Welding Engineer Training at DEPARTEMEN PERINDUSTRIAN BALAI BESAR PENELITIAN DAN PENGEMBANGAN INDUSTRI BAHAN DAN BARANG TEKNIK (B4T-Bandung) Chapter B 1.9 MIG/MAG welding ‘Author: Dipl, Ing. Dr, Ernst PERTENEDER 1 st Edition 1994 Berufspadagogisches Institut Modling, A 2340 Madiing, AustriaGAS METAL ARC WELDING Contents | THE EFFICIENCY OF THE GMAW-PROCESS 1.1 Basic Characteristics of GMAW 1.2 Electrode Extension (Stick Out) 2 ADJUSTMENT PROCEEDINGS 2.1 Static (Volt-Ampere) Output Characteristic of the Power Source 2.2 Are Characteristic 2.3 The Static Working Point 2.3.1 Effect of altering the voltage or/and wire feed rate 2.3.2 "One knob*-adjustment 2.4 Are Length Contrat 2.4.1 SMAW (Shielded Metal Arc Welding) 24.2 GMAW 3 EQUIPMENT 3.1 Power Source (Principles of Function) 3.1.1 Primary tapped transformer rectifier 3.4.2 Primary inveners 3.2 Welding Control Unit 3.3 Wite Feeders 3.4 Welding Gun 4 METAL TRANSFER 4.1 Introduction to Metal Transfer 4.1.1 Fundamentals 4.1.2 Short circuit transfer 4.1.3 Other transfer forces 4.1.4 Factors which affect metal transfer 4.1.5 Summary 19-149-2 4.2 Influence of Current Density and Shielding Gas on Metal Transfer 4.2.1 Free flight or "spray transfer" 4.2.2 Globular transfer 4.2.3 Short circuiting transfer or “dip transfer" 4.2.4 Pulsed spray welding (GMAW) 5 SHIELDING GAS. 6 WELDING ELECTRODE 6.1 Welding Mild Steel - Chemical Composition ofthe Filler Wite/Weld Metal 6.2 Welding Low Alloyed Steet - Chemical Composition ofthe Filler Wire/Weld Metal 6.3 Welding Creep Resistant Steels 64 Welding Stainless Stoel 6.4.1 Chemical composition of filler metals 6.4.2 Influence of shielding gas composition on the corrosion properties, susceptibility for hot cracking 64.2.1 Solid wire 6.4.2.2 Flux cored wire (rutl type) 6.4.3 Influence of shielding gas composition on toughness properties 7 WELDING TECHNIQUES 7.1 General Guide to Welding Conditions 12 7.3 Wire Feed Rate 74 Torch Angle 7.5 Positional Welding 7.6 Thick Plate Diameter 8 WELD DEFECTS 8.1 Porosity 8.2 Lack of Penetration 8.3 Lack of Fusion19-3 1 The Efficiency of the GMAW-Process 1.1 Basic Characteristics of GMAW ‘To understand the special features of GMAW itis helpful to examine the general characteristics of gas shielded metal are welding. The requirements of the metal arc process ate shown diagrammatically in Fig 1.9 = 1 and consist of a wire drive unit, welding gun and a dc. power source. Into this equipment must be fed wire to supply a consumable electrode for the arc system and also to provide filler metal, and a supply of gas (argon for ‘alurninium, and active gas for steel) for shielding the molten weld metal from the atmosphere. Unlike welding with a covered electrode, when larger gauges are used for the higher currents, in gas shielded welding the same diameter of filler wire can be used over a wide range of currents. A near lincar relationship exists between the rate at which a wire is fed into the arc and the current which is required to burn it off to maintain an equilibrium arc length. This is known as the burn-off relationship and is a characteristic property of each flier wire composition and diameter. The burn-oif characteristics in active gas of four commonly used diameters of stee! wire are given in hug. 1.9 -2, from which it can be seen that, to increase the welding current, a proportionate increase in the wire feed rate is required; 1.6 mm diameter wire, for example, can be operated over a wide range of curtent - 150 A to 500 A-when the wire feed rate must be increased from 2 m / min to 9m / min, ‘Smaller wire diameters require higher wire feed speeds to reach the same currents and the highest values would bbe beyond the range of most commercial equipment (usually about 20 m / min). Equipment design ‘considerations therefore often determine the size of a wire to be used for welding although economics - thinner ‘wires cost slightly more than thicker wires - must also be taken into account. Fig. 1.9 - 3 shows the deposition rates versus current density (A / mm?). The specific current has a great influence on the deposition rate. 1.2 Electrode Extension (Stick Out) ‘The electrode extension (stick out) is the distance between the last point of electrical contact, usually the end of the contact tube, and the end of the electrode as shown in Fig. 1.9 = 4. As this distance increases, so does the cloctrical resistance of the clectrode, Resistance heating causes the electrode temperature to rise (?R-cffect). ‘Then fess welding currem is required to melt the electrode ai a given feed rate Fig. 19-5).19-4 ‘There isa need to control electrode extension because f00 long an extension results in excess weld metal being deposited wit low are heat. This wil cause poor weld bead shape and shallow penetration, Also, as the contact ‘ube-to-work distance increases, the arcecomes less stable, Tt Cemtint ont lms though How weld edre Latte Wigh Mntowk cane unetob are , lore high Fig. 9-6 shows the relationship between welding current, wire stick-out and deposition rate. Fig. 1.9 - 7 shows the dependence on the deposition rate, welding current and electrode diameter (current donsity (A mm?) and JR effect inflacuce the deposition rate}. 2 Adjustment Proceedings (On the equipment for the GMAW process is to be controlled: * open cizcuit voltage (OCV) * wite food rate * gas flow rate, 2.1 Static (Volt-Ampere) Output Characteristic of the Power Source The static output characteristics can be readily measured by conventional test procedures. A set of output voltage versus output current characteristic curves (volt-ampere-curves) are usually used to describe the static characteristics (Fig, 1.9 - 8). This type of power source does not have true constant voltage output (constant- potential characteristic), 1 has slightly downward (negative) slope (approx. 3V / 100 A). Atypical classic power source fr seting different A/V.curves has a rough and afine-adjustment knob, 2.2 Arc Characteristi ‘The arc characteristic i the vol-ampere relationship in the case of a burning are. For GMAW process this characteristic has a positive slope (Fig_1.9 - 9). The curve describes different ‘volt/ampere couples under the condition of one constant arc length.49-5 For different arc lengths there are different arc characteristics. All curves together describe the area of steady ‘burning electrical arcs belonging to constant conditions (like power source, plate thickness, electrode diameter, shiclding gas etc) Fig, 1.9 - 10. 2.3 The Static Working Point ‘The intersection point between one static output characteristic curve and one arc characteristic curve is called the static working point (SWP), Fig. 1.9- 11. ‘There are tobe distinguished: A. Frame conditions: * electrode bare wire * clectrode diameter * type of shielding gas B, Setting possibilities on welding equipment * voltage (V), i.e. one static volt / ampere curve