~~
@)
J ~w
/\
@ Ii
@)
~
iJ
~j ~
J I ~§ 11 I I m
~
@} n I ~~ j w Sr:~ w I~ W±i+~&24=1
~ H~ ~
i #§ I J ~ I ~ #§ I g)JtqtJ
I;
@)
g§ I ~ ~ &J ~~ 1d Ii ~§ I -$¥¥§ I
~@}
~
-15-
I ~ ~ -~
~ ~~ I § I l ~=#1
IV,4
230
MINOR TRIADS
Most j Non- j Most cardinal triads

I cardina~
to ej
cardinal
tone
.
maJor
I .
minor
f'1µrfJ@1 W I ~
PIJWhjJI J ikig~
&§ I
@) .
J JJ J ffJ I ffi 1 §! ~
PlpJ&J&J~ J lg§t§k§I~
@1>~,J~J.Ji J 1~§1
-p_ ~
j~lfJ~~I ~J~ li§Ji§l~ffiG
' ~8:==J
I l I
'&§i"i,.iJJ "1§ 1 g§IEsi

~
~ J~
'.\ -1. ) 1 1,1
§ I <i " #el I •~ i1 ii @--#B

&,~1&.JWpJI
@)
JI@~
~-§-r-1
,-,111'---: □ .....::::::::-1~-=t-J_:::::::-_:i::-1_:::::::-#§--,.,,..tt•ff=W.----,-/M § i
_::::::::r-J~1,---J-~J---+-
~ I 1,J ~w J W ~ I t§ CLq~
,,_____--1--J.__..-&W""°"~-J
__ J_..:::=--===-"'---J_,.==rl-=::;i$~ 1
IV~4 -&
I
I
I
231
a whole whose conditions of stability are easily discerncd. 9
And the above considerations take nothing in particular away
from the value of the perfect triad considered in isolation as

it retains all of the conclusive power that was cardinally
demonstrated.
For a modal scale not articulated on a tonic triad,
',
-· re-enforcement of the initial tone alone will nec,b,ssarily pro-

vide cardinal supremacy for all aggregations formed with this
,,l
tone'and the constituent tones of the aggregation. And these
aggregations will surpass the constituent perfect triads, even
in tonally stable sets where the latter attain their highest
cardinal value. The former, then, can be adopted as the
most cardinal tonics, under the reservations cited above.
EXAMPLE: In the diatonic set of C, in

which the perfect triad c e g is not sur-
passed in cardinal value~ double re-enforcement
of c [ in modal scale of C J will provide cardi-
nal-supremacy for c f ~, £ f b, and c g b.
Cardinal table: 4 (2) 3 (2) 4 3 (3) 3 (2) 3 (3) 3
Re-enforcement
of c: 2 2 2 2 2
Re-enforced c a r d i - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
nal table: 6 (4) 3 (2) 4 5 (3) 5 (2) 3 (3) 5
Also, if the modal scale is articulated on a determined

tonic triad, the re-enforcement of its constituent tones will
give cardinal supremacy to the tones of the set which are most
cardinal in their relationship with the chord. But, considered
for itself, the ensemble of these tones remains cadential on
the tonic triad.
9cf. IV 3 9 to 14.
IV ,4
232
Finally, for a same tonic triad of a same set, the
fundamental mode will be less cardinal than one of its derived

modes if the initial tone of the derived modal scale is at all
affected by the re-enforcement necessary to the tonal permanence
'
of this chord.
As we shall see, this is why the modal scale of C in
I
the diatonic set of C, articulated on c f ~, forms a derived
mode more cardinal than the fundamental mode of F articulated
on f a c. This is also true of the modal scale of D articul-
ated on d ~ bin relation to the modal scale of G articulated
on _g_ ,b d.
In order to provide an example of the modal resources
proper to each set, we shall study the different modes of the
'diatonic set. An examination of their cardinal tables will
not be fruitless, as familiar as they are. 10
15. The Diatonic Set of C: Its Modal Tables

We are dealing here with c d e f 9'. a b.
MODAL TABLE OF CONSTITUENT TONES
-C d
-e f 9'. -a b
b ••.. .. . . - C
-ee b
a ••••• ... d a
-
g .•.• ... . C a 1
f ... . . . . . -
e. .. . . . . . -
C
-ee f
I
,, d. ... . . . . d - 9'..i -aa b f
f
•.:• .... f g - b
C• •
-
C
r
t
!
10
cf. another example of modal analysis in my article
'
[
t
"Substance de la Composition musicale et mutations harmoniques,
. IV ,4
l
. 233
MODAL TABLE OF ,TONIC TRIADS (limited to fundamental tonics):
Constituent tones Most cardinal

constituent
fig. 64 densest I least perfect triads
~-~+==---===-~J-+-?--.-_J_1r-:=:._den_s_e~---,.--_-~..+-59B
I J JI ~ §
i ~
~ J IJ ~I
1 I ~
i@)
§ I~ ~ JI ~~
~ IJ ~ ~ JI I~ i d
' ~
~ JI ·~ ~I
,,,._
' 0
t i IJ J
rythmiques et melodiques", which appeared in the issue of
Polyphonie devoted to 11 Compositional techniques" (Richard
Masse, publisher, Paris, 1953).
IV, 4
234 ,
I
16.
------ -- -
The Diatonic Set of C: Its Modal Scales on C
Before examining the modal scales of a set, all of the

possible tonics must be sorted out on the basis of whether or
not they support a "cardinal mode".
In the diatonic set, re-enforcement of the chord c d
~, selected as tonic for example, only accentuates its cardi-
nal inferiority in relation to other combinations of three
constituent tones:
Cardinal table: 4 (2) 3 (2) 4 3 (3) 3 (2) 3 (2) 3

Re-enforcement
Of c: 2 2 2 2 2
of d: 2 2 2 2 2
of e: 2 2 2 2 2
Re-enforced car-
dinal table: 6 (6) 5 (6) 6 7 (3) 7 (2) 7 (2) 7 I
I
• i
Such tonics are perfectly admissible; and they even I
constitute one of the most characteristic expressions of what
we refer to as the "modal style". But 1 the uncertainty of
their foundation defies all examination.
Only the others [ ones that can achieve cardinal
supremacy] will concern us here.
If we restrict ourselves to tonics comprising three
tones, of which there are thirty-five in the diatonic set,
only eighteen can achieve-cardinal.supremacy
,
through re-
enforcement of their constituent tones. These will be the
ones on which we shall focus our attention in the tonal
analysis of the various diatonic modal scales.
In the modal scales of C in the diatonic set of C,
IV ,4
235 I
I
the double re-enforcement of£, whose. chart appeared in para-

graph 14, allows the following classification, in decreasing
cardinal order, of the eight tonics which, alone among the
fifteen three-tone tonics of which each of the diatonic modes
12
is capable, 11 can achieve cardinal hegemony:
C g
C b
C b
C e g £,
C
-C e f £,
e b £, and finally
C d g c, and
C r a c.
Note the presence here of the second inversion c f a

which, as we shall see when dealing with the modal scales of
F, serves as a tonal articulation to a derived mode more
satisfactorily than to the fundamental mode centered on f a
c.
Each of the modal scales of C, as defined by its tonic,

will contain the modal tones peculiar,to it.
Hence!, the fundamental mode of £, articulated on c
e ~ £, will have as the essential elements of its harmony,
the aggregations composed of the most cardinal constituent
11A seven-tone set, such as the diatonic set, con-

. ·tains 35 possible combinations of 3 different tones. But each
of its modes contains only 15 three-tone tonics. In effect
the initial tone of the ,mode, according to the definition
given, is necessarily an integral part of each of these three-
tone tonics; and, the 20 combinations of three tones which do
not ~ontain it are excluded here.
12
Let us recall again here what was said in paragraph
14: they do not necessarily constitute the most stable chords,
when they are considered in isolation.
IV,4
236
tones .of c e g_, that is, £, !_, g_, b, and the perfect con-
stituent triads of highest cardinality in relation to c e
.9:.: .9:, b d, f a .£, and ~ g b.

In the diato~ic set of C, £ e g was already the
most cardinal perfect triad, along with its inversion a c
e; simple re-enforcement of c is sufficient to assure its
preponderance over the latter as well.
17 •. The Diatonic Set of C: Its Modal Scales on E
Carq.inal table: 4 (2) 3 (2) 4 3 (3) 3 (2) 3 (3) 3

Re-enforcement
of• e: 2 2 2 2 2
Re-enforced car-
dinal table: 4 (2) 3 ( 4) 6 5 (3) 3 (2) 5 (3) 5
CARDINAL HIERARCHY OF THREE-TONE TONICS:
-ee f
f
a
E"
~I
~I
e a .b then
~I
a e,
-ee f -CC I
-e b -C ~I
:::_, and finally
- -
b and
-ee g
a d
~I
e.
-
No matter what re-enforcement be applied, none of the
other seven possible three-tone tonics can achieve cardinal
supremacy.
Let us underline the presence of the perfect triad~
g_ £ which serves as a tonal articulation to a derived mode
more satisfactorily than to the fundamental mode of B, as we
IV,4
237
shall see when studying the modal diatonic scales of B.
CARDINAL HARMONY OF THE FUNDAMENTAL MODE:
Most cardinal constituent tones of the tonic a C e: I
!
I
[:
Most cardinal perfect triads of a c e:
t !
d f ~, ~ ~ b, and f a c. 11
I
iI
f '
Re-enforcement indisoensable to tonal hegemony:
11
Simple re-enforcement of e suffices to t.
assure the supremacy of a c e over its F
relative c e ~, the only one-among the 't.
constituent perfect triads that manages to f
equal it in cardinal value, in the dia- ~
tonic set of C. !I
!
!
18. The Diatonic Set of C: Its Modal Scales on G '
·- 1'
..,.._ i
i
r'
41 µ J #J j
'
fJj J
I
f
#J J J #J f
t
r
l
Re-enforcement
3 (3) 3 (2) 3 (3) 3
Ir
of~: 2 2 2 2 2
Re-enforced car- t
dinal table: 6 (2) 5 (2) 4 3 (5) 5 (4) 3 (3) 3
f
CARDINAL HIERARCHY OF THREE-TONE TONICS: r
~ c d g_, then II
i
g c e 9'_, then t
f
f
g b d 9'_, and finally t
g b e 9'..
No matter what amount of re-enforcement be applied,
none of the other eleven possible tonics can achieve cardinal/
supremacy. l
We find here again the perfect triad c e g whose I

second inversion supports a modal scale as satisfying as the
IV, 4
238
fundamental modal scale of C, since the re-enforcement of s_

has the same effect on it as·re-enforcement of c would have.
Let us also point.out the perfect triad! g b which
here, in first inversion·, articulates a mode which is the
least cardinal of all the diatonic modes of this chprd
.. because of the lack of effect that re-enforcement of 2. has
on it.
Most cardinal constituent tones of.the tonic 2.· b d:
2,, 2., and £·
.Most cardinal constituent perfect triads of 2. b d:
£ ! 2. alone.
Non-cardinal constituent tone: f,. which renders the
tonic chord.cadential, ancfshoula not be used unless
warily, when a. harmoni•c mode on g:_ . b d f . 2. is
· involved.
Indispensable re-•:mforcement !.2E_ tonal· hegemony:
Cardinal table: 4 (2) 3. (2) 4 3 (3): 3 (2) 3 (3) 3

Re-enforcement·•
of d: 3 3 3· 3 3
of 2.= · 1 1 1 . 1.1.
Re-enforced car- .
dinal table: 5 (5). ·7 (5) 4 3 (4) 7 (3) 6 .(3) 3
Re-enforced table of tonal gravity: ..

In Major: 16(11 17 .15 10)14(12)17(13 15 13 12)
Inv. Minor: (11 15 IT· 11)15(11 14I7' 12)16(12)14
The primordial necessity of re-enforcing d reveals
. .
the cardinal superiority ov~r. cur fundamental.mode of the

modal· scale of D. articulated on d g b. 13 [ see page·· 239]
IV,4
239
19. The Diatonic Set of C: Its Modal Scales on A

(by virtue of a chart with double re-enforc·ement of a
which is symmetrical to the. previously prepared table
for the re-enforcement of~).
-a. d -e ~I
then
-a - C
-e ~I then
-a d f a, and finally
-a -C f a.
No matter what amount of re-enforcement is applied,
none of the other eleven possible tonics can achieve cardi-
nal supremacy.
Note the presence of the perfect triad a c e as a
tonal articulation of a mode on A as satisfying as the funda-
mental mode on E, since the re-enforcement of a produces
comparable effects to the re-enforcement of e.
Finally, note the first inversion chord a c f whici
here supports the least cardinal of all the diatonic modes
articulated on f a c because of the inefficacity of the
re-enforcement of a on the chord so incorporated.
CARDI~AL HARMONY OF THE FUNDAMENTAL MODE:
Most cardinal constituent tones of d f a:
Most cardinal perfect triads of d f a:

a c e only.
Non-cardinal constituent tone: b, which renders
13
see in IV 3 6 the cardinal equivalence of the per-
fect triad and its second inversion.
IV, 4
240
the tonic d f a cadential and which ought to

be used only warily, unless a harmonic mode on
a b d f a is involved.
- - - -
Re-enforcement indispensable to tonal hegemony:
By virtue of a re-enforcement table sym-
metrical to the one prepared for the funda-
mental mode on G, the indispensable re-enforce-
ments are: triple re-enforcement of d, simple
re-enforcement of a. -
The primordial necessity of re-enforcing d renders
the modal scale of D articulated on d f ~ more cardinal,
thus explaining and justifying the t,raditional presentation
of the diatonic mode on D.
20. The Diatonic Set of C: Its Modal Scales on F
,"
Cardinal tab.le: 4 (2) 3 (2) 4 1 (3) 3 (2) 3 (3) 3

Re-enforcement
off: 2 2 2 2 2
Re-enforced car-
dinal table: 6 (2) 3 (2) 6 5 (5) 3 (2) 3 (5) 3

f c e f, then
·. f a c f, and finally
1
f a d f.

none of the other twelve possible tonics can claim cardinal
sup;l='emacy.
Note the articulation of the modal scale of Fon f
ad f which constitutes the least cardinal diatonic mode of
-;- -
the perfect triad d
I
f
IV ,4
I
241
...
Most cardinal constituent tones of the tonic f a c:
---
f, c, and~-
Most cardinal constituent perfect triads of the tonic

fa c: - ---
c e g and a c e.
Indispensable re-enforcements for tonal hegemony:
Cardinal table: 4 (2) 3 (2) 4 3 (3) 3 (2) 3 (3) 3

Re-enforcement
of c: 2 2 2 2 2
of e: 2 2 2 2 2
off: 1 1 1 1 1
Re-enforced car- I
dinal table: 7 (4) 3 (4) 7 8 ( 4). 5 (2) 5 (4) 7
In Major: 19(14 12 12 16)20(12)15(13 16 15 15)

Inv. minor: (17 13 12 13)18(16 14 16 13)16(12)19
The primordial necessity of re-enforcing£ renders
the modal scale of C articulated on c f ~, a second inversion
chord cardinally equal to f a £, 13 more cardinal.
21. The Diatonic Set of C: Its Modal Scales on B
CARDINAL HIERARCHY OF THREE-TONE TONICS

(by virtue of a chart of double re-enforcement of b, sym-
metrical to the chart previously prepared for the-double
re-enforcement off):
b C e b, then
13
[ see in IV 3 6 the cardinal equivalence of the per-
fect triad and its second inversion. J
IV ,4
242
b e ~ b, and finally
b d ~ b.
No matter what re-enforcement is applied, none of the

other twelve possible tonics can attain cardinal supremacy.
Note the articulation of the modal scale of Bon
b d g b wqich constitutes the least cardinal diatonic
mode of the perfect triad~ b d.
Most cardinal constituent tones of the tonic e
---- ------ --- - -- --- g b:
Most cardinal constituent perfect triads of the tonic

e ~ b:
a c e and c e g.
Re-enforcements indispensable to tonal hegemony:
(by virtue of a chart of re-enforcement symmetrical to f
the one previously prepared for the fundamental mode f
of f) : 1
' - Double re-enforcement of c and e, and simple l
t
I
're-enforcement of b - -
The primordial necessity of re-enforcing e renders the .
m:"al scale of E articulated/ e 5, b e more cardinal, ex- . I

plaining and justifying the/traditional presentation of the
diatonic mode of e.
'22. The Diatonic Set of C: Its Modal Scales on D
Cardinal table: 4 (2) 3 (2) 4 3 (3) 3 (2) 3 (3) 3

Re-enforcement
of d: 2, 2 2 2 2
I Re-enforced car-
I
dinal table: 4 (4} 5 (4) 4 3 (3) 5 (2) 5 (3) 3
IV, 4
243

d a ~, and then
d b d, and d f a d.

none of the other twelve possible tonics can achieve cardi-
nal supremacy.
We find here again the most satisfactory represent-
ations of the modes articulated on g b d and d f ~, as
we have said.
Most cardinal constituent tones of the tonic d f b:
c and e.
Most cardinal constituent perfect triads of d f b:
c e g and a c e.
This is the only non-cardinal mode among all of the
fundamental modes of the diatonic set of C, and its harmony
is among the most uncertain, since the re-enforcement of its
modal tones c and e affect other constituent chords that
are already more cardinal, more than it affects its own tonic.
23. Conclusions
The modal problem is, connected to the tonal problem /
since what characterizes each mode of a given set is, above
all, its tonic triad.
This tonic will be chosen on one hand on the basis
of the resources it presents when considered·as an isolated
entity, and on the other, on the basis of the reciprocal
cardinal action that results from its presence in the set
IV,4
244
,
lT
into which it is incorporated. Whether we are ~ealing with
,.I
a complete perfect triad, a complex,.. or incomplete chord, an
atonal chord or a single tone, it is on this entity that we
base our choice of modal tones and chords, and it is its
density that determines the cardinal value of the mode, as
well as the conditions of its re-enforcement.
As we have said, the definition of "fundamental mode"
was selected as a convenience for classification. Never-
theless, the distinction between fundamental mode and derived
mode answers a deep necessity,' each time that the mode is
better re-enforced by tones other than its own tonic, as we
have just observed in the diatonic set, where the dominant
is best re-enforced, for certain tonic chords of certain
fundamental modes. The derived mode then takes precedence
over its fundamental version, b½us justifying certain plagal
modes, while at the same time explaining the usual figuration
of minor scales.
But, the essential distinction between modes of a
same set is that which separates cardinal from non-cardinal
modes. It creates between them an abyss that no re-enforcement
whatsoever can fill.
Here again, cardinal directives impose on each mode ·~
its proper verity. And it is the knowledge of these direc-
tives on which the manifestation of their secrets depends
most .
.IV ,4
CHAPTER V
TONAL RELATIONSHIP
1. Generalities
The relationship of an entity .concerns its own trans-
!
positions, and is determined by the order of their remoteness.
In the traditional system, there existed only one
''t
type of relationship, uniform for the major scale, minor t
!
l
scales, and perfect triads: the one resulting from the cycle I'
of fifths. t
t
'
fig. 65
l[
I
This cycle of fifths, whose inexactitudes and insuf- t
!
ficiencies have already been pointed out,

1
was not even al- I
ways; capable of regulating the order of relationships, par-
ticularly when going from major to minor, or minor to major.
I ''i
l
In actual fact; there 7e three types of relationship
I
~at ought to be substitute1/lor the cycle of fifths: . I'
t
:' (1) Tonal relationship, which is the relationship of
perfect triads among themselves and which can be applied to
any tonal entity, that is, we recall, any entity provided
<
l !
f
!
IV, 5 245 I I
246
with at least one perfect triad;
(2) Cardinal relationship, which is the relationship that

determines the degree of remoteness between transpositions of
an entity, and which differs for each one;
(3} Vicinal relationship, which fixes for each transpo-
sition the order of remoteness on the basis of common tones.
2. Tonal Relationship of Perfect.Triads

The tonal relationship of perfect triads stems from
the relationships of cardinal affinities among perfect triads
such as they appear in their tables of tonal gravity.
MAJOR TRIAD:
Cardinal table: (1 1 1) 1 (~ l} 2 (1 1
-2 0 ~)
....
In Major: 5 (4 3 3 4 5 2 5 4 3 3 4)
Inv. minor: (5 3 3 4 4 3 4 5 3 4 2 ~)
The relationship of the major triad

-C -e 9:. with the
other perfect triads can be set out in the following manner:
First of all,
with 5 relations of
fig•. 66 cardinal affinity,
then,
with 4 cardinal
fig. 67 relationships,
then,
IV,5
I
247
with 3 cardinal
fig. 68
relationships,
and finally, I
with only 2 cardinal

fig. 69 relationships.
MINOR TRIAD:
Cardinal table: 2 (1 2) 1 (1 1 1) 2 (2 0 1 1) 't

I"
!
Table of tonal gravity: ir
'
In Major: (5 4 3 4 4 3 3 5 5 2 4 3) I
Inv. minor: (5 2 5 4 3 3 4) 5 (4 3 3 4) I
l'
The relationship of the minor e b s_ triad with !
-
C
I
I
the other perfect triads can be set out as follows:
First of all,
with 5 cardinal
@)
then,
i
with 4 cardinal
then,
with 3 cardinal
IV,5
248
and finally,
with only 2 cardinal
fig. 73 relationships.t L'd ·
' l v l L.· 1· l 0
A comparison of two charts of relationships, one de-

rived from the cycle .of fifths, the other from the cardinal
relationships of the perfect triads among themselves, reveals
certain essential elements that are common to both, such as
the close relationship of the dominant and sub-dominant, or
the maximum remoteness of the tritone. But this comparison
also presents differences which reveal the error of an imprudent
generalization of the traditional cycle of transpositions.
However, this comparison may lead to soma confusion
against which one would do well to guard himself:
The cycle of fifths is not a genealogical tree. It
is an uninterrupted series of tonalities which are joined
together by the same interval relationship, the fifth, in
which each tonality can be taken in turn as the center from
which the same ~upposed order of its tonal relationships
radiates on either side, ascending and descending.
The charts of tonal relatignship of perfect triads
are veritable genealogical trees. They differ for each
perfect triad; and though. they are all transposable , none is
superimposable.
3. Tables of Tonal Relationships

However, a single chart, applicable to all major
triads, and a single chart applicable to all perfect minor
IV ,5
249
triads can be obtained, as a result of their tables of tonal
gravity of which these charts are only transpositions.

For the table of tonal relationships of the major
triad, we figure out first of all the cardinal density of
this triad, and to its right, we mention successively the
density of each of its transpositions by half-steps, whole-
steps, three half-steps etc. up to the transposition by
twelve half-steps which reproduces the initial density of
the triad. Beneath the major roots, we inscribe, under the
same conditions, the density of the minor triads that have
the corresponding inverted roots:
5 · ···c4 3 3 4 5 2 5 4 3 3 4) 5
(5 3 3 4 4 3 4 5 3 4 2 5 5)
The order of remoteness of tonal relationships is

given by the value of the cardinal densities.
The table of tonal relationships for the minor triad
is established according to the same criteria:
(5 5 2 4 3 5 4 3 4 4 3 3 ~)
5 (4 3 3 4 5 2 5 4 3 3 4) 5
Note that the first line of the major table and the
se6ond line of the minor table ar~ symmetrical in relation to
the center, since in realitte are dealing with the tables
of transpositional gravity,of the major and minor triads.
These two charts are absolutely general, since they
give for any entity whatsoever the order of tonal relationships
IV ,5
250
between it and any other, or the order of relationships rela-
tive to its own transpositions.
EXAMPLE: For any eBtity gaving as tonic

the perfect major triad a c e , the tonal
hierarchy of its transpositions, as well as
its translation into any other entity, is
established in the following manner:
In major:
fig. 74
5 {4 3 3 4 5 2 5 4 3 3 4) 5
In minor:
fig. 75
{5 3 3 4 4 3 4 5 3 4 2 5 5)
The transpositions or Eutatigns ;hat abe

tgnaelybcloBest w!ll be to db f a , ~ ~ b ,
~ f a , ~ £ e , and c e g_, all per~ect
triads having f~ve re ationships of cardinal
5
affinit¥ with a £ ~.#The most re~ote will
bed f a, and b d f , each of wh1cg has b
only two cardinal relationships with a c e .
IV,5
CHAPTER VI
THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE

TRANSPOSITIONS OF A SAME SET
1. Cardinal Relationship
To evaluate the cardinal relationship of the various
transpositions of the same entity, that is, the order of
their· proximity or remoteness in terms of cardinal values,
one need only refer to its table of transpositional gravity
which gives their successive densities.
So, for the diatonic set of c, whose table of trans-
1
positional gravity we recall here:
db b f
d e e
- '"'
b
-C .2.
b bb ab g
-a
23 (19 21 20 19 23 18)
the cardinal hierarchy of transpositions reveals first of all
transpositions on f and~ followed successively by those on

b-flat and d, ~-flat and~, d-flat, e, a-flat and b, and
finally g-flat.
It is the very order of the cycle of fifths, with
one level for transpositions of a half-tone and two whole-
tones, all four having an identical cardinal coefficient: 19. I
r
I
1cf. III 8 4.
I t
I
IV,6
r
251
f
252 .
I
For each set, there exists a porresponding order of
remoteness of its transpositions which is particular to it
alone, independent of the key or mode selected.

b ~
And so, for the usual minor scale c a e r
b £, whose table of transpositional gravity, as we have

sai.d , 1 is:
.
a C
_g
·b
e e d
21 (21 20 19 21 22 18)
this ·order becomes: [ considering c as tonic

22 cardi- 21 20 19 18
nal relationships
fig.
We now find ourselves quite a distance away from the
cycle of fifths that was customarily qpplied more or less

I
indistinctly •.to all diatonic scales, major and minor.
2. Vicinal Relationship
Between an entity and one of its transpositions, the
--- - - - - ---
number of common tones will
2
suffice to represent the degree
.
of vicinal relationship that exists between them.
Here is a case of a different kind of relationship,
more apparent, less subtle, and undoubtedly less profound than
1
[ cf. III 8 ! • ]
2cf. Th. Dubois, Traite d'harmonie, no. 73.
IV ,6
253
tonal or cardinal relationships.
Each of the twelve transpositions of a same set general-

ly contain a certain number of tones-that are common to others.
This is necessarily true when the set contains more than six
tones in the octave.
Tables of vicinal relationship are modelled on the
tables of transpositional gravity, 3 since they are equally
symmetrical.
!
In the table of vicinal relationship of the diatonic
scale, for instance:
7 (2 5 4 3 6 2),
or in that of the usual minor scale:

7 (3 3 5 4 4 4),
the first number indicates the number of degrees in the set,

the second indicates th~ number of common tones between the
original and its transpositions up and down a half-tone, the
third, the number of common tones with its transpositions up
and down a whole-tone, etc.
We notice that the order of vicinal relationships is
here again, for the diatonic scale and it alone, the same as
the cycle of fifths with one reservation: just as with car-
/
~inal relationships, one le/1 is established, placing on the
same pane
1 . .
transpositions ' D, A, Bb an d Eb
to ·
, maJor.
:
On the other hand, the order of vicinal relationships
of the usual minor scale, as was also the order of cardinal
relationships, is absolutely foreign to the traditional cycle.
3
cf. III 8 4 .
. IV ,6
254
3. The Identity [ absolute sameness) of the Tables of

Relationship of Two Symmetrical Sets
THE TABLES OF CARDINAL AL~D VICINAL RELATIONSHIP OF
TWO ENTITIES THAT ARE SYMMETRICAL TO ONE ANOTHER ARE IDENTICAL.
In fact, we need only observe that the relationship
tables of a given set are themselves symmetrical in their
transpositions, upward or downward. They are, then, neces-
sarily common to the inverted set of the first, where every-
thing that appears in one ascending appears in the second
descending.
4. The Identity [ absolute sameness J of the Order of

Relationships o f ~ Complementary Sets
FOR TWO SETS THAT ARE MUTUALLY COMPLEMENTARY, THE
ORDER OF CARDINAL RELATIONSHIPS OF THE TRANSPOSITIONS ON ONE
HAND, AND THE ORDER OF VICINAL RELATIONSHIPS ON THE OTHER,
ARE IDENTICAL.
This remarkable property derives from the fact that
the tables of cardinal gravity of two complementary sets are
4
themselves complementary. As we have seen, each number in
one is the complement of five units of the corresponding
number in the other. This is why each follows the destiny
of the other so rigourously, in their order of cardinal
relationships as much as in their order of vicinal relation-
ships.
The numbers will differ only when the two complement-
4 c£. III 22.

I
i
IV,6 ! f
255 I
ary sets do not have six degrees to tne octave.
,I
Regarding the cardinal relationships of two comple-
mentary sets, the densities of their respective transpo-
sitions are in a constant relationship: equal, if the sets
contain six tones, differing uniformly by 10 cardinal units
if the sets contain five and seven tones, by 20 cardinal
units if the sets contain four and eight tones, by 30 cardi-
nal units if they contain three and nine tones, and by 40
cardinal units if they contain two and ten tones.
As for vicinal relationships, the number of common
tones, is in an equally constant relationship: equal for sets
containing six degrees to the octave, differing uniformly
by 2 cardinal units if the sets contain five and seven degrees
to the octave, by 4 cardfnal units if the sets contain four
and eight degrees, by 6 if the sets contain three and nine
degrees, and by 8 if the sets contain two and ten degrees to
the octave.
EXAMPLE: The diatonic s'et and its c~mple-
mentary set, the Chinese pentatonic scale: "
Cardinal relationships:
Diatonic set: 23 (19 21 20 19 23 18)
Pentatonic set: 13 (9 11 10 9 13 8)
Vicinal relationships:
Diatonic set: 7 (2 4 4 3 6 2)
Pentatonic set: 5 (O 2 2 1 4 O}
5. Comparison of the Cycle of Fifths, and Tonal, Cardinal,

and Vicinal Relationships
In short, the cycle of fifths, which ordinarily
serv,es to characterize all cases of relationships between
IV,~
256
tonalities, is proper to one, and only one, entity, the set
,.t
21 11 12 11 11, the prototype of major and minor six-tone
scales, under the form of the diatonic scale with no leading-
tone, and whose tables of relationship are as follows:
Cardinal relationshie: 18 (13 16 15 14 17 12)
Vicinal relationship: 6 (1 4 3 2 5 0 )
It differs notably from the order of remoteness of

perfect triads, and only has an imperfect equivalence with
the order of cardinal and vicinal relationships of the dia-
tonic scale.
In reality, whether the relationship of their trans-
positions results from cardinal relationships or common tones,
the cycle of fifths remains absolutely foreign to almost the
entire gamut of possible scales.
Each scale in fact has its own cardinal genealogical
tree and its own vicinal genealogical tree both of which are
rigourously peculiar to it, by the order and the degree of
the remoteness of the relationships.
Certain ones have no closely-related tonality; others
have no remote tonalities; others have no intermediate to-
nality between the closely-related and remote tonalities.
According to the sets, the closest tonality can be placed at ··-.
the fifth as well as at the third or at the second. It even
happens, conversely to the cycle of fifths, that the closest
tonality is at the tritone, and the most remote at the fifth.
EXAMPLE:
257
21 21 21 21 52 31
fig. 77
51 12 21
In the set of limited transposition

21 21 21 21, the cardinal and vicinal relation-
ships are opposed. The three possible trans-
positions are particularly close in terms of
their cardinal relationship because of the
intensity of the attractive bonds which unite
them, and particularly remote in terms of -!
their vicinal relationship owing to the small ·- I
I
number of common tones: !
Table of cardinal relationships:

24 (28 ~) 24 (~ 28) 24
Table of vicinal relationship:
8 (4 4 ) 8 ( 4 4) 8
In the set 52 31, whose table of

cardinal relationship is 32 (29 24 22 25
29 30), the most cardinal and closest trans-
position is at the tritone, with 30 cardinal
units, the most remote are at the minor third
up or down with 22 cardinal units.
In the set 52 12 21, whose vicinal table
is 8 (5 5 6 -5-4 6), the transposition at
the-tritone is among the closest, owing to the
number of common tones, and the transposition
at the fifth up or down is the most remote.
The extreme variety of all these combinations is fur-

ther increased by the duality of cardinal and vicinal relatio£-
ships and by the superposition on these of the tonal relation-
ship proper to perfect triads.
IV,6
258
Everywhere, the ones and the others may be used. But,

each one preserves the distinctive signs with which its ori-
gin has marked it.
Tonal relationship, which is uniform for all sets,
finds its natural element in all music which is more or s
harmonized on the proper evolution of its own perfect triads.
Cardinal relationships, which are based on the
primary affinity of tones, are the property of the cardinal
style.
Vicinal relationships, which are born solely of
common tones, are particularly well-adapted to the atonal
and modal styles.
IV,6
CHAPTER VII
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIFFERENT SETS
1. Tonal Relationship Between Sets
Tonal relationship, in princifle, only concerns sets

that are eitl:l,er tonal or neutral, that is, containing either
a perfect triad or fifth.
There are two types: either we go from one set to
another by sliding toward a close tonality or a remote to-
nality of the same gender, or of inverted gender, according
to the very information contained in the general table of
relationships proper only to perfect triads; or, we use the
elements of the table of tonal gravity of the given set
itself. According to its density, among the twenty-four
major and minor triads which are included in it, we select
the'perfect tonic triad of the new set on the basis of either
its proximity tp, or its remoteness from the original set.
In the first case, th~/relationship is that one which
cardinally links the two su96essive tonic perfect triads.
I
In the second, the relationship is that one which
links the totality of tones of the original set, with the
· tonic perfect triad of the newly-chosen set.
The effect of relationship or of contrast all the
more accentuated as the selected tonic perfect triads are
IV, 7 259
260
more cardinal within each succeeding set. It is even more
accentuated if the order of relationships resulting from the
table of tonal gravity of the original set approaches the
one that is proper only to perfect triads.
2. Cardinal Relationship between Sets
Contrary to the above, cardinal and vicinal relation-
ships concern all sets, even atonal ones. Cardinal relation-
ship links the totality of the tones of two successive sets.
Here, the derived set is no longer selected fr.om

among just any non-atonal set. Its selection is conditioned
solely by the importance of the cardinal relationships which
are interwoven between it and the original set.
The most cardinal derived set consists of the ensemble
of tones most charged with cardinal attraction among all the
tones in the cardinal table of the original set.
The least cardinal derived set consists of the ensemble
of the least dense tones in this same cardinal table.
Between these two, the most proximate and the most
remote, there exists a series of intermediate sets whose degrees

of cardinal relationship vary with the average density of
their sets in relation to the original.
3. Vicinal Relationship Between Sets

The vicinal relationship between two distinct sets is
measured by the number of their common tones. I

They range from the intermediate relationship of two
sets, one of which is but a fragment of the other, to the ab-
solute contrast of two sets, which are complements of one
IV,7
261
another.
These relationships are most easily appreciated by
comparing the graphic figurations belonging to the two suc-
cessive sets.
4. Axial Relationship Between Symmetrical Sets

.:-,., ;.:, we h ave sai. d , l t h e axes o f symmetry o f t h e h a
11 ....
tone system occur regularly at semi-octave intervals .

.A symmetrical entity, then, has two axes of symmetry
per octave, a tritone apart, such as in the diatonic set of
C which is symmetrical on the one hand on the axis d, and on
the other, on the axis ~-flat; and every symmetrical set has
the same two axes of symmetry as its transposition at the
semi-octave.
Therefore, in the diatonic set of c, the axes of sym-
b
metry d and a-flat are common to d g a b and 5l.
-C -e f
-
ab bb cb db e b f.
The remoteness of these two transpositions of the

diatonic set is manifest, since they are at either pole of
tonal, cardinal, and vicinal relationship. Nevertheless,
they are brought a little closer together by their common
axes. 2
This relationship based on axes of symmetry is notice-
able particularly in certain harmonies based on successions
1
Cf. III 3 2.
2 In tradi ti;nal harm·ony, their common interval b f
also brings them a little closer together, through the en--
harmonic relationship of the dominant seventh on one hand,
and the augmented sixth chord on the other.
IV, 7
262
of relative major anq minor triads, evolving symmetrically

around a common axis. This is illustrated by the following
example. (The axis of symmetry is d).
fig. 78
This relationship can be extended, under the same con-

ditions, to all sets having the same axis.
Diatonic set of C:
-- -- -a b
-C d
-e f g
Its tritone transposition: ab bbcb db b f b b

- - e - g_ a
Set 21 21 21 21:
-a -
bb db eb .cb b
g_ g_
--
C .L
etc.
And so, as we have seen, 3 there exist but two types
of axes of symmetry: median axes, such as in the preceding,
where the axis is one of the tones, and intercalated axes, i
I
where the axis falls between two tones.

In sum, the totality of symmetrical sets are divided
into two vast categories of axial relationship: axial relation-
_.........,. of median symmetry, and axial relationship of intercalated
symmetry.
3
cf. II 3 1.
CHAPTER VIII
TEMPERED, NON-SEMITONAL PROJECTIONS
1. Quarter-tone Projections
The half-tone projection seemed to be the most favour-
able to harmony by virtue of its dynamism and its cohesion.
But, it is by no means unique.
The merits of the quarter-tone projection are far
from being negligible: it is not entirely uninteresting to
have at one 1 s disposal the scale consisting of the first
sixteen harmonics, and two half-tone projections a quarter-
tone apart.
This is cosmic music owing to the presence within
it of the totality of the first natural harmonics of all its
1
constituent tones, and owing to the .immaterial character
which is the property of the most fragmented tempered pro-
jections; quarter-tone music also holds the secret of most
savoury conjunctions.
It alone permits us to envisage successions of quarter-
tone music, and successions of half-tone music, the contrast
of which can be very striking: harmony of the spheres on one
hand, dialectic on the other.
But there could never be any question of having them
1 I
Exactly the first 21 harmonics, within one comma. I
Tl7 R
264
coexist in utter independence: either semitonal harmony would
triumph and the ear would seek to incorporate into the half-
tone projection the intermediate tones that hinder its under-
standing, or quarter-tone harmony would vanquish, and the
half-tone projection would be incorporated into it, no longer
following its own laws, but abiding by those that regulate
quarter-tones.
So, despite the same cardinal concepts, the two pro-
jections differ by the value of the chromatic interval of
attraction; and it is this difference alone which engenders
an entirely distinct cataloguing of cardinal, tonal, and
transpositional gravities.
2. Projections Foreign to the Perfect Triad

If the projection adopted does not contain a fifth,
within the margin of tolerance provided by the comma, does
the chromatic attraction to the nearest tone alone suffice
to erect an harmonic system?
Yes, in principle, but these harmonies, the only ones
that are truly atonal, are irremediably deprived of the
breath of life that emanates from the first intervals in the
natural harmonic series, unless these be altered by more than
one comma.
Such is the case with the third-of-a-tone, as in the
tempered projections containing twenty-three, sixteen,
thirteen and eleven tones to the octave, as well as with all
I
projections having less than eleven equal intervals to t,,~e
octave.
IV,8
265
The presence of a single fifth, on the other hand,
suffices to re-es·tablish the lines of cardinal force in all

their fullness.
,i
If we limit ourselves to projections which ignore
the perfect triad while containing a fifth, there are three
projections which enter into account here: those of ten,
fourteen and twenty tempered tones per octave.
As a result of the law of dynamism of tempered pro-
jections, the first one finds itself in a privileged position.
It is strictly the most dynamic of all the cardinal
proje,ctions, since in it we have the least fragmented. Also,
it realizes the unique concordance of a music that the
absence of a major-minor antinomy neutralizes, and that
nevertheless, the vigour of cardinal contrasts carries to a
maximum of attractive intensity.
However, let us not forget that, being deprived of
a perfect triad, these projections lose the tonal plenitude
resulting from the natural afflux of the first harmonic cur-
rents, at the same time as the savour of the contrast of
their inverted minors.
3. Projections of Intervals Smaller than the Quarter-tone

With projections of intervals smaller than the quarter-
tone, the extreme limit of which is, practically, 1/56 of an
octave, the equivalent of the comma, cardinal relationships
become atrophied.
However, this tendency is progressive; and the least
fragmented among these can be used, if their loss of dynamism
IV,8
266
is not considered a blemish.
With this reservation in mind, the most effective are

undoubtedly those in sixths- and eighths-of-a-tone, the first
of which contains the half-tone projection, and the second of
which contains the half-tone and quarter-tone projections
simultaneously. They are in effect capable of alternations,
at times striking, of the dynamism proper to the half-tone
projection, and the evanescence of the others.
All of the considerations concerning the adaptation
of cardinal laws to the other projections are equally valid
here~
However, the notion of stability is also altered, and
there is a tendency towards inertia.
2
As we have pointed out, the instability of the har-
monic series is manifested no longer from the seventh harmonic
onward, as in the preceding projections, but further along -~
the course of its development. It varies according to the
projections. In some, as for instance projections of sixths-
of-~-tone, instability begins with the ninth harmonic. In
others, even later, as for instance in the harmonic series in
natural values, with the eleventh harmonic, or the thirteenth

harmonic in the eighth-of-a-~ projection.
The adoption of projections more fragmented than the
quarter-tone projection can consequently involve a sub-
stitution of the perfect triad as the symbol of tonal stability,
such as the harmonic seventh chord formed by adding the tone
2
Cf. I 4 2 and~, and I 6 2. !
IV,8
267
closest to the seventh harmonic to the triad c c g, or even
the harmonic ninth chord formed by adding the ninth harmonic,

d, to the harmonic seventh chord, but this is the limit, since
beyond this point, the natural harmonic projection manifests
irremediably its functional instability.
Cardinal laws are no less valid with all of their
consequences. Whenever there is a question of seeking out
the constituent tonalities of a scale, or its terminal to-
nalities, one need only extend the pe~fect triad by one or
the other of these harmonic chords, which becomes in turn
the symbol of its tonality.
4. The Use of Non-semitonal Projections

With the reservation of what has been said of pro-
jections not containing a fifth, all of the cardinal laws
I
without except.ion are applicable everywhere, as well as the

laws of symmetry and the laws of re-enforcement.
No matter what the projection, every entity, complex
as it might be, will have its own cardinal chart in which
each tone in the octave of the adopted projection will bear
a number representing its primary affinities with each tone
of the entity.
Every set, reduced to its most simple expression
within the octave, will have its cardinal chart.
Simply by reading these charts, one can determine the
card~nal density of the entity by adding the relative densities
of each component tone. The chart will reveal the entity's
,
relationship with any other a;gation by comparing their
IV,,8
/
268
relative densities. A comparison of their cardinal coef-
ficients will reveal the relationships that exist between

fifths, perfect triads or harmonic chords, be they constituent
or foreign.
Once its organic stability has been evaluated through
comparison of cardinal densities, once its tables of cardinal
and vicinal transpositions, and its table of tonal gravity
have been prepared, once the tonal hierarchy of its modes as
well as the cadential hierarchy of its extrinsic fifths,
perfect triads, or harmonic chords have been established, the
entity-will have divulged each and every one of its secrets.
And henceforth, we shall know the cardinal virtualities
of a group of tones, their effect, the tonal hierarchy of its
modes and their nature, and its place among entities that are
complementary, revertible, of limited intervals, of limited
transposition, symmetrical, asymmetrical, of median tone,
atonal, neutral, tonal, major, minor, binary, modulating,
tonally imitative, dense, transitive, cardinally balanced,
cardinally polar, tonally stqJ:)le, clashing, cadential, balanced,
' J
t,'onic, transposing, or card'inal, no matter what the tempered
projection into which it is inserted.
IV,8
CHAPTER IX
THE ARCHITECTQRE OF TONES
1. The Horizontal Construction of Harmony

As everyone knows, there exist two opposing types of
harmonic construction: a horizontal construction, charac-
I
terized by the coexistence of several parts unfolding simul-
taneously, and a vertical construction which proceeds by
chord successions.
In horizontal harmony, the parts seem to unfold in
utter independence. But the freedom of their evolution is
only apparent, since, by and large, they depend on the
structure and progression of chords formed by the simultaneous
tones at each instant of their parallel appearance.
It is vertical framework which more or less bolsters
up horizontal harmony in its implementation by means of
counterpoint.
Harmonic construction is said to be horizontal when
there is a predominance of this kind of harmony.
It generally proceeds within a varying time span,
through the use of a certain scale articulated on a tonic
formed of one or more tones, to which succeed either the
same scale articulated on another tonic, or another scale
articulated on the same tonic, or a transposition or alter-
ation of the cale and its tonic, and so on.
IV,9 269
270
The characteristics of the harmony depend in each
ca~e on the formal properties, and the cardinal properties

of, the scale being employed/
2".
J
Chromaticism
When the totality of the tones of the chromatic pro-
'jection are implemented, elimination of passing tones and
accidentals will allow the fundamental scale of the harmony
to be uncovered.
However, it so happens that this fundamental scale
might be the chromatic scale itself, systematically employed
in its essence.
Are the cardinal laws therefore at fault:?
Not at all.
,I' In the chromatic scale, all .of the tones of the pro-
jection having been called into play, there is absolute
cardinal equality among each of them at the level of maximum
possible density: 5 cardinal units. Also, there is absolute
cardinal equality between each of the constituent perfect
triads whose density reaches 15 units, the sum of the three
constituent tones.
In the face of such cardinal uniformity, the only
attractions that are of any value are those due to re-enforce-
ment.
Consequently, it is the latent harmony of re-enforced
tones, by repetition, accentuation, and prolongation, that
will regulate the action of the cardinal forces. And each
time, the cardinal and tonal tables, and the cardinal and
IV, 9
271
vicinal relationships of the entity so-formed will serv8 more
and more to analyze and to direct the harmony of the cnscinble.
So, in a tonal passage where the chromatic scale is

articulated on a perfect tonic triad, the characteristics
proper to this triad's cardinal charts come into play.
Even serial compositions cannot escape this analysis

by means of re-enforced tones; 1 this analysis regulates all
strictly chromatic harmony, be it tonal or atonal.
3. Horizontal Polymodality and Polytonality
There are even more complex aspects of harmony that
derive from a systematic differentiation of parts.

Such is, first of all, the coexistence within the
parts of different scales, all having their axis on the sa~e
tonic, as could have been the case in traditional music wi t..11
the various aspects of the usual minor scale.

The work unfolds then either with an independence of
parts, each of which more or less follows the destiny of the
scale which is proper to it, or accordi'ng to the characteristics
of~ single scale which represents the totality of tones in
2
the simultaneous scales.
The most typical case of these heterogeneous form-
ations is polymodality.
It consists of the simultaneous use of different modes
of the same scale: the parts each borrow, in turn, all or
I
1
vI 5 3 and 6.
2 -
Cf. notably the numerous examples given by Olivier
Messiaen in Technique demon langage musical, and the analysis
of a fragment of one of his works in VI 2 3.
IV, 9
272
part of the tones of a singl~ scale, and articulate these on

. . . 3
d 1st1nct tonics.
This polymodal music, examples of which can be found

in the ~usettes, viol airs, and drones of the harpsichordists,
constitutes the simplest expression of another case of system-
atic differentiation of parts: polytonality, where by defi-
4
nition, the parts simultaneously pursue various tonalities.
One need only note the borrowing by each part of a
same set, of which each part is but one mode, a set which
consists of the totality of constituent tones, and forms
the sound material of the ensemble, with its own particular
characteristics.
Much polytonal music can thus be analyzed as a simple ··-..
example of polymodality, even when, from the outset, it seems
as if the set common to the various parts borrows all of the
tones of the chromatic projection. A careful examination
often allows us to discard certain tones foreign to the
harmony of the parts: passing tones, auxiliaries, appog-
giaturas, timbral effects.
Nevertheless, it does happen, in the impossibility
of extracting one distinct set from the chromatic projection,
when all the parts have been compared, that all references
3
cf. Honegger, Sept Pieces breves (no 4}; Darius .Mil-
haud, Saudades da Brazil, etc., and notably the analysis of
· a few measures of Milhaud 's Paineras in VI 3 3. /
4
cf. particularly Jacques Chailley, Traite historiaue
1
d analyse musicale; Ernest Closson, Esthetique musicale; Paul
Gilson, Traite d 1 harmonie; Charles Koechlin, Evolution de
l'harmonie; Darius Milhaud, Polytonalite et atonalite; Alex-
andre Tansman, Igor Strawinsky.
IV ,9
273
to a detenuined scale must be renounced. The charactcris cs
of the harmony then, are those proper to the cardinal chart

~ . tria
. d s. 5
o f th e set f ormedb y th e ensembl e OL tonic
But it is not rare that a work must be analyzed
fragment to fragment as a succession of different sets, each
time representing the totality of the scales of the parts,
or that it is based on a vertical harmonisation based on chord
successions.
4. Vertical Construction of Harmony

When horizontal harmony is discarded in favour of
vertical harmony, it seldom disappear~ completely. As long
as there exis.ts a continuity among certain components of suc-
cessive chords, there exists a horizontal thread that cannot
be left to chance.
But here, it is the structure and the progression of
the chords ·which constitutes the basic harmonic framework.
Often, the successive chords belong to the same funda-
mental aggregation whose1 formal and cardinal characteristics
come into play.
But, often, just as there exists a horizontal con-
struction with systematic differentiation of parts, there
exists a vertical construction based on the grouping of
he~erogeneous chords.
If it is not possible J6 bring these chords closer
and closer into a single set/ it is because each one is the
/
5 cf. the preceding paragraph.
IV, 9
274
scat of an independent aggregation; and progressions from one
"" !d 1·
set to another are linked.here with progressions from one chord
to another. 6
The most classic type of harmony by chord succession
is supplied by the first few measures of Tristan, which can be
analyzed in the following, among many other divergent manners:
fig. 79
~:i,
...
-
.• .•
•
•• ~:. -'.. ttt:• tfE: .-

.., " .r
. - ..... .
,Ir ,1
~
• ,., .,~
·1c; • •
"'. r r r nr
. ... ..,,~=
r •
- I • • t: t,_,,,,C t. C • C C: • -t!i"
_,,,,
. ..
L.~. 11 L.-fl -t . ,, :"t---.,
...,, • " .... ,.
• . • .. .
.,,
.- -..
~q-=: • . - ."',,. ·-•
1-,.L._ -· .,_
I
--·•
.
-· -· -· -- -
,
•
Each of these chords constitutes a distinct entity:

they progress solely on the basis of coil.111\0n tones and chro-
matic intervals: the melodic motion is bom equally from
chromatic sliding from one tone in one chord to another tone
in a following chord, with suspensions, retardations, and
appoggiaturas.
The simplicity of the chords and their progression
are on an equal footing with the most complex of horizontal
harmonies. It is precisely in this way that some polytonal
'
music can be clarified in its vertical framework.
5. Vertical Polytonality
But much harmonic complexity can also be found in
6
cf. particularly Honegger, Arioso sur le nom de Bach,
of which a fragment has 'been ana~yzed in VI--Y-3-.- - - - - -
/
/
275
the chords themselves, particularly in cases where polytonali-
ty is inherent in the very structure of the chords ..

For vertical polytonality to exist, it is not at all
necessary that a chord be particularly complex; and almost
all the bitonal combinations of perfect major and minor triads,
and certain polytonal combinations can be found by joining
the chords that are derived from the diatonic scales them-
selves.
The combinations of the triad c e ~ with each of
the other major and minor triads (shown here on the upper
staff) partake of one or of several of the usual diatonic
scales, major or minor (whose tonic triads appear here on
the lower staff).
fig. 80
l'\
\A'
.,
,
~ vu
li ,,I ,. i _,I I ' II, I

.,,
, b~ - I - I' _,...l
-
~l~1L1~-: I I r vt ,
-' , j ,,
" ,..
r .,,.,
~c..
, .
,
'4
"' -
~,.
~
,·
,,,.,~
I I
-, ,
-
...,
"'' r
~
"" ,
...,
r r - ..;;-
"':3::
@) -
r
C. - ·~c;
YJ I" <.7
"
'"
It goes without saying that the tonal diversity of

non-diatonic scales lends itself to all of the bitonal and
polytonal fantasies imaginable.
Finally, vertical harmony can also find its basis
in the natural harmonic series wherein each harmonic is the
IV, 9
276
origin of a new succession that is incorporated into the
first, and becomes in turn the root of a new major triad, as

long as that complete triad appears before the upper limit of
the hearing range is reached.
fig. 81
77.
It is in this way that the fundamental pitch c en-

genders successively, after c e g, the following perfect
g# b, e_ d f#, d f# a, b d
#
f#, which themselves form with c e ~ six bitonal combinations

an d f 1'fty-six
. oth er po 1ytona 1 comb'inations.
· 7
6. Fixed Planes Beyond the Octave

It happens that a composition, in its entirety or
within each part, is confined to a rigid succession of fixed
tones, disseminated over the entire instrumental range, with-
out their voicing being altered by octave transpositions, as
if the instrument used was absolutely deprived of all inter-
medi.a te tones • 8
7To endow this data with a somewhat universal

plication, among the natural harmonics capable of being incor-
porated into the half-tone projection within one com,,~a, only
those forming the natural intervals of the perfect triad have
been enumerated. However, if we choose to thumb our noses at
the exactitude of these intervals, we observe that a the 1
fi~st 24 harm~nics, the follgwing ierfeci tr~ads cBn be added'
to tie preceding ones: ~ e g, ~ e. [ , a c e I and~*
b d .
8cf. Olivier Messiaen, Mode de valeur et d'intensi ,
the end of which has been analyzed inVI 5 i; Pierre Boulez,
IV ,9
277 /
Such a system had come into consideration concerning
the harmonic scale 9 when an attempt was made to bring into

play only the tones of the harmonic series as they were
incorporated into a given projection.
In principle, such structures can be analyzed within
the framework of cardinal laws by the play of re-enforcement
and octave transpositions.
But, if ever the structure persists in , it becomes
di icult to imagine the tempered projection of intermediate
tones between the perceived tones and the corresponding car-
dinal attractions. It is because they often derive from a
different conception of harmony, by a negation not only of
the law of equality of tones, but also of all functional
attraction.
Through this harmonic immobility, they constitute
the type of non-functional harmony 10 which is one of the
extreme manifestations of the atonal style, and which alone
defies cardinal analysis to any degree.
"Propositions" in the issue of Polyphonie devoted to musical

rhythm (2nd volume, 1948), etc.
9
Cf. I l 5.
10
Cf. VI 5 6.
IV ,·9
BOOK FIVE
RHYTHMS
1. Preliminaries
The synoptic table of the three hundred and fifty-one
sets of the semitonal system contains not only the totality
I
of scales and modes which can be accommodated by the half-tone

projection, but _also their graphic figuration by columns of
light and dark rectangles gives rise to a plastic rhythm.
In turn, this plastic rhythm gives rise to a musical
rhythm which repeats the arrangement of rectangles as a suc-
cession of sound__,s and silences.
No matter what the scale, such as the diatonic scale
for example, a rhythm with the sane graphic figuration can be
· inscribed in it: an articulated tone is represented by a
light rectangle, a rest of the same length by a dark rectangle.
fig. 82
f=1 J JJ J J
0 XOXOO XOXOXO0
,P ., ,P., ,P )., ,P., ) ., ,P ,P
And so, the three h ~ d and fifty-one different sets
which sunnnarize the two thousand and forty-eight possible com-
V 278
279
binations of light and dark rectangles contain the totality of
rhythmic organizations of twelve basic values. And the juxta-
position or the fragmentation of some or other of these allows

us to discover potentially the totality of rhythmic organ-
izations of sound.
EXAMPLE: the succession of sets belonging
to the scales 42 42, 12 12 42, and X 2 1 give, by
rhythmic analogy, the percussive pattern of
Ravel's Bolero, whose representative number would
then be: 42 42 12 12 42 X 2;
continued
It does not matter whether the rhythm under consider- "

ation represents the entire sound set or only part of it,
because nothing prevents us from withdrawing ourselves from

these sets in order to study a particular rhythm, employing
those notions acquired in our study of scales that are ap-
plicable to it.
These notions are: entities, sets, modes, comple-
mentary scales, revertible scales, scales that are inversions
of one another, symmetrical scales. They give birth to a
whole series of rhythmic relationships which will allow us to
erect on one initial cell, the multiple patterns that derive
1
Let us recall that the Roman numeral is used here to/
avoid confusing the number representing more than nine homo-
logous rectangles of an uninterrupted-succession with the
first of two numbers, one representing a.series of light rect-
angles, the ·other the series of dark rectangles that follows.
See IV 3 3. .
V
280
from it.
2. Rhythmic Entities and Rhythmic · ~ .

Proceeding as we did for ·tones; we shall begin with
the abstraction of rhythmic notions, reduced to their per-
cussive aspects, and we shall conclude with their materiali-
zation in actual music.
The rhythm:i,c entity is the most abstract represent-
ation of rhythm,.according to the succession of articulations
and rests, all reduced to the value of their pri10ary unit.
Just as in poetic meter (iamb, spondee, dactyl,
sicilian,etc.), the rhythmic entity is susceptible to repe-
tition, end to end, in the same way that a,:scale;can be
repeated from octave to octave.
EXAMPLE: the rhythmic entity of the
folksong "Au cliir de la lune". - -
The rhythmic set gives that portion of the entity

which constitutes a renewable whole, under the form of a
variable succession of articulations and rests, all: having
the same unit value. It comprises the same graphic and nu-
merical representations as the tone set.
EXAMPLE: the set of the rhythmic entity
cited above:
0 0 0 0 0 XO XOO OO O
~., ~., ~ ~ ~ ~ ~.,.,.,
X X X
~ ~ ~ ~
thE;! representative number of which is 51 11 53.
Ali rhythm, if it were strictly melodic, could be re-
V
281
duced in this way to its set, which constitutes the rhythmic

framework.
If the pattern is repetitive, one need only place end
to end several examples of the set in order to reproduce, by
repetition of the basic set, the rhythm as it is repeated in
its musical context.
EXAMPLE:. La Habanera
J. )J J J. j)~ J .J. )j J dI
its rhythmic set: ~) ·, "I
j)} '1 J) '1
its graphic figuration: 0 X X 0 0 X 0 X
its representative number: 1 2 2 1 1 1 =
12 21 11.,
3. Rhythmic Relationships
The presentation of rhythms, a6cording to their struc-
ture in primary units, makes evident, by analogy with interval
sets, certain rhythmic relationships which were difficult to
detect when represented by the durational symbols_ ordinarily
used in music.
In this way, there come to light rhythmic relation-
ships, through modal mutation complementation, and symmetry.
,, Relationships by modal mutation

After the example of the relationship which joined the
various modes of a same scale, there exists a relationship bet-
ween' the modal mutations obtained within a rhythmic set, con-
sidered as a repeatable whole.
v,
'
,.
j
Each articulation c7 the point of departure for
'
I
282
a new rhythmic set, closely linked to the first.
Examples drawn from La Habanera:
j)-J -J ) ) -J
) "I
) j)-J ) -J ) ,-J -J
) -J ) ·t j, -J -J j)
)-J j) -J -J "h J~ -t
Therefore, every rhythm contains as many modal _mu-

tations as there are articulations. The only exceptions are
those which, just like the scales of limited transposition,
are composed of the same rhythmic unit, and which we shall ·- i
call rhythms of limited modal mutation.
Complementary relationships
Complementary rhythmic relationships are derived in
the same way as complementary sound sets were: no matter what
the rhythmic set, there always exists a rhythmic set comple-
mentary to it, within the same number of primary beats. Ar-
ticulations and silences are interverted.
EXAMPLE: the complementary rhythmic set
of La Habanera:
As was the case with complementary scales, there exist

rhythms which are their own complement, or more precisely, /
whose complementary rhythm is the same as one of its modal
mutations.
V
283
These are revertible rhythms.
EXAMPLE:
'1
Relationships by symmetry
Finally, symmetrical relationships appear when the
rhythmic set is presented in such a way that it .begins and
ends either with an articulation, or a rest.
The inverted.£::_ symmetrical set of a given rhythmic
set is that one which contains the same succession of ar-
ticulations and rests, in the inverted order of elapsed time.
EXAMPLE: La Habanera and its inverted rhythm:
'1
Just as for scales, there exist rhythms whose rhythmic
set is symmetrical; and these are called "non-invertible
rhythms" because they are their own inversions.
EXAMPLE:
I
4. Rhythmic Imitations
When rhythm leaves the domain of the abstract and takes
its place in composed music, the skeleton represented by its
rhythmic set is invested with more or less complex notations
aimed at making more precise the articulation of each tone and
the placement of the accents.
In this way, the rhythmic set representing the per-
cussive executions in La Habanera serves as the com..~on frame-
work to a multitude of rhythmic figures, of which the follow-
V
I
I 284
,,.,
ing are but a few examples:
fig. 83
,I
cJ. ):jJ ~ 0 or Jo etc!JJJ ~

• • • > > _>__..
or ~
--
rnJ ~-f.fn
- or J) }~~J
•
J etc.
The modifications affecting these durational symbols

a.11 enter into the frame of common cases of rhythmic imitation.
As a reminder, we cite rhythmic imitation by accent
displacement, according to the nature of the meter or placement
of the, beat (duple, triple, and irregular meters, etc., mascu-
line and feminine rhythms, anacruses, etc.} or according to
the behaviour of tonic, expressive or dynamic accents, as well
as rhythmic imitation by structural alteration (multiplication
or division of the durations by one or more numbers, sup-
pression or partial doubling, opposite values, etc.).
Two words, finally, about rhythmic imitation
. by retro-
gradation. It constitutes the inverse image of the succes-
sion of typographic notations, retaining the original rhythm,
and differs in this respect from inversion, which is the
inverse image of the actual articulations.
In order to clearly appreciate the distinction between
these two, we shall compare the retrograde and the inversion
of the first rhythmic figure given by us as an example:
Retrograde of its durational symbols:
~. ):j J j O ~ 1~ 0 j ~ :j )J.
Inversion of the points of articulation:
V
285
2
Non-retrogradable rhythms then are not the same as
non-invertible rhythms except when they are presented in the
schematic form of rhythm-articulation proper to the rhythmic
I
set. They are different in all other cases.
EXAMPLE:
Non-retrogradable rhythm:
tJ .J) .J) j , whose set is:)> '1 ), ) )> "i which

is invertible.
Non-invertible rhythm:
~ j) ) "i ) , which, in this form, is non-
retrogradable, but which is not in this form,
for example:
5. Conclusions
All rhythmic_ figures, once reduced to a diagram show-
ing the succession of articulations and rests, can give birth
to various related rhythmic sets: a complementary set, an
inverted set, and as many modal mutations as there are ar-
ticulations in the set, in principle.
But the rhythmic sets obtained are in turn subjected
to the same rhythmic relationships, and as such as generators
of new rhythmic sets, always related to the first.
So, some are susceptible to all presentations (binary,
ternary, irregular, masculine, feminine, broad, syncopated
rhythms; anacrusis; expressive, tonic, and dynamic accents;
,etc.) and to all possible imitations (structural alteration,
2
So named by Olivier Messiaen in Technique demon
langage musical. - --
V
286
retrograde, inversion, etc.) and some are not.
This succession of articulations and rests of the same

unit-value, contained in the rhythmic set, will facilitate
the discovery of rhythms responding to certain concepts:
rhythms of limited modal imitation, revertible rhythms, non-
invertible rhythms, rhythms with a given proportion of ar-
ticulations and rests.
And here we rejoin the correlation between scales and
rhythms with which this chapter opened, since it is in the
synoptic table of the 351 scales of the semitonal projection
that we shall find, among scales of limited transposition, re-
vertible scales and scales symmetrical to themselves, the
totality of rhythms of limited modal imitation, revertible
rhythms, .!2:.QE-invertible rhythms in twelve primary unit-values,
and in sum, by fragmentation of all the rhythmic figures pos-
sible with twelve primary units, and by their end-to-end place-
3
ment, the totality of rhythms, no matter what they may be.
3
It happens that rhythms comprise in the same interval
of time, signs, the number of pulsations in which are not mul-
tiples of one another, such as:
3 7
J J J ln1:f.n ~
These are rhythms with incommensurable series. They
can easily be adapted to all sorts of rhythmic imitations which
affect only the durational signs, that is, displacements of
accents, structural alterations, retrogradations, as well as
to rhythmic relationship through symmetry.
However, when it is a question of rhythmic relationsh~i)
through complement and modal mutations, certain difficulties
arise, resulting from the impossibility of using, generally,
the set in the unit values which is its very genesis. In ef-
fect, in the example selected, the primary arithmetic value
is the monad of time equal to 1/3 X 7, that is, 1/21 quarter.
V
287
I
I
l
I
Having a representative number of: 16 16 16 12 12 12 12 12 12
12 1 XX, it would only be admissible in an extremely slow
tempo.
In order to avoid such a fragmented set, we could con-
struct modal ~utations and a complementary rhythm while seeking
out the primary functional value best suited to the context.
In this way, according as, the rhythm serving as our example is
more particularly by threes or by sevens, it could be analyzed
in,one or the other of the following manners:
m JJJ~Jj J. OR
m_J ~ j JJj JJ J-
For more ample explanations concerning the study of
Jl
rhythm, refer to my article "Substance de la Composition musi-
cale et mutations harmoniques, rythmiques et melodiques", in
volume 9 of Polyphonie (Richard Masse, publisher, Paris, 1953).
I
BOOK s·rx
H A R MO N I C S T Y L E S
CHAPTER I
PRELIMINARIES
The plurality of scales, their diversity, and the mul-

titude of modes attached to them, constitute as many tokens
of the unparalleled richness of possible musical realisations
within each of the usable projections:
But we would risk being, inextricably lost if we neg-
lected to define the broad lines of these inummerable virtu-
ali ties •.
There are four main currents whose interference
nourish the stirring life of organized tones.
i
One, ~hich envelops the whole empire of sound, ex-
tends from the CARDINAL to the MODAL.
Another, which also embraces all of music, stretches
from the TONAL to the ATONAL.
The third, which traverses only the tonal mode and
stops at the limits of the perfect triad, extends from MAJOR
to MINOR.
The fourth, which runs through all of harmony but
which breaks up on the verge of atonality, goes from POLARITY
~
to NON-POLARITY.
VI,l 288
289
For this synthesis of musical harmonic styles, the
history of western music constitutes a useful point of de-
parture, since it contains the essential of all of these, even

though it is far from having exhausted the incommensurable
resources of all of music, since its action has been limited
primarily to only the diatonic scale.
/
Already, a schematic analysis of harmony, from its
known origins to the Classical period is sufficient to show
the progressive evolution of music in modal style to music in
cardinal style: everyone knows that the Greeks, to whom it
is traditional to attribute the exclusive use of song, and the
almost exclusive use of the intervals of the diatonic set,
managed to achieve sufficient variety in their means of ex-
pression through the use of different modes: the same tones

produced for them impressions whose difference they sensed
profoundly, according to the tonic that they selected. 1 Such
was also the case, although under different names, with the
Gregorian modes of the Middle Ages.
The progressive appearance of polyphony set in motion
the flux of cardinal affinities. By introducing their direct-
ives imperceptibly, the laws of cardinal attraction, little
by little, imposed [ on music] the single major mode of C, the
most cardinal of the diatonic modes along with the usual mode
1 Cf. Antoine Auda, les Gam.~es musicales; Jacques Chail-

ley, Traite historique d'analyse musicale; J. Combarieu, His-
toire de la musigue, vol. I; Maurice Emmanuel, Histoire·du lan-
gage musical; Fetis, Histoire generale de la musigue, voI:" III;
Armand Machabey; la Musique et la medecine; Elie Poiree, Essais
de technique et d'esthetiquemusicale, etc. .
VI,l
290 ,;,
of A. Among all the modes of plainchant, this one alone, under

the form of the minor mode, subsisted with the major, of which
it was considered a simple alteration. Despite their cardi-

..i.
nal equality, it was natural that the need for unity, .one of
the earmarks of classical periods, resulted. in the r:,upremaqr of
dl i:,, 19'.d).
u mode that was re-enforced by the immanent progression of
harmonics.
In this way, music evolved from modal to cardinal.
Sin.ce the end of the last century, an inverse reaction
to the "tyrant cit has occurred, first of all at the benefit of
the modal style, through a renais~ance of the other modes of
.
the diatonic set, and later, at the benefit of another style
which sought its way in atonality by deliberately breaking the
usual tonal concepts.
As they appear in their historic reality, the modal
and cardinal styles on one hanJ( and the tonal and atonal
styles on the other suffice j define the innnensity of the realm
of organized sound.
But it would be puerile to draw aesthetic conclusions
from the order of their appearance.
There is no supremacy of the 'atonal over the tonal
style, nor of the cardinal over the modal style. They are all
different. And if they differ in the power of their affirmation,
which increases from the atonal to the tonal style, and from
the modal to the cardinal .style, the power of suggestion and
the expressive value of each one depends only on its imple-
mentation.
VI,l
CHAPTER II
THE CARDINAL STYLE
1. General Considerations
Music in cardinal style submits itself to the forces
of the natural gravitation of tones, and benefits, in this
respect, of a vital momentum which is given free rein, and'
of an 'internal logic which regulates the most minimal pro-
gression.
It bears in itself the exaltation of its own virtu-
alities.
Is the entity in which it evolves tonal? Its tonic
is established on the perfect triad having the highest cardi-
nal attraction.
On the other hand, is it atonal? It bases itself on
the constituent tone or on the constituent aggregation richest
in cardinal value.
In one case or the ot..~er, quite a gravitation is ef-
fected between the least dense and the densest tones, first
of all within the entity, and outside of it as well, particu-
larly when the entity tends toward ·instability owing to the
location of the center of cardinal, tonal, or transpositional
gravity outside of itself.
When the tonal framework relies on the perfect triad,
VI,2 291
292
I
it is the relationship proper to the perfect triads that will
regulate transpositions and changes of sets. If not, the

transpositions will follow the directions of the transpo-
sitional relationships, and changes of sets are effected by
the intermediation of their most cardinal tones.
However, there is another kind of cardinal style
which appears to be its negation, but which, in actual fact,
is one of its most striking aspects: the contrasting direction
that it takes toward the opposite extreme, such as the most
remote tonal or transpositional relationship, rather than
the most immediate attraction.
In sum, all music is cardinal, tonal or atonal, which
evolves according to the very laws of the gravitation of tones,
either by complete submission to cardinal attractions, or, fol-
lowing the completely opposite reaction, through the systematic
use of the least cardinal relationship, at least every time
that this suppression of the laws of attraction is but an horn-'
~ mage paid to their immanence.
2. Cardinal Disciplines and Diatonic Rules

Obedience of the laws of cardinal gravitation is a
property of traditional harmony. 1
We.shall summarize here its principal traits:
appearance of the diatonic mode of Fas the prototype of
the seven-tone major scale on the basis of its cardi-
nal affinities with the harmonic scale with a funda-
1
cf. II 2 4; II 4 4 and~; IV 3 ~, ~, 10 and 15 IV 5
1i IY 6 !, ~, and 5.
VI,i
293
mental of C;
cardinal supremacy of the perfect triad c e gin
this diatonic set;
the presence in the diatonic scale of C so-formed of all
the most cardinal tones of this triad, namely~,£,
absence of the least cardinal tone, b-flat;

cardinal threesome of tonic, dominant and sub-dominant
triads;
cardinal predominance of the tonic triad c e gin the
tonal table of the dominant seventh chord g b d
first-rank position of the latter chord among four-tone

cadential chords;
exclusive presence of the most cardinal tones of the
tonic in the only truncated version of t.~e dominant
seventh tolerated by traditional theorists;
cardinal supremacy of the perfect triad c eb :lover
all the perfect triads contained in the most usual
minor scale, c minor;
the presence in this scale of all of the most cardinal
tones of this perfect triad, that is, d, g, a-flat
and £i
absence in this scale of the least cardinal tone, a;
presence in this scale of the true cadential seventh chord
Of C eb [, which is d f a b c;
identity of the laws of cardinal attraction and the most
/
VI,2
. . 294· .
stringent laws of resolution of the leading~~

·and the seventh;.
. ..
quasi-identity of the "eyele of fifths" with the order
of c·ardinal and vicinal relationships proper to
the transpositions of the diatonic ·scale •.. ·
The power ot the currents of-cardinal affinity in

traditional music is of such vigour that the ;latter is almost
as imbued with their laws as if it had itself explicitly
revealed them.
A consequence of capital importance results for the
composer who is faithful to diatonic.reflexes and who is
desirous of a non-diatonic music in the same cardinal style: ..
once the densest tonic has been found and selected,· not~ing
opposes the implementation under the cardinal aegis, of the.
/.
familiar laws of traditional harmony, duly adapted to the· ·
resources of the set'being employed.
And their incorporation will be even more valid if
the scale in question is at once tonic and tonally stable,
where the perfect tonic triad exceeds all the othe3 per-
fect triads in cardinal value, just as in the diatonic scale,
for example.
Relative to this chord, all other constituent aggre-
. gations are more or less cadential, and all other modes are
more or less unstable. For example, it is, easy ~o determine
.' ..
the constituent aggregations which will fill the role normally
played by the ·cadential dominant chords,· since they will be
the most cardinal chords ·of the tonic triad.
VI,2
295
If the entity used does not lend itself to the dominant-
tonic-sub-dominant threesome, because of a lack of necessary

tones, one need only substitute those constituent perfect
triads which are closest to the tonic triad in tonal relation-
ship, that is, for c e ~, for example, the minor triads f
a b £, e g band c eb g such as they appear in the modal
tables of perfect triads.
3. Examples of the Cardinal Style

J.S. BACH, THE ~-TEMPERED CLAVIER, VOL • .!_, PRELUDES NO 8
AND 12.
Even though it is the tonality of eb gb £b, the eighth
prelude closes on the maj,or triad eb :I bb, owing to the ap-
pearance immediately before it of the four tones richest in
cardinal affinity for this chord: b-flat, d, ~-flat, and a.
Such is also the case with the twelfth prelude, which /
is entirely in the tonality off ab c and which concludes on
f a
-c, immediately preceded by the four most cardinal tones
-
of this chord: f, b-flat, £, and e.
fig. 86(2)
_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_
,-;\-,-
VI,2 ( . -. r .
By permission of Editions Henry Lemoine etc , Paris)
296 .
FREDERIC CHOPIN, MAZURKA NO 5.
In the third part, the work borrows the tones of a non-

diatonic set, the set 33 11 22 (on E).. It is remarkable to
note that, not only does the passage end on f, which, of all
the tones in the set, is the most strongly charged with cardi-
nal attraction (5 cardinal units), but also the f is carried
on by the perfect triad f a c which is the most cardinal of
all the terminal perfect triads in the set, since its density
attains 10 cardinal units.
33 11 22
Cardinal table: 3 3 (1 2) 2 5 3 (2 1 2) 2 (4)

In Major: 7 9 6 6 7 10) 8 (7 6 7 8 9)
Inv. minor: (9 8 5 7 7) 10 ( 8 7 6 8 7 8)
(By permission of Durand et Cie, I

VI,2
297
IGOR STRAWINSKY, SONATE POUR PIANO (Edition Russe de musiquc,
Berlin).
The last eleven measures have as a terminal tonic e
~# b which is the most cardinal perfect triad of the two sets
that are successively employed: the set XI 1 (on E-flat) for
five measures, then set 63 21 (on F-sharp). Finally, note
that the perfect triad that closes the work is immediately
preceded by its f'our most cardinal tones: ~, d-sharp, e, and b,
and that the seven tones in the penultimate measure are all
cardinal tones of either e or g-sharp, where they dissolve.
41 µ J F l I
CJ #&J
'
JJJ ~ ~A d-- ....
Cardinal table
of XI 1: 5 4 ( 4) 4 5 5 5 4 5 4 5 5
In Major: 14 14(13)13 15 14 14(13)14 13(14)13

Inv. Minor: 15 13(13)14 14 14(14)13 14(13)14 14
Cardinal table
of 6 3 21: (2 2 3) 4 4 ( 3) 3 3 4 4 4 4
In Major: (9 9 10)11 12 (9 9· 10 10 10 10)11

Inv. Minor: (9 9 10)12(10 9 10 9 10 10)11 11 I
fig. 88
[see page 298]
VI,2
fig. 88 pp 298
l
I
.•
IJ.--~----..,l--++1-_-_-_-_-::_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_--:-,.._::_-_-::_-_-:_-_-_-::_-_-_-_-_~_--1---- - - - - + - - - - -
:+-;,
'
,,I
......_____., ~ ~ -O-.._______/
OLIVIER MESSIAEN, PRELUDES POUR PIANOS: LES SONS IMPALPABLES
D U ~ (Editions A. Durant, Paris).

The beginning and the end associate two sets of limited
transposition: 31 31 31 (on C) in the right hand, and 21 21

21 21 (on C) in the left. The tonic f# a c# e combines the
major triad a c# e and the minor triad f# a c#. And so,
these two chords are both common to the two sets, wherein one
and then the other have the highest cardinal value among the
constituent perfect triads (13 in the first, 9 in the second).
Cardinal table
of 31 31 31: 3 5 3 (4) 3 5 3 (4) 3 5 3 (4)
In Major: (10)13 11(11 10)13 11(11 10)13 11(11)

- -
Inv. minor: 11 13(10 11)11 13(10 11)11 13(10 11)
VI,2
299
Cardinal table of
21 21 21 21: 3 3 (~) 3 3 (~) 3 3 (4) 3 3 (4)

In Major: 9(11 10) 9(11 10) 9(11 10) 9(11 10)
Inv. minor: {11) 9(10 11) 9(10 11) 9(10 11) 9(10)
ARNOLD SCHOENBERG, VARIATIONS FOR ORCHESTRA, OP. 31 (according/

to the piano reduction which appears in Introduction! la~-
siqu~ de douze ~ , by Rene Leibowitz, editions l'Arche, Paris).
CARDINAL STUDY OF THE ROW

Here is the row which, in a way, constitutes the theme
of the entire work:
fig. 89
_,l
It contains a succession of two groups of six tones

forming two complementary sets, inversions of one another,
and consequently revertible: 42 24 (on E-flat) and 44 22 (on
B) •
1 1 ~1 J µ j cl' #J ~ i) ~ ~
Cardinal tables:
.of 42 24: (1 2) 3 4 4 2 (1 2) 3
,~
1
-4 (3)
of 44 22: 4 4 3 (2 1 1 3) 4 3 (2 1) 2
of 35 22: 4 3 (2 1 1 1 3) 3 3 (1 1) 2
Already there is one observation that can be made that

is not lacking in interest: the row opens with two of the
· VI,2
300
most cardinal tones among the first six: e and b-flat. But
the most important consideration lies in the c that closes
the row. Not only is it one of the most cardinal tones of
the 44 22 set which constitutes the second half of the row,

but it is precisely the most cardinal tone in the ensemble of
five tones that closes the series, creating the set 35 22
{on B) .
Thus, the final c presents itself as the most cardi-

nal center of attraction, in terms of the ensemble of the
tones that immediately precede it.
From the very first measures of the exposition of
the theme, to which we shall restrict ourselves in order to
avoid overloading these explanations, the presentation of the
row so-constructed meets all the requirements of serial
technique, since, as Rene Leibowitz has very clearly shown,
the melody presents the initial series over a harmonic frame-
work consisting of one of its transpositions, then a repetition
of the same transposition, inverted, over a harmony consisting
of the initial series. I

But, what is remarkable for what concerns us here, is
that the composition itself conforms to the same cardinal deter-
minism as the series from which it emanates.
HORIZONTAL CARDINALITY
The melody in measures 34 and 35 ends on f, the most
cardinal tone of the set 43 14 {on E-flat).
VI,2
301
Cardinal table
of 43 14: (1 1 1) 2 3 4 3 (1 1 2) 3 (3)
Also, the melodic fragment which follows in measures
36 and 37 ends on c, the most cardinal tone of those that im-
mediately precede it; we have already observed this in our
examination of the second half of the row, as represented
here in the melody.
VERTICAL CARDINALITY
The first chord in measure 35 combines the tones of
a cardinally dense set, 42 11 13 (on B), whose most cardinal
tone is c, the lowest sounding note in the chord.
The chord in measure 38, which closes this first melo-
dic exposition of the row, has as its lowest note £-flat, one
of the most cardinal tones of the set 44 22 (on A), formed by
the ensemble of its constituent tones.
Cardinal tables
of 42 11 13: 5 3 3 (1 2) 2 (4) 3 (2 1 2) 2
of 44 22: 3 (2 1 1 3) 4 3 (2 1) 2 4 4
CARDINALITY OF THE WHOLE

The ensemble of tones in measures 41 and 42 form the
set 42 42 (on Db), where~, the lowest-sounding pitch, and
VI,2
302
~-flat, the point of termination of the melodic fragment,
dominate in terms of cardinal values.

The entire exposition of the theme, measures 34 to 57,
testifies more or less to the same cardinal determinism and
terminates in measure 57 on the tonal aggregation forming the
set 22 22 11 11 (on G), where the most cardinal tone is c,
the ultimate tone in the ensemble.
Cardinal tables of
42 42: (2) 3 5 5 3 (2 2) 3 5 5 3 (2)
22 22 11 11: 4 (2 2) 2 (3) 2 (3) 3 3 (1 3) 2
fig. 90 f X ly z.
f i < I 31, '[:' l----.--"1r-------~-l---r-s·},.... ""H- .

1-~'--4C-------b'C~=d-.---~-+-------t_;_f-!----'----+--------s,,,:=,~
~~,~~,?._____, _.d.
Hfi:;.=:.;t:_==t:.==~=,~~~,-----,1---t-"rt/-f; :,,-...,· ~c;---;--,<;;"~----+--+i;::.l.. ':
~~~~~==v,=r=t~·~]~:~-=-===1-.._______., ~) ~
r
J r. ----+-,~-~
-........:.:::.~p:>' .;
VI , 2 ( By ~p~e;:-;rm;::;:;;:1ics~sN-r'IT'r--.£:-.;g,g..i,.;t;.;i,.G.:Bs l 'A::i:.-ehe , ~ I
CHAPTER III
THE MODAL STYLE
1. Elements of the Modal Style

The modal style reacts against the forces of cardinal
attraction, or, more precisely, it disrupts their natural
/
course, altering their direction.
Its essential objective is to assure the pre-eminence
of a tonic other than the densest, and all its action tends
to stifle, at the benefit of this tonic, all impulses of estab-
lishing as tonic, aggregations of greater cardinality.
Like the cardinal style, it is universal, and lends
itself to all sets; whether the chosen entity consists of
one or more perfect triads, or whether it is strictly atonal
really does not matter. The tonic that is established is
always a tone or an aggregation of tones, whose density is
inferior to the strongest. Even music that is as deprived as
possible of a tonic, will emerge from the modal style if it
avoids the most cardinal progressions.
Re-enforcement assures the continuance of the modal
style. But it should be manipulated discretely because in
this case, one must be aware of the inclination of natural
finities, which constantly tends toward the re-establishment
of an integral cardinality.
VI,3 303
304
The modal tables will assist the composer in taking

precautions against tonics that are denser than the one that
!
I he has selected, by discarding aggregations which are cadential
;
on these denser tonics, and by underlining the ad,ppted tonic
by means of intrinsic aggregations which are most favourable
to it, and by re-enforcing the most cardinal tones of these
latter aggregations.
2. The Limits of the Modal Style

All music must be either cardinal or modal. This be-
speaks the immense variety within the modal style, which,
alone with the cardinal style, comprises the entire TONAL and
ATONAL realms.
Does it appear with the most minimal impairment of
cardinal hegemony? No, because certain alterations of the
cardinal discipline, particularly in the choice of transposi-
tions or clashes, would not be sufficient to bring it about.
In reality, what characterizes the modal style in re-
lation to the cardinal ·style is the employment of secondary
tonics. This is the criterion for transferring from one style
to the other.
Also, of these two styles, the first can be more or
less cardinal, the second, more or less modal.
To realize this, one need only think of the difference
between the cardinal modes that always achieve cardinal su-
premacy with or without re-enforcement, and those non-cardinal
modes that never achieve it.
The least dense of these constitutes the extreme limit
VI,3
305
of the modal style, in relation to a given entity.

Can we go further in our search for its ultimate limits?
Yes, since the antipodes of the cardinal style consist
of a systematic repudiation of the attractions that are proper
to it.
This rejection of cardinal affinities may be manifested
I
first of all by the choice of other primary attractions. In
fact, it is not impossible to imagine a system of attraction
'
foreign to the one that we have accepted, and to organize the
movement of tones according to more abstract conceptions,
henceforth liberated from the laws of their own gravitation.
But, there are other confines of the modal style:
they are the non-functional harmonies that occupy the extreme
limit of atonalism. 1
3. Examples of Modal Style
DARIUS MILHAUD, SAUDADES DO BRAZIL: "PAINERAS" (Editions Max

Eschig, Paris).
This is an example of polymodality (Ab major in the
left hand, and C major in the right), as determined by the set
62 21 11 (on C).
~t ~~
--,+-1--r:-+-µ ---,,j--J ~£¥1--1¥-¼4+
"'iJl---j
Cardinal table
of 61 21 11: 4 4 4 5 3 4 (3) 4 4 (4) 3 (3)
1
Cf. VI 5 6. On the modal style in Debussy, see les
Modes gregoriens dans l'oeuvre de Claude Debussy, by Julia:-
d'Almendra.
VI.,3
306
In Major: 11 12(11)12(10 12 10 11)13(11)11(11)

,-
Inv. minor: 12(11)11(1211)11(10)1311(12 11 10)
Here, we are at the limit of the cardinal style and
the modal style: ab c eb is the most cardinal perfect major
triad (13 primary units of affinity with the tones employed),
while the upper tonic[£ e gin the right hand] is among
the least cardinal (11 units) •
.~~~~tii±~=~±~t~~~~a:::::..t±,_,~....=-=-1:--±_..:=-=-~_._. .~,
(By permission of Editions Max Eschig, Paris)
ARTHUR HONEGGER, ARIOSO SUR LE NOM DE BACH, POUR PIANO (Editions
Maurice Senart, Paris).

From the very beginning, harmony based on chord suc-
b b b
cessions in modal style is affirmed, with~ g b as tonic.
The three· chords which precede the tonic triad form
the set 41 31 21 (on B) of which eb 9-.b bb is far: from being

',
the extrinsic terminal perfect triad of.highest 9ardinality.

·~--
With its 10 units of cardinal attraction, it is one of the
,,i
most remote--so remote in fact, that the harmony could even
VI,3
307
be considered one of the effects of contrast in the cardinal

style.
Cardinal table of I.·',

41 31 21: 4 5 3 (3) 4 4 4 (4) 3 4 (3) 4

In Major: (12)12 11(10)11 12(12 11 10)13(10 11)
Inv. minor: 1113(10 10)l2(12)11(11)12 11(10 12)
I
fig. 9 2
I .. ~
• • • •
(By permission of Editions Salabert, Paris) • .. • •
PAUL HINDEMITH, SUITE FOR PIANO 1922: "NACHTST'OCK" (Editions

Schott, Mayence).
An entire central episode is in the purest modal style,
with systematic use of modal notes.
The set is, in effect that of the diatonic scale with
four sharps, on the tonic g_1 b di, that is, in the same mode
as that of e g_ b in the diatonic set without sharps or fl'ats.
So, the most cardinal tones of the triad g_1 ~ di are !-sharp,
~-sharp,~, and i-sharp. In the absence tf !-sharp in our
scale, the modal notes are reduced to d-sharp, !:_, and .i-sharp
(Cf. IV 4 21) whose preponderant role is easily seen on the
first beat of each measure.
VI,3
308
fig. 93
ANDRE JOLIVET, CINQ DAN SES RITUELLES POUR LE PIANO: 11

DA..'JSE
NUPTIALE" (Durand et Cie, editeurs, Paris).
The last sixteen measures borrow the tones from the
set 41 22 21 (on E) blending them into one tonic chord that
can be interpreted as an harmonic chord of the perfect triad
~b bb db (Cf. IV 3 ~).
The style is modal, since this chord is one of the
I least cardinal in the set, only numbering 10 units of cardi-

nal attraction.
Cardinal table of
41 22 21: (3) 3 4 (3) 3 4 4 3 (3) 4 3 (3)

In Major: (9 10) 12 (9 9 11) 10 (10 9) 10 11 (10}
Inv. minor: (10)11 10 (9 10)10(11 9 9)12(10 9)
The modal notes here are d-flat, !_, and 9:.-flat, whose
privileged position can be observed:
VI,3
309
(By permission of Durand et Cie, Paris)
VI,3
I
CHAPTER IV
THE TONAL STYLE
1. Definitions
In the expanded concept of tonality that is now gene-
rally accepted, there is an organization of the music around
a tone or group of tones, selected as a natural or forced
pole o~ attraction. 1
It is possible to formulate a definition of the tonal
style based on this notion of polarity. But we do· encounter
one inconvenience, that of expanding to the point of exag-
geration the domain that is proper to the tonal style, at
the expense of the atonal.
No matter what attempts it makes to balance the tones
that it employs, the least polarized music manages only with
much difficulty to provide them with true sensory equality.
As it winds its course, not only are certain tones:'"in the piece
made f!lOre evident by all that conspires to their re-enforcementJ
accentuation, extended duration, privileged location, but also,
even afteri it is completed, it cannot avoid crystallising
around the: last-heard tones, which, whether we wish. it or not,
I
1
cf • •rticularly Louis Lucas, 1· 1 Acoustigue nouvelle1
·
Igor Strawinsify,· P·o,•tigue· musicale, etc. .
VI,4 310
311
.; Ly le,
adopt more or less a semblanc~ of tonic. 2
So, when opposin<.J' tonal and atonal styles, it is the
totality of organized mus.i1c that is embraced by their empire,
from the most perfect manifestation of tonality by the reso-
nance of certain tones around a pa_rticularly rich perfect
triad in terms of its cardinal value, which these tones magnify
into one single sound locus, up to the point where nothing
'' 1,. '' 1.J
revolves around nothing.

l lH •
Literally speaking then,,atonality can be reduced to
!
I
the confines of the tonal domaip, at the latter's extreme
I
limit of non-polarity. . /
It would seem prefe/able, in this vast ensemble, in
attempting to make allowance for a strictly atonal style, to
expand the concept of the latter, by refer:ring no longel;' to
the criterion of polarity, but to that of the perfect. triad,
which is, moreover, typical of polarity, and in a more general
way, to the phenomenon of the harmonics from which it emanates.
Let us agree on the following, which reflects the cur-
rent acceptance of the tonal style:
The tonal style is manifested by the organization of
music around one or more perfect triads, either complete,
2
. one migg.t be tempted to forge .a third category of "
styles, comprising polarised and non-polarised ·styles. We have
already presented as one of the essential aspects of harmony
the division of organized music into polarity and non-polarity.
But, as the tonal style is of necessity polarised, this would on-
ly be a subdivision of the atonal style, such aa that of major
and minor within the tonal style. So, we propose this sub-
division in the chapter on the atonal style. (Cf. VI 11). We
shall see that only harmonies which are really rebellious to
all impressions of attraction of one tone to another manage to
carve out a place in the domain of non-tonality.
VI,4
complex, or incomplete.
By gravitating thusly around the perfect triad, music
in the tonal style partakes, in /essence, of the notion of

/
harmonics. In each instance jlong its course, the music more
or less attaches itself too/portion of the ascending harmonic
series, or ,its inversion, which constitutes, extends, or
completes the complete, complex, or incomplete perfect tonic
triad.
In ~ , it is this fundamental immanence of the
harmonic phenomenon that characterizes i t , ~ the tonal con-
tinuity proper to the first harmonics which are~£!: less
nourished ey the latent force of the tones brought i n t o ~ -
2. The Different Aspects of Tonal Style: According to

Gender
Under these conditions, the tonal domain is precisely
that domain that is enclosed by MAJOR and MINOR, according'as
the tonic assumes this or that form, from the perfect expres~
sion given to major by the natural harmonic series, to the
perfect expression given to minor by the inverted series, pas-
sing through harmonic thirteenth, eleventh, ninth or seventh
chords, through perfect chord formations even more complex yet,
through perfect binary chords which are more or less major or
minor depending on cardinal incidences, and through neutral
fifths, the density of whose constituent tones equally con-
ditions the tendency toward major or minor.
But the vast current which flows from major to minor
is but one aspect of the tonal style, or more precisely, it
VI,4
.313
only illustrate$ the various aspects of their tonics.

In turn, these are affected by the cardinal influence
of the tones that have been implemented. Their tonal potential
will depend on the richness of the cardinal attractions that
join them. And tonality is consequently subjected to tJ1c
cardinal and transpositional gravity of the entities, to the
tonal gravity of the tonics, and to the cardinal value of the
modes.
3. According to the Cardinal and Transpositional Gravities
of the Entity
Even though the set of major harmonics the very
emanation of the fundamental pitch that these harmonics prolong,
we have seen that the set began losing its cardinal supremacy
with the appearance of the seventh harmonic in the quarter-tone
projection, and with the appearance of the ninth harmonic in
natural values, and that, following these, the set fell into
a i ity. 3
. .ins tb'l'
a progressive
The sensation of tonality persists no longer. But,
as the series unfolds, it passes through every facet, from
the most explosive affirmation of tonality, to its most ambi-
guous alteration.
Here is the best example of the variety of expressions
of which tonality is capable, depending on the inherent sta-
bility or instability of the entity of which it is the seat,
that is, depending on whether the entity is dense or transitive,
transposing or non-transposing.
3cf. I 4 1 and~, and I 6 2.
VI,4
314
4. According to the Tonal Gravity of the Tonic
The tonal potential which attaches itself to the

crystallisation of the entity around a tonic also depends on
the balance of the tonic, in relation to all of the extrinsic
aggregations of the same nature, that is, if we are dealing
with a perfect triad, of the relative density of all the
perfect [major and minoJ triads foreign to the entity.

Here, in sum, it is a question of tonal stabilitx or
.
instability, and once again we are face to face with the
same criterion that applies no longer to the entities them-
selves, but to their tonics.
Stability re-enforces tonal affirmation; instability
alters it.
5. According to the Mode

Here again, tonality depends on cardinal values. But
henceforth it will be a question of the relative density of
the constituent tonics.
Within each entity, the tonal potential of the com-
plete, complex, or incomplete perfect triad, selected as tonic,
varies first of all with the placement of accents: the funda-
mental mode is more tonal than the derived modes.
I
But, it varies especially with the cardinal value of
the mode: this tonal potential is realized if the tonic is
the natural center of. attraction of the cardinal currents
flowing within the entity; tonality is atrophied in secondary
modes, under the influence of their precariousness, up to the
least cardinal modes, which are at the same time the least
VI,4
315
tonal.
And here the vast current of cardinality and modality
finds its place: its action is manifested by a progressive
weakening of the sensation of tonality, in the measure that
we stray from the cardinal to terminate on the modal.
VI,4
,I
CHAPTER V
THE ATONAL STYLE
1. Generalities
The atonal style is characterized by the rejection of
any and all interference whatsoever by the harmonic phenomenon,
in so far as tonal prolongation of the tones brought into play
are concerned, each of which is devoid of all that is not
proper to its very substance.
This style is manifested by an organization of the
music around a tone, or a group of tones, or even the totality
of constituent tones, from which the perfect triad in any of
its forms is naturally or artificially excluded. 1
This definition, which corresponds to the one we gave
for the tonal style, takes into account the two extreme aspects
of the atonal style, beginning with tonality minimized by the
absence of any polarity.
In its first aspect, atonal music consents to sound
polarisation around one or more tones, on condition that these
tones are foreign to the perfect triad, in one way or another.
In this way, it constitutes that type of non-harmonic tonalism
for which we could reserve the name "atonal polarity 11
, and
which ·is characterized by the absence of a prolongation of
1
Cf. IV 4 1.
VI,5 316
317
the harmony by a succession of .immanent harmonics.
In the measure that it succeeds in stifling these prim-

ordial emanations of the harmonic flux, atonal music ach
the barrenness that is one of its characteristics. It
that it achieves its most striking, and most useful contrast
with all music which is properly tonal, wherein the slightest
appearance of a perfect triad seems a brusquely plethoric
. 2
resurrection.
As for the other aspect of atonality, it regulates all
that partakes of non-polarity. It is fficult to maintain
an absolute, rigourous atonalism, because of the non-harmonic
tonalism which is included within it, even though this non-
harmonic tonalism might only appear at the termination points
3
that demarcate a suspension of the musical discourse.
Even serial technique cannot escape this kind of
tonalism. It could even be considered an extreme case of
tonalism, on the basis of the organization of the music around
the entire series, constituting a sort of multiple tonic
4
containing twelve tones.
Only non-functional harmony seems capable of non-
polarity in the measure that it manages to disarticulate the
tones from one another, so that even that sort of tonal cohesion
which can be applied to an expanded notion of multiple tonic
2
Cf. Debussy, Pelleas et Melisande, act II, scene 2 /
and the beginning of scene 3.
3
cf. notably Gisele Brelet, le Temps musical; Paul
Hindemith, The Craft of Musical Composition.
4
cf~ote 2 o;-the precedin~ chapter, and VI 5 5.
VI,5
318
. 5
d isappears.
2. Functional Atonality
All music which evolves within the confines of an
atonal set is strictly atonal, owing to the absence of a per-
fect triad, and even a constituent fifth. The atonality here
is rigourously functional.
The thirty possible atonal sets in the half-tone pro-
jection were enumerated in connection with atonal scales. 6
Let us recall that they are all related to four basic
types, of which they are but fragments:
the whole-tone scale, C f# a b b b Cj
d e
- - -
b b
the diminished seventh scale, C e g a c;
- - ....
b
the five chromatic half-steps scale, b# c# d e fb b #.
- - I
the scale 31 15 41, C db e bb fb bb c.

-
fig. 95
In principle, the most cardinal relationships should

be rejected here, since they refer to the prohibited harmonic
series by acknowledging the affinity of the fifth. They are
blurred by means of the modal style, and even disappear, to
the degree possible, with certain procedures, such as the use
I
I
5
cf. the last paragraph of the present chapter, and
IV 9 6.
6
cf. III 4 1.
VI,5
319
of vicinal relationships alone for transpositions or mututions
of sets, or for translations of sets that are symmetrical to
themselves through the use of axial relationships. 7

But let us beware of their return: they can have a
withering, and even deadly effect on the prohibitions of
atonal ism.
Many of the most atonal aggregations are cadential on
perfect triads. For instance, the cardinal density of the·
four constituent tones in the atonal set 12 12 12 12 is four,

whereas the density of six of the foreign perfect triads
six units of cardinal affinity in relation to this set.
Also, the density of the whole-tone scale does not
exceed six units, whereas twelve of the foreign perfect triads
have nine units of cardinal attraction to the ensemble of six
constituent tones.
Consequently, one single added tone will suffice to I
transform these two atonal sets into aggregations particularly
propitious to the resurrection of perfect triads, such as g
in the aggregation b d f ab, or the incomplete whole-tone
scale: c eb bb d.
3. Cardinal Atonality
However, cardinal relationships can subsist without
causing functional atonality to disappear. And they suffice
to assure it of a minimum of necessary vital momentum.
They can enter into play in the choice of the most
7
cf. IV 6 ~' and IV 7 3 and 4.
VI,5
320
cardinal tone or group of tones in the set as the center of
tonic attraction; and particularly in the implementation of

8
atonal scales of cardinal polarity.
They also arise in transfers of the same set to its
most cardinal transpositions, or, in the direction of the
most cadential attractions toward other atonal sets selected

from among the densest in its cardinal table, as well as in
changes from one atonal set to another atonal set based on
the cardinal tones that each of these.has in common with the
other.
Needless to say, the same cardinal combinations will
be useful in regard to neutral, or even tonal sets which are
treated atonally, according to the procedures of vertical
atonality, horizontal ~onality or chromatic atonality.
4. Vertical and Horizontal Atonality

Atonality can only be horizontal in cases where it
is entirely relative.
In effect, only melody rigourously follows an atonal
.set. Harmony remains free to lean on perfect triads, or com-

posites of perfect triads which come to fill the atonal melodic
cursus with their sap.
However, atonality is more often vertical, which in
actual fact means modal.
In this case the melodic set is not strictly atonal.
But ~ny harmonic support based on the fifth or the perfect
8
Cf. III 6 2.
I
321
triad is prohibited. And the rhythmic and melodic accents
seek to become linked to constituent aggregations which are

atonal.
Such is the case with all of the atonal modes of
- - -- --
---
various sets, even if the sets themselves are particularly
tonal. The modal table of the set will specify which tones
will be most propitious to the tonic of the atonal mode
selected, and which ones will be least propitious to the ap-
pearance of any other of its modes.
Sets that are atonally imitative, with which we dealt
at the end of CHAPTER V of BOOK III, are of particular interest
here, since they favour changes of mode on an articulation
which is always atonal.
S. Chromatic Atonality
One type of vertical atonality is chromatic atonality/
It consists of the systematic use of all the degrees of the
projection.
Since the twelve-tone chromatic scale is the richest
in perfect triads--it contains them all--the procedure could
consist of drowning tonality in the excess of its own many
manifestations. But polytonality and atonality are not the
same when considered within the confines of this scale.
In reality, any suggestion of tonic and any intrusion
of a perfect triad are prohibited here to the degree possible,
in the harmony just as much as in the melodic and rhythmic
accentuations. In the absence of unity of place that is
provided by tonality, and to realize the organic unity that
VI,5
322
is necessary to every work of art, we proceed by identical
series of all the chromatic tones, arranged in a determined
order. Their variety is enviable when they are presented

always in the sa.-rne order, in different rhythmic patterns and
with partial octave transpositions, by using certain ferred
intervals, and when resorting to all of the resources of
contrapuntal imitation: augmentation, diminution, inversion,
retrogradet opposite values, etc. In order to facilitate the
play· of counterpoint in this atonal permanence, the row ought
to be formed preferably by juxtaposing two six-tone sets which
are complementary to one another and identical in their inter-
'
vallic construction, or which are inversions of one another,
that is, one of the sets that we have called "revertible" and
its complement. 9
This is the schematic [ diagram J of serial technique. lO
But, as scientific as it is, serial music has much
difficulty in avoiding the re-enforcement of certain tones
9
cf. III 2 3. Revertible scales are used almost system-
atically by the dodecaphonists for each half of their row. Cf.
particularly Schoenberg, Valse op. 23; Serenade, op. 24; 4th
movement, Suite for Piano, op. 25; Wind Quintet, op. 26;
op. 29; Variation:s-for Orchestra, op. 31; Pieces for Piano,
op. 33; Concerto for Violin, op. 36; Prelude, op.44; Trio, op.
45; Un survivant de Varsovie, op. 46; etc. Alban Berg, Chamber
Concerto, 2nd movement; Lulu, etc. Weber, Geistlicher vofF-:"·-
stext, op. 17; Symphony, op. 21; Das Augenlicht, op. 26; _-
riations for Piano, op. 27; String Quartet, op. 28, etc.; Zrnst
Krenek, Quartet, op. 78. Paul Dessau, les Voies, etc.
10
cf. particularly Ren~/4eibowitz, Schoenberg et son
ecole, and Introduction a ~1musique de dou:::;e ~ ; Jacques
Chailley, Traite historique,'d'analyse musicale, as well as
tp.e issue of Polyphonie (volume 4) devoted to serial music.
VI,5
-------------------- -
323
And once again we fall back on the case of cardinal analysis

. connec t'ion w.i'th ch roma t'icism.
ti1at was presen t e d in ' 11
6. Non-functional Harmony
. 12
Non-functional harmony, as we have said, occupies
,., l ilUJ.
the confines of the modal style, and also constitutes one of
the extreme manifestations of th'.e atonal style, since' lt
I .
carries its rebuke of harmoniJ/ attractions to the very limit.
It tends to rid ea~ tone of all its affinity for
other tones and removes it not only from all harmonic pro-
gressions, but also from all cardinal attractions.
Is it rebellious to all sound polarisation? Perhaps,
since it is difficult to conceive of a tonic, simple.or com-
pound, which is not the terminal point of an attractive
movement.
Nevertheless, despite all of the precautions that
I
were taken to avoid any attraction, certain tones are re-
enforced by their intensity, their height, their length, or
their attack, in such a way that a sort of tonal concept ap-
pears.
In all other cases, to the degree in which non-
functional harmony manages to prohibit any attraction between

tones and any sound polarisation, we witness here the most
complete type of atonalism.
It can appear momentarily in certain examples of non-
11
cf. IV 9 2.
12 cf. VI 3 2.
VI,5
324
cardinal, functional atonality. and in certain serial compo-
sitions. But its domain of predilection lies in its con-

13
struction in fixed planes beyond the octave.
Non-functional harmony is not the only type that, by
· its very definition, manages· to. thwart any strictly cardinal
analysis.
As it is presently understoo:d, rnuaiqne concrete con-
stitutes the most perfect example of this. But we can foresee
. its incorporation into functional harmony when it appears as
a prodigious extension of the timbral gamut of the traditional
orchestra.
7. Examples 2!_ the Atonal Style

BELA BARTOK, MIKROKOSMOS .FOR PIANO. NOS. 136 AND 145.
The beginning of no. ·136 is an example of functional
atonality in its use of the atonal whole-tone scale. But,
further on, the. juxtaposition of two whole-tone scales at the
interval of a minor third brings· about.the set 81 21, several
presentations of which terminate ~ ili two densest tones .
which are consequently strictly cardinal.
;Cardinal table
of 81 21:
_fig. 9.6
. [ see page 325 ]
325
fig.
·(by permission of Boosey & Hawkes Ltd)
·No •. 145 on the other hand contains a typical example

of non-cardinal atonality. The !borrowed set is 93 (on Gb) ,
I
which is polytonal. But the ,ost cardinal tones (~ and d-

i .
flat) are relegated to second rank, and th~ vertical harmony
) '----
is based on the atonal aggregation 2 ab.
Furthermore, this. atonality is horizontal at the same
time, as a result of the limitation of: the upper part. {Eight
hanl[I .to the five tones of the atonal set 57 (on '1>). ·Despite·
the modal style of the whole~ c;:ardinal laws are sometimes
manifest particularly in the. termination point of the excerpt
below·, · on an £-sharp which is· precedeq .· immediately by two of
. its own · cardinal tones.
Cardinal table
of ·93: 4 5 4 Cf 2· 3) 4 5 4 4 3 ·. 4
of 57: (1 .2 2 : '2 .1 2) 2 3 3 3
..,.. 2 (2) .
. fig. ·97
[ see page 3?6 J

VI,5
326
fig. 97.
, All'-\'o, J,:: I'I 'f
(By permission of Boosey & Hawkes Ltd)

.The same remarks are equally applicable to no.14Sb,
which is the inversion of 145a on the . axis of symmetry e ' - bb.
Both were conceived to be performed simu~taneously on two
I
pianos. Since the axis of symmetry is the same as·the one

belonging to the symmetrical set 93 (borrowed for the first
measures of 145a), it is the same set that is borrowed for
the corresponding measures of 145b.
BELA BARTOK, "FINALEff OF THE FIFTH STRING QUARTET (Universal

Editio~, Vienna).
-
Here, around a pivot-tone b-flat and according to a
'
·-
determinism o\:,, ardinal obedience, the type of atonalism that
7
we have callecf atonal polarity (Cf. VI. 5 !) is manifested.
If we consult the last two pages of the score, we can-
not help but notice that in measures 780 .·to 802, the ~orrowed
set 9111 (on A) contains among its most'cardi,nal tones e and
!:?_-flat, precisely the two tones that serve as the tonal pivot
for the entire passage.
VI,5
I
I
I
327
,I
. Cardinal table
of 91 11: 5 3 5 4 5 4 (4) 3 (4) 4 5 4
of 31 11 11 11:
(4) 1 (4) 2 (4) 2 (4) 1 {4) 2 5 2
The following measures (803 to 810) are even more

typical since they contain a succession of chords formed com-
pletely of the four cardinal tones of b-flat, the tonic which
closes the work. And, after a passage in which this polar-
ization of the sound is blurred, the b-flat reappears in the
last three measures as precisely the tone that is the most
cardinal in the ensemble of the last four tones played by
each instrument forming 31 11 11 11 (on A).
fig. 98
continued
on page 328
mf
PIERRE BOULEZ, 2ND PIANO SONATA (Editions Heugel et~ , Paris) .

The final measure is an example of chromatic atonality
in cardinal style, since the last five tones that are heard
form the set 44 13 (on A), whose most cardinal tone is b-flat,
which ends the work.
VI,5
.3 2 8
fig. 98 (continued)
fig. 98 (concluded)
I
I
...
(Copyright 1936 by Universal Edition, Vienna)

329
Cardinal table
of 44 13: 3 (1. 1 l 3) 3 (2 1 1) 2 ! 3
For examples of serial technique of cardinal obedience,
refer to VI 2 3 where the series and several measures of
Schoenberg's Variations for Orchestra, op. 31, are analyzed.
)
OLIVIER MESSIAEN, ~ DE VALE;URS ET Q.'INTENSITE, POUR PIANO
. (Editions Durand et Cie,. Paris).

The entire work is an example of ~-functional music,
i n ~ fixed beyond the octave. Through its insistent repet-
ition, ~ 2 plays the_ role of an interior pedal. But the ri-
gidity of fixed sets seems to prohibit any notion of function
and any cardinal analysis. Each tone remains, in effect,
immovable from the place to which it is assigned, and has an
attack, an intensity, and a durational value that are invariable
within each of the three simuitaneous part~.
VI,S(by
330
Nevertheless, the ending is singularly illuminated

by the rays of cardinal notions, just as if their determinism
had remained latent.
The three tones last heard simultaneously--~-sharp and
two of its cardinal tones, g-sharp and c--constitute the set )
26 13 (on C), which ranks among the chords of conclusive ten-

dency, forming a tonal prolongation of a tone (Cf. IV 3 11).
~f~?;:==::::===t==::::==:::r===t=~-,-.--J.--,.,.-_J+-~-.+-·
i--"1',ei-----<a..,.._~-l.f~.., ,
-"'-1~----t--r-t--.....
-t,<,,.,.:l-.!,,J--,i,,:}----'Er-
f,lg.V ~f
Cardinal table
of 26 13: 2 3 (l 1 0 1 l 2) 2 ( l O 1)
So, if we examine the cardinal table of this set, it
is striking to note that not only c-sharp--the lowest note
in the chord--the most cardinal, but also, that the most charged
foreign tone is precisely~, whose role of intermediary pedal
was underlined above.
In sum, it seems as if the fixed compartmentation
could not counteract the principles of attraction which end
up reclaiming their rights, bv attributing tog the cadential
- -
function traditionally reserved for dominant pedals, and to
£-Sharp, the function of lower root of the conclusive chord
which terminates the work.
I
VI,5
I
B O O K S E V E N
C O N C L U S I ON S
1. Toward~ Understandin~ of the Very Substance of

Harmonic Matter
The musician who, seated at the keyboard, meditates
and asks himself why all of the music that he knows is limited
to the twelve tones of the octave, repeated seven times, will
henceforth penetrate the profound reasons for this limitation.
But, if he wishes to seek an alternate route, will
be in the full knowledge that he can henceforth chose such and
such a projection, devoid of a perfect triad, whose limits of
expression he will fully realize, or another projection, con-
taining the harmonic scale, but of whose inertia he will be
aware beforehand.
And if he believes that he can even reject the sub-
jections of temperament in order to enjoy the original purity
of perfect fifths or the first [ few] harmonics, he will be
able to measure the resources of a process which is open to
all of the seductions of natural harmonies, but limited in its
constructive manifestations.
If he is attracted by the prestige of tonality, he
will henceforth be able to penetrate the arcane. And it will
be no longer in vain that he shall ask himself why t:he perfect
VII 331
332
triad is at once its primary symbol and utmost affirmation, or
that he interrogates himself on the essence of major and minor.

If on the other hand, he remains insensitive to tonal
plenitude and desires to escape it, he will understand the
limits, as well as the ultimate means of expression of atonal-
ity.
Finally, if the rules of academic harmony and diatoni-

cism, in their apparent arbitrariness, irk him, he will hold
the revelation of their tutelary wisdom as a result of the
unsuspected discovery of their foundation in the organic life
of tones.
However, it will be up to him to escape the servitudes
of d1atonicism, if he is tired of it, in the same way as he
can escape the abstraction of atonalism if that displeases him.
In the multitude of possible scales, he will find ever-J
imaginable variety of sound-expression which all of the music
in the world can never exhaust and which is further multiplied
by the resources of each style, cardinal and modal, tonal and
atonal, in which he has the prerogative to move about. I
2. Toward a Method of Musical Analysis

In staking out the boundaries of organized music,
this work also presents the elements of a method for musical
analysis.
Traditional music held within itself the key its mvn
harmony. The simple examination of its scale was sufficient
to uncover all its secrets: it could be only major or mino~,
and in the one tonality that was proper to it. And most often,
VII
333
it was simply a matter of finding the changes of tonality, and

for each of these, the harmonic progressions from tonic to domi-
nant, sub-dominant, and other degrees.
When diatonic harmony was based on a mode othor than
the usual ones, the problem was no more complex.
No matter which of the twelve transpositions was used,
the diatonic scale, by its very key-signature, delivered a
complete list of its constituent perfect triads; and it was
fairly easy to determine whfch of thes.e had been earmarked by
the composer as the tonic, by its location at the conclusion
of the- work.
Could harmonic analysis be extended beyond the usual
norms? Assuredly, but only to a certain degree, since there
begin to appear some capital differences with the mode of C,
particularly the absence of perfect dominant and sub-dominant
triads, and the absence of a dominant seventh chord, all of
which render necessary the application of cardinal notions.
An even stronger reason is that the musicologist,
I or the theorist J, when confronted with any scale other than
the diatonic scale, or any projection other than the half-tone
projection, was almost completely disarmed.
!
Certainly, by
bringing together the tones in.the harmony, he could determine
the various tonics that were established, and recognize the
one to which was imparted the role of principal tonic.
But, without the knowledge of cardinal laws, hO"vl' could
he d{scern to which tendency this choice responded? And the
very fragmentary idea t.'1at he was able to form concerning the
ent'i ty that he was examining df/ not afford him a very profound
I
VII /
334
appreciation of the technical conditions under which the entity
was allowed to function.
On the contrary, henceforth, and at every instant in
I
his examination, he need only determine what set is being used
horizontally by harmony, or vertically by chord successions,
in order to penetrate, in the light of the laws of cardinal

gravitation, the secret forces of all harmony, be it tonal,
incomplete, dodecaphonic, quarter-tone, or other, no matter
what its enactment.
3. On Composition
Yet, let us beware of one pitfall: this work is not
at all an anthology of musical recipes.
However, by analysis of the harmonic substance and the
laws of the dynamics of sound, it lends itself to many uses.
Whether his harmony is based on a scale or a succession
of chords, the composer need only consult the tables related
to it in order to discover whether or not it is symmetrical,
revertible, modulating, of median tone, of multiple intervals,
of limited transposition, or what are the relative and comple-
mentary sets, what is the degree of vicinal relationship with
each of its tr:anspositions, and, in a word, to learn all of
its formal characteristics.
As for the secret thrusts of his harmony, its dynamism,
its natural terminals, the stability and tonal power of each
of its modes, the degree of tonal relationship of each of its
transpositions, he will find them in the same tables, and will
consequently know whether this harmony is dense or transitive,
VII
335
transposing or not, tona!:ly stable, tonic, cadential, or

clashing, major, minor, neutral, bina:Y or atonal, cardinally
~_alanccd or cadentially polar.
Ile could even dispense with these references, since
it would not be difficult for him to establish representative
numbers and cardinal tables in any projection whatsoever.
Thus, not only is it given to the composer to know
. the essential formal characteristics as the profound reactions
of the tones that he animates, but further and conversely, he
is given the choice of all the scales and all the harmonies
that respond to the restrictions thab he was able to impose
upon himself, at the very outset.
According to the goal that he sets for himself, it
will be easy for him to seek out wpich seven-tone scales, for
example, are simultaneously minor, modulating and cadential,
or which eight-tone scales are simultaneously stable, tonic,
and tonally imitative.
Or else, he will be sensitive to certain exceptional
I
properties, and will delight io/ aggregations of limited inter-
1
;
vals or transpositions, or i/those which are their own comple-
ments, or whose transposition at the tritone is the most closely-
related, and whose transposition at the fifth is the most
remote ly--related.
. I
At the same time, he will be able to satisfy ~is taste
for neutral or atonal harmonies, particularly by choosing neutral
scales that are cardinally balanced, atonal scales of cadential
. v:.
, median-tone scales, scales that are atonally imitative,
etc.
VII
336
Or again, if he tends toward serial technique, he will
make use of the complete array of revertible scales, only a

few of which were already familiar to him, and he will construct
his row fragment by fragment, on sets selected cithe:r for their
cardinal balance, or, if he wishes to yield to the cardinal.
flux, for the attractive force of one or the other of their
constituent tones.
Finally, if he has selected a rhythmic figure which
concurs with the deepest framework of his composition, it
will be extremely useful for him to identify the patterns
related to it: its complementary rhythm, its inverse rhythm,
its retrograde rhythms, its rhythms with modal mutations or
opposite values, and all the rhythmic patterns connected to
these. Here again, he can restrict his choice to a particular
i
! rhythm, such ·as rhythms of limited modality, those which are
their own complements, their own inversions, or their own
retrogrades, in other words, revertible, symmetrical, or non-
retrogradable rhythms.
4. In Conclusion
But let us not be mistaken. It would be false to be-
lieve in the superiority of music that best exemplifies the
cardinal and formal properties of tones.
Certainly, the cardinal style conforms most strictly
to the laws of musical dynamism. And it derives from this
conformity a power of affirmation that is not as evident in
music of other persuasions. It is a language.
And if it is a question of weakness [ presumably a
VII I
337
weakness of affirmation derived from the music's non-conformity
to the laws of musical dynamis~, its repeated affirmation

can deceive no one. The modal style, which by definition runs
counter to the cardinal currents, is often more beautiful.
And the finest work can be realized in defiance of the re-
sources inherent in the combination of the tones of which i t
is the accomplishment, in a universe from which all dialectic
is banished.
In truth, it is the property of music to be submitted
to all disciplines, just as it is the property of genius to
transcend laws.
We cannot however transgress them all: submission to
laws remains the ultimate rule of Art.
It belongs to the creative artist to reject traditional
constraints he believes them to be no longer useful, even
at the risk of falling under the yoke of even more rigourous ~
ones. At least let it be in all lucidity.

But let him forge his own disciplines. Elaborated in
the full knowledge of the sound-substance that he possesses,
they will be even more effective.
And this work will have fully achieved its goal, if,
in exposing some of the laws governing the existence of organ-
ized tones, it contributes to helping him find his way, and
to perfecting his work.
VII /
338
I
SYNOPTIC TABLE OF T ~ E 351 SETS
It was necessary to find a clear and effective present-
ation, as opposed to an inextricable enumeration, of the
functions and characteristics of each of the 351 sets in the
half-tone projection as well as of each of their constituent
tones, even though it was limited to a single transposition
of the set being examined. The graphic and numerical repre-
sentations described in this work were discouraging from the
very beginning. Yet, with a little attention, they are easi-
ly intelligible; and there is a no more condensed expression
of the answers to the thousands of qu~stions posed by an
unknown scale. So that everything is made clear in a single
example, a given tone is placed on the , corresponding
to the first number in each numerical representation and the
first rectangle of the corresponding graphic representation:
this tone is followed by all 0£ the chromatic half-steps, in
ascending order.
This is the format that we shall adopt:
THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE TABLE OF EACH SET *
*Translator's footnote: owing to the inflexibility of

the typewriter as opposed to the printer's press, it was neces-
sary to modify the presentation of the 351 sets given by Costere.
Our version contains all the infonnation given in original;
only the physical distribution of the data is di It
will be noted that our synoptic table does not include blank
: I
339
Representative number Graphic renresentation

of tones
Cardinal table
Characteristics Major tonal table I
Inverted minor tonal
Vicinal transpositions
Cardinal transpositions
This will enable us, then, to study the harmonic re-
sources of such and such a succession of tones. Once reduced
to the octave, these tones form a set whose representative
number is easy to reconstitute, by beginning with the most
numerous succession of conjunct, chromatic constituent tones,
and by successively aligning: the number denoting this first
series, then the number denoting the subsequent conjunct
series of foreign tones, then that denoting the next series
of constituent tones, etc., up until the octave homonym has
been reached. Where two or more series of chromatically-
conjunct constituent tones that are capable of appearing at
the head of the representative number of pitches are concerned,
we select the presentation that expresses the highest mathe-
matical value formed by the successive numbers of the components.
And so, the representative number of the Chinese penta-
tonic scale .9:.; !/ c eb f is: 12 11 12 11 11.
Each representative number is at the head of the chart
staves for each set. Since the staff has no function in ti:e
synopsis, except to allow the reader to concretize the abstract
data contained therein (which he can do on his own staff paper
at the transposition(s) of his choice) it was decided that
their omission detracted in no way from the synoptic table.
It did, on the other hand, constitute a rather considerable
saving of space.
J40
,containing the essential characteristics of each set.
1. In the cardinal table, each constituent ~one s
its place in the form of the number representing its cardinal

density and appears alone, outside parentheses; each fore:ign
tone, in the form of the number representing cardinal

density, appears in parentheses. Consequently, the table
reveals the number of cardinal attractions of each constituent
tone (outside parentheses), each foreign tone (in.parentheses),
and the most cardinal tones, constituent or foreign, are under-

lined.
And so, in the second set in the synoptic table,
b ,b
aforementioned Chinese scale, whose transposition to f a D
db eb is used as an example, the tones most charged with cardi-
nal attraction are a-flat, b-flat, and e-flat.

2. The tonal tables indicate the number of cardinal
attractions with which each perfect triad, constituent or not,

is charged. The triads appear according to the order of their
roots, and the number representing the triad(s) of highest
density are underlined. Major triads appear on the first line,
inverted minor triads appear on the second line (and we re-
iterate that they are represented by their inverted roots, that
is, the highest-sounding tone in the triad). Constituent per-
fect triad.s are represented by numbers outside parentheses,
foreign perfect triads, by numbers .within parentheses.
The Chinese scale in question contains two perfect
triads: db f ab and·bb db f, each having the same cardinal
value (7 units), and the scale's tendency is to resolve, from

the tonal point of view, on the foreign perfect triads ab c
341
I
cb ,:md cb 9-b bb, which are the densest, with 8 cardinal units.
3. In the table of vicinal transpositions, the number
of the constituent tones in the set appears, followed in

parentheses, by the number of common tones between it and its
transposition up and down a half-step, then two half-s
then three half-steps, etc., from left to right.
And so, for the Chinese pentatonic scale, vicinal
order of remoteness of the transpositions is as follows: fifth
I
(4 common tones), major second (3), minor third (2), ma or '
I
third (1), tritone (0) and minor second (0).

4. In the table of cardinal transpositions, the cardi-
nal value of the set is followed by the cardinal value its
various transpositions, according to the order outlined above.
Consequently, the transpositions of the aforementioned
scale at the fifth, above and below, are particularly .close,
owing to the richness of the cardinal relationships that link
them (13); the most remote is at the tritone (8).
5. Also mentioned are a few essential characteristics,
particularly those concerning the division of the sets into
four categories which are numerically equal: sets that are
tonally stable, balanced, cadential, and clashing. Then one
need only refer to the analytical list of sets in the same
· category to discover all the other peculiarities of the set
under consideration.
So, for the scale serving as our , which is
cadential, we will find in the analytical chart of cadential

sets that it is numbered among symmetrical
limited intervals, tonally imitative scales, scales of median
342
tone, non-transposing, dense, tonic, major and minor, and
modulating scales.
Finally, the staff [ which is omitted in the prE.:f;.;(mt
version] is destined to receive any· concrete example, whose I

tones shall be inscribed over the corresponding numbers in
the cardinal table.
SYNOPTIC TABLE
OF THE 351 SETS IN THE HALF-TONE PROJECTION
AND OF THE
351 RHYTHMIC SETS CONTAINING
FROM ONE TO TWELVE PRI.MARY BEATS
11 11 11 11 11 11 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X
1 (4) 1 (4) 1 ( 4) 1 (4) 1 (4) l (4)

Clashing,
atonal (6 9 6 9 6 9 6 9 6 9 6 9)
(6 9 6 9 6 9 6 9 6 9 6 9)
-
6 (0 6 0 6 0 6)
6(24 6 24 6 24 6)
12 11 12 11 11 0 X X 0 X 0 X X 0 X 0 X
2 (2 1) 3 (2) 3 (1 2) 2 (2) (2)

Cadential, -3
bitonal, and (6 7 4 8 6 7 6 5) 7 (6 7 6)
tonic 7 (5 6 7 6 8 4 7 6 6 7 6)
·,._
5 (0 3 2 1 4 0)
13 (9 11 10 9 13 8)
12 12 11 11 11 0 X X 0 X X 0 X 0 X 0 X
1 (3 1) 3 (1 3) 1 ( 3) 2 (2) 2 (3)
Clashing,
bitonal and (5 8 4 8 6 6 6 7) 6 (6 6 7)
tonic (6 6 6· 8 4 8 5 7 6 6) 6 ( 7)
5 (0 3 2 2 2 2)
9(12 9 12 8 13 6)
343
344
I
12 12 12 12 0 X X 0 . X X 0 X X 0 X X
1 {2 2) 1 (2 2) 1 {2 2) 1 (2 2)
Clashing, atonal.
(5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6 4)
(5 4 6 5 4 6 5 4 6 5 4 6)
4 (O 0 4 0 0 4)
4 (8 8 4 8 8 4)
13 11 11 11 11 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X
,1 (3 0 3) 1 ( 4) 1 (3) 1 (3) 1 ( 4)
Clashing,
atonal, (5 8 4 7 6 8 5 7 5 7 5 8)
of extrinsic (6 7 4 8 5 8 5 7 5 7 5 8)
polarity
5 (0 4 0 4 0 4)
5(17 4 16 4 17 4)
13 11 12 12 0 X X X 0 X 0 X X 0 X X
1 (2 1 1) 2 ( 3) 1 (2 1) 2 ( l
\ ..i.. 3)
Cadential,
minor and (5 6 4 4 6 6 4 6 3 6 5 5)
tonic (5 5 4 5) 5 (6 5 4 5 6 3 7)
4 (0 1 2 1 1 1)
6 (8 6 6 6 9 4)
13 11 13 11 0 X X X 0 X 0 X X X 0 X
;'
·1
1 (2 0 2) 1 ( 4) 1 (2 0 2) J,. ( 4)
Clashing,
of extrinsic (4 6 3 5 5 7 4 6 3 5 5 7)
polarity (5 5 3 6 4 7 5 5 3 6 4 7)
4 (0 2 0 2 0 4)
4(12 2 8 2 12 4)
13 12 11 12 0 X X X 0 X X 0 X 0 X X
2 (1 2· 1) 2 (2 1) 2 ( 2) 2 (1 2)
Balanced,
bitonal and 6 (5 5 4 6 6 3 6 5 5 5 4)
tonic • (6 4 5 5) 6 (4 5 5 5 6 3 6)
4 (0 1 2 1 2 0)
8 (6 7 6 7 8 4)
345
13 12 12 11 0 X X X 0 X X 0 X X 0 X
2 (1 1 2) 1 (3 1) 2 (1 2) 1 (3
Caden ti al,
major and 5 (5 4 5 5 7 3 6 5 4 5 6)
tonic (6 4 4 6 5 5 5 6 ')
J 6 4 6)
4 (0 1 2 1 1 1)
6 (8 6 6 6 9 4)
13 13 11 11 0 X X X 0 X X X 0 X 0 X
1 (2 0 3) 1 (3 0 2) 1 ( 3) l (3
Caden ti al,
atonal (4 6 3 6 5 7 3 5 5 6 4 6)
r
(5 5 3 7 5 3 0 4 6 4 6)
4 (0 2 0 3 0 2)
4(11 2 8 3 11 3)
13 13 13 0 X X X 0 X X X 0 X X X
1 (2 0 2) 1 (2 0 2) 1 (2 0 2)
Clashing,
atonal (4 5 2 4 4 5 2 4 4 5 2 4)
(4 4 2 5 4 4 2 5 4 2 5)
3 (0 0 0 3 0 0)
3 (6 0 6 3 6 O) "
14 11 11 12 0 X X X X 0 X 0 X 0 X X
3 (1 2 0 2) 2 (2) 2 ( 2) 1 (2 1)
Clashing,
major and (7 5 5 4 5) 6 (5 5 5 4 6 3)
tonic (7 4 6 3 6 5 5 5 5 5 4 5)
4 (0 2 1 1 2 0)
8 (7 6 7 5 9 4)
14 11 12 11 0 X X X X 0 X 0 X X 0 X
3 (1 1 1 1) 3 ( 2) 2 (1 1) 2 (2)
Tonally stable,
neutral and (6 5 4 5 4 7 5 5 5 3 6 5)
tonic (7 4 5 4 5 6 5 6 3 5 5 5)
4 (0 2 1 0 3 0)
10 (6 7 5 5 9 6)
!
346 I
14 12 11 11 0 X X X X 0 X X 0 X 0 X
2 (2 0 2 1) 3 (1 2) l (2) 2 (2)
Clashing,
minor and {5 6 3 6 4 7 5 4 5 5 5 r:: i\
...,
tonic 6 (5 4 5 5 ·r 3 6 4 5 r::
..J 5)
4 (0 2 1 1 2 0)
8 (7 6 7 5 9 4)
14 12 13 0 X X X X 0 X X 0 X X X
{1
Balanced, -2 (2 0 1 1) 2 (1 2) l 1 1)
minor and (5 5 2 4 3 5 4 3 L1 4 3 3)
tonic 5 (4 3 3 4 5 2 5 4 3 3 4)
(minor triad)
3 (0 0 1 1 1 0)
5 (4 3 3 4 5 2)
14 13 12 0 X X X X 0 X X X 0 ",:,. X
2 (1 1 0 2) 2 (1 1 1) 1 (2 1)
Balanced,
major and (5 4 3 3 4) 5 (4 3 3 4 2)
tonic (5 3 4 2 5 3 3 4 4 ~-5 4)
J
(major triad)
3 (0 0 1 1 1 0)
5 (4 3 3 4 5 2)
14 14 11 0 X X X X 0 X X X X 0 X
,"' 2 (1 0 1 1) 3 (1 1 0 1) 2 (2)
Tonally stable,
neutral (4 4 2 4 3 6 4 3 3 3 5 4)
(5 3 3 3 4 6 3 4 2 4 4 4)
3 (0 1 0 0 2 0)
7 (4 3 2 2 6 4)
15 11 11 11 0 X X X X X 0 X 0 X 0 X
1 (3 0 2 0 3) 1 (~) 1 (2) 1 (3)

Cadential,
atonal (4 7 3 6 4 6 5 6 4 5 4 6)
(5 6 4 6 3 7 4 6 4 5 4 6)
4 (O 3 0 2 0 2)
4(11 3 10 2 11 2)
347
15 11 13 0 X X X X X 0 X 0 X X X
1 (3 0 1 0 2) 1 ( 3) 1 (1 0 2)
Cadential,
atonal (4 6 2 4 3 4 4 5 _,; 4 2 4)
(4 3 4 2 5 3 5 4 3 2 5)
3 (0 1 0 l 0 2)
3 (7 1 4 1 7 2)
15 12 12 0 X X X X X 0 X X 0 X X
1 (2 1 0 1 2) 1 (2 1) 1 (1 2)
Clashing,
atonal (4 5 3 3 4
..,
4 4 5 2 4 4 3)
(4 4 4 3 .:::, 5 4 3 4 4 2 5)
3 (0 0 2 0 0 2)
3 {5 4 2 4 5 2)
15 13 11 0 X X X X X 0 X X X 0 X
1 (2 0 1 0 3) 1 (2 0 1) l ( 3)
Cadential,
atonal (3 5 2 4 3 5 4 5 2 3 4 5)
(4 4 3 4 2 6 4 4 2 4 3 5)
3 (0 1 0 1 0 2)
3 {7 1 4 1 7 2) '"'
15 15 0 X X X X X 0 X X X X X
1 (2 0 0 0 2) 1 (2 0 0 0 2)
Clashing,
atonal (3 4 1 2 2 3 3 4 1 2 2 3)
(3 3 2 2 l 4 3 3 2 2 l 4)
2 (O 0 0 0 0 2)
2 {4 0 0 0 4 2)
16 11 12 0 X X X X X X 0 X 0 X X
2 {1 2 ' 0 1 1 1) 2 (2) 1 (: 1)
Balanced,
neutral-major, (5 4 4 3 4 4 3 5 4 3 4 2)
tonic {5 3 5 3 4 3 4 4 4 4 2 4)
3 (O l 1 0 1 0)
5 {4 4 3 3 5 2)
-
I
348
16 12 11 0 X X X X X X 0 X X 0 X
I -1
2 {1 1 1 0 2 1) 2 \ .L 1) l ( 2)
Balanced,
neutral and {4 4 3 4 3 5 3 5 4 2 4 4)
tonic {5 3 4 4 3 if 4 2 4
,
J 4)
3 {O 1 1 0 1 O)
5 {4 4 3 3 5 2)
16 14 0 X X X X X X 0 X X X X
2 (1 1 0 0 1 1) 2 (1 0 0 l)
Tonally stable,
neut)'.:'al and {4 3 2 2 2 3 2 4 3 1 2 2)
tonic (4 2 3 2 2 2 3 4 2 2 1 3)
2 (0 0 0 0 1 O)
4 (2 1 0 1 3 2)
17 11 11 0 X X X X X X X 0 X 0 X
1 (2 0 2 0 2 0 2) 1 ( 2) 1 (2) -.
Clashing,
atonal (3 5 "
L. 5 3 5 3 4 4 4 3 4)
(4 4 3 5 3 2 5 3 4 3 4)
3 (0 2 0 1 0 0)
3 (6 2 6 1 6 0)
17 13 0 X X X X X X X 0 X X X
1 {2 0 1 0 1 0 2 1 {l 0 l '
-1
Cadential,
atonal, {3 4 1 3 2 3 2 3 3 3 1 2)
of extrinsic (3 3 2 3 2 3 1 4 3 2 1 3)
polarity
2 {O 0 0 1 0 0)
2 {3 0 2 1 3 0)
18 12 0 X X X X X X X V
A 0 X X
l_ ,
1 (1 0 1 J. 0 1 1) 1 (1 1)
Clashing,
atonal (3 3 2 2 3 3 2 3 2 3 3 1' '
-//
(3 2 3 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 3)
2 {O 0 1 0 0 0)
2 (2 2 1 2 2 0)
349
19 11 0 X X X X X X X X X 0 X
l (1 0 1 0 2 0 l 0 1) l (2
Clashing,
atonal (2 3 1 3 2 4 2 3 2 2 'j
J 3)
(3 2 2 3 2 4 2 3 1 3 2 3)
2 (O 1 0 0 0 0)
2 (l 1 2 0 3 0)
I XI 0 X X X X X X X X X X X '+
1 {1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1)
Clashing,
atonal (2 2 0 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 7
_._ 1)
(2 1 l 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 0 2)
1 (0 0 0 0 0 0)
l (1 0 0 0 1 0)
21 11 11 11 12 0 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X X
4 2 {4) 1 (3) 2 (3) 2 (4) 1 (3 1)

Cadential,
bitonal (9 8 8 6 8) 7 {8 7 9 6 9 5)
· (10 6 9 6 8 7 8) 7 {9 7 7 6)
6(1 4 2 4 2 4)
12(19 11 18 11 20 10)
21 11 11 12 11 0 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X X 0 X
4 2 (3) 2 ( 2) 3 (3) 2 (3 1) 3 ( 2) /
Cadential,
p9lytonal, (8 8 7) 7 .( 7 8 8 7 9 5 9 7)
minor (10 6 8 7 7) 8 (8) 8 (7 7 8 6)
6 (1 4 3 2 4 2)
16(15 15 15 13 18 12)
21 11 11 14 0 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X X X X
4 2 ( 3) l ( 2) 2 (3) 2 (3 0 2 1)
Cadential,
minor and (8 7 6 5 6 6 7 6 8 4 7 5)
tonic {2_ 5 7 5 6 6 7) 7 (7 5 6 5)
5 {l 3 l 2 2 2)
11(13 8 11 7 14 8)
350
21 11 12 11 11 0 0 X 0 X 0 X x. 0 X 0 X
3 (2) i (2) 3 (2 2) 3 (2) (2)

.,I
Tonally stable,
3
-3
polytonal ( 7) 9 (6 8 7 8 8 6) 9 (7 8 71
')
9 (7 7 8 7) 9 (6 8 -s· 7 8 6)
-
6 (1 4 3 2 5 0)
18(13 16 15 14 17 12)
21 11 12 13 0 0 X 0 X 0 X X 0 X X X
3 3 (2) 2 (2) 2 (2 2) 3 (1 2 1)
Balanced,
bitonal (7 8 5 6 6 6 7 5) 8 (6 6 5)
8 (6 6 6 6 7 5 7 8 5 6 5)
5 (1 1 2 2 3 O)
13(10 10 10 10 12 8)
21 11 13 12 0 0 X 0 X 0 X X X 0 X X
3 2 (3) 1 (3) 2 (2 1 3) 1 (3 1- )\
Clashing,
major and (7 7 6 5 7) 6 (7 5 7 6 8 4)
tonic (8 5 7 5 7 7 6 5 8 6 6 5)
5 (1 2 2 3 1 2)
9 (13 8 12 9 13 6)
21 11 14 11 0 0 X 0 X 0 X X X X 0 X
3 2 (2) 2 (2) 3 (2 1 2 1) 3 (2)

Balanced, minor
and tonic (6 7 5 6 6 7 7 5 7 5 8 6)
{8 5 6 6 6) 8 (6 6 6 6 7 5)
5 (1 3 2 1 3 0)
13(10 11 10 9 12 8)
·-..
V
21 11 16 0 0 X 0 X 0 X X X X X ,;.
3 2 (2) 1 (2) 2 (2 1 2 0 2 1)
Tonally stable,
neutral-minor, (6 6 4 4 5 5 6 4 6 4 6 4)
tonic (7 4 5 4 5 6 5 5 6 4 5 4)
4 (1 2 l 1 1 0)
8 {8 6 7 5 8 4)
351
21 11 21 11 11 0 0 X 0 X 0 0 "t'I'
,t,. 0 X 0 X
3 4 (2) 3 ( 2) 4 3 (3) ')

..I (2) 3 ( J ') ')
Tonally stable,
polytonal and (8) 11(7 9 8 9)10 (8) 9 (8 9 9)
tonic 10 ( 8 9 7)11 (8 9 9 8) 9 ( 8)
(diatonic)
7 (2 5 4 3 6 2)
23(19 21 20 19 23 18)
21 12 11 11 11 0 0 X 0 X X 0 X 0 X 0 X ....
2 4 ( 2) 3 (1 3) 2 (3) 3 (2) 2 ( 3)
Cadential,
poly,tonal, (6 10 6 8 7 7) 8 ( 8) 8 (7 7 8)
major (8 8 7 9 5 9 7 8 8 7) 7 (7)
6 (1 4 3 2 4 2}
16(15 15 15 13 18 12)
21 12 11 13 0 0 X 0 X X 0 X 0 X X X
2 2) 2 (3) 3 (1 2)
Cadential, -4 (2) 2 (1 1
major and (6 9 5 6 6 5 7 7) 7 (6 5 6)
tonic (7 7 6 7 4 7 6 7 8 5 5 6)
5 (0 1 1 0 2 1)
13( 10 8 9 13 10)
21 12 12 12 0 0 X 0 X X 0 X V
.I:'. 0 X X
2 3 (3) 1 (2 2) 2 (2 3) l (2 2)/
Clashing, minor
r
and tonic (6 8 6 5 7 5 7 7 0 6 7 5)
(7) 6 (7 6 5 7 7 5 8 6 5 6)
-
5 ,(1 2 4 1 1 4)
9(12 11 8 11 12 8)
21 12 13 11 0 0 X 0 X X 0 X X X 0 X
2 3 ( 2) 2 (1 3) 2 (2 2 1) 2 (3)
Clashing,
major and (5 8 5 6 6 6) 7 (7 6 5 7 7)
tonic (7 6 6 7 4 8 7 6 6 6) 6 ( 6)
5 (1 2 3 1 2 2)
11(11 11 9 10 12 8)
352
21 12 15 0 0 X 0 X X 0 X X ;{ X X
2 3 ( 2) 1 (1 2) 2 (2 2 0 1 2)
Cadential,
neutral-major, (5 7 4 4 5 4 6 6 5 4 c::
.J 5)
tonic (6 s· 5 5 3 6 6 5 6 4 4 5)
4 {1 1 2 0 1 2)
8 {8 7 4 6 8 6)
21 12 21 12 0 0 X 0 X X 0 0 X 0 X X
3 3 (4) 1 (2 2) 3 3 (4) 1 (2 2)
Clashing,
bito_nal, (8 9 8 6 8 6 8 9 8 6 8 6)
minor {9) 7 {9 7 6 7 9) 7 (9 7 6 7)
6 {2 2 4 2 2 6)
14(18 14 12 14 18 14)
21 13 11 12 0 0 X 0 X X X 0 .
V
0 X X
3 2 (4) 1 (2 1 2) 2 (4) 1 (2 1) "'

Clashing,
minor, (7 7 7 5 7 5 6 7 8 5 7 4)
tonic (8 5 8 6 6 5 7) 6 (8 6 5 5)
5 (1 2 2 2 1 4)
9(14 8 10 8 14 8)
21 13 12 11 0 0 X 0 X X X 0 X X 0 X
3 2 ( 3) 2 (1 2 2) 2 (3 1) 2 (2)
Clashing,
bitonal, {6 7 6) 6 {6 6 6 7 8 4 7 6)
mindr, (8 5 7 7 5 6 7) 7 ( 6 6 5)
tonic
5 (1 2 3 1 2 2)
11(11 11 9 10 12 3)
21 13 14 0 0 X 0 X X X 0 X X X X
3 2 (3) 1 (1 1 2) 2 (3 0 1 1)
Clashing,
minor, (6 6 5 4 5 4 5 6 7 3 5 !; ) /
tonic (7 4 6 5 4 4 6) 6 (6 4 4 4)'
4 (1 1 1 1 1 2)
8 (9 5 5 5 9 6)
') r:- ')
->...) .J
21 13 21 11 0 0 X 0 X X X 0 0 X 0 X
3 3 (3} 3 (1 2 2) 3 4 (2) 2 ( 2)
Tonally stable, ...,
polytonal, (7 9 7) 8 (7 7 6 8) 10(6 I 7)
_., major, (9 7 8 9 6 7 7) 9, (8- 7 7 6)
tonic
6 (2 3 3 2 4 2)
18(15 15 13 14 17 14}
,/
21 14 11 11 0 0 X 0 X X X X 0 X 0 X
2 3 {2} ..,? (1 2 1 2) 3 ( 2) 2 (2)

Balanced,
major, (5 8 5 7 6 6 6 6) 8 (6 6 6)
tonic (7 6 6 8 5 7 5 7 7 0r r
0 5)
5 (1 3 2 1 3 0)
13(10 11 10 9 12 8)
21 14 13 0 0 X 0 X X X X 0 X X V
A
2 3 (2) 2 (1 1 1 2) 3 (1 1 1)
Balanced,
major, (5 7 4 5 5 4 5 5) 7 (5 4 4)
tonic (6 5 5 6 4 5 4 6 7 4 4 4)
4 (1 1 1 .l 2 0)
10 (7 6 5 6 8 6)
21 15 12 0 0 X 0 X X X X X 0 X V
A
2 2 (3} l (2 1 1 1 3) l (2 1)
Cadential,
atonal (5 6 5 4 6 4 5 5 6 5 6 3)
(6 4 6 5 5 5 5 4 7 5 4 4)
4 (1 1 2 1 0 2)
6 (9 6 6 6 8 4)
21 16 11 0 0 X 0 X X X X X X 0 X
2 2 (2) 2 (1 2 1 1 2 1) 2 (2)
Clashing,
neutral, (4 6 4 5 5 5 5 5 6 4 6 5) ....
tonic (6 4 5 6 4 6 5 5 5 5 5 4)
4 (1 2 2 0 1 0)
9 (7 8 6 6 7 4)
·;r~
_.) .) ±
il
21 18 0 0 X 0 X X X X V
;~ X X X
2 (2} 1 (1 2
-2 1 1 1 1 7 \
0 Jo. j
Clashing,
atonal (4 5 3 3 4 3 4 4 5 3 Ll 3)
{5 3 4 4 3 4 4 4 5 ...,') ')
.) 3)
3 (1 1 1 0 0 0)
5 (5 4 3 3 4 2)
21 21 11 11 11 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 X 0 ..
y
0 X
2 4 (2} 4 2 ( 4) 2 (3) 3 ( 3) 2 ( 4)
Cadential,
polytonal, (7 11 7 9 9 9) 8 (9) 9 (9 8 10) ~~-:
f
tonic (9 9 7 11 7 10 8 9) 9 ( 9) 8 (9)
...
7 (2 5 4 4 4 4)
19(22 19 22 18 24 16)
21 21 11 13 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 X 0 X X X
2 4 (2) 3 2 (3) 2 (3) 3 (2 1 3)

Cadential,
minor, (7 10 6 7 8 7 7 8) 8 (8 6 8)
tonic (8 8 6 9 6 8 7 8) 9 (7 6 8)
6 (1 2 2 2 2 1)
16(16 14 14 14 17 17)
--
21 21 12 12 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 X X 0 X V
I-.
2 3 (~_) 2 3 (~) 2 (2 3} 2 (2 3}
Clashing,
binary-major, (7 9 7 6 9 7 7 8 7) 8 (8 7)
tonic ( 8) {7 8) 7 (8 8 6 9 8 6 8)
6 (2 2 2 2 2 4)
14(16 16 13 16 16 14)
-- j
I
21 21 13 11 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 X X X 0 X
2 3 ( 2) 3 2 ( 4) 2 (2 2 2) 2 ( 4}
Clashing,
bitonal, (6 9 6 7 8 8} 7 (8 7 7 8 9}
tonic (8 6 9 6 9 8 7 7 8) 7 (8)
6 (2 3 4 2 2 Lj)
14(17 15 14 14 17 12)
355
21 21 15 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 X X X z X
\
2 3 (2) 2 2 (~) 2 (2 2 1 1 ')
..J)
Cadential,
neutral, (6 8 5 r::
.J 7 6 6 7 6 6 6 7)
tonic (7 5 7 5 7 7
I 6 7 6 5 7)
5 (2 2 3 1 1 2)
11(12 11 9 10 11 8)
21 21 21 12 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 X X '>
3 3 (4) 2 3 (3) 3 3 (4) 2 (2 3)

Clashing,
binary-major, 9 (10 9 7 10 8 8 10 9) 8 (9 8)
tonic (10) 8(9 9) -8 (8 10) (10 9 7 9)
7 (2 3 5 2 2 5)
19 22 21 18 21 22 18)
21 21 21 21 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 0 X
3 3 (4) 3 3 (4) 3 3 (4) 3 3 (4)

Clashing,
polytonal, 9 (11 10) 9(11 10) 9(11 10) 9(11 10)
binary (11) 9(10 11) 9(10 11) 9(10 11) 9(10)
- -
8 (4 4 8 4 4 8)
24 (.?_§_ ~ 24 28 28 24)
--
22 11 11 11 11 0 0 X X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X
2 4 (1 3) 1 (4) 2 (3) 2 (3) 1 (4)

--· I
Cadential, /
bitonal (6 10 6 7 7 9) 7 (8 7 8 6 9)
(8 9 5 9 6 9 7 8) 7 (8 6 8)
(l 4 2 4 2 4)
6
12(19 11 18 11 20 10)
22 11 11 13 0 0 X X 0 X 0 X 0 X X X
2 4 (1 2) 1 (3) 2 ( 3) 2 (2 0 3)
Cadential,
minor, (6 9 5 5 6 7 6 7 6 7 4 7)
tonic (7 8 4 7 5 7 6 7) 7 (6 4 7)
5 (1 2 1 3 2 3)
11(13 7 11 8 14 9)
.''J C
)
{:
.,) , )
22 11 12 12 0 0 X X 0 X 0 X X 0 X :x
2 (2 1) 2 (3) 2 (2 2) 2 (1 3)
Cadential, -3
polytonal (6 8 6 4 7 7 6 7 5) 7 (6 6)
(7) 7 (5 6) 6 (7 7 5 7 7 4 7)
5 (1 1 3 2 2 2)
11(11 10 9 11 12 8)
22 11 12 21 0 0 X X 0 X 0 X X 0 0 X
2 3 (2 2) 2 (4) 2 (2 2} 3 2 ( 4)
Clashing,
polytonal, (6 9 7 6 8 9) 7 (8 6) 8 (8 8)
tonic (8) 8 (6 8) 7 (9 8 6 7 9 6 8)
6 (2 2 4 3 2 4)
14(17 14 14 15 17 12)
22 11 13 11 0 0 X X 0 X 0 X X X 0 X
2 3 (1 2) 1 (4) 2 (2 1 2) 1 ( 4) '"
Clashing,
major, (5 8 5 5 6 8) 6 (7 5 6 6 8)
tonic (7 7 4 7 5 8 7 6 5 7 5 7)
5 (1 2 2 2 1 4)
9(14 8 10 8 14 8)
22 11 15 0 0 X X 0 X 0 X X X X X
2 3 (1 1) 1 (3) 2 (2 1 1 0 3)
Caderitial,
neut,ral-minor, (5 7 4 3 5 6 5 6 4 5 4 6)
tonic (6 6 3 5 4 6 6 5 5 5 3 6)
4 (1 1 1 1 1 2)
8 (9 5 5 5 9 6)
-
22 11 21 12 0 0 X X 0 X 0 0 X 0 X X
(3 3)
Clashing, -3 -3 1) 2 ( 3) 3
- 3 ( 3) 2 (1
polytonal, 8 (9 8 5 8 8 7 9 7) 7 (7 7)/
tonic (9) 8 (7 7) 7 (7
-9 7 8 8 5 8)
6 (2 2 4 2 3 2)
16(16 15 12 15 17 14)
357
I
'
22 11 21 21 0 0 X x. 0 X 0 0 X 0 0 X
3 3 (3 2) 2 (4) 3 3 (3) ')

..) 2 (4)
Clashing,
bitonal, 8(10 9 7 9 10) 8 ( 10 8) 8 (9 9)
minor, (10)-9 (8 9) 8 T9- 10 8 8 10 7 9)
tonic
7 (2 3 5 2 2 5)
19(22 21 18 21 22 18)
22 11 22 11 0 0 X X 0 X 0 0 X X 0 X
.3 3 (2 2) 1 (4) 3 3 (2 2) l (4)
Clashing,
bitonal, 7 (9 7 6 7 9) 7 {9 7 6 7 9)
major (9 8 6 8 6 8 9 8 6 8 6 '8'")
6(2 2 4 2 2 6)
14(18 14 12 14 18 14)
22 12 11 12 0 0 X X 0 X X 0 X 0 "
A X
3 2 (3 1) 2 (2 2) 2 ( 3) 2 {1 2)
Cadential,
polytonal 7 (7 7 4 7 7 5 7 7) 6 (6 5)
(8 6 6 6) 7 (5 7 6 7 7 4 6)
5 {1 1 3 2 2 . 2)
11(11 10 9 11 10 8)
---
22 12 11 21 0 0 X X ro X X 0 X 0 0 X
3 2 (3 2) 2 (3 2) 2 ( 3) 3 2 ( 3)
Clashing, ..,
minor-binary, 7 (8 8 6 8 9 6 8 8) I (8 7)
tonic (~ 7 7 8) 8 (7 8 7 7 9 6 7)
6 (2 2 2 2 2 4)
14(16 16 13 16 16 14)
-- --
22 12 12 11 0 0 X X 0 X X 0 X X 0 X
2 (2 . 2) 1 {3 2) 2 (2 2) ~
(3)
Clashing,
I -3 .L
major, 6 (7 6 5 6 8 5 7 7 5 6 7)
tonic (8 6 5 7 6 6 7 7 5 7 5 6)
5 (1 2 4 1 1 4)
9 (12 11 8 11 12 8)
358
22 12 14 0 0 X X 0 X X 0 X X X X
3 2 (2 1) 1 (2 2) 2 (2 1 0 2)
Cadential,
major, 6 (6 5 3 5 6 4 6 6 4 4 5)
tonic (7 # 5 4 5 5 4 6 6 5 5 '.)
J 5)
4 (1 0 2 1 1 2)
8 (8 6 7 7 8 6)
-
22 12 21 11 0 0 X X 0 X X 0 0 X 0 X
3 3 (2 3) 1 (3 2) 3 3 (3) 1 ( .:),., J\
Clashing, r
bi tonal, 7 (9 7 7 7 9 6 8 9 7 0 8)
tonic (9 8 6 9 7 '1" 7 9) -;:l (8 6 7)
6 2 4 3 2 4)
(2
14(17 14 14 15 17 12)
22 13 11 11 0 0 X X 0 X X X 0 X 0 X
2 3 (1 ~) 1 (3 1 2) 2 (3) 1 ( 3)
Clashing,
minor, (5 8 5 6 6 8 5 6 7 7 5 7)
tonic (7 7 4 8 6 7 5 7) 6 (7 5 6)
5 (1 2 2 3 1 2)
9(13 8 12 9 13 6)
22 13 13 0 0 X X 0 X X X .0 X X X
2 3 (1 2) 1 (2 1 2) 2 (2 0 2)
Cadential,
minor·, (5 7 4 4 5 6 4 5 6 6 3 5)
tonic (6 3 6 5 5 4 6) 6 (5 3 5)
4 (1 0 1 3 1 0)
8 (8 4 7 7 8 4)
-
22 14 12 0 0 X X 0 X X X X 0 X X
(2 1) 2 (2 1 1 2) 2 (1 2)
2 /
Balanced,
binary, (5 / 6 5 3 6 6 4 5 5) 6 (5 4)
tonic (6'
,,_ 5 4 5) 6 (5 5 4 6 6 3 5)
-
4 (1 0 2 2 1 0)
8 (7 6 6 8 7 4)
- -
:359
22 14 21 0 0 X X · 0 X X X X 0 0 X
., ~,.
(2 {3 2 ( 3}
2 2 2) 2 1
-3
.l. ,(. )
Clashing,
binary, (5 7 6 5 7 8 5 6 6)
,,.
7 (7 6)
tonic (7 6 5 7) 7 c:r 6 5 b 8
- 5 6)
5 (2 1 3 2 1 2)
11 (12 10 9 11 11 8)
22 15 11 0 0 X X 0 X X X X X 0 X
2 2 (1 2) 1 (3 1 1 1 2) l {3)
Cadential,
a ton.al (4 6 4 4 5 7 4 5 5 5 5 6)
(6 5 3 6 5 6 5 5 4 6 4 5)
4 (1 1 2 1 0 2)
6 (9 6 6 6 8 4)
-~
22 17 0 0 X X 0 X X X X X X X
·- ''
2 2 (1 1) 1 (2 1 1 1 1 0 2) .,..
Clashing, ..,
atonal (4 5 3 2 4 5 .:;; 4 4 4 3 4)
(5 4 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 4)
3 (1 0 1 1 0 0)
5 (5 3 3 4 4 2)
22 21 11 12 0 0 X X 0 0 X 0 X 0 X X
4 2 (3 1) 3 3 ( 3) 2 (3) 2 (2 2)
Cadential,
polytonal 9 (8 8 5 8) 9 (7 7 8) 7 (8 6)
(10 7 7 6) 9 (7 8 7 8 8 6 7)
6 (2 2 3 4 3 2)
16(16 13 15 15 17 12)
22 21 11 21 0 0 X X 0 0 X 0 X 0 0 X
.., (3)
4 2 (3 2) 3 (3) 2 (3) 3
Balanced, -4 .:;
major, 9 (9 9 7 9)11 (8 8 9) 8 (10 8 )/

tonic (11 8 8 8)10 9 (9 8 8 10 8 8}
7 (3 3 5 4 il 4)
21(21 20 19 21 22 18)
,,l
.360
22 21 12 11 0 0 X X 0 0 · X 0 X X 0 X
4 2 (2 2) 2 ( 3) 2 (2 2) 2 (\ .., )
-4
']
Cadential,
bi tonal, 8 (8 7 6 7 10 7 7 8 6 8 8)
tonic (10 7 6 7 8)-8 (8 8 6 8 7 7)
6 (2 2 4 2 3 4)
16(16 15 12 15 17 14)
22 21 14 0 0 X X 0 0 X 0 X X X X
4 2 (2 1) 2 3 (3) 2 (2 1 1 2)
Cadential,
majo_r, 8 (7 6 4 6 8 6 6 7 5 6 6)
tonic (9 6 5 5 7 6 7 7 6 6 5 6)
5 (2 l 2 2 2 2)
13(12 9 8 10 12 10)
22 21 21 11 0 0 X X 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 X
4 (2 3) 2 ( 3) 3 3 (3) 2 (3)
Balanced,
3
-4
polytonal-minor, 9 10 (8 8 8 11 8 8 10 8 8 9)
tonic 11 (9 7 9 9) 9 ( 8 10) 8 (9 8 8)
-
7 (3 3 5 4 4 4)
21 (21 20 19 21 22 18)
22 22 11 11 0 0 X X 0 0 X X 0 X 0 X
3 3 (1 3) 2 4 (2 2) 2 (3) 2 (3)
Cadential, ,.,,.
polytonal (7) 9 {6 7 7 10 7 6 8 8 7 8)
9 (8 5 8 8)9 (6 8) 7 (8 7 7)
6 (2 2 3 4 3 2)
16(16 13 15 15 17 12)
22 22 13 0 0 X X 0 0 X X 0 X X X
3 3 (1 2) 2 3 (2 2) 2 (2 1 2)
Balanced,
polytonal (7) 8 (5 5 6 8 6 5 7 7. 5 6)
8 (7 4 6 7 7 5 7) 7 (6 5 6)
-
5 (2 0 2 4 2 0)
13 (11 8 10 11 11 8)
'
I
I
:
361
22 22 22 0 0 X X 0 0 X X 0 0 X X
')
,.,) 3 (2 2) 3 3 (2 2) 3 ?
,.,) (2 2)
Tonally stable,
polytonal (8) 9 (7 6 8) 9 (7 6 ,8) 9 (7 6)
9 (8 6
- 7) 9 (8 6 7) 9 (8 6 7)
6 (3 0 3 6 3 0)
18(15 12 15 18 15 12)
23 11 11 12 0 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 0 X X
4 2 (3 0 2) 2 (3) 2 ( 3) 1 (2 1)
'.
Cadential,
,,. majqr, (8 7 7 ·4 6) 7 (7 6 7 5 7 4\ I
tonic (9 6 7 4 7 6 7 6 7 6 C:
,.,) 5)
5 (1 2 1 3 2 3)
11(13 7 11 8 14 9)
23 11 21 0 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 0 0 X
4 2 (3 1 2) 3 (3) 2 ( 3) 2 3 (2)
Cadential,
bitonal, (8 8 8 6 7) 9 (8 7 8 6 9 6)
major, (10 7 8 6 8) 8 (8 7 7 8 7 6)
tonic
6 (2 3 3 3 3 2)
16(16 14 14 14 17 12)
23 11 12 11 0 0 X X X 0 X 0 X X 0 X
4 2 (2 1 1) 3 ( 3) 2 (2 1) 2 ( 2)
Cadential,
minor, (7 7 6 5 5 8 7 6 7 4 7 6)
tonic (~ 6 6 5 6) 7 (7 7 5 6 6 5)
5 (1 2 2 1 3 2)
13(11 10 8 9 13 10)
23 11 14 0 0 X V
.(',. X 0 X 0 X X X X
4 2 (2 0 1) 2 ( 3) 2 (2 0 l 1)
Tonally stable,
r ....
neutral-minor, (7 0 :::> 3 4 6 6 5 6 3· 5 4)
r
tonic (8 5 5 3 5 5 0 6 5 4 4 4)
4 (l 1 0 1 2 2)
10 (9 4 4 4 10 8)
.,._
:~ 62
23 11 21 11 0 0 X X X 0 X 0 0 X 0 X
4 3 (2 2 1) 3 (3) ')
J 3 (2) 2 (2)
Tonally stable,
polytonal, ( 8} 9 (7 7 6 9 8 7 9 6 7 7) ·~
minor, 10 ( 8 6 7 7) 8 (7 9 7 7 7 6)
tonic - .....
6 (2 3 3 2 4 2)
18(15 15 13 14 17 14)
23 12 11 11 0 0 X X X 0 X X 0 X 0 X
3 3 (1 2 1) 3 (2 2) 2 ( 2) 2 (2)
Balanced,
poly_tonal (6) 8 (5 6 5 8 7 5 7 6 6 6)
8 (7 5 6 6) 8 (5 7 6 6 6 5)
-
5 (1 1 2 2 3 0)
13 (10 10 10 10 12 8)
23 12 13 0 0 X X X 0 X X 0 X X X
3 3 (1 1 1) 2 (2 2) 2 (1 l 1)
Tonally stable,
bitonal, (6) 7 (4 4 4 6 6 4 6 5 4 4)
tonic, 7 (6 4 4 5 6 4 6 6 4 4 4)
4 (1 0 1 2 2 O)
I
10 (7 5 5 7 8 6)
23 12 22 0 0 X X X 0 X X 0 0 X V
A
3 3 (2 1 2) 2 (2 2) _,
?
2 I? 1)
Balanced, - \-
polytonal ( 7) 8 (6 5 6) 7 (7 5 7 7 6 4)
8 ( 6 5 7 7 5 6 8 6 5 5)
5 (2 0 2 4 2 O)
13(11 8 10 11 11 8)
23 13 12 0 0 X X X 0 X X X 0 X X
3 2 (2 0 2) 2 (2 1 2) 1 (2 1)
Cadential,
major, (6 6 5 3 5) 6 (6 4 5 5 6 3)
tonic (7 5 5 3 6 6 5 4 6 5 4 4)
4 (1 0 1 3 1 0)
8 (8 4 7 7 8 4)
") (: r)
J\)J
, 23 13 21 0 0 X X X 0 X X X 0 0 X
3 2 (2 1 2) 3 (2 1 2) 2 ?
J ( 2)
Balanced,
bitonal, (6 7 6 5 6) 8 (7 5 6 6 8 5)
tonic (8 6 6 5 7) 8 (6 5 6 7 6 5)
5 (2 1 2 3 2 0)
! 13(11 9 10 11 11 8)
i
I
23 14 11 0 0 X X X 0 X X X X 0 X
3 2 (1 1 1) 3 (2
,.·
.I, l 1) 2 (2)
Balanced,
,I mino-r, (5 6 4 4 4 7 6 4 5 4 6 5)
tonic (J_ 5 4 4 5) 7 (5 5 4 5 5 4)
4 (1 1 1 1 2 0)
10 (7 6 5 6 8 6)
23 16 0 0 X X X 0 X X X X X X
3 2 (1 0 1) 2 (2 1 1 0 1 1)
Tonally stable,
neutral-minor, (5 5 3 2 3 5 5 3 4 3 4 3)
tonic (6 4 3 2 4 5 4 4 4 3 3 3)
3 (1 0 0 1 1 0)
7 (5 2 2 3 5 4)
23 21 11 11 0 0 X X X 0 0 X 0 X 0 X
3 4 (1 2 1) 4 3 ( 3) 2 (2) 2 ( 3)
Tonally stable,
polytonal, (7) 10(6 7 6 9) 9 (7 7 7 7 8)
tonic 9 ( 6 7 6)10 (7 8 7 7 7 7)
6 (2 3 2 3 4 2)
18(16 13 14 13 18 14}
23 21 13 0 0 X X X 0 0 X 0 X X X
3 4 (1 1 1) 3 3 (3) 2 (l '
.l. 2)
Tonally stable,
major, (7) 9 (5 5 5 7 8 6 6 6 5 6)
tonic 8 (8 5 5 5 8 6 7 7 5 5 6)
5 (2 1 1 2 3 2)
15(12 8 7 9 13 12)
...
3C4
23 21 22 0 0 X X X 0 0 X 0 0 X' X
3 4 (2 1 2) 3 3 ( 3) 3 2 (2 2)
Tonally stable, (8)10 (7 6 7) 8 (9 7 7 8 7 6)
polytonal, 9 -9 (7 7 9, 7 7 9 7
major, 6 6 7) ''>
tonic 6 (3 1 3 4 3 2)
18(16 13 13 16 16 13)
23 22 12 0 0 X X X 0 0 X X 0 X X
3 3 (2 0 2) 3 3 (2 2) 1 (2 2)
Clashing,
bi tonal, (7 8 6 4 6) 7 (8 6 5 6 7 5)
tonic (8) 7 (6 4 6 8 7 5 7 6 5 6)
5 (2 0 2 3 2 2)
13(12 8 8 11 12 10)
23 22 21 0 0 X X X 0 0 X X 0 0 "
A
3 3 (2 1 2) 4 3 (2 2) 2 3 (3)
Tonally stable,
polytonal, (7 9 7 6 7) 9 9 (7 6 7 9 7)
minor, (9) 8 (7 6 7)10 (8 6 7 8 7 7}
tonic I
6 (3 1 3 4 3 2) I
18(16 13 13 16 16 13)
23 23 11 0 0 X X X 0 0 X X X 0 X
3 3 (1 1 1) 4 3 (2 1 1) 2 c~'
v/
Tonally stable,
bitonal, (6 8 5 5 5 8) 8 (6 5 5 7 7)
minor, (8 7 5 5 5) 9 (7 6 5 6 6 6)
tonic -
5 (2 1 l 2 3 2)
15(12 8 7 9 13 12)
24 11 11 11 0 0 X X X X 0 X 0 X 0 X
2 4 (1· 2 0 3) 2 (3) 2 (2) 1 (3)

Cadential,
major, (5 9 5 6 5 7) 7 (7 6 6 5 7)
tonic (7 8 5 7 4 8 6 7 6 6 5 6)
5 (1 3 l 2 2 2)
11(13 8 11 7 14 8)
365
24 11 13 0 0 X X X X 0 X 0 X X X
2 4 (1 1 0 2) 2 (3) 2 (1 0 2)
Tonally stable,
neutral-major, (5 8 4 4 4 5 6 6 5 5 ')
..J 3) ,
tonic (6 7 4 5 3 6 5 6 6 4 ')
..J
~) ,I
:::,
4 (1 1 0 . l 2 2)
10 (9 4 4 4 10 8)
24 11 22 0 0 X X X X 0 X 0 0 ,.
'(
X
2 4 (2 1 1 2) 2 (3) 3 2 (1 2)
Cadential,
minor, (6 9 6 5 6 6 7 7 6 7 5 5)
tonic (7) 8 (6 6 5 7 6 6 8 6 4 6)
5 (2 1 2 2 2 2)
13 (12 9 8 10 12 10)
24 12 12 0 0 X X X X 0 X X 0 X X
2 3 (2 0 1 2) 2 (2 2) 1 (1 2)
Cadential,
minor, (5 7 5 3 5 5 6 6 4 5 5 4)
tonic (6) 6 (5 4 4 6 6 4 6 5 3 5)
4 (1 0 2 1 1 2)
8 (8 6 7 7 8 6)
24 12 21 0 0 X X X X 0 X X 0 0 X
2 3 (2 1 1 3) 2 (2 2) 2 2 (3)
Clashing,
bitonal, (5 8 6 5 6 7) 7 (7 5 6 7 6)
binary, (7) 7 (6 6 5 8 7 5 6 7 5 6)
tonic
5 (2 1 3 12 1 2)
· 11 ( 12 10 9 11 .11 8)
24 13 11 0 0 X X X X 0 X X X 0 X
2 3 (1 1 0 3) 2 (2 1 1) 1 (3)
Clashing,
major, (4 7 4 4 4 6) 6 (6 4 4 5 6)
tonic (6 4 5 3 7 6 5 4 5 4 5)
4 (1 1 1 1 1 2)
8 (2_ 5 ·5 5 9 6)
366
24 15 0 0 X X X X 0 X X X X Y.:
2 3 (1 0 0 2) 2 (2 1 0 0 2)
Cadential,
neutral, (4 6 3 2 3 4 5 5 ?
J 3 .5 4)
....
tonic (5 3" 3 .;;, 2 5 5 4 4 3 2 4)
3 (1 0 0 0 1 2)
7 (6 2 0 2 6 6)
l
I
I
24 21 12 0 V
X ,:.
V
0
0 X .1). X 0
9 X X
3 3 (3 0 1 2) 3 3 ( 3) 1 (1 2)
C~ashing;
,J': minor, (7 8 7 4 6 6 7 8 6 5 6 5)
tonic (8) 7 (7 5 5 6 8 7 6 4 6)
5 (2 1 2 1 2 4)
13(13 9 6 9 13 12)
--
24 21 21 0 0 X X X X 0 0 X 0 0 X
3 3 (3 1 1 3) 3 3 (3) 2 2 (3)
Clashing,
bitonal, (7 9 8 6 7 8) 8 (9 7 6 8 7)
tonic (9) 8 (8 7 6 8 9 7 7 8 6 7)
6 (4 3 5 3 3 5)
16(17 15 12 15 16 14)
24 22 11 0 0 X X X X 0 0 X X 0 X
3 3 (2 1 0 3) 3 ')
J (2 1) 1 ( 3)
Clashing,
major, (6 8 6 5 5 7) 7 (8 6 4 6 7)
tonic (8 7 6 6 4 7 8 7 5 6 5 6)
5 (3 2 3 2 3 4)
13(13 9 6 9 13 12)
--
24 24 0 0 X X X X 0 0 .,,.
V
X X X
3 3 (2 0 0 2) 3 3 (2 0 0 2)
Clashing,
neutral (6 7 5 3 4 5 6 7 5 3 4 5)
CJ_ 6 5 4 3 5 7 6 5 4 3 5)
4 (2 0 0 0 2 4)
12(10 4 0 4 10 12
-..
367
25 11 12 0 0 X X X X X 0 X 0 X X
3 2 (3 0 1 1 2) 2 (3) 1 (1 1)
Cadential,.
neutral-major, (6 6 6 3 5 5 5 6 6 4 5 3)
tonic (7 5 6 4 5 4 6 5 6 5 ")
J 4)
4 (1 1 1 1 1 2)
8 (9 5 5 5 9 6)
25 11 21 0 0 X X X X X 0 X 0 0 X
3 2 (3 1 1 2 2) 2 (3) 2 2 (2}
Cadential,
neut.ral, (6 7 7 5 6 7 6 7 7 5 7 5)
tonic (8 6 7 6 6 6 7 6 6 7 5 5) I
I
5 (2 2 3 1 1 2)
11(12 11 9 ·10 11 8)
25 12 11 0 0 X X X X X 0 X X 0 X
3 2 (2 1 0 2 2) 2 (2 1) 1 ( 2)
Cadential,
neutral-minor, (5 6 5 4 4 6 5 6 6 3 5 5)
tonic (7 5 5 5 4 5 6 6 4 5 4 4)
4 (1 1 2 0 1 2)
8 (8 7 4 6 8 6)
25 14 0 0 X X X X X 0 X X X X
3 2 (2 0 0 1 2) 2 (2 0 0 1)
Cadential,
neutral, (5 5 4 2 3 4 4 5 5 2 3 3)
tonic (.§_ 4 4 3 3 3 5 5 4 3 2 3)
3 (1 0 0 0 1 2)
7 (6 2 o. 2 6 6)
25 21 11 0 0 X X X X X 0 0 X 0 X
3 3 (2 2 0 2 2) 3 3 (2) 1 (2)
Balanced,
neutral (6 8 6 6 5 7 6 7 8 5 5 6)
(8 7 6 7 5 6 6 8 6 6 5 5)
5 (2 2 2 l 2 2)
13(12 10 8 ,9 12 10)
,/
. .3G8
25 23 0 0 X X V
A X :{ 0 0 X z X
'
3 3 (2 1 0 1 2) 3 ".1
.; (1 0 J..}
\
Balanced,
neutral (6 7 5 4 4 5 5 6 7 4 3 4)
7
(7 6 5 5 4 4 5 7 0 4 3 4)
4 (2 0 0 l 2 2)
12 (9 4 2 5 9 10}
26 11 11 0 0 X X X X X X 0 X 0 y
L.
2 3 (1 2 0 2 1 2) 2 (2} 1 (2)
Tonally stable,
neutral-major, (4 7 4 5 4 6 5 5 6 5 4 5)
tonic (6 6 4 6 4 6 4 6 5 5 4 4)
4 (1 2 1 1 1 0)
8 (8 6 7 5 8 4)
26 13 0 0 X X X X X X 0 X X X
2 3 (1 1 0 1 1 2) 2 (1 0 1)
Tonally stable, ..,
neutral-major, (4 6 3 .;;, 3 4 4 4 5 4 2 3)
tonic (5 5 3 4 3 4 3 5 5 3 2 3)
3 (1 0 0 1 l 0)
7 (5 2 2 3 5 4)
26 22 0 0 X X X X X V
A 0 0 X X
·~
2 3 (2 l 1 1 1 2) 3 2 (1 1)
Tonally stable, .
neutral, (5 7 5 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 4 3)
tonic (6 6 5 5 5 5 4 5 7 5 3 4)
4 (2 0 1 2 1 0)
10 (8 5 5 7 7 6)
27 12 0 0 X X X X X X X 0 X X
2 2 (2 0 1 1 1 1 2) 1 (1 1)
Clashing,
atonal (4 5 4 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2)
(5 4 4 3 4 4 4 3 5 4 2 3)
3 (1 0 1 1 0 0)
5 (5 3 3 4 4 2)
j69
27 21 0 0 X X X X X X •J
/. 0 0 X
Clashing, -2 -2 (2- 1 1 2 l l 2) 2 2 (2
-
r ,.
atonal (4 0 5 4 5 6 5 5 :::, 5 6 4)
(6 5 5 5 5 6 5 4 5 6 4 4)
4 (2 l 2 1 0 0)
8 (~ 7 6 7 6 Ll• J\
28 11 0 0 X X X X X X X X 0 X
2
Clashing, -2 (1 1 0 2 1 1 1 1) ..i.. (2)
atonal (3 5 3 3 3 5 4 4 4 3 4 4)
(5 4 3 4 3 5 4 4 3 4 ':)
._J
? \
..J )
3 (1 1 l 0 0 0)
5 (5 4 3 3 4 2)
2 X 0 0 X X X X X X X X X X
2 2 (1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1)
Cadential,
atonal, (3 4 2 1 2 3 3 3 3 2 2 2)
!.
of tonic (4 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 2 1 2)
polarity
2 (1 0 0 0 0 O)
4 (3 1 0 1 2 2) ""
31 11 11 11 11 0 0 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X
2 5 2 (4) 1 (4) 2 ( 4) 2 {4) 1 ( L1•i\

Cadential,
bitonal, (7 11 8 9 7 10) 8 (10 8 10 7 10)
tonic (8 ll 7 10 7 lO 8 10)8(10 7 9)
7 (2 6 2 6 2 6)
15(27 14 26 14 27 14)
31 11 11 13 0 0 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X X X
2 5 2 ' ( 3) 1 ( 3) 2 (4) 2 (3 0 3)
Clashing,
minor, (7 10 7 7 6 8 7 9 7 9 5 8)
tonic (7 10- 6 8 6 8 7 9) 8 (8 5 8)
6 (2 4 1 4 2 4)
14(20 10 17 10 20 12)
/
370
31 11 11 22 0 0 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 0 X X
2 5 3 ( 3) 2 (3) 2 ( 4) 3 4 (1 3)
Balanced,
polytonal ( 8 11) 9 (8 8 9 8 10 8) 11(7 8) .
(8} 11 (8 9) 8 (9 8 9)10 (10 6 9)1
7 (3 4 3 5 4 5)
21(23 17 21 18 24 19)
31 11 12 12 0 0 0 X 0 X 0 X X 0 X X
2 4 3 {2) 2 {3) 2 (3 2) 3 / 1
\ .J.. 3)
Balanced,
polytonal (7 9) 8 {6 7 8 7 9 6) 9 {7 7)
(7} 9 (7 7) 7 {8 8 7 8 5 8)
-
6 {2 3 3 3 3 2)
16(16 14 14 14 17 12)
31 11 12 21 0 0 0 X 0 X 0 X X 0 0 V
L>
2 4 3 ( 3) 2 (4) 2 (3 2) 4 2 (()
Cadential,
polytonal, (7 10) 9 {8 8 10} 8 (10 7) 10(9 9)
binary ( 8) 10 (8 9) 8(10 9 8 8 11 7 9)
7 (3 4 4' 5 3 4}
19(23 18 22 19 23 16)
31 11 13 11 0 0 0 X 0 X 0 V
"" X X 0 X
2 4 2 (3) 1 (~) 2 {3 1 3) 1 ( 4)
Clashing,
major, (6 9 7 7 6 9) 7 (9 6 8 7 9)
tonic (7 6 8 6 9 8 8 6 9 6 1n
6 (2 4 2 14 1 4)
12 (20 11 18 11 19 10)
311115 0 0 0 X 0 X 0 X X X X X
2 4 2 . (2) 1 {3) 2 (3 1 2 0 3)
Balanced,
neutral-minor, {6 8 6 5 5 7 6 8 5 7 5 7\
, I
tonic (6 8 5 6 5 7 7 7 6 7 4 7)
5 (2 3 1 2 1 2)
11(14 8 11 7 13 8)
371
31 11 21 12 0 0 0 X 0 X 0 0 X 0 X X
3 4 4 (2) 2 (3) 3 4 (3) ')

(1 ') ')
Cadential, - - J ..)
o•,
polytonal 9 (10) 10 (7 8 9 0u 11 8) 9 "
\.' CJ 'J)
(9) 10 (9 8) 8 (8 10 9 10 6 (\
.:, I
\
7 (3 4 4 3 5 4)
23 ( 21 20 18 19 23 20)
,,i
31 11 21 21 0 0 0 X 0 X 0 0 V
"· 0 0 V
.t.
3 4 4 (3) 2 (4) 3 ( 3) (4)

Clashing, -4 4 2
polytonal 9(11)11 (9 9 11) 9(12 9) 10 (10 10)

(10)11 10(10) 9 ( 10 11 ro 9 12 8 10)
8 (4 5 6 5 5 5)
26(28 26 26 26 29 24)
31 11 22 11 0 0 0 X 0 X 0 0 X X 0 X
3 4 3 (3) 1 (4) 3 4 (2 3) l (4)

Cadential,
polytonal 8(10 9 8 7 10) 8(11 8 8 8 10)
(9 10) 8 (9 7 9 10 10 7 10 7 9)
7 (3 4 4 4 3 6)
19 (24 18 20 18 24 18)
31 11 24 0 0 0 X 0 X 0 0 X X X )::
3 3 ( 2) 1 ( 4) 3 (2 2 3)
Cadential, -4 -4 0
major, 8 (9 8 6 6 8 7 0 7 7 6 8)
tonic · (8 9 7 7 6 7 9 9 7 8 5 8)
6 (3 3 2 2 3 4)
18(18 13 12 12 18 16)
--
31 11 31 11 0 0 0 X 0 X 0 0 0 X 0 X
3 5 3 (4} 1 (4} 3 3 (4) 1 (4)

Clashing, -5
polytonal 9 (12 10 10 8 11) 9(12 10 10 8 :!.l) ',
(10 12) 9(11 8 10 10 12) 9(11 8 10)
8 (4 2 4 2 4 8)
24(32 22 28 22 32 24)
372
3112 1.1 12 0 0 0 X 0 X X 0 X 0 X X
2) 3 (3) 3 (1 2)
Clashing,
3 3
-4 '{2') 2 (2
binary, 8 (8 9· 6 7 8 6 9 8) 8 (7 6)
polytonal (9 8 lf 7) 8 (6 8 lf 8 9 5 7)
6 (2 3 3 2 4 2)
18 {15 15 13 14 17 14)
31 12 11 21 0 0 0 X 0 X X 0 X 0 ·O X
3 3 (3) 2 (3 2) 3 {3) 4 (3)

Cadential, I
-4 - 2
polytonal 8 /(9 10 8 .8 10 7 10 9) 9 (9 8)
(9 9) 9 (9) 9 (8. 9 9 8 11 7 8)
7 .(3 4 5 3 4 4)
21(21 21 19 20 22 18)
. • ·. 31 12 12 lL 0 0 0 X 0 X·X 0 X ·x 0 X
Clashing, -3 -3
. -3 (~) 1 (3· 2) 3 (2 !) 1 (!)
.· bi tonal-, 7 (8' 8 7 6 ..,.9 6 9 8 7 7. 8)

tonic (8 8) 7 (8 7 8 9 6 9 6 7)
.6 {2 3 4 2 2 3 )·
14 cg 1s 14 14 .!I 12)
31 12 14 .o 0 0 XO X X 0 X X X X
3 3 3 (2) l (2 2) 3 (2 2 0 2)
Clashing,
major, 7 {7 7 5 ·' 5 . 7 5 8. 7 6 5 6)
lr ·-6 ·. 7
0
tonic (7 7 6' 6 .• 6 5 . 7. ~ ~ '

4 6)
5 (2 . ,2 2 •l 2 2)
13 (12 10 a: ·9 12 10) ·
31 12 21 11 o·o 0 X 0 X x· 0 0 X 0 x·
3 4 3 (!) l (3 2) 4. 3 <!) 1 (3)
Cadential,
polytonal . 8 (10 ·9 9 7 10 7 10 10 9. 7 9)
(9 10) 8(10 8 8 8 !!) . 8 (10 7 8) '
· 7, (3 ·4 4 4 3· 6) '
19(22 18 20 18 24 18)
-
37'3
31 12 23 0 0 0 X 0 X X 0 0 X X X
r,
3 4 3 (3) 1 (2 2) 4 '.1
J (3 u 2)
Cadential,
bitonal 8 (9 8 7 6 8 6 9 9 8 5
,..
7)
(8 9 7 8 7 6 7 10) 8 (8 J 7)
6 (3 2 2 3 3 4)
18(18 12 12 13 18 16)
--
31 13 11 11 0 0 0 X 0 X X X 0 X 0 X
2 4 2 (4) 1 (3 1 3) 2 (4) 1 ( 3)
Clashing,
mino.r, (6 9 7
,,
8 I 6 9 6 8 8 9 6 8)
tonic (7 9 tl 9 7 8 6 9) 7 (9 6 7)
6 (2 4 2 4 1 4)
12(20 11 18 11 19 10)
31 13 13 0 0 0 X 0 X X X 0 X X X
2 4 2 (3) 1 (2 1 3) 2 (3 0 2)
·Clashing,
minor, (6 8 6 6 5 7 5 7 7 8 4 6)
tonic (6 8 5 7 6 6 5 8) 7 (7 4 6)
c:::
J (2 2 1 3 l 2)
11(14 7 11 8 13 8)
31 13 22 0 0 0 X 0 X X V
,:). 0 0 V
A X
2 4 3 (3) 2 (2 1 3) 3 4 (1 2)
Tonally stable,
major-binary, (7 9 8 7 7 8 6 8 8)10 (6 6)
tonic (7 9 7 8) 2 (7 6 8) 9 n· 5 7)
6 (3 2 2 4 3 2)
, 12 14 14 17 14)
- (17/
18
I
T
/
I
3i 14 12 0 0 0 X 0 X X X X 0 V
A X
2 3 3 ( 2) 2 (2
,
.l. 2 2)
...,
..) (l 2)
Balanced,
major-binary, (6 7 7 5 6 7 5 7 6) 8 (6 5)
tonic (6 7 6 6) 7 (6 6 6 7 If 4 6)
5 (2 2 2 2 2 0)
g ( l l lO 10 10 11 8)
37 4.
.,
31 14 21 0 0 0 X 0 V
A X X I, 0 0 z
I',
2 3 3 (3) 2 {3 1 2 2'j 4 2 ', . ) )
Cadential,
major-binary (6 8 8 7 7 9 6 8 7) 9 ( ~j 7)
~/ ,-
tonic (7 8 7 8) 8 (8 7 7 10 0 7)
6 (3 3 3 3 2 2)
16(17 14 15 14 16 12)
31 15 11 0 0 0 X 0 X X X X X 0 X
2 3 2 (3) 1 (3 1 2 1 _,,\ , (3)

')
.J--
Cadential, ,..
atonal, (5 7 6 0 5 8 5 7 6 7 6 7
of balanced (6 7 5 7 6 7 6 7 5 8 5 6)
polarity
5 (2 3 2 2 0 2}
9(14 9 12 8 12 6)
31 17 0 0 0 X 0 X X X X X X X
2 _,".) 2 (2) 1 (2 1 2
,
.L 2 0 ?\
-J
...
Clashing,
atonal, (5 6 -5 4 4 6 4 6 5 6 4 5)
of tonic (5 6 4 5 5 5 5 6- 5 6 3 5)
polarity
4 (2 2 1 1 0 0)
8 (9 6 7 5 7 4)
31 21 11 12 0 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 X 0 X X
4 3 4 ( 2) 3 3 ( 3} 3 (3) 3 (2 2)
Balanced,
polytonal 10 (9 10 7 8)10 (8 9 9) 9 (9 7)
(10 9 9 7)10 (8 9 9 9)10 (7 8)
7 (3 3 4 4 5 2)
23(20 20 20 20 22 18)
31 21 11 21 0 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 X 0 0 X
4 3 4 (3) 3 4 ( 3) 3 ( 3) 4 3 ( 3)
Tonally stable,
( _r, \ J
polytonal, 10(10 11 9 9) 12 (9 10 10) 10 11 \ ':J J'
atonic (11 10)10 ( 9} 11 10 10 9)12 (9 lo ( 9)
8 (4 5 6 5 6 4)
28(26 27 26 27 28 24)
3 7:~
31 21 12 11 0 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 X X 0 X
,J \
2 {,')
Cadential,
4 3 3 ( 3} 2
-4 (3) 3 (2 J ...)
polytonal 9 (9 9 8 7 11 8 .,a 9 8) 9 { 9) .
(10 9) 8 (8 9) 9- (9 10 7 10 8 8'Ji/
7 (3 4 5 3 4 4)
21(21 21 19 20 22 18)
31 21 14 0 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 X X X X
4 3 3 (2) 2 3 ( 3) 3 (2 2 l 2)
Balanced,
major, i (8 8 6 6 i 7 8 8 7 7 7)
r
tonic (9 8 7 6 8 7 8 9 7 8 0 7)
6 (3 3 3 2 3 2)
18(16 15 13 14 16 14)
31 21 21 11 0 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 X
--,
4 3 ( 4) 2 4 ( 3} 4 ( 4) (3)
Clashing, -4 .) 2
polytonal 10 11(10 10 8 12 9 10 11 10) 9 ( 10)

11 ( 11) 9(10 10)10 (9 12) 9(11 9 9)
8 (4 5 6' 5 5 5)
26(28 26 26 26 29 24)
31 21 23 0 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 0 X X V
A
4 4 3 (3) 2 3 ( 3) 4 ?
J (3 1 2)
Cadential,
polytonal 10 10 (9 8 7 10 8 9 10 9 7 8)
10(10 8 8 9 8 8 11) 9 (9 7 8)
7 (4 3 4 '4 4 4)
23(22 19 18 20 22 20)
31 22 11 11 0 0 0 X 0 0 X X 0 X 0 X
3 2 (4) 4 (2 (4) 2 (3}

Cadential, -4 2 3) 2
r,
binary, ( 8) 10 I
\0 9 7 11 8 8 9 10) 8 (9)
polytonal 9(10 7 9 9) 10 (7 10} 8(10 p.,, ,"")\
0 J
7 (3 4 4 5 3 4)
19(23 18 22 19 23 16)
l
I 376
31 22 13 0 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 X X X
'·
3 4 2 (3) 2 3 (2 3) 2 (3 1 2)
,i Balanced,
n
major-binary, ( 8) 9 (7 7 6 9 7 7 C, 9 6 7)
tonic 8 ([ 6 7 8 8 r
0 9
r.
0 (8 6 7)
6 (3 2 3 4 2 2)
16 {17 13 15 15 16 12)
31 22 22 0 0 0 X 0 0 X X 0 0 X X
3 4 3 (3) 3 3 (2 3) -~
_., 4 ,_
I? 2)
Tonally stable,
major-binary, ( 9) 10(9 8 8)10 (8 8 S)ll (3 7)
tonic 9 (10 8 8) 10 (9 7 9)10 Io (7 8)
7 (4 2 4 6 4 2)
23(21 18 20 21 21 18)
31 23 12 0 0 0 X 0 0 X X X 0 X X
3 3 3 ( 2) 3 3 (2 2 2) 3 (2 2)
Tonally stable,
polytonal {8 8 8 6 7) (79 7 7) 9 ,v.
!-rt \
6)
(8 8 7 6) 9 (8 7 7 8) 9 (6 7)
6 {3 2 3 4 3 0)
1:..§_ ( 15 14 15 16 15 12)
31 23 21 0 0 0 X 0 0 X X X 0 0 X
3 3 3 (3) 3 4 {2 2 2) 4 3 {3)
Tonally stable,
polytonal, {8 9 9 8 8)11 {8 8 8) 10 10 {8)
tonic (9 9 8 8)10 10 (8 8 8)11 (8 8)
7 (4 3 4 5 4 2)
23(21 19 20 21 21 18)
,...
31 24 11 0 0 0 X 0 0 X X V
.l). X 0 X
3 3 2 ( 3) 2 4 {2 2 l 3) 2 (3)
Cadential,
minor-binary {7 8 7 7 6 10 7 7 7 8) 8 (8)
tonic (8 8 6 7 8) 9 (7 8 6 9 7 7)
6 ( 3 3 3 3 2 2)
16(17 14 15 14 16 12)
377
31 26 0 0 0 X 0 0 X X "
h X "
I. i~
3 3 ')
,:. (2) 2 3 (2 2 l 2 1 2)
Tonally stable,
r
neutral-major, (7 7 6 5 5 8 6
1·
0 6 7 0 f,)
tonic (7 7 5 5 7 7 6 7 6 7 5 6)
5 (3 2 2 2 1 0)
13(12 10 10 10 10 8)
31 31 11 11 0 0 0 X 0 0 0 X 0 X 0 X I
3 5 2 ( 4} 2 5 3 (4) 2 (4) 2 ( 4)
Balanced,
poly.tonal, (9)12 (9 10 8 12) 10 (10 9 11) 9 (
binary, 10(12 8 10 9)12 (9 11} 9(11 9 11)
tonic
8 {4 6 -1 7 4 6)
24(31 22 30 23 31 22)
31 31 13 0 0 0 X 0 0 0 X 0 X X X
3 5 2 (3) 2 4 3 ( 4) 2 (3 1 3)
Balanced,
major-binary (9) (8 8 7 10 9 9 8 10 7 9)
tonic 9( 7 8 8 10 8 10) 9 (9 7 9)
7 (4 4 3 5 3 4)
21(24 17 21 18 23 18)
31 31 22 0 0 0 X 0 0. O X 0 0 X X
3 5 3 (3) 3 4 3 ( 4) 3 4 (2 3)
Tonally stable,
polytonal ( 10) 12 10 (9 9)11(10 10 9112 (9 9)
10 12 (9 9)10(11 9 10)11 11 (8 10)
8 (5 47 5 4)
5
28(28 24 27 27 28 2 4)
---
31 31 31 0 0 0 X 0 0 0 X 0 0 0 X
3 5 3 ( 4) i 3 5 3 ( 4) 3 5 3 (4)
Tonally stable,
binary, ·' (10)13 11(11 10)13 11(11 10)13 11 ( 11)
polytonal 11 13(10 11)11 13(10 11)11 13(10 11)
9 (6 6 6 9 6 6)
33(36 30 36 33 36 30)
-
378
~··
32 11 11 12 0 0 0 X X 0 X X 0 }( "A
4 3 4 (1 2) 2 (3) ..., (3) 2 (2

"'.)
1)
,,i Clashing,
,...
bitonal, (9 8 9 6 6) 8 (8 8 (; 7 0
V 5)
tonic (~f 8 9 5 8 7 8 8 8) 8 (6 6)
6 (2 3 2 3 4 2)
18(16 13 14 13 18 16)
32 11 11 21 0 0 0 X V
•• 0 X 0 X 0 0 X
-:1
4 3 4 (2 2) 3 (3) 3 (3) 3 ( 2)
Baianced,
poly~onal (9 9 10 8 7)10 (9 9 9 3) :o (7)
(10 9) lo (7 9) 9 (9 9 3)10 Tir 7)
7 (3 3 4 4 5 2)
23(20 20 20 20 22 18)
32 11 12 11 0 0 0 X X 0 X 0 X X 0 X
4 3 3 (2 1) 3 (3} 3 (2 2) 2 (2)
Clashing 1
polytonal, (8 8 8 7 5 9 8 8 8 6) 8 (7)
binary (9 8) 8 (6 7) 8 (8 9 6 8 7 6)
6 (2
3 3 2 4 2)
18(15 15 13 14 17 14)
32 11 14 0 0 0 X X 0 X 0 X X X X
4 3 3 (1 1) 2 ( 3) ..., (2
"'.)
1 7
.J.. 1)
Tonally stable,
neutral (8 7 7 5 4 7 7 7 7
,..
5 6 5)
(8 7 7 4 6 6 7 8 0 6 5 5)
5 (2 2 1 1 3 2)
15(12 9 7 8 13 12)
"'
32 11 21 11 0 0 0 X X 0 X 0 0 X 0 ,-.
V
4 4 ...,"'.) (3 1) 3 (3) 4 3 ( 3) 2 (2)

Cadential,
polytonal (9) 10 (9 9 6 10 9 9 10 8) 8 (8)
lG ( 10) 9 (8 8) 9 (8 11 8 9 8 7)
7 (3 4 4 3 5 4)
23(21 20 18 19 23 20)
379
32 11 23 0 0 0 X X 0 X 0 0 X X 2{
.,
3 (2 1)
Cadential,
4 4 3 (2 1) 2 ( 3)
--4 .L
polytonal ( 9) 9 (8 7 5 8 8 8 9 7 6 6)
9 (9 8 6 7 7 7 10 3 7 6 6)
"'
6 (3 2 2 2 4 4)
20(17 13 10 13 18 18)
32 12 11 11 0 0 0 X X 0 X X 0 X 0 X
3 4 2 (3 1) 3 (2 3) 2 ( 3) 2 (2)
Balanced,
poly_tonal (7) 9 (7 8 5 9 8 '7
I 8 8) 7 (7)
8 (9 7 7 7) 9 (6 9 7 8 7 6)
6 (2 3 3 3 3 2)
16(16 14 14 14 17 12)
32 12 13 0 0 0 X X 0 X X 0 X X X
2 (2 l \
3 4 1) 2 (2 3) 2 (2 1 .... J
Balanced,
major, (7) 8 (6 6 4 7 7 6 7 7 5 5)
tonic 7 (8 6 5 6 7 5 8
- 7 6 5 5)
5 (2 1 2 2 2 2)
I
13(12 9 8 10 12 10)
32 12 22 0 0 0 X X 0 X X 0 0 X X
3 4 3 (2 2) 2 (2 3) 3 3 (2 1)
Balanced,
polytonal, ( 8) 9 (8 7 6) 8 (8 7 8 9 7 5)
major, 8 (9 8 6 8 8 6 8 9) (6 6)
tonic
6 (3 1 3 4 3 2)
18(16 13 13 16 16 13)
32 12 31 0 0 0 X X 0 X X 0 0 0 X
3 4 3 (3 2) 3 (2 3) 3 4 3 {2)
Balanced,
polytonal (8)10 (9 9 7)10 (9 8 9 10) 9 ( 7)
9 9 8 9) 10 (7 9 9} Io (8 7)
7 {4 3 4 5 4 2)
23(21 19 20 21 21 18)
i
:
:mo
, 32 13 12 0 0 0 X X 0 X y
., X 0 ✓~ z
3 (2 2 2) 2 (2 l)
Balanced,
3
-3 (1 2) 2
bi tonal, (7 7 7 5 5) 7 (7 6 6 7 7 4)
-:.r 7 7 6- 7) 7 (
tonic (
-7 4
- - 6
-
5)
5 (2 1 2 3 2 0)
13(11 9 10 11 11 8)
.,,,.,;. 32 13 21 0 0 0 X X 0 X X X 0 0 '"
L'•
-3 -3 -3 (2 2) 3 (2 2 2) 3 '.)
J (2)
Tonally stable,
,4'
poly-tonal (7 8 8 7 6) 9 (8 7 7 8) 9 (6)
(8 8 8 6 8) 9 (7
- 7 7) 9 6) c-r
6 (3 2 3 4 3 0)
18(15 14 15 16 15 12)
32 14 11 0 0 0 X X 0 X X X X 0 X
3 (2 1) 3 (2 2 1 2) 2 (2)
Balanced, -3 2
minor-binary, (6 7 6 6 4 8 7 6 6 6) 7 (6)
tonic (7 7 .6 5 6) 8 (G 7 5 7 6 5)
5 (2 2 2 2 2 0)
13(11 10 10 10 11 8)
32 16 0 0 0 X X 0 V
"• X X X ".ti. X
3 2 (1 1) 2 (2 2 l 1 l 1)
Balanced, -3
neutral, (6 6 5 4 3 6 6 5 5 5 5 4)
7
tonic (6 6 5 3 5 0 6 5 5 4 4)
4 (2 1 1 1 1 1)
10 (8 6 5 6 7 6)
32 21 11 11 0 0 0 X X 0 0 X 0 X 0 X
3 2 (3 1) 4 3 ( 4) 2 ( 3) 2 (3)
Balanced, -5
polytonal (8} 11(8 9 6 10)10 (9 8 9) 8 ( 9)
9 (11 8 8 7)11 (8 10 8 9 8 8)
7 (3 4 3 5 4 5)
21(23 17 21 18 24 19)
"'
~~81
I
32 21 13 0 0 0 X X 0 0 "
/. 0 z :~ "
LC
3 5 2 (2 1) 3 ..,? (4) 2 {2 ~- 2)
Balanced,
bitonal, (8) 10(7 7,. 5 8 9 8 7 8 6 7)
major, 8 (10 7 0 6 9 7 9 8 7 6 7)
tonic
6 (3 2 2 3 ..,') 4)
18(18 12 12 13 18 16)
--
32 21 22 0 0 0 X X 0 0 X 0 0 X X
.3 5 3 (2 2) 3 3 ( 4) 3 3 (2 2)
Tonally stable,
polytonal, (9)11 9 (8 7) 9(10 9 8 10 8 7)
tonic 9 11 (9 7 8 10 8 9 10) 9 (7 8)
7 { 4 2 4 5 4 4)
23(22 18 18 21 23 20)
32 21 31 0 0 0 X X 0 0 X 0 0 0 V
L'.
3 5 3 {3 2) 4 3 (4) 3 4 3 (3)
Tonally stable,
polytonal {9)12 10(10 8)11 11(10 9 11)10 ( 9)
10 (10 9 9)12 (9 10 10)11 { 9 9)
8 (5 4 5 7 5 4)
28(28 24 27 27 28 24)
---
32 22 12 0 0 0 X X 0 0 X X 0 X X
3 4 3 (1 2} 3 3 (3 2) 2 {2 2)
Balanced,
polytonal, {8 9) 8 (6 6) 8 (9 8 6 8 8 6)
minor, (8) (8 5 7 9 8 7 8) 8 (6 7)
tonic
6 (3 1 3 4 3 2)
18(16 13 13 16 16 13)
32 22 21 0 0 0 X X 0 0 V
•"- X 0 0 X
3 4 3. (2 2) 4 3 (3 2) 3 3 {3)
Tonally stable,
minor-binary, (8 10) 9 (8 7)10 10 (9 7 9) 10 (8)
l tonic (9) 10 {9 7 8)11 {9 8 8) 10 (8 8)
7 (4 2 4 6 4 2)
23(21 18 20 21 21 18)
382
32 23 11 0 0 0 X X O O X X X O X
3 4 2 (2 1) 4 3 (3 1 2) 2 (3)
Tonally stable,
minor-binary, (7 9 7 7 5 9) 9 (8 6 7) '.i (8)
tonic <a 9 7 6 6) 10 ( s s 6 s 1 n
6 (3 2 2 4 3 2)
18(17 12 14 14 17 14)
32 25 0 0 0 X X O O X X X Z X
3 4 2 (1 1) 3 3 (3 1 1 l 2)
Balanced,
neutral (7 8 6 5 4 7 8 7 5 6 6 7)
(7 8 6 4 4 7 7 7 6 6 5 6)
5 (3 1 1 2 2 2)
15(13 8 7 9 12 12)
32 31 12 0 0 0 X X O O O X O X X
4 4 4 (1 2) 3 4 4 (3) 2 (2 2)
Balanced,
polytonal (10 10)10 (7 7) 9(10 10 8 8 9 7)
(10)10-(10 6 8 9 10 9 9) 9 (7 8)
7 (4 3 3 4 5 4)
25(22 18 17 19 23 22)
32 31 21 0 0 0 X X O O O X O O X
4 4 4 (2 2) 4 4 4 (3) 3 3 (3)
Balanced,
polytonal (10 11 11 (9 8)11 11(11 9 9)11 (9)
(11)_ 11 (8 9) (11 10 9) 11 9)
8 (5 4 5 6 6 4)
30(27 25 25 27 28 26)
32 32 11 0 0 0 X X O O O X X O X
4 4 3 (2 1) 4 4 4 (2 2) 2 (3}
Balanced,
polytonal (9 10 9 8 6 10)10(10 8 7) 9 (9)
(10 10) 9 (7 7) 16(10 10 7 9 8 8)
7 (4 3 3 4 5 4)
25(22 18 17 19 23 22)
I
:}83
33 11 11 11 0 0 0 X ·X X 0 X 0 X 0 X
2 5 2 (3 0 3) 2 { 4) 2 ( 3) 1 (3)
Clashing,
major, (6 10 7 8 5 8) 8 (9 7 8 6 8)
tonic (7 lo- 7 8 5 9 7 9 7 8 6 7)
6 (2 4 1 4 2 4)
14(20 10 17 10 10 12)
33 11 13 0 0 0 X X X 0 X 0 X X X
2 5 2 (2 0 ' ' 2 (2
2) 2 ( q) 0 2}
Tonally stable,
neutral, (6 9 6 6 4 6 7 8 6 7 4 6)
tonic {6 9 6 6 4 7 6 8 7 6 4 6)
5 (2 2 0 2 2 2)
13(15 6 8 6 15 12)
33 11 22 0 0 0 X X X 0 X 0 0 X X
2 5 3 (2 1 2) 2 (4) 3 3 (1 2) '>
Balanced,
minor, (7 10) 8 (7 6 7 8 9 7 9 6 6)
tonic (7)Tif (8 7 6 8 7 8 9 8 5 7)
6 (3 2 2 3 3 4)
18(18 12 12 13 18 16)
--
33 11 31 0 0 0 X X X 0 X 0 0 0 X
2 5 3 (3 1 3) 2 (4) ?
.J 4 2 ( 3)
Balanced,
minor-binary, (7 11 9 (9 7 9) 9(10 8 10 8 8)
tonic { 8) (9 9 7 10 8 9 9 10 7 8)
7 (4 4 3 5 3 4)
21(~ 17 21 18 23 18)
33 12 12 0 0 0 X X X 0 X X 0 X X
2 4 3 (1 1 2) 2 (3 2) 2 (1 2)
Balanced,
minor, (6 8) 7 (5 5 6 7 8 5 7 6 5)/
tonic ( 6) 8 (7 5 5 7 7 6 7 7 4 6)
5 {2 1 2 2 2 2)
13(12 9 8 10 12 10)
384
33 12 21 0 0 0 X X X 0 X X 0 0 Y.
2 4 3 (2 1 3) 2 (3 2) ".)
J 2 (.:?.)
Balanced,
minor-binary, (6 9) 8 (7 6 8) 8 (9 6 8 8 7)
tonic (7) If (8 7 6 9 8 7 9 6 7)
-
6 (3 2 3 4 2 2)
16(17 13 15 15 16 12)
·r
33 13 11 0 0 0 X X X 0 X X f. 0 X
2 4 2 (2 0 3) 2 (3 1 2) l P)
,,.,
Clashing,
major, (5 8 6 6 4 7) 7 (8 5 6 6 7)
tonic (6 8 6 6 4 8 7 7 5 7 5 6)
5 (2 2 1 3 1 2)
11(14 7 11 8 13 8)
33 15 0 0 0 X X X 0 X X X X X
2 4 2 (1 0 2) 2 (3 1 1 0 2)
Balanced,
neutral-minor, (5 7 5 4 3 5 6 7 4 5 4 5)
tonic (5 7 5 4 3 6 6 6 5 5 3 5)
4 (2 1 0 1 1 2}
10 10 4 4 4 9 8) '"'
33 21 12 0 0 0 X X X 0 0 X 0 X X
3 4 4 (1 1 2) 3 Lr
" (3) 2 (1 2)
Cadential,
bitonal (8 9} 9 (6 6 7 8 10 7 7 7 6)
(8} 9 (9 6 6 7 9 -8 8 8 5 7)
6 (3 2 2 2 3 3)
~(17 13 10 13 18 18)
33 21 21 0 0 0 X X X 0 0 X 0 0 X
3 4 4 (2 1 3) 3 4 (3) 3 2 (3)
Cadential,
polytonal (8 Ll) 10 {8 7 9) 9(11 8 8 9 8)
{9)10· 10 (8 7 9 10 8 10 7 8)
7 (4 3 4 4 4 4}
23(22 19 18 20 22 20)
!
3t5
33 22 11 0 0 0 X X X 0 0 X V
A 0 7.
3 4 3 (2 0 3) 3 4 (2 2) 1
-'- ( 3)
Cadential,
bitonal (7 9 8 7 5 8) 8(10 -,I r
0 7 2) /
(8 9) 8 (7 5 8 9 -9 6 8 6 7);
6 (3 2 2 3 3 4)
18(18 12 12 13 18 16)
---
33 24 0 0 0 X X X 0 0 X X X X
3 4 3 (1 0 2) 3 4 (2 1 0 2)
Tonally stable,
neutral-major, (7 8 7 5 4 6 7 9 6 5 5 6)
tonic (7 8 7 5 4 6 8 8 6 6 4 6)
5 (3 1 0 1 3 4)
17 (14 7 4 7 14 16)
33 31 11 0 0 0 X X X 0 0 0 X 0 X
3 5 3 (3 0 3) 3 5 3 (3) -'- (3)

Clashing,
bi tonal, (8 11 9 9 6 9) 9(11 9 8 7 9)
tonic (9 9 (9 6 9 9 11 8 9 7 8)
7 (4 4 2 4 4 4)
23(25 16 18 16 25 22)
33 33 0 0 0 X X X 0 0 0 X X X
3 5 3 (2 0 2) 3 ::, .., (2
".)
0 2)
Tonally stable,
neutral (8 10 8 7 5 7 8 10 8 7 5 7)
(8 10 8 7 5 7 8 8 7 5 7)
,,.. 6 (4 2 0 i2 4 6)
22(20 10 8 10 20 22)
34 11 12 0 0 0 X X X X 0 X 0 X X
3 3 4 (1 1 1 2) 3 (3) 2 (1 1)
Tonally stable,
neutral (7 7 8 5 5 6 6 8 7 6 6 4)
-,
(7 I 8 5 6 5 7 7 7 7 4 5)
5 (2 2 1
,
.l.3 2)
15(12 9 7 8 13 12)
i
{' ~; n r
-..i (.) Y.J
34 11 21 0 0 0 X X X z X 0 CJ Y.
3 3 4 (2 1 2 2) 3 ( 3) J
')
I.. ( 2)
,l Balanced,
minor, (7 8 9 7 6 8 7 9 8 7 8 6)
tonic (8 8) 9 (7 7 7 8 °ff 7 9 6 6)
6 (3 3 3 2 3 2)
18(16 15 13 16 14)
34 12 11 0 0 0 X X X X 0 X X 0 i"....
3 3 3 (2 0 2 2) 3 (2 2) 1 ( 2)
Clashing,
r
minor 1 (6 7 7 6 4 7 6 8 7 5 0 6)
tonic (7 7) 7 (6 5 6 7 8 5 7 .,;:; 5)
5 (2 2 2 1 2 2)
13(12 10 8 9 12 10)
34 14 0 0 0 X X X X 0 X X X X
3 "
:> 3 (1 0 1 2) 3 (2 1 0 1)
Tonally stable1
tonic (6 6 6 4 3 5 5 7 6 4 4 4)
(6 6 6 4 4 4 6 7 5 5 3 4)
4 (2 1 0 0 2 2)
12 (9 7 2 4 9 10)
34 21 11 0 0 0 X X X X 0 0 X 0 X
3 4 3 (3 0 2 2) 4 3 (3) 1 (2)
Cadential, ,...
minor1 (7 9 8 8 :::> 8 7 9 ..,a 7 G 7)
tonic (8 9) 8 (8 6 7 7 10 7 8 6 6)
;
i
6 (33 2 2 3 4) -!
18(18 13 12 12 18 16)
-- ·- ''~
' "
34 23 0 0 0 X X X X 0 0 X X X
3 4 3 (2 0 1 2) 4 3 (2 0 1)
Tonally stable,
neutral-minor, (7 8 7 6 4 6 6 8 8 6 4 5)
r
tonic (7 8 7 0 5 5 6 9 7 6 4 5)
5 (3 1 0 1 3 .:1• J\
17(14 7 4 7 14 16)
387
34 32 0 0 0 X X X X 0 0 0 X 7.
3 4 4 (2 1 1 2) 4 4 J " ( ·1
\ ..L 1)
.Balanced,
neutral (8 9 9 7 6 7 7 9 9 8 6 5)
(8 9 -~f 7 7 r
0 7 -~/ ~r 8 5 6)
6 (4 2 1 2 4 4)
~(18 12 10 12 16 20)
35 11 11 0 0 0 X X X X X 0 X 0 X
2 4 2 (3 0 2 1 3) 2 ( 3) '
..l.. (2)
Balanced,
neutral-major (5 8 6 7 4 7 6 7 7 7 ...,.:: 6)
tonic (6 8 6 7 5 7 5 8 6 7 ...
.J 5)
!
5 (2 3 1 2 1 2)
11 (_!! 8 11 · 7 13 8)
35 13 0 0 0 X X X X X 0 X X V
·"-
2 4 2 (2 0 1 1 3) 2 (2 0 1)
Balanced,
neutral-major, (5 7 5 5 3 5 5 6 0 6 3 ~:)
tonic (5 7 5 5 4 5 4 7 6 5 3 4)
4 (2 1 0 l 1 2)
10(10 4 4 4 9 8)
35 22 0 0 0 X X X X X 0 0 X X
2 4 3 (2 1 1 1 3} 3 3 ,~l
I'
I 1)
Balanced,
neutral (6 8 7 6 5 6 6 7 7 8 5 /I \
"" J
(6 8 7 6 6 6 5 7 8 7 4 5)
5 (3 1 1 2 2 2)
15(13 8 7 9 12 12)
35 31 0 0 0 X X X X X 0 0 0 X
2 4 3 '(3 1 2 1 3) 3 4 2 (2)
Balanced,
neutral (6 9 8 8 6 8 7 8 8 9 ·7 6)
(7 8 8 7 8 6 8 8 9 6 G)
6 (4 3 2 3 2 2)
18(18 13 14 13 16 )
,.,,, --
/ (',; f)
~.J (,1()
36 12 0 0 0 X X X X X X 0 X X
2 3 ... (1
.) 1 1 1 2 2) 2 (1 1)
Balanced,
.-
neutral, (5 6 6 4 4 .5 :) 6 5 6 ".:
.J 3)
tonic (5 6- 6- 4 5 5 5 6 6 ".l
_., 4)
4 (2 1 1 1 1 0)
10 (8 6 5 6 7 6)
36 21 0 0 0 X X X X X X 0 0 X
2 3 3 (2 1 2 1 2 2) 3 2 ( L~ 'J
Tonally stable,
neutral-minor, (5 7 7 6 5 7 6 7 6 7 7 ...,C: ;\
t:· \
tonic (6 7 7 6. 6 7 6 6 6 8 5 ->)
5 (3 2 2 2 1 0)
13 ( 12 10 10 10 10 8)
37 11 0 0 0 X X X X X X X 0 X
2 3 2 (2 0 2 1 2 1 2) 1 (2)
Clashing,
atonal, (4 6 5 5 3 6 5 6 5 5 ...,r:; 5)
of tonic (5 6 5 5 A 6 5 6 4 6 4 4)
!Y~- polarity
4 (2 2 1 1 0 0)
8 (9 6 7 5 7 4)
39 0 0 0 X X X X X X X X X
2 3 2 (1 0 1 l 2 1 1 0 1)
Clashing,
atonal, (4 5 4 3 2 4 4 5 4 4 3 3)
of tonic (4 5 4 3 3 4 4 s· 4 4 2 3)
polarity
3 (2 1 0 0 0 0)
7 (6 3 2 2 4 4)
41 11 11 12 0 0 0 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X X
t -;;·.
4 3 5 .2 (3) 2 (3) 3 ( 4) 2 l __, l 'I
-~
Cadential,
polytonal, (10 9 10 8 8) 8 (9 9 10 8 10 6)
mino:i;:- (10 8 11 7 9 8 9) 9 ( 10) 9 (8 7)
7 (3 5 3 2 2 2)
21(23 18 21 17 24 18)
I
/
I
380
41 11 11 21 0 0 0 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 0 X
4 3 5 3 (3) 3 ( 3) ')
J (Li) ')
J ( 2)
Tonally stable,
polytonal (10 10 1l)l0 (9)10(10 10 11 9) J. 2 ( 8)
(11 9)12 (9 10)10(10)10(10)11 3)
8 (4 6 5 5 6 4)
28(27 26 27 25 29 24)
-
41 11 12 11 0 0 0 0 X 0 X 0 X V
~'),_. 0 X
2) .:,,-, (2)
Balanced, -4 3 4 3 (2) 3 (3) 3 (3
polytonal (9 9 9) 9 (7 9 9 9 10 7) :..o ( 8)
(10 8)10 {8 8) 9 ( 9) 10 (8 9 7)
,..
7 (3 5 4 3 5 2)
~(20 21 20 19 22 18)
41 11 14 0 0 0 0 X 0 X 0 X X X X
-4 3 -4 2 (2) 2 ( 3) 3 (3 2 l)
.,_
i
Balanced, ,.,
minor, (9 8 8 7 6 7 8 8 9 6 0 6)
tonic (9 7 9 6 7 7 8) 9 (8 7 7 6)
-
6 (3 4 2 2 3 2'i J
18(17 14 14 12 17 14)
41 11 21 11 0 0 0 0 X 0 X 0 0 V
L>. 0 X
4 4 4 4 (2) 3 (3) 4 4 ( 3) •'')

..l {2)
Tonally stable,
polytonal, (10)11(10)11 (8 10 10 10)12 (9) 10 ( 9)
tonic 11(10)11(10 9)10 (9)12(10 10 10 8}
8 (4 6 5 4 7 4}
30 26 27 25 25 29 26)
I
41 11 23 0 0 0 0 . X 0 X 0 0 X X X
Tonally stable, -4 4
-4 .3 (2) 2 (3) 4
- 4 (2 2 1)
polytonal (10)10 (9 9 7 8 9 9}11 (8 8 7)
10 (9 10 8 8 8 8)11(10 8 8 7)
7 (4 -:rJi 3 3 5 4)
25(22 19 17 18 23 22)
390
41 11 32 0 0 0 0 X 0 X 0 0 0 X X
4 4 3 { 3) 2 (3) 4 ')
1)
5
-5
( 'j
..,J
'.,
Balanced,
wi r,
polytonal, (11)11( 10 9) 9(10 lC) .LV 7)
major, 11(10 12 9 10 9 9)11( 10 (9 8)
tonic
8 (5 5 4 5 6 6)
30(29 24 24 29 30 28)
41 12 11 11 0 0 0 0 X 0 X X 0 X 0 X
...,
.::, 4 3 4 (2) 3 (2
,,
..;J 3 ( 3) 3 ( 2)
Balanced,
polytonal ( 8) 10 (8 10 7 9 9 3)10 ( 9) 0
:;) ( 8)
9 (9 9 -9 8)10 (7 10 9 9 7)
7 (3 5 4 3 5 2)
23(20 21 20 19 22 18)
41 12 13 0 0 0 0 X 0 X X 0 X X "
A
3 4 3 3 (2) 2 (2 3) 3 (2 2 l)
Balanced,
polytonal, ( 8) 9 (7 8 6 7 8 7) 9 (8 7 6)
major 8 (8 8 7 7 8 6 9 9 7 7 6)
6 (3 3 3 2 3 2)
18(16 15 13 14 16 14)
41 12 22 0 0 0 0 X 0 X X 0 0 X X
3 4 3 (3) 2 (2 3) 4 3 (3 1)
Cadential, -4 - ...
polytonal, (9) 10 (9 9 8) 8 (9 8)10(10 9 6)
major 9 (9 10 8 9 9 7 9 11) 9 (8 7)
7 (4 3 4 4 4 4)
23(22 19 18 20 22 20)
41 12 31 0 0 0 0 X 0 X X 0 0 0 X
Balanced, polytonal 3
-4 -4· 4 (3) 3 (2 3) 4
- 4 -4
( 2)
(9)11(10 11 9)10(10 9 'J -'-1 _L" ( .J...., 1 ) l _i_

,
J_ ( 8)
10 ( 11 10 10)11((8 10 'll)ll( 8)
- --
8 (5 5 5 5 6 4)
30(27 26 25 26 28 ? r)
_t)
391
41 13 12 0 0 0, 0 X 0 X X
V
.l. 0 '/
1.
?
,{.
3 3 4 2 (3) 2 (2 2 3) 2 ( .,-; " '

J..)
Clashing, ,~. ,
bitonal, (8 8 8 7 7) 7 (S 7 0 8 9 5)
minor, (8 7 9 6 8 8 7 7 9 8 (7 6)
tonic
6 (3 3 3 3 2 2)
16 (17 14 15 14 16 12)
41 13 21 0 0 0 0 X 0 X X
~;: 'I'
A 0 0 X
3 3 3 (3) 3 (2 2 3} ..,, '~'

Tonally stable,
4
-4 \ L j
major-binary, (8 9 9 9 8) 9 (9 8 9 9)11 {7)

tonic (9 8 10 8 9)10 (8 8 9)10 (9 7)
'>
7 (4 4 4 4 4 2)
23 (21 20 20 20 21 18)
41 14 11 0 0 0 0 X 0 X X X X 0 X
3 3 3 3 (2) 3 {2 2 2 2) ..,'.:l ( 2)
Tonally stable,
bitonal, (7 8 7 8 6 8 8 7 8 7) 9 (7)
binary, (8 7 8 7 7} 9 (7 8 7 8 6)
tonic
6 (3 4 3 2 3 0)
18(15 16 15 14 15 12)
41 16 X
•. ,
_,,_ X
0 0 0 0 X 0 X X X
3 3 3 2 ( 2) 2 (2 2 2 1 2 1)
Balanced, ..,
neutral-minor, (7 7 6 6 5 6 7 6 I 6 7 5)
tonic (7 7 5 6 7 7 ·1 6 6 5)
5 (3 3 2 1 l 0)
13(12 11 10 9 10 8) I
I
41 21 11 11 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 X 0 X
3 5 3 . -1 (2) 4 3 (4) 3 ( 3) 3 ( 3)
Tonally stable,
polytonal (9) 12 (9 11 8 10)11(10)10(10)10(10)
10(11 10 10 8) (9 11 10 2..0) 10 {9)
8 (4 6 5 5 6 4)
28(27 26 27 25 29 24)
392
41 21 13 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 X :z :::
-:;
3 5 J
..J 3 (2) 3 3 (4) J (2 2 2)
Tonally stable,
polytonal, (9)11 (8 9 7 8 10 9; 9 (9 ,;:,
V 8)1
binary, 9(10 9 8 7 10 8 10 7 "
..1..U 8 8 8 )'
tonic
7 (4 4 4 1 4 4)
23(22 20 18 19 22 20)
41 21 22 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 0 X V
,L\.
3 5 4 3 (3) 3 3 ( 4) 4 3 (3 2)
Balanced,
polytonal, (10)12 10(10 9) 9( 10) 10 ( 10 8)
major, 10 11(11 9 9 11 9 10 10 (9 9)
tonic
8 (5 4 6 5 5 6)
28(28 26 27 27 28 26)
---
41 21 31 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 0 0 X
3 5 4 4 (3) 4 3 ( 4) 4 4 4 ( 3)
Tonally stable,
polytonal, (10)13 11( 10)11 12(11)11( )1?f7r:)
.L-\~U
binary, 11 12(12 11 10)13(10 11 12)12 11(10)

tonic
9 (6 6 7 7 7 6)
35(34 33 33 34 35 32)
41 22 12 •,,
0 0 0 0 X 0 0 X X 0 X A
....
3 4 4 2 (3) .::, 3 (3 3) 2 (3 2)
Clashing,
polytonal (9 10 9 (8 8) 8 ( 10 9 8 9 10 7}
(9) (10 7 8 10 8 10) 9 8)
7 (4 3 5 4 3 4)
21(22 20 19 21 21 18)
41 22 21 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 X X 0 0 X
3 4 4 3 (3) 4 3 (3 3) 3 4 ( 3)
--
tonally stable,
polytonal, (9 11)10(10 9)10 11 ( 10 9 10)12 (S)
binary, (10)10(11 9 9)12(10 9 10)11 10 ( 9)
tonic
8 (5 4 6 6 5 4)
28(27 26 26 28 27 24)
I -
41 23 11 0 0 0 0 X O O X X X O X
3 4 3 3 (2) 4 3 (3 2 2) 3 (3)
Tonally stable,
minor-binary, (8 10 8 9 7 9)10 {9 a 8):~G '.~1)
tonic (9 9 9 8 7)11 (9 9 8 9) 9 (8)
7 (4 4 4 4 4 2)
23(21 20 20 20 21 18)
41 25 0 0 0 0 X O O X X X X X
3 4 3 2 (2) 3 3 (3 2 1 2 2)
Balanced,
neut:i;al-major, (8 9 7 7 6 7 9 8 7 7 8 7)
tonic (8 8 8 6 6 9 8 8 8 7 7 7)
6 (4 3 3 2 2 2)
18(17 15 13 14 15 14)
41 31 12 0 0 0 0 X O O O X O X X
4 4 5 2 (3) 3 4 4 (4) 2 (3 2) .,.

Cadential,
major-binary, (11 11)11 (9 9) 9(11 11 10 9 11 8)
tonic (11)10(12 8 9 10 11)10(11)10 (9 9)
8 (5 5 5 5 5 6)
28(29 25 25 25 29 26)
41 31 21 0 0 0 0 X O O O X O O X
4 4 5 3 (3) 4 4 4 (4} 3 4 (3)

Tonally stable,
polytonal, (11 12)12 11(10)11 12(12 11 10)13(10)
binary, (12)11 13(10 10)12(12)11(11)12 (10)
tonic
9 (6 6 7 7 7 6)
35(34 33 33 34 35 32)
41 32 11 0 0 0 0 X O O O X X O X
4 4 4 3 (2) 4 4 4 {3 2) 3 (3)
Balanced,
polytonal (10 11 10)10 (8 10)11(11 10 8)11(10);
(11 10)11 (9 8)11(11)11 (9 10)10- (9)'
8 (5 5 5 5 6 4)
30(27 26 25 26 28 26)
304
41 34 0 0 0 0 y
X 0 0 0 X X X "'
4 4 4 2 (2) 3 4 4 {3 l 2 2)
Balanced,
minor, (10 10 9 8 7 8 10 J 0 9 7 9 8)
tonic (10 9 10 7 7 9 To)To
- - (9 8 8 8) .. '+
7 {5 4 .:," 3 4 4)
25(23 19 17 18 12 12)
41 41 11 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 0 0 X 0 X
4 5 4 4 (2) 4 4 .5 4 ( 3) ?
..) (3)
Tonally stable,
polytonal, (11 13(11)12 (9 11}12(12)12(10)11(11)
tonic 12 ( 12} 12 (11 9)12(11)13(11 11)11(10)
9 (6 7 0r 6 8 6)
37(34 33 32 32 36 34)
42 11 11 11 0 0 0 0 X X 0 X 0 X 0 X
2 5 3 4 (1 3) 2 (4} 3 ( 3) 2 ( 3)
Cadential,
polytonal, (7 11 8 10 7 8) 9 (10)9 (9 8 9)
major (8 10 9 10 6 10 8 10 9 9) 8 (8)
...,
7 (3 5 .J 4 4 4) I
21(23 18 21 17 24 18}
42 11 13 0 0 0 0 X X 0 X 0 X X X
2 5 3 3 (1 2) 2 (4} 3 (2 1 2)
Cadential,
major, (7 10 7 8 6 6 8 9) 8 (8 6 7)
tonic (7 -9 8 8 5 8 7 9 9 7 6 7)
6 (3 3 2 2 3 4)
~(18 13 12 12 18 16)
42 11 22 0 0 0 0 X X 0 X 0 0 "
['/,. X
2 5 4 " (2
.:, 2} 2 ( 4) 4 3 (2 2)
Clashing,
polytonal, (8 11) 9 (9 8 7 9 10} 9(10 8 7)
minor, (8) 10 (:i..O 9 7 9 8 9 11 9 7 8)
tonic
7 (4 3 4 3 4 6)
23(23 19 16 19 23 22)
---
39S
42 11 31 0 0 0 0 X X 0 X n
'J 0 n X
"
2 5 4 4 (2 3) 2 (4) 4 t:, J (=~ )

Cadential,
-, ,,...
minor-binary (8 12)10(11 9 9)10(11)10(11 _;_1,; 9)
tonic (9)TI(ll 11 8 11 9 , o; 11 11) 9 (9)
...L ;
8 (5 5 5 :)r.· 5 6)
28(29 25 25. 25 29 26)
,I
42 12 12 0 0 0 0 X X 0 V
L'. "
;\ 0 X :x
2 4 4 2 (2 2) 2 (3 .., ')
:) 2 (2 2)
Clashing,
bitonal, (7 9) 8 (7 7 6 0
u ,./..
~
7 8 8 6)
. 9 -,
tonic (7) 8 {9 7 6 8 8 7 8 ~
V I
\
I
6 (3 2 4 2 2 4)
16 (17 15 12 15 16 , LL) .J.. •
42 12 21 0 0 0 0 X X 0 X X 0 0 X
2 4 4 3 (2 3) 2 (3 3)
-,
j
-.
::,, r ? \
\ ..) J
Clashing,
polytonal (7 10) 9 (9 8 8) 9 ( lG 8 9 10 8)
(8)-9(10 9 7 10 9 9 10) ( 8}
7 (4 3 5 4 3 4)
21(22 20 19 21 21 18)
42 13 11 0 0 0 0 X X 0 X X X 0 X
2 4 3 3 (1 3) 2 (3 2 2) 2 ( 3)
Clashing,
bitonal, (6 9 7 8 6 7) 8 (9 7 7 8 8)
major, (7 8 8 5 9 8 ·s 7 8) 7 (7)
tonic
6 (3 3 3 3 2 2)
16(17 14 15 14 16 12)
42 15 0 0 0 0 X X 0 X X X V
A X
2 4 3· 2 (1 2) 2 (3 2 1 1 2)
Clashing,
neutral, (6 8 6 6 5 5 7 8 6 6 6 6) ' "
tonic (6 7 7 6 4 7 7 7 7 6 5 6)
5 (3 2 2 1 1 2)
13(13 10 8 9 11 10)
--
, . r, (.
., Ju
42 21 12 0 0 0 0 X X 0 0 V
/,._ 0 X "T
/.
( ,
! 3 4 5 2 (2 2) 3 4 ( 4) 2 ,L 2)
I
I
'
Clashing,
Polytonal, (9 10)10 (8 8 7 9 7 "L
.... 9 8 9 7)
r, \
(9) 9( 8 7 8 10) 9(10 9 7 Gj
major,
tonic 7 (4 .:)-, 4 ::, 4 6) ")
23 23 19 16 19 23 22)
,J
42 21 21 0 0 0 0 X V
,(I, 0 0 V
.L:.. 0 0 X
3 !:.:,; 5 3 (2 3) 3 4 ( 4) 3 3 (3)
Bala~ced,
polytonal, (9 11)11 10 (9 9)10(12 10 9 1 -
J_ ~L. 9) ;I
minor, ( 10) 10 (10 8 10 11) 10(10 1_,__l
" ) ()
J ( 9)
tonic
8 (5 4 6 5 5 6)
28(28 26 27 27 28 26)
42 22 11 0 0 0 0 X X 0 0 X X 0 X
3 4 4 3 (1 3) 3 4 (3 2) 2 ( 3}
Cadential,
polytonal, (8 10 9) 9 (7 8) 9(11 9 7 9 9)
minor (9 9) 10 (9 t)r 9 10)10 (8 9) 8 ( 8)
7 (3 4 4 4 4 4)
23(22 19 18 20 22 20)
42 24 0 0 0 0 X X 0 0 X X V
L'. X
I -,
3 4 4 2 (1 2) 3 4 p 1 J_ 2)
Cadential,
minor, (8 9 8 7 6 6 8 10 8 6 7 7)
tonic (8 8 9 7 5 7 9) "5f (8 7 6 7)
r
t)(4 2 2 2 3 ,1• \j
20(18 13 10 13 17 18)
42 31 11 0 0 0 0 X X 0 0 0 ..
V
0 X
3 5 4 4 (1 ~\
..., I 3 5 4 (3) 2 (3)
Balanced,
polytonal, {9 12 10) 11 (8 (9 9 10
minor, (10 11 (11 7 10) 9 (S
tonic
8 (5 5 4 5 6 6)
30(29 24 24 24 30 28)
~5 97
,.,
42 3.3 0 0 O· 0 X X 0 0 u X ·1
L. z
3 5 4 ')
.J (1 2) 3 5 4 (2 "j_ 2)
Balanced,
bitonal, (9 11 9 9 7 7 9 Jl (3 7 8
minor, (9 lff 10 9 6 8 9) (10 8 7 8}
tonic
') .
7 (5 2 .J 5 6}
J
')
27(24 17 14 17 24 26)
/
42 42 0 0 0 0 X X 0 0 0 0 ,,,
'T X ;
3 5 5 3 (2 2) 3 t:'.
.; 5 3 (2 2)
Clashing,
polytonal (10 12)11(10 9 8 - ~'
10 Lc'.J (10 9 8)
(10) L[(l2 10 8 9 1of11 (12 10 8 9)
8 (6 4 4 4 6 8)
g(30 24 20 24 30 32}
43 11 12 0 0 0 0 X X X 0 X 0 }( X
3 3 5 2 (2 1 2) 3 ( LL- )' 2 (2 , '

.l.. j
Cadential,
minor, (8 8 9 7 7 6 7 9 9 7 8 5)
tonic (8 7 10 7 7 6 8) 8 (9 8 6 6)
6 (3 3 2 2 3 4)
18(~ 13 12 12 18 16)
43 11 21 0 0 0 0 X X X 0 X 0 0 V
LS
,
.J 3 5 3 (2 2 2) 3 ( Li j 3 .., (2)
")
Tonally stable,
minor, (8 9 10) 9 (8 8 8 10 10 8 7
.L.V
r, 7)
tonic (9 8)11 (9 8 8 9) 9 (9 10 8 7)
7 (4 4 4 3. 4 4}
23(22 20 18 19 22 20)
43 12 11 0 0 0 0 X X X 0 X X 0 V
A
3 3 4 3 i( 1 2 2) 3 (3 2) 2 ( 2)
Balanced,
polytonal, (7 8 8} 8 (6 7 7 9 9 6 8 r
minor (8 7) 9 (8
- 6 7 8) 9 (7 8 7 6)
6 (3 3 3 2 3 2)
18(16 15 13 14 16 14)
3'.)8
43 14 0 0 0 0 X ..
y
X 0
-,
./':.. X X :x
3 3 4 2 (1 1 2) 3 (3 1 -'· .Li
lanced,
minor, (7 7 7 6 5 5 6 ()
u
I'"\
C.1 5 ,,
r
S)
tonic (7 6 8 6 5 5 7) s- I;:]
\ I 6 -" 5)
5 (3 2 1 1 2 2)
15(13 9 7 8 12 12)
43 21 11 0 0 0 0 X X X 0 ('
V X 0 X
3 4 4 4 (1 2 2} 4 ( 3) 2 ( 2)
Tonally stable, -4
poly-tonal (8 10 9)10 (7 8 1
7'1)1_,L
8 -'J (8 8 8)
(9 9)10(10 7 8 8)11 (9 9 8 7)
7 (4 4 3 3 5 4)
25(22 19 17 18 23 22)
,,
43 23 0 0 0 0 X X X 0 0 X .{.;,,.
V
,: .
-, \
3 4 4 3 (1 1 2) 4 4 (2 '
_;_ _!_;
Tonally stable,
bitonal, (8 9 8 8 6 6 7 9)10 (7 5 6)
tonic (8 8 9 8 6 6 7)10 7 6 6)
6 (4 2 1 2 4 4)
22(18 12 9 12 18 20)
43 32 0 0 0 0 X X X 0 0 0 ,,.
V
X
_,
?
4 5 3 (2 1 2) 4 5 _,? (2 -, I
j_)
Balanced,
•' major, (9 10 10 9 8 7 8 10)11 (9 8 6)
tonic (9 9 11 9 8 7 8) 10 ( 9 7 7)
7 (5 3 2 .)" 5 6)
27(24 17 14 17 24 26)
43 41 0 0 0 0 X X X 0 0 0 0 X
3 4 5 4 (2 2 2) 4 5 4 3 I?}
l-
Tonally stable, 1-
polytonal, (9 111 11)11 (9 9 9 '
) 12 { 10 C• \
0 J
tq;nic (10/10)12(11 9 9 9)11( 11 9 8)
8 (6 5 4 4 6 6}
32(29 25 22 24 29 3 0)
:; s ';;
44 11 11 0 0 0 0 X X X ,.V 0 :x 0 ~,:
2 4 3 4 (1 2 1 3) 3 (3) 2 ( ~)
Balanced,
major, (6 9 7 9 6 7 7 8) ..,
(:
(8 7 7)
tonic (7 8 8 5f 6 8 6 9 8 8 7 6)
-
6 (3 t1 2 2 3 2)
18(17 14 14 12 12 14)
44 13 0 0 0 0 X X X X 0 X ·7
·" X
2 3· --. \
4 3 (1 1 l :> j 3 (2 l 1)
Balanced,
major, (6 8 6 7 5 5 6 7) 8 (7 5 5)
tonic (6 7 7 7 5 6 5 l"l
0 8 6 5 5)
5 (3 2 1 1 2 2)
15(13 9 7 8 12 12)
44 22 0 0 0 0 X X X X 0 0 X X
2 4 4 3 (2 ~
l 3) ')
(2 1)
Cadential,
.1.
-4 J
major, (7 9 8 8 7 6 7 8) 9 (9 7 5)
tonic (7 8 9 8 7 7 6 8 10 8 6 6)
6 (4 2 2 2 3 4) . s-
22(18 13 10 13 17 18)
44 31 0 0 0 0 X X X X 0 0 0 X
~,
2 4 4 4 (2 2 l 3) 4 4 J (2)
Balanced,
major, (7 10 9 10 8 8 8 9)10(10 9 7)
tonic (8 10 8 9 7 9 10 8 7)
-- --
7 (5 4 3 3 4 4)
25(23 19 17 16 22 22)
45 12 0 0 0 0 X X X X X 0 X X
2 3 4 -2 (2 1 1 2 3) 2 (2 ~
l.} '
Clashing, ~,
r
neutral, (6 7 7 6 6 5 0 I 7 7 7 f \
-" j
,... \
tonic (6 6 8 6 6 6 6 6 8 7 5 :) }
5 (3 2 2 1 1 2)
13(13 10 8 9 11 10)
j
4(1G
45 21 0 0 0 0 X X X X X 0 0 Y.
2 3 4 3 (2 2 l 2 ,\
.) J 3 J ( ~,)
'L.
Balanced,
,·:
neutral-minor, (6 8 8 8 7 7 7 8 ;:; 8 C
J 6)
tonic (7 7 9 8 7 8 7 7 8 9 I 6)
6 I
\ .
/1
3 3 2 2 2)
18(17 15 13 14 15 14)
46 0 0 0 0 X X V
A X "
.!';.. X 0 X
2 3 3 ')
J (1 2 7
J.. 2 2 2) 2 ( 2)
Balanced,
neutral-major, (5 7 6 7 5 6 6 7 7 6 7 5)
tonic (6 6 7 55 7 6 6 7 6 5)
5 (3 3 2 1 1 0)
13(12 11 10 9 10 8)
,,, 48 0 0 0 0 X X X X X X X X
2 (1 ., \
2 3 3 1 1 2 2 1 1 .l.)
Clashing,
atonal, (5 6 5 5 4 4 5 6 6 5 5 4)
of tonic (5 5 6 5 4 5 5 ·r 5 4 4)
polarity
4 (3 2 1 0 0 0)
10 (9 7 5 5 6 6)
51 11 11 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X
2 5 3 5 2 ( 4) 2 (4) 3 (4) 2 ( 4)
Cadential,
,,,, polytqnal, (8 12 9 11 9 10) 9( ) 10 {11 9
tonic (9 9 12 8 11 9 11)10(11) 9 ( lC)
8 (4 7 4 6 4 6)
24 31 23 30 22 31 22)
51 11 13 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 X 0 X X X
2 5 3. 4 2 ( 3) 2 ( 4) 3 (3
,
.l. 3)
Ca9-ential,
bitonal,
-
(8 -VL
-; 8 9 8 8 8 ) 9 {10 7 ('
~·
\
I
minor, (8/Io 8 10 7 9 8 10)10 (9 7 9}

tonic
7 {4 5 3 4 3 4)
21(24 18 21 17 23 18)
ll r, .,
, U.l
51 11 22 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 X 0 0 :,,:: X
2 5 4 4 3 (3) 2 { 4) I
'± 4 (2 3)
Balanced,
polytonal (9 12)10(10)10 (9 9 1.1.) ::..o 12 r'~n S)
(9) 11(10 11) 9(10 9 10) 12 (il -, t"\'I
8 .l.U
8 (6 5 5 5 5 6)
28(29 25 25 25 29 2 6)
51 11 31 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 X 0 0 r,
V X
2 5 4 5 3 (4) 2 (4) t} 5 3 ( t1)

Balanced,
major-binary, (9 13)11(12 ) 10 ( 12 i i
13(11 LU
tonic (10)12(11 10 (12 10 11 ') /\. 13)
l...... L.. ..L
~ r. ( 7 7 )
..l-v J... .......
9 (6 7 6 7 6 8)
33(37 31 34 31 37 32)
·r
51 12 12 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 X X 0 X ,l'..
\
2 4 4 3 3 (3) 2 (3 3) 3 ")
l-
')
j;
Balanced,
major-binary, (8 10) 9 (8 9 8 8 10 8) 10 (9 3)
tonic (8) 9 (9 9) I 8 (9 9 8 10 10 7
--
9)
7 (4 4 5 3 3 4)
21(22 21 19 20 21 18)
51 12 21 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 X X 0 0 X
2 4 4 4 3 (4} 2 (3 3) 4 3 , !' )
l -=
Cadential,
major-binary, (8 11)10(10 10 10) 9(11 9)11(11 10)
tonic (9)10(10 11) 9(11 10 9 10 12) 9 ( 10)
8 (5 5 6 5 4 6)
26(29 26 26 26 28 24)
51 13 11 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 X X X 0 X
2 4 3 4 2 ( 4) 2 (3 2 3) 2 ( 4)
Clashing,
bitor:ial, (7 10 3 9 8 9) 8(10 8 9 9 ]_;) )
tonic (8 9 8 10 7 10 9 8 10) 8 T9)
7 (4 5 4 4 2 4)
19(24 19 22 18 22 16)
,, /
7
402
51 15 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 "
;,. "
,\. X Y.
-,_r
,t,
2 4 3 3 2 ( 3) 2 (3 2 2 ....l -., ')

...)
_,
Clashing,
neutral-minor, (7 9 7 7 7 7 7 9 7 8 7 8)
tonic (7 8 7 8 6 8 8 8 8 0
u 6 8) ·-.
,..
0(4 4 3 2 1 2)
16(18 15 15 13 15 12)
51 21 12 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 X V
L,
3 4 5 3 3 (3) 3 4 (4) 3 (2 3)
Cadential,
polytonal, 10(11)11 (9 10 9 9 12 J... Q)~ocr
..L -LV 9) 7
major, (10)10(11 10) 9 (9 11) (11 11 8 10)

tonic
8 (3 3 4 2 3 4)
28(28 27 24 26 28 26)
-- -
51 21 21 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 0 X
3 4 5 4 3 ( 4) 3 4 ( 4) 4 3 (\ Lt)
-
Cadential,
polytonal, 10(12)12 11(11 11} 10 ( l.3 11)11(12 11)
tonic (11)11 12(12)10(11 12) (11 13 10 ( 11)
9 (6 6 8 6 6 8)
33(35 34 32 34 35 3 2) I
51 22 11 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 X X 0 X
3 i..1 4 4 2 (4) 3 4 (3 3) 2 (4)

Cadential,
minor-binary, 9(11 10) 10 (9 10) 9(12 10 9 10 ll)
tonic (10 10)10(11 8 10 ) 11 (9 11) 9 ( 10)
8 (5 5 6 5 4 6)
26(29 26 26 26 28 24)
51 24 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 V
,.[~ X X X
3 4 4 3 2 (3) 3 4 (3 2 l 3)
Cadential,
minor-binary, 9( 9 8 8 8 8 11 9 8 8 9)
tonic (9 9 9 9 7 8 10)10 (9 9 7 9)
7 (5 4 4 3 ..)" 4)
23(23 20 18 19 21 20)
403
51 31 11 0 0 0 0 0 ,,.
V
0 0 0 "A 0 'T
h.
3 5 4 5 2 ( 4) 3 5 !~ ( 4) 2 ( 4)
Balanced,
minor-binary, 10(13 11)12(10 11) l O( l :Ll 10 12)
·) J\ ,;.,'.'.
•. .J ' ..
tonic (11 11(13 9 11 ) l l 12)10(1.l)
9 (6 7 6 7 6 8)
33(37 31 34 31 37 32}
51 33 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 0 :x X X
3 5 4 4 2 ( 3) 3 5 4 (3 1 3)
Balanced,
,;::,
minor-binary, 10(12 10 10 9 9 9 12)11(10 v 10)
tonic (10 10 11 8 9 10)12 11(10 8 10)
,..
8 (6 4
::i5 5 6)
30 30 24 24 24 29 28)
51 42 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 0 0 X X
3 5 5 4 3 ( 3) 3 5 5 4 (2 3)
Balanced,
polytonal, 11(13)12(11 11 10 10 13)12 12(10 10)
minor, (11)12(12 12)10(10 11)12 13(12 9 )
tonic
9 (7 6 6 6 7 8)
37(36 32 30 32 36 3 6) ...
51 51 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 0 0 0 X
3 5 5 5 3 (4) 3 5 5 5 3 (4)
Clashing,
polytonal ( 14) 13 13(12 12)11(14)13 13(12 12)
(12)13 13(14)11(12 12)13 13 14 11(12
10 (8 6 6 6 8 10)
42(44 40 40 40 44 42)
52 11 12 0 0 0 0 0 X X 0 X 0 X "
./;.
3 3 5 3 3 (2 2) 3 ( 4) 3 (2 2)
Clashing,
polytonal, 9 (9 10 8 9 8 7 10 10) 9 (9 '7'
I }
binary (9 8 10 9) 9 (7 9) 9(10 10 7 8)
7 (4 4 4 3 4 i1)
23(22 20 18 19 22 20)
,I'
404
52 11 21 0 0 0 0 0 X X 0 X 0 0 ,.>r
3 3 5 4 ..,? (3 2) 3 (ii) 4 ...,

~)
(3;
Cadential,
polytonal, ).,,,11, 9)
9(10 11)10(10 10 8 11 j_\) \. J
minor, (10 9)11(11)10 (9 10)10(10 12 9 9)
tonic
8 (3 3 4 2 3 4)
28(28 27 24 26 28 26)
52 12 11 0 0 0 0 0 X X 0 X. V
/>. 0 X
_,? 3 4 4 2 (3 2) 3 {3 3) 2 P)
,..)
Balanced,
minor-binary, 8 (9 9) 9 (8 9 7 10 10 8 9 9)
tonic (9 8) 9(10 8 8 9) 10 (ff 10 8 8)
7 ( ,1 4 5 3 3 4)
21(22 21 19 20 21 18)
52 14 0 0 0 0 0 X X 0 X X X .,,.
V
3 3 4 3 2 (2 2) 3 (3 2 1 2)
Balanced,
minor-binary, 8 (8 8 7 7 7 6 9 9 7 7 7)
tonic (8 7 8 8 7 6 8) a_, (8 8 6 7)
6 (4 3 3 2 2 2)
18(17 15 13 14 15 14)
52 21 11 0 0 0 0 0 X X 0 0 X 0 X
11
3 4 4 5 2 (3 2) 4 -,: (4) 2 (3)
Balanced, . ""
polytonal 9(11 10)11 (9 10 8 11)12(10 9 10)
10(10)10 12 9 9 9)12 10(11 9 9)
8 (6 5 5 5 5 6)
28(29 25 25 25 29 26)
52 23 0 0 0 0 0 X X 0 0 X X X
,
3 4 4 ·4 2 (2 2) 4 4 (3 .L 2)
Tonally stable,
polytonal 9 (10 9 9 8 8 7 10)11 (9 7 8)
(9 9 9 10 8 7 8)11 10- (9 7 8)
7 (5 3 3 4 4 4)
25(23 18 17 19 22 22)
t-... ;; .J
52 32 0 0 0 0 0 X X 0 0 0 )( X
,::
3 4 5 4 3 (2 2) 4 J 4 (2 2)
Tonally stable,
polytonal, 10(11 11 10 10 9 8 )12 11 (9 8) .
tonic (10 10 11 11)10 (8 9)11 12(11 8 9,J, I
8 (6 4 4· 5 6 6)
32(29 24 22 25 29 30)
52 41 0 r\
0 0 0 0 X X 0 V 0 0 X
3 4 5 5 3 (3 2) 4 5 _.,c:: ')
.J ( 2)
Balanced,
poly,tonal, 10(12 12)12(11 11 9 -1 -?1', ., 1? ( 10) ~~
major, (11 11)12(13)11(10 10)12 li{l3 10 10)

tonic
9 (7 6 6 6 7 8)
37(36 32 30 32 36 36)
53 11 11 0 0 0 0 0 X X X 0 X 0 V
"'
..., \ , .... \
2 4 3 5 2 {3 1 .::> l 3 (4) 2 ( .) I
Cadential,
bitonal, (7 10 8 10 8 9 7 9)10(10 8 Cl
_., II
major, {8 9 8 11 8 9 7 10) 9(10 8 8)

tonic
7 {4 5 3 4 3 4)
21(24 18 21 17 23 18)
53 13 0 0 0 0 0 V
.ti. X X 0 X X X
2 4 3 4 2 (2 1 3) 3 (3 1 2)
Balanced,
bitonal, (7 9 7 8 7 7 6 8) 9 (9 6 7)
tonic (7 8 7 9 7 7 6 9) 9 6 7)
6 (4 3 2 13 2 2)
18(18 13 13 16 14)
53 22 0 0 0 0 0 X X X 0 0 X }:
2 4 4 4 ')
.J (2 1 3) 4 4 I ')
\- 2)
Tonally stable,
polytonal (8 10 9 9 9 8 7 9)10 11 (8 ~'
! }
(8 9 9 10) 9 (8 7 9)11(10 7 8)
7 (5 3 3 4 4 4)
25(23 18 17 19 22 22)
406 .
I
53 31 0 0 0 0. 0 X X ]{ 0 0 0 ){
2 4 4 5 3 (3 1 3) '2 5 _,') ( _,') ')

Balanced,
major-binary, (8 11 10 11 10 8 lQ)J.l =L2(]Q 9)
tonic (9 10 10 12)10(10 8 ) l l CIT 9 9)
8 (6 5 4 5 5 6)
30(30 24 24 24 29 28)
54 12 0 0 0 0 0 X X X X 0 X X
2 3 4 3 3 (2 1 ')
L. 3) 3 (2 2)
Balanced,
major-binary, (7 8 8 7 8 7 6 8 8) 9 (8 6)
tonic (7 7 8 8) 8 (7 7 7 9 9 6 7)
6 (4 3 3 2 2 2)
18(17 15 13 14 14)
54 21 0 0 0 0 0 X V
L1. X X 0 0 X
2 3 4 4 3 (3 1 2 3) 4 3 ( -;,_, J\
Cadential,
major-binary, (7 9 9 9 9 9 7 9 9) (10 8)
tonic (8 8 9 10) 9 {9 8 8 9 11 8 8)
7 (5 4 4 3 3 4)
23(23 20 18 19 21 20)
55 11 0 0 0 0 0 X X X X X 0 X
Clashing,
2 3 3 4 2 {3 1 2 2 ? \
..., ' 2 (3)
neutral--major, (6 8 7 8 7 8 6 8 8 8 8 8)
tonic (7 7 7 9 7 8 7 8 7 9 7 7)
6 (4 4 3 2 l 2)
16(18 15 13 15 12)
57. 0 0 0 0 0 X X X X X X X
2 3 3 3 2 (2 1 2 2 2 1 2)
Clashing, ,,.
atonal (6 7 6 6 6 6 5 7 7 7 \) 6)
(6 6 7
,-
D 6 6 7 ;er -;:i 5 6)
5 (
3 2j(
"-<• 1 0 0)
13(13 11 10 9 9 8)
61 11 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 X O X O Z X
tl 3 5 3 4 3 ( 3) 3 { tl)
,
.J
I-,
l5 2)
Balanced,
1 -, \
polytonal 11(10 11 9 10)10 (9 10 •• .L) 10
I ·\
\ '
-'- [;)
( 9 S)ll (9 :i.O) J_f; (IT) 11 -C'.T 9)
8 cs 6 s 5 s ,n
28(28 26 27 25 28 24)
--
61 11 21 0 0 0 0 0 0 X O Y. 0 0 X
4 3 5 4 4 4 (3) 3 (4) 4 4 (3)

Tonally stable,
polytonal 11(11 12)11(11} (10 11 12)11 13(10)
(12 10)12(11)12 11(11)11(11)13(J..1 10)
9 (6 7 7 6 7 6)
35(34 34 33 33 35 32)
.,,..,. ...
61 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 X X 0 X
4 3 4 4 3 4 (3) 3 (3 3) 3 ( 3) ...
Balanced,
polytonal, 10(10 10)10 (9 11 9 10 11 9)11(10)
tonic (11 9)10(10 10)10(10)11(911 10 9)
- -
8 (5 6 6 4 5 4)
28(27 28 26 26 27 24)
61 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 X X X V
,f.;..
4 3 4 3 3 3 (3) 3 (3 2 2 2)
Balanced,
bitonal, 10 (9 9 8 8 9 8 9 10 8 9 8)
binary, (10 8 9 8 9 8 9)10 T9 9 8 8)
tonic
7 (6 6 5 4 4 3)
~(22 21 20 19 20 18)
61 21 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 X
r:;
4 4 4 .J 3 4 ( 3) Ll 4 (4) 3 ( 3)
Tonally stable,
polytonal 11 12(11)12(10 12 10 11)13(11)11(11~
12(11)11(12 11)11(10)13 (12 11 10)
9 (6 7 7 6 7 6)
35(34 34 33 33 35 32)
40(;;
61 23 0 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 X z X
4 3 (3) 4 (3
4
-4 -4 3 I; 2 2)
--
Tonally stable,
polytonal 11 11(10 10 9 10 9 10) (10 9 9)
11(10 10 10 10 9 9) 12 (10 9 9)
8 (6 5 5 5 5 4)
30(28 26 25 26 27 26)
61 32 0 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 0 X X
4 4 4 3 ( 3) 4
-5 4 4 (3 ?'
-5 -)
Tonally stable,
polytonal 12 12(12 11 11)11(10 )13 12(11 9)
12(11 12 11)12(10 10)12 12(10 10)
9 (7 6 6 7 7 6)
37(35 32 32 33 35 34)
61 41 0 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 0 0 ..
V
4 4 5 5 4 4 (3) 4 5 5 4 (3)
. .
Tonally stable, -
polytonal, 12 13(13)13(12)13(11 12)14 13 (
tonic 13(12)13(13)13 12(11)13 13 14(12 11)
10 (8 3 8 8 9 8)
44(42 41 40 41 43 42)
62 11 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 X X 0 X 0 X
3 4 3 5 3 4 (2 3) 3 (4) 3 (3)
Balanced,
polytonal (9) 11 (9 11 9 11 9 9) 11 (11) 10 (10)
10 (10 9 10)11 (8 11 Tif(ll 10 9)
8 (5 6 5 5 5 4)
28(28 26 27 25 28 24)
--
62 13 0 0 0 0 0 0 X -·
y 0 X X X
3 4 3 . 4 3 3 (2 3) 3 (3 2 2)
Balanced, -
polytonal (9) 10 (8 9 8 9 8 8)10(10 8 8), ' /
9 (9 8 9 9 9 7 10)_ (9 8 8)
,.,
7 (5 4 4 4 :;; 2)
~(22 20 20 20 20 18)
1109
62 22 0 0 0 0 0 0 X X 0 0 u
,I' Y.
3 4 4 4 4 3 (2 _, ) 4
'.) l:, ( '::
,-' 2)
Tonally stable,
polytonal, (10)11(10 10 ) 10 (9 9)11 J.2 ( 10 B)
bin.::iry, 10(10 10 10)11(10 0 10:, 12 IT (9
(J 9)
tonic
8 (6 4 5 6 5 4)
30(28 25 26 27 27 2 6)
62 31 0 0 0 0 0 0 X X 0 0 0 X
3 4 4 5 4 4 (2 3) 4 5 4 ( 3)
Tonally stable,
polytonal (10)12(11 12 11)12(10 10)12 ::.2 ( )
11(11 11 12) 12 12 (9 11)12 J.3(11 10)
9 (7 6 6 7 7 6)
37(35 32 32 33 35 34)
63 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 X X X 0 X X
3 3 4 3 4 3 (2 2 3) 3 (3 2)
Balanced,
polytonal (9 9 9 8 9) 9 (8 Q
u 9)10(10 7)
(9 8 9 8)10 (9 8 8 10)
-- TTf 8)
7 (5 4 4 4 3 2)
23(22 20 20 20 20 18)
63 21 0 0 0 0 0 0 X X X 0 0 X
3 3 4 4 4 4 (2 2 3) 4 /: (3)
""
Tonally stable,
polytonal (9 10 10 10 10)11 (9 9 10)11 12 (9)
(10 9 10 10)11 11 (9 9 10)12(10 9)
8 (6 5 5 5 5 4)
30(28 26 25 26 27 26)
64 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 X X .,,.
V
X 0 X
3 3 3 4 3 4 (2 2 2 3) 3 ( 3}
Ba.lanced,
bitonal, (8 /9
I 8 9 8 10 8 8 9 9) 10 ( 9)
binary, (~/ 8 8 9 9)10 (8 9 8 10 7f 8)
tonic
'7 (6 6 5 4 4 3' I
23(22 21 20 19 20 18)
L1 -, ('
• L.J
,,
66 0 0 0 0 0 0 X y ;. z X I.
V
.1.
3 3 3 3 3 3 (2 2 L 2 2 2,
Balanced,
.~
neutral, (8 8 7 7 7 8 7 7 () '/
(J 8 7)
tonic (8 -;:i 7 7 8 If 7 8 ~8 8 -;l 7)
6 (5 4 3 2 1 0)
18(17 16 15 14 13 12)
71 11 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 V
L, 0 X 0 V
A
..,
3 5 3 5 3 5 3 ( () 3 (4) .j (4)
Tonally stable,
polytonal, ( 10) 13 ( 10 12 10 12)11(11)11(12)ll 12)
binary, 11(12 10 12 10)13(10 12)11(12)11 _.:_-'-)
tonic
9 (6 8 6 7 6 6)
33(36 32 36 31 36 30)
-
71 13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 X X X
3 5 ..,., 4 3 4 3 (4) 3 (3 2 3)
Tonally stable,
major-binary, (10)12 (9 10 9 10 10 10)10(11 9 10)
tonic 10(11 9 10 19 11 9 11)11(10 9 10)
8 (6 6 5 5 4 4)
28(29 26 27 25 27 24)
71 22 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 X X
3 5 4 4 4 4 3 {4) 4 4 (3 3)
Tonally stable,
polytonal, {11)13 11(11 11)11(11 11)11 13(11 10)
· binary 11 12(11 11)11(12 10 11)13 T2(10 11)
9 (7 6 7 7 6 6)
35(35 33 33 34 34 32)
--
71 31 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 0 ,.
y
3 5 4 5 4 5 3 (4) 4 4 ( 4)
Tonally stable, -5
polytonal, (11)14 12(13 12)13 12(12)12 14 13(12)
binary 12 IT(l2 13)12 14(11 12)13 14 12(12)
10 (8 8 8 7 8 8)
42(43 40 42 41 43 40)
-;
/
/
I
411
. "-
72 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X .,,
V
0 X z
3 4 4 3 4 4 3 (3 3) 3 \/ ..;
'< 3)
Balanced,
polytonal, (10 11)10 (9 10)10(10 10 9)'.1-1(11 9)
binary, (10)10(10 9)10(11 10 9 11 T9 10)
tonic
8 (6 5 6 5 4 4)
28(28 27 26 27 26 24)
---
72 21. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X V
,{\. 0 0 X
3 4 4 4 4 5 3 (3 3) 4 4 (4)
Tonally stable,
polytonal, (10 12)11(11 11)12 11(11 10)12 13 ( 11)
binary (11)11(11 11)11 13(11 10 11)13 ( )
9 (7 6 7 7 6 6)
35(35 33 33 34 34 32)
---
73 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X X X 0 X
I
3 4 3 4 3 5 3 (3 2 3) 3 ( 4. }
Tonally stable,
minor-binary, (9 11 9 10 9 11)10(10 9 10)1-
.... ......j_ ("1'
..L J
tonic (10 10 9 10 9)12(10 10 9 11)10(10)
8 (6 6 5 5 4 4}
28(29 26 27 25 27 24)
75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X X X X X
3 3 3 3 3 (3 2 2 2 3)
Cadential,
4
-4
polytonal, (9 10 8 8 8 9 9 9 8 9 9 9)
neutral (9 -9 8 8 8 10 9 9 9 9 8 9)
7 (6 5 4 3 2 1)
23(~ 21 20 22 21 18)
81 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 X X
4 4 5 . 3 4 4 4 4 (4) 3 (3 3)
Balanced,
polytonal 12(12)12(10 11)11(11 12 11)11(12 10)
(12) 11 (12 10)11(11 12) 11 (12) 12 {10 11)
- --
9 (7 7 7 6 6 6)
~(~ 34 33 33 34 32)
1112
81 21 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 "
I. 0 () X
4 4 5 4 4 5 4 4 ( L!:) 4 4 ( 4)
Tonally stable,
polytonal, 12(13)13 12 ( 12) 13 12(13 12)12 lL] (12)
binary, ( 13) 12 13(12)12 13(13)12(12)14 ( 12)
tonic
10 (8 8 9 8 8 8)
42(42 42 41 42 42 40)
--- --
82 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X X 0 X
4 4 4 4 3 5 4 4 (3 3) ~
.:l ('"
'± j
Balanced,
polytonal, 11(12 11)11(10 12) (12 11 10) (12)
minor (12 11)11(11 10)12(12)1i(l0 -1 2) ·c-i- (:PJ - ..l.- -
9(7 7 7 6 6 6)
35(35 34 33 33 34 32)
---
84 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 _,
y X ,,.
V x
,_
4 4 4 3 3 4 4 A
'± (3 2 2 3)
Balanced,
bitonal, 11(11 10 9 9 10 10 11 10 9 10 10)
binary, (11 io 10 9 9 10 )11(10 10 9 10)
tonic - --
8 (7 6 5 4 4 4)
30(29 27 25 25 26 26) "
91 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 V
L'. 0 ,,.
"
,...
4 5 4 ::> 3 5 4 5 4 ( 4) 3 (4)
Tonally stable,
polytonal, 12 14(12)13(11 13)12(13)13(12)12(13)
binary, 13 (IT) 12 ( 13 11)13(12)14 12 (13) 12 (12)
tonic
10 (8 9 8 8 8 8)
42(43 41 42 40 43 40)
93 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X V
.t.. X
Tonally stable, 4 5 4 4 3 4 4 5 4 (3 2 3)
polytonal,
binary, 12 13(11 .,.L.l- 10 .J....l..
l ' 11 12)12(11 11)
tonic 12(12 11 11 10 11 11)13 12(11 10 11)
9 (8 7 6 6 6 6)
37(36 33 32 32 34 34)
'113
X 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1/. X
4 5 5 4 4 4 4 5 5 4 f
\ .J
')
:,- ')
Tonally stable,
P<?lytonal, 13 14 13(12 12)12(12 13)13 ' ' , ( 7 ' ) ll)
_l_.,) \ -1~ ,,,. ..
binary, 13 II(l3 12)12(12 12)13 14 l3 ( 11 12)

tonic
10 (9 8 8 8 8 8)
44(43 41 40 41 42 42)
XI I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X
4 5 5 5 4 5 4 5 5 5 fi.I ( 4)
Tonally stable,
polytonal, 13 15 14 14(13)14 13(14)14 14 1,i (13)
tonic 14 14 14(14)13 14(13)14 lt1 .:;_5 13(13)
11(10 10 10 10 10 10}
51(51 50 50 50 51 50}
---
XII 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
'·-..
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 s 5
Tonally stable,
polytonal, 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15
binary 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 1515
12(12 12 12 12 12 12)
60(60 60 60 60 60 60)
-------
I
414
----- --- - - -
ANALYTICAL TABLES OF THE SETS*
TONALLY STABLE (T.S.}

BALANCED equilibr~s (E.}
CADENTIAL ( C. }
,/
CLASHING detonnants (D.}
ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

Synunetrical sets: appear· in Roman type·
Asynunetrical sets: appear in italics :
Tonal sets:
1M ·= 1 constituent major triad
2m • 2 constituent minor triads
3B = 3 constitue-nt binary. triads
(+2} •indicates that the density of the perfect
tonic trfad exceeds that of· each of. the . other
constituent perfect triads b:Y 2 units.
BiI1.ary sets:
M indicates that the. <ien~est binary. triad tends
toward major
m indicates . that the densest binary triad tends
toward···minor
*Translator's footnote: The· reader will note that, in

the analytical tables of cadential .(C) and clashing (D} .sets,
certain sets have been crossed out, while• CE!rtain others have
been added. Those .sets that are accompanied by an asterisk .
have been crossed out or added in accordance with the list of
corrections provided by. Mr. Costlre (see Part III, Appendix
III, page 181 of the present &itudy} : the two that have been
added by this writer (are identified by the initials ,BJE)
were discovered by mere accident: in studying the character-
I
415
Neutral sets:
M indicates that· the densest neutral · fifth
tends toward major
. m , indicates that the. densest neutral fifth
tends toward minor
The number in parentheses indicates the number.
o~ constituent neutral fifths •
. Sets of cardinal.· polarity:
T = a s~t of tonic polarity
Eq • a set of balanced polarity
[ C = a set of caden tial polarity
. .
Ext = a set of extrinsic polarity.
(+3) indicates that.the densityof the densest
constituent tone.exceeds that -of ~ach of
the other cons•tituent tones by 3 units.
Modulating sets:
If there is no number., the set is modulating on
the totality of constituent perfect triads. In ·
the opposite case, a number in parentheses indi-
cates the number of perfect triads between (or
among) which. there can be modulation •. If there
are severa,1 numbers , it is -because of the pos""'. .
sibility of· seve·ral cases of perfect modal .
mutation.
. . .
Sets of tonal imitation:

Those in parentheses are capable of tonal imi-
tations in only a portion of the tf;)tali ty of
constituent perfect triads.·
istics of set 21 12 13 11 it was obvious that it was transitive

(since its density is inferior to that of the five densest
foreign tones). Similarly, the table of transpositional· gravity
of set 22 12 21 11 reveals it to be transposing. Since, neither
one appeared in its appropriate place in "=9-e analytical tables,
it was decided to include them.
T.S. 416
TONAL Ly s T A B LE S E TS
OF L+MITED OF LIMIT-ED .... ,
INTERVALS
'
TRANSPOSITION 72 21
. '
~
(Z).
l
14. 11 12 11
'f 41 13 21 • I
1
22 22 22 7J II 'f •11 111 it'
.14 14 11· i// 21 II II (2)'
• I
16 14.
· 31 31 31 81 21 T 4/ 21 JI (1'1).
41 23 II (2) i .
ZI II 16 33 33 41 JI
93 21 (1(J) !
22 22 22 41 11 (6) i
Z.1 II 14 . 4.J 21
11
II (2) .
23 12 13 OF CARDINAL 43 23
ZJ 16 . TRANSITIVE BALANCE •
,U II 13 52 23 , . (2)
!_26 II
26 13
26 .22
" 31 31 31
71 11 l1
16 14
21 11 ·12 11 11
52 32
SJ .22
(4)
(2) :
.. 71 31 22 22 22 61 II 21 (4, et 2)
JI 23 12 61 21 (4, et Z)
JI 26
•12 IJ . 21
, 33 11 13
. 91 11
N.B .• All other tonal--
31 ZJ. .12
J2 13 21
34 ·14
. (j/
61
Z3
32
" (2, el
(2)
2)
(8) ;
61 11
JJ 24 ly stable sets are. 62 22 ! (6) I
33 33 dense 41 14 11 62 31 (2, cl 2)
34 14 63 21 (2)
34 23 XU
JI 21 . OF CARDINAL . 71 22 (2)
POLARITY 71 31 (6, 4, cl 4)
41 ·14 11 7Z 21 (2)
14 11 12 11 ' T. 'TRANSPOSING
. ..... ' '
14 14 11 ,T 31 31 31 81 21 (4;4, el '1)
16 14 T 91 11 . (4. et 4) i
41 II II 21 93 (4) l
OF MEDIAN TONE 21 II 16 . T 41 21 II II X 2 (6,, cl 4Yl
21 11 21 11 .11 .T Xl 1 (8, 4, el 4) j
14 14 11 21 13 21 ti 71 , 11 11
"
XII I
I
2,.J II . 14 . ' T 71 13 I
21 11 21 11 l1 ZJ II 21 11 T 71 31 i
l
OF TONAL
31 21 11 2l (2)
23 12 13.
23 16
T 73
T.
II,
IMITATION I
31 23 21 23 21 11 l1 T 91 11
31 31 31 .(3) 21 11 21 11 11
23 21 13 T 21 13 21 11
32 21 22 23 21 22 T
33 11 13 22 22 22
33 33 (2)
23 22 21 T
T
MODULATING 23 II 21 11 ,,
,.
23 22 21 23 12 13
'.H 14 . (2} 23 23 11 T ·21 '11 21 11 11 23 21 11 11 I
24 11 13 T 21 13 21 11 (2) 23 21 13 !
41 41 11 26 11 11 T
52 32
26 13,
(2) 26 22
T
T
22
23
23
22 22
11 21 II
12 13
(2)
23
,_2323
21
22 21
23 11
22
I
I
71 11 11 23 21 11 11 (2)
71 31
31 23 ,21
(2) 31 31 22
T
.T
23
23
21
21
Ia
22
31 13
(2) {31 21
22
11 21)
II
32 II 14 T 23 22 21 (2) (31 22 22) I
91 11 (2) 32 21 22 (+2) T , (31 Z3 12)
93 23 Z3 11
32 21 ·31 T (31 23 21)
XI 1 33 11 13 ,(+3) T 31 21 11 21 (6) 31 31 zz
34 II 12, 31 22 zz (3) (32 13 21) .
31 21 23 (4) (32 21 22)
41 11 11 Zl 'T 31 22 31 (4, el 3) 32 21 JI
REVERTIBLE 41 21 II 11 T 31 31 31 (32 22 21)
41 21 IJ (+2) T 32 22 ,.,
21 " (4) 32 23 II
41 21 31 T J2 JI 21 · (4, ti 3)
21 11 12 11 11 ' 41 31 21 T 32 22 21 (3) 41 11 11 21 (5)
22 22 22 41 41 11 r 33 11 13 41 11 21 11 i
4J 11 21 (+2) T JJ 24 (2) 41 II 23 1
31 IJ 22
31 23 12
43 41 ' T 33 33
34 14
' (41
(41
13 21)
14 11)
I
I
J2 13 21 •. 61 11 21 T 34 23 (2) 41 21 II 11 (5) i
JZ .a, II ·T
33 33
61 Zl II
41 II 21 (l)
(41
(41
21 13)
21 31) I
41 H l1
71 13
11 J2
T 41 11
T 41 11 .&1
11 ~l (4)
(2)
41
(41
22 21
23 II)
·-·
T.S. 417
OF TONAL IMITATION-cont'd
' ,1/ 21) (52 32') . (62 JI) (72 21)
41 11) ~\l 22) (63 2/) 7J 11
II 21) 61 II 21)
21 II (61 21 II) (71 11 11) (8/ 21)
23 (61 Z..l) 11 13 91 11
41) (61 32) (71 22) X z
23) (61 · 41) 71 31 XI, 1
62' 22
-· -·-·-·.,~-- .. ·-··-~ ,~ - ~ ..- ·--·-·- *"''°-·~ _,.
TON I C TONALLY STABLE s ET S

MAJOR :
!I 13 21 II (2 M 1 m) 41 41 11 (5 M 5 m) 13 II m (1 B 1 M 1 m)
rJ 21 13 (1 M 1 m) 43 23 (1 M 1 m) 81 21 (3 B 1 M 1 m)
!J 21 22 (2 M 2 M) 43 41 (2 M 2 m) 91 11 (4 13 2M 2 m)
93 (2 U 1 M 1 m) '
II 21 13 (+2) (2 M 1 m) 52' 32 (3M 3 ~)
,., 61 41 (7 M 7 111) X 2' (S B 1M 1 m)
XI 1 (9 M 9·m)
MINOR NEUTRAL
l3 II 21 II (1 M 2 m)
~ 22 21
u 2J II
(2 M 2 m)
1 m)
14 11 12 11 / (2) i
I
(1 M 'BINARY 16 14 (1)
I
fJ II 21 (+2) (1 M 2 m) JI 13 22 M (1 8 1 m) 21 11 16 m (1) [
31 22 22 M (3 D) 23 II 14 m (2)
32 22 21 m (3 8 1 M) 23 /6 m (1)
MAJOR ANO MINOR 32 2J II m (1 8 1 M) 24 11 13 M (2)
26 II II M (1)
Z1 11 21 11 11 . (3M 3 m) . 41 13 21 M (1 B 1 M 1 m) 26 13 M (1)
Z3 12 13 (1 M 1 m) 41 14 11 (1 B) 26 22' (1) •'
23 21 11 11 (2 M 2 m) 41 22 21 • (3 8 1 M lm).
41 23 II m (1 B 1 M 1 m). 31 26 M (1)
31 21 11 21 (4 M 4 m) 33 24 M (3) .
31 23 21 (a M 3 m) 62 22 (+2) (3 B 1M 1 m) 34 14 (2)
!2 21 22 (3M 3m) 71 11 11 (+2) c2 n 2M 2 m) 34 23 m (3)
u 11 21 11 (+2) (4 ~ 4 m) 11 13 M (1 B 1M 1 m) 36 21 m (1)
C I TO 1'.l. ALLY s TAB LE s E T S

NON
POLYTONAL
- TONI
21 11 12 ll 11 (2 M 2 m) 61 21 II (5 M 5 111) 71 31 (6 B 1M 1 m)
2? 22 22 . (3M 3 m) 61 23 (+2) (3M 3 ni) '12 21 (4 B 1M 1 m)
61 J2 (5 M 5 m)
31 23 12 (2 M 2 m) 62 31 (5 M 5 m)
3/ JI 22 (4 M 5 m) 63 ZI (+2) (3M 3 m) NEUTRAL
32 13 ZI (2 M 2 m) 14 14 11' (2)
32 ZI 31 (5 M 4 m) XU · (12 M 12 m)
32 II 14 (3)
II II 21 4 m) 33 11 13 (Z)
"
41 II Z3
41 Zl II 11
(3M
(2 M
(4 M
2 m)
3 m)
BINARY
33 33
34 1l 12
(4)
(3)
43 21 1l (2 M 2 m) 31 31 3l (6 B)
52 Z3 (2 M 2 m) 41 ZI 31 (4 B 2M 1 m) ATONAL
SJ 22 (2 M 2 m) 41 JI JI (4 B 1M 2 m)
fl II 21 (5 M 5 m) 'II az (4 B 1M 1 m) none
I
' .~ ·-•-, ..........~- ·-· ~-
E. 418
•\
'. ,I
I
B ALAN C E D s E TS '
OF LIMITED I
'I
INTERVALS TRANSPOSING
I
j
I
13 12 11 11 .'JJ II JI 22 21 II 21 .'ii J.1 (3):
J.I I~ IJ JS II II 22 21 21 II SI 42 ((,) !
14 13 12 .'i2 41 (l,) :
16 II 12 .'ii II 22 JI 11 II 22 53 13 (2):
16 12 II SI 11 31 JI II IZ 12 53 31 (3):
51 12 12 31 II 15 i
Z1 11 12 13 51 JI II JI 22 /,l 61 12 11 (2. 2, cl 2) :
21 II 14 II 52 12 II 31 31 11 11 n 12 (2, 2. et 2):
sz
21 14 II l1 31 JI 13
-
I
21 II 81 I
21 14 IJ 32 12 11 II I
22 14 12 N.B.All other 32 21 II 11 OF TONAL
22 22 13 sets ·are danse . , J;l II :u IMITATION
Z.J 12 II JI . - ·~ . -·~ .. . - 33 12 ZI 13 12 11 1:l
2J 12
23 1l
22
21
OF CARDINAL
POLARITY
. JS II JI (/1
(14
12 13)
13 12)
ZJ 14 JI ,l/JI JI 22 T SJ JI 22.
23 2'3 JI JI 12 12 T 51 II ,l/ (21 II 12 IJ)
JI II IS T SJ /2 12 22 11 12
,l/ J.I 12 31 21 14 T SJ JI II (2,l 12 II II) I
32 13 12 JI 22 13 T 52 12 11 (23 13 21)
JZ 14 II 31 31 11 11 52 21 JI 25 23
32 16 JI 31 /,l T (31 II JI 22)
36 12 32 12 JI l1 T 31 II 12 12
,l2 12 IJ T (JI 14 12)
41 16 32 12 31 T MO~ULATING. (JI 2'1 II 12)
43 14 32 12 22 T 31 21 14
44 IJ 32 21 11 11 T 13 .12 11 12 31 22 13
46 11 32
32
ZI 13
22 12 ,.
T 1
ZI 11 12 13 (2)
31 31 11 11
3/ 31 13
32 25 T 22 14 12 (.32 II JI 21)
33 JI 22 T 22 21 11 21 (4) 32 12 11 JI
OF .. MEDIAN TONE 33 II JI T, 22 21 21 JI (4) 32 12 13
33 12 12 T 22 22 13 (2) 32 12 22
2'3 13 21 JJ 12 21 T 23 12 JI 11 (2) (32 12 31)
25 21 11 33 JS 23 12 22 (2) (32 14 II)
32 12 31.
34 11 21
JS II II
. T
T
T
23 13 Z1
25 21 11
(32 21 JI II)
32 21 13
32 13 12 . 35 13 T 25 2'3 32 22 12
JS 22 T (32 31 12)
S3 13 (2) 35 31 31 II 11 22 (4) 32 31 21
JI II 12 12 (2) (32 32 11)
7% 12 '(2) JI 21 II 12 (2) 33 JI 22
41 12 13 . T
41 ZI 22 T 31 31 11 11 · (4) 33 11 31
41 25 T 31 31 13 (2) 33 12 12
42 21 21 T 32 11 JI 21 (2) 33 12 21
REVERTIBLE 43 11, II T 32 12 JI II (2) 33 JS
43 14 T 32 12 22 34 11 21
31 22 13 44 JJ T 32 12 31 (2) 34_ 32
JJ I~ 21 4.S; 21 ·T 32' 13 12 35 13
32 21 11 II (4) (4i JI 12 JI)
66 51 II 22 32 22 12 41 JI 14
T
52 14 T 32 25 41 II 32
52 21 11 T 32 31 12 (2) (41 12 11 II)
OF LIMIT-ED 53 13 T 32 31 21 (4) 41 12 13
54 1Z T .32 32 11 (2) (41 IZ 31)
TRANSPOSITION 33 11 J/ (2) 41 21 22
61 II 12 T 34 32 (41 32 11)
Nc11nl . 35 22 42 21 21
62 11 11 T
35 31 42 31 JI
81 12 T 41 JI 12 II . (3) 42 33
82 II T 4-1 12 II ll (3) (43 12 11).
TRANSITIVE . 41 12 13 (2) 43 14
22 21 II 21
22 21 21 ,, ' OF CARDINAL
BALANCE
13 12· 11 12
•
41 12 31
41 21 22
41 25
41 32 · II
(2)
(3)
43
44
44
32
II JI
13
. (2) . SJ 11 22
i
!!
JI II ii 22 42 21 21 (3) (51 II 31)
31 II IS 22 14 12 4J 12 II
31 31
31 J/
11 11
13
25 23 4S 2/
51 JI 31
!.
(2) SI 12 12
(SI· JI II)
(5) (SJ· 33)
I
J2 21 II II 66 SJ JI 11 (5) fSI· .42)
r
--~---··-~------------------•-•·-- ~----------+-·----_....··-·~·--,.,.-.--..- - - - - - - · - - - I
419
' OF TONAL IMITATION-cont'd

i.? lZ II 53 13 (61 12 II) (72 12)
11 U) 1(SJ ,11) (6Z II II) (81 IZ)
i2 21 U (M 12) (62 13) (82 II)
12 41) (61 II IZ) (63 12)
TON IC BALA.NC ED SETS S
MAJOR 34 II 21 \1 m) .l.1 /2 21 .m.. .,(1 A 1 M)

14 13 12 .. (l M) (1 111) !,/' II 3/ M (2 B 2 M
2 rn)
41 II 14
41 J,J (1·111) SI IZ 12 M. (1 B 1 M
1 m)
21 14 II II (l M) 42 21 ·21 (3M 4 m) SI ,11 II m (2 B 2 M
2 ro)
!I J.I 1.1 (l M) 42 31 II (3M 3 m) SI ,1.1 m (1 U 1 M
1 rn)
2.? 21 II ZI (3 M ':-1..m) 4Z J.l (1 M 1 m) SZ IZ II m (1 D 1 M
1 m)
43 14 (1 m) S2 14 m (1 II)
,ll 21 14 (1 M) SJ 31 M (1 8 1 M 1 ro)
.12 IZ /3 (1 M 1 m) SI 42 (4 M 4 m) S4 12 M (1 8)
JZ 12 ZZ (2 M l' m)
JZ 21 IJ · (l M 1 m) 72 12 (2 B 1 M 1 m)
41 II 3Z (3M 3 m)
.
MAJOR ANO MINOR.
84 (1 8)
41 21 zz (4 M 3 m) 13 12 11 12 (1 M 1 m)
43 32 (1 M 1 m)
44 II II (1 M) 23 13 21 (1M 1m) • NEUTRAL I
. 44 13 (1 M) 16 II IZ ··- (1)
44 31 (1 M) :U 13 12 (1M 1m) 16 12 II m (1)
5Z 41 (4 M 4 m)
53 13 (1M 1m) 31 II IS m (1)
32 16 (1)
61 12 11 (2 M 2 m) 33 IS m (1)
MINOR 35 II II M (1)
14 12 13 (1 m) 35 13 M (1)
21 II 14 II (1 m) 36 12 (1)
22 21 Zl II (2M 3m) 22 14 12 . BINARY (1 B).
ZJ 14 II (1 m) 41 16 ·m (1)
31 14 12 M (1 B) 41 25 M (2)
32 22 12 (2 M 2 m) 31 22 13 M (1 B 1 m) 45 21 m (2)
JJ II 22 (1M 1m) 31 31 13 iM (1B 1m) 46 II M (1)
JJ lZ IZ (1M lm) 32 14 II / m (1 B)
• JJ II JI m (18 1M) 66
(1). l
i
NON-TONIC 'BALANCED.SETS
POLYTONAL NEUTRAL
21 II lZ 13 (2 M. 1 m) 41 12 31 · (4 M. 3 m)
22 22 13 . (1 M 2 m) 41 iU .11 ·(3M 4 m)
23 12 ·II II · (1 M 2 m) , 43 12 11 m (1 M 2 m) 2'5 21 11 (2)
23 12 22 (2M 1m) 25. 23 (2)
SI II 22 · (4 .M 3 m)
31 11· 11. 22 ·(2M:Zrn) 52 21 II · (3M 4 m) 32· 25 (2)
31 II IZ 12 (2 M '2 m) 61 II 12 (3M 3 m)
34 32 (2)
31 21 II 12 (3M 2 m) 62 II II (3M 3 rri) ·
62 13· 35 2i (2)
32. II II 21 (2 M 3 m) (2 M 2 m)
63 12 (2 M 2 m) 35 31 (2)
32 12 II II ·.(2M 2m)
32 12 JI (3M· 3 m)
. 32 21· II II (3M 2m)• · 81 IZ M (4 M 4 m)
32.JI IZ (2M.2m) 82 II m (4 M. 4 m)
32 31 21 . (4 M 4 m) ·
3Z JZ II .(2 _M 2 m)
BINARY
ATONAL .'
41 II 1Z .II (2 M 3 m) 31 31 11 11 (~-B 1 M · lm) i
41 12 11 II (3M 2m) 61 14 ·
H II .
(1 8) I
41 12 IJ M.(2M la) (1 B) none
C ·• 420
OF LIMI-TED CADENT I A.L SETS

INTERVALS .
,.
·I
Ju
!/,I II U.
u 12 11 11
IZ
15 11 11 ll
lfi II 1,1
zz
2.J
22 .II II
11 11 12 ·r
22 /2 II 12
22 /2 JI 21
I! n. 'II IS 1.1 IJ 2J JI II 21 :r 22 JS II
11.1
13 l.3 u u 17 13 2.J 11 12 · II 'I' 22 21 II /7,
15 lt 11
/,'t II /J
IS /J II
u
ZI .JI II II 12
2.1
u
/,l /2 • ..
11 Ii II
,.
T 22 2t l:i: 11
22 22 , //
2.J II II 12
II
17 13 ..
Z/ II II 14 .. u II 22 T
2.J II II 2/
21 IS ,: u 11, 12 T
21 IZ
21 IS IZ
,.~ 21
ZI
21
21 U- 11 11
ZI
ZI ,.,.n
/2.
z.J /5.
2S II 12
'f
F.11
. E<1
21 . II.
2.~ II
ZS II
It II
12
2/
. ·. 2S JI 21
22 IZ 14 22 II JI II II · 2S 12 II .,
T
zz ·1.1 /J. 22 II JI JJ 2S 14 . ·r 31 ,i u 11 11
,..
.z.z IS II · 22 II 12 ,z 31 II
JI II
12 21
22 II
2.1 /Z .. 2l II IS 2 X ·z,
11 12 IZ
24 IS . 22
22
IZ II IZ
It II ZI 31 11 11 !u·. 11
~ll. 12
,11 /2
II
21 II
ZS
ZS 14
n II 21.IS II
2.1 II II 1Z .
•· ,l/ .14 21'
T (+3)
.... JI 14 21
31 15 11
.31 1S 11 Eri 3/. 21 1Z II
II 2 X 2.J II II II JI 24 11 . T ,11 zz II II
ZS II u
31 15 11 2$ II Z/ 41 II II 12 T 31. 24 II
_l 41 31 12 T 41
31 11 11 l1 11 42 11 /J. II T II II 12
31 II 1Z ZI 42 11 iJ T (+2) . 41 3/ /2
.OF MEDIAN. 'l'ONE 31 II 2Z II 42 II Ji 1· 12 /1 II 1/
I JI 12 II 21 43 II 12 . T (+2) 42 JI .31
I 1% 11 .12 11 11 (2) JI 12 21 II
. 13 13 11 11 , 51 11 11 il
31 15 11. 51 11 11 11 T
31 21 12 II SI II 13 "r 51 II /J
21 21 11 11 11 JI 22 II II 51 12 2/
,• SI 21 JZ T
51 21 21 51. 21 21
31 11 11 11 11 41 II 11 1Z ... 52 11 ZI SI 22 IJ
31 15 11 T SJ. II II ;
II JI 12 SJ II II : T !
51 u u 11 .. 42 11. ii II
. . (2) 42 ' ---------- i
ii
51 21 21
75
II JI
51" U 11 . 11
.- 7$
OF CARDINAL. -
T MODULATlNG. ·
12' ·11 12 11 11 ..:i,
SI /1 13 BALANCE 2/ 11 II 12 II (2) '!i
SI 12 21 · 13 13 11 11 21 12 /1 II 11 (2) .1 ·
REVERTIBLE · ·· 51 21 . 21 15 11 11 11 . 21 21 11 11 11 :1 ,
(2. cl l);i
21 II JI II 12 .
SI 2Z II
~4.1 11 11
N·.B·.All other
:s
s·
17 13
·1 /J
~J II
22 II 12 12
22 . 12 JI 12
22 21 II 12 (3) ·..
21 II II /Z JI sets are .dense· .- :_ . 2: 21 ii 11 ,!.
21 12 11' II 11 2 22 11 11
21
2Z
u n u
II II II ll
* . -----·.
OF CARDINAL
- 2 X
- - ~ - - - - - - - 'JI
31"' 11 11 11 11
11- 12 21
. (3) '..
(::) 1
1 •
~,'!-12:-ff-tt'
21 n II 12: ·
* POLARITY TRANSPOSING · 31 11 21 12 (3) :j
12' · 11 12 ... 1~ 11 ·., . T ·- 31 12 11 21 . (3) -i,
22 22 11.11, 17 13 Ex1. IZ IZ
13 . II 31 14 ii :•
32 II 2.J · 13 IZ 12 11 31 21 IZ II . (3) :
JJ 21 12. ,' . 21 11 11 11 12 · Et)' 13 13 11· 11 3/ ZJ 23 (3) 1
' 21 II II 12 ·11 . . .. ~ 1S . 11 11 11 . - 31 22 I I 11 .. . (2) !
4Z 24 i 21 II JI 14 T · 15. II 13 · 31 24 II .
' 21 12 11 II
! ·
II
" Z2
.. 21 ·12 II /J
21 /2 IS
21 21 11 11
T .15 · 13. 11:
T 17 13
T· .,
...
JZ II ~I II
JJ 21 21·
(.3) :j
(3) ::11·
OF LIMIT-ED 2/ 21 II /J
11. .Eq 2/ II 11 II IZ 41 12 22 (2~ 1
'l'RANSPOSI'l'ION
. 21 21 IS
ZZ II II 11 ,,:.,
·· T .Z/ 11 II 12,. II
F:q
Eq
2/ II 11 14
2/ 1Z. II II II•
1 ... ·41 JI
·42 II 31
'42 22 11
12 (:?) :'
(2) .
. · (2). 1,
none 22 II 11 13 ·T 21 15 12 ··
22 .11 12 12 .. £q 21 21 11 11 11· 51 11· 11 11
2Z 11 IS E1 21 21 II IJ .. (2, et 2) !
2Z 12 II 12 . · 51 12 21 (2).i -
'l'RANSI''l'IVB · 2Z /2 14
Eq -21-31-NJ•-H- *. SI 21 12 (Z) :1
T 21 21 IS 51 21 21
zz 13 13 T·ZZ11/IIIII . ' SI u u
(6) .
(:!)
/J II IZ IZ U ZI II IZ T it 11 II -13
13 IZ 12 ll .. 22 21 12' 11 S2 II ZI (2)
T 22 II IZ 12.
13 lJ 11 l1 u. u 14 T U II IS 75
-
.. . ". ... ·• *"" ... -· ........ ,,.. ',..
'. ..
C.
.. .. .. ' .
421
----r
'
,,j
.
OF TON~ IMITA'J. ION • 1
u lt u ll 11 fH-1-..'-,' ,-a.·t- I\" / :u IZ II ZI (42 II II II)

IJ II Ii ,:
/J ll IZ II
12
.,, 12 /.I
....
(.z2 Z/ II
/,1 ,., (,ll
(;U
IZ 21 II)
12 2,1)
,fl.
(,IZ
II /,l
II ',11)
12) JI N 21 ' (,fl.27. II)
2? 21 u u ,l/ 21 /Z II (42 Z1)
01 II II II IZ) (11 22 II II) (,JI 21 2.1) 4.1 JI 12
:1 II II IJ. II (,M II II ZI) (\11 22 II II) (41 ZZ)
01 1: II II II) l,1 II 12 II ;11 2•1 II
:1 2.1 IJ 12 '(,12 II 21 II) ~t u ii 11
ZI
/2 II /J
IZ ,.~ u
(ZS II 12)
12 12 .12
.1.1
II 2.1 :
21 IZ
.',/ II
SI i2 21
/,)
......
(21 ZI II IJ) ZS 12 II (J,l 21 21) SI 21 12
{ll I! ,•.~~ * . ' 31 11 11 11 11 (,l,1 22 II) (~1 21 21)
(ZZ II II II II) . (,ll II 12 ZI) (.14 ·21 II) tu 22
l2 II
1(12. II
IZ IZ
IS)
(JI II 21 12)
(JI II %2 II)
(41
· (41 12 22)
II II IZ) sz
.u "
II 21
II II
Zl IZ II. IZ (JI II 24) (41 Jf 12)
' .
- .. .. ,,. ,. . .,. ~ _., ··-- .. ·•' .. ......
, ... •,. .... .. ,. . .....
..._ ·-·~---- ":i

·T O .N. I C C A D · E N '.l' I A L SETS •I
._ttJAJoa· ~:tNARY !I
/J ll' IZ II (1.M) 'zz II II 13 (1 m)
JI 14 21 · M (1 :o · :1
21 i2 II· /J • (1 M)
22 IJ IJ
2J JI n II.
• • (1 m)
(1-1!1) '
. JI 2,J JI 111 (1 BJ I
2Z IZ U (1 M) u II 22 '(1 m)
41 31 /2 M (1 B 1 M 2 ,..) j
22 21 14 (1 M) 24 IZ IZ (1 m)
4z· II JI m (1 ll
' 2J II II IZ t· (1 M)
(1 rr,) '
ZJ II II II (l M 1 m) 34 ZI 11 .• SI 12 .21 M (l' B 2 M 11_m_)
1 M · '··
m) ,,v*,1
ZJ /3 /Z' .(1 M) SI 22 II . m (l ll 1 M 1 m) '- .
H II II II (1 M) .42 u <1
. (1 in)
m) ·s, 24 m ·(1 B) . :1
4J ·11 IZ u 2/. M (1 U) j1
J/
42 II /J
'4 22
II 24 (1 M)
(1 M)
(1 M)
__SI II IJ
SZ II 21
--------~- ---------------;I:j
,.,.,
MAJOR ~D MINOR
(1 M 1 m)
(3 M: 3 m)
NEUTRAL
·j
l,/ 21 12 (3M 3m) 12 11 12 11 11 (1 M 1 m) 1:

.u II II (1 M 1 in)
21 21 11 11 11
22 21 12 11
(2 M 2 m)·
(1 M 1 m)
:: ;;
22 JI
:~
IS
M. 8~' *
,,, (1) . ~-.
MINOR '. 24 IS . (1) 1j
/J II 12 12 (1 in) :u 11 11 11 11 (1 M 1 m) 2S II · 12 M (1) '.r
21 · u ·11 14
21 .Zl II IJ ········ 5' ~--~ ~- __ Jl ;_ ;:_u ____ .. - ...... ___ j j :: . . ..... . . ....
. (2 M 2 m)
(5 M 5 m) . mj
N O N • T O N I C C A D E N 'It· :I A L SET ·S
POLY'roNAL NEUTRAL
75
2/ II II 12 II . • . Ill (1 M 2 ' m) JZ II 21 II (2 M 3 1n)
I 21 II II II /2 (1 M 1 in) JZ. II 23 '(1 M 1 m)
21: 12 II II II -M (2 M 1 in) JJ 2/ 12 (1 M 1 m)
I 2222 /2 12
II
II
II II II (l·M
. (1 M
1 m)
2 m)
3J ZI 21
JJ 22 II
.,·
(2
. (1
M
M
2 m)
.1. m) ' '
-ATONAL· ''
l zz 2Z II 12
22 II II
12
Z2 ZI II 11.
·. (2 M
(3M·
(1 M
.1 m)
1 in)
3 m)
41 II II 12
41~12 zz
m (1 M 2 m)
M (3M ;, in)
13
15
· IS
13
11
II
11 11
11 11
/,1
J/ II 21 lZ
JI II 22 II
(3M 2 m)
. (2' M 1.m)
42 II II II
42 22 ll .· .
M (2 M 1 m)
(2 M 3 m)
15
17
/J
13
II
.
31 /Z II 21 (2 M 2 m) 21 IS IZ
31 12 21 II . · (1 M 2 m) 2,2 15 II
JI /2 ZJ. (1 M 11ft) BINARY 2 10
JI 21 IZ II. (2 M 2 111) JI. II • 12 21 - (2 B l M).
JI 21 u (2.M 2 Ill) 31·221111 (2 B 1 m.) J1·1S 11
' . '
- - ''
D. 422
OF LIMI~D
CL A.S H~I NG SETS
I I'NTERVALS .•
I 11 11 ll 11 11 11 ,, JJ II 11 II ,z .·,
12 21 · ·
SJ 12' u
11 ll 1~ lS
17 11 11 .
12 t2 12 12 SI /.'t S1 13 11
13 11 11 11 11 s.s 11 S1 51 1B u
u H 23 11 N.B·.All __other
1') 11
,.,,.,
13 13 13
OF LIMITED i sets arc dense 21 1'i H :•
II II IZ
1: II
'15 12 12 · '·' TRANSPOSITION ·
11' '11 .11 ll.11
.OF CARDINAL '•
- 21
24
21 21
.21
21
11 27 21
15 15 . '
12 12 121 12 POLARITY T
17 11 11 ' . , I 12' 12 11 11 11
18 12 I 13 11 13 11 13 11 11 11 11._. Ex1 TRA.'I SPOS ING
19 11 13 13 13 13 11 13 11 Exl 111111111111. .·
15., 15 u JI II 12 ' ·r 12 -12 11 11 11
. 1 XI 11 T
·u. 14 12
" 12 12 12 12
;
ZI IZ 2/ '.
19 11 E111 13 11 11 11
21 16 11 21 .21 21 21 .'
.
.•
u II u II . , 13 11 · 13 11
2/ 18 21 11 -13 · i2 Eq 13 13 13 ·
zz 11 24 24
. . •' 21 -12·12' /2
'
E,;i. 11 II II 12.
23 22 12 21 12 13 II . Eq 14 .12 II II
2·1 24
31 11 31 11 C
. 21 13 II 12 15 12 12
:1 ll. t2 ,u 21 l,l 12 II l:".q 1S 15
27 .·21 , 21 1.1 14 T 17 11 11
ZB II •· 51 51 21 · 21 13 11 · E.irtel C 18 12
22 11 ·12 21 Ea1e1 C 19 11
,ll 11 22 II IJ II C
J7 "
39
TRANSITIVE 22
22
12 12 II
13 11 II
Eq
. F.,,
21 11
21 12 12. 12
J.1 12
48 ·
11 11 11 11 11 11
12' 12 11 11 11
22
24
14 21
12 21 ·
.. C,f\ 21 12 · 13 JI
. Eq 21122112 "
12 12 12 12 24 /J II .. Eq 21 13 11 12 . 11 ,,
57 13 11 11 11 u· 21 . IJ Ji 11 . •1
---------•!
OF MEDIAN 'l'ONE
13 11 13 11
13 13 13
15 12 IZ
31 II II' IJ
JI II 13 11
31 11 31 11 I
T (+-3) 21 13 {4
· Eq 21 21 13 11
T 21' 21 21 12
'Lit.I ~I l'l. 1,'
' 1
:l
11 11 11 11 11 1l - '· (6)
15 15
17 11 11
31 12 II 12
31 13 11 11
T 21 21 21 21
- Eq 22 11 12 21.
:1 .
12' 12 11 11 11
(4)
.1:a-1-:t.
19 11
* JI /.J 13
JI 11
. T 22 11 1.l 11
T 2'2 11 21 12
..11
. ;;
12 12 12 12
13 11 32' 11 11 12 T22112121 ·y
13 13
15 12
15 15
17 11
11 11.-11
13
12
12
(3)
(31
2;-:·~: ,a-2 ~-cz. '\'3· ,l·Ill
21 12 12 ?,l
II 12 II
ti II ti .
II II II
uJ 13 II
T·
T 22 12 12 ·11
*
T 22 · II 12 11 !'z'l. 1-i- , , Z.ri
U· 3) 22 • 13 II 11 ..Z'2.. °'t.. 2l ll ,1
T 22 14 21 ~ · ;!
;!.
21 121, 21 lZ · 33 31 11 T 24 12 21 ~ ·l
1 XI 2/ 13 II 12 , 31 II . T 2-1 IJ -11 - · 11
21 13 14_-i,i -z.l 'i'i. I¾ . 39 T 2'4 21 21 ;'
21 21 13 11 .· ·
22 12 21 11 21 21 21 . 12 ,J/ IJ 12 :
2J 22 11 .,,;
l . .-31 11 11 13
21 21 21 21 42 II 22 T 31 11 13 11 '. i
31 11 31 11 22 . 11 12 21 42 12 12 T 31 11. 21 21
(2) 22 II 13 11 42 IJ II T 31 11 31 11
31 12 12 11 22 II 21 21 42 IS
32 11 11. 11 T 31 12 12 11 .,
33 31 11
39 '
(2) 22
22
11
12
22
12
II
ti
42 21 12
45 ,,. T 31 IJ 11
T 31 13 13
II
!,·1
22'
22
12
13
21
II
11
II
48 T 31 11 "!
51 13 11 JI 21 21 JI
22 14 21 51 13 11 E'l,l,l II 11 II
51 51 (2) 24 12 21 I
52 11 12 :
57
24 13 II
SI IS
52 11 12.
T 33 13 II
T 33 31 11 . i
'
~, II ti 13
31 11 13 II
S.S II /. T 37 II
II
I
I
- ... OF-CARDINAL - 41 13 12 !
REVERTIBLE JI II 21 JI .!
11 11 11: 11 11 11
31 11 31 11
31 12 12 11
BALANCE
11 11 11. 11 11 11
• !~ 22
12
12
12 !
31 13 II II 13 12 11 12
4Z 12 ZI : -!
42 13· II
~~ ~:
I
IJ 1-J 13 11 11 11 11
;~ :: 1l 1J 1-i 1-z, * ~: JI. ZI II . 131113U 51 13 11
I
at II II "IT 'i 2. U. ll '2.I * Wr 33 II II II 13 13 13 SJ IS
I
I
JI II IJ II
JI IJ II II
33 13 II
41 JJ IZ
1'5--i1-1l: 11
1S 12 12
* S1 51
S.S II
'
------ _____ !l
D. 423
j
MODULA!l'ING
I.?
ti
21
u ti
I! !I IZ
21 1.l u
u
" 3.1 31 n
41 2l 13
4Z II 22
21 12 21 12
(2) (21 1.1 IZ I/
(2) 2'1 21 13 , .11
ltz-•
'1.6 l a, • z ;1/
j
l., I.I /.I
21 21 II
u JI 22
:
I
·,
'
21 Z1 21 21 42 12 12 (22 11 l2 21) .12 II IZ II
22
:z
11 12 21 (J. cl 2) 4Z 12 21 c~,
22 II J,l II ; ; 3.l II II II I
II 22 II 42 21 12 (2) (22 1l 21 · 12) . . .l.1 /.l II
22 u 21 u 42' 42 Z2 II 2~1~ ·L l'l •• ?.,, 3.1 31 11
23 22 12 2z
12 21 11 . .l1 12 II
2-1 21 21 51 13 11 2l 14 21 ·I
(11 12)
I
24 24 51 Sl 23 22 12 /.l
(11 22 12)
52 11 12 (2, el 2) (24 J2 21) (42 II 22)
(24 21 21)
. (6) '12 J2 12
·"31 II 21 21
11 31 11
OF _TONAL IMITATION·
.11 JI II 1.1
31 II /,1 JI
(12 12 21)
'
I
'
.u lZ II 12 (l) ,II II 21 21
(1Z
(12
/,1 II)
ZI IZ)
31 12 12 11
11 31 11
JI Zl 21 II (6) (14 31 42 42
II II 12) 31 12 11 12
32 11 11 12
JZ II ta II . (%) (14 12 II II) (31 1Z 12 11)
31 12 14
51 13 11
51 51 '
(21 12 ·1J II) 31 13 11 11
, .. ..
52 11 12 (2, tt 2)
.. . ' . "' - . -•·· ... --- , -· . --- .~ , ., . ..
--- --- --- ---· .. ·- ---·~-- _ _ ... •-----·--~ _ ... •·--·---♦-- ·-------~ -- - - ---
~ 0 N IC CLAS H IN G s E T s
MAJOR
14 II II lZ I . '. .; (1M) 21 13 14 (1 m) 32 11 11 12 (1 M 1m)
21 II 13 12 (1 M) 22 13 II. II . (1 m) 33 31 11 (1 M 1 m)
21 12 13 II (1 M. 1 m) 24 21 IZ (1 IIY) 42 12 12 (1 M 1 m) t
22 . II /J II ·(l M) ,I
22 12 12 II (1 M)
u
24 Z2 ./I
/J II (1 M)
(1 M)
31
·31
II II 13
/J II II.
(1 m)
(1 m)
51 13 11 (t M 1 m)
iI
JI II IJ
JI 12 14
,, (1
(1
M)
M)
JI
34
13 IJ
IZ II ;·
(1 m)
(1 m) 21 21 IZ 12
21 21 21 IZ
BINARY
M (1 ll 1 m)
M (2 8 1 rn)
,,ii
41 13 12 (1 M 1 m) m (2 B 1 }Ii)
JJ it II II ,z 22 II 21 21
JJ /J II
42 IJ II (1 M 1
(1
(1
M)
M)
m)
- II 22
12 12 11 11 11
MAJOR AND MINOR
(2 M 1
(1 M 1 in)
m) 22 IZ II ZI
Z2 14 21
. 24 ZI n
m (1 B 1 M)
(1 n)
(1 fl)
42 Zl lZ (1 M 2 m) ,I
'I
•;
21 21 13 11
22 11 12 21
(1 M 1 m)
(2 M 2 m) 21 16 11
· NEUTRAL (1)
:1
14 lZ. II II
MINOR
.. (1114)
JV'\ 22 11 21 12
22 12 21 11
23 22 12
(2 M 2' m)
(1 M 1 m)
(1 M 1 m)
42 IS
4S IZ
(1)·
(1)
i
!
,,
ZI 12 12 12 (1 m) 24 21- 21 .(1 M 1 m)
21 13 II IZ (1 m) SI IS m (1)
21 IJ IZ II (1 M 1 m) 31 12 12 11 . (1 M 1 m) ss II M (1)
---------- --- --- -·---·-~- ----- ·--
:I
ll ON .. 'l' 0 NI C CLASH!J:. N G s E TS
POLY~NAL :t
ZI 12 Zl 12 m (2 m) JZ II IZ II (1 B 1 in)
is 15
Z2 II Z2 II . ~ (2 M) 17 11 11
52' u. 12 (2' D)
18 · 12 I
. JI II Zl II (4 M 3 m) 19 11 I
JI II JI II I
(2 M 2 m) 1 XI
31 .21 21 II (3M 4 m)
NEUTRAL 1
41 2Z
4Z 12 21
IZ (2 M 2 m)
24 24 . (2) ' 2J 18
22 17. l
42 u
(2 M 2 m)
~ M; t m)
ATONAL
27 lZ
27 21
28 II
! I
51 51 (6 M 6 m)'
11 11 11 11, 11· 11 ·
!I
ii
31 11 \,
BINARY 12' 12
13 11
u .12
11 11 11 37 II !I
,· 39 !
2l 21 21 21 (4 B) 13 11 113
13 13. 13
u 48 . t
! JI II II II (1 B 1 M) 15 12 12 57 .
---·~•·-·- -
REFERENCES*
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Claude Debussy':- Paris: 1951.
!
Audia, Antoine. Les gamn1es mt1s icales. Brussels: 194 6, par- t
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11
origines ~ nos jours. Paris: Larousse, 1947.

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!,
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*The entries herein have the same content as those

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425
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11
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427
chromaticism in diatonicism.
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and "Evolution ·de l 'harmonie, 11 Encyclor;;-:':d ,
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!
1930, particularly on the character of rr,ajor,
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Masse, 1948, on the princip of O:bjecti.vily; Iii:-~

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11
,i origines ! nos j ours. Paris: Larousse, fs--.::f5 ____

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L ,., "
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- ..-.-----··1__
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I
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I
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1
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I
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EDMOND COSTERE'S

To fulfill the dissertation requirement for the degree of

Eastman School of Music

Brian Joseph Ellard was born January 15, 1940, in Ot-

In Lois et styles des harmonies musicales, published

In 1930, because of a deep dissatisfaction with the

It will be noted that throughout both parts of the

of errata that I have incorporated into my translation. Most

Finally, I must express· my .sincere appreciation to

1Edmond cos tere. is the ·pseudonym used by Edouard

A. The Basis of All Harmony • • • • • • • • • • • • 6

CHAPTER II. AN APPRAISAL • . . . . . . . . . . • • • • 72

A. The Basis of the System • . . . . . . 72

D. Howard Hanson • • • . • . . . • . • • • . • • • 124

PART II: A TRANSLATION

BOOK ONE THE BASIS OF ALL HARMONY • • • ... . . . . .. 5

Chapter I. Fundamental Notions .. .

BOOK TWO SOUND-COMPLEXES OR SOUND-LOCI •• .. . . .• • 65

BOOK THREE SCALES • • . . . ... . . . . • • • .... 104

Chapter I. The Theory of Scales • • • • • • • • • 104

BOOK FIVE RHYTHMS • • . • • . . . . . . . . .. . . • • 278

BOOK SIX HARMONIC STYLES. ..... • • • • ... • • 288

BOOK SEVEN CONCLUSIONS • • • ... • • • • • • • . . . • 331

SYNOPTIC TABLE OF THB 35i SETS. . . • • • . .. . . • • 338

ANALYTICAL TABLES OF THE SETS.· • • • • • . . . . •• 414

I. Scales of Limited Transposition .. . . . . . . . . 102 ·..

II. Hindemith's Table of Chord Groups:

III. Distinct 3-Tone Sets in the 12-Tone System. 142

IV. Comparative Table of Stylistic Features Bas~d

EDMOND COSTE RE: A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

That the name of Edmond Cost~re is all but unknown to

1A list of Cost~re's publications appears at the end

·sti;#d#d'"bii>.li,oaj,~l)(t,d~ J101tces :,: ·pa:tt,icularly such standal'd

"Edmon~l,:CQadte" 'is the 'p~eudonym that Edouard Coaster

(Ain) , .was trll1n•d .for

.of Laws degre,~fr;om ,1 •IJ'niv6rsld de;: iiriaJ He is still very

active in his ch~en ;;:profeesiol) 'a~. a ma9i~1ti-ate in the,, French

. : . . • : ·•.: ·,: : \ · • ·1i ~ • ·. •- , • ~ I . ,: , . .

. as well as 'the •croi1c',:d8s services m#;ita:i.i'es volontai~sA.

Althpugh·'iaw was"Coester's. cJ\dSen. profe~sion, he seems

he has dabbled in "paihting: as·. well, .~ '

exhibiting; up "l$lil 1939, as .cl:, member :'OfC:the Salon.:· d ~ automne

a violinist, one of his brothers a violist and another a cel-

on solving the mysteries contained in the musical creations

Lois et styles des harmonies musicales. Paris: Presses uni-

6 French universities award three distinct types of doc-

"Substance de la composition musicale et mutations harmoniques,

A. THE BASIS OF ALL HARMONY

h•mpered unit-intervals, as long as all of the tones of the

projection approximate the tones of the series within the

2. The "Harmonic" Scale

The harmonic scale, by definition, is that eight-tone

but isolated from it; it contains the eighth to the sixteentjl

partials, and roughly approx\iates the "normal" scales. It

is the only scale that is provided by nature.

nify a tone in an organized entity, this scale is tonal to

The following law of harmony results: MUTUAL 'RELATION-

of cardinal force revolving around it.

1 (cited once as a cardinal tone of £)1 !, a coefficient of

1 (cited once as a cardinal tone of !)1 d-sharp, a coefficient

the tones foreign to the entity, and the underlined numbers

1subsequently renamed table of attractive potential

(5) the numper of relationships existing outside

the same as the cardinal- ·table.-·of c· .... although' the 'numbers ·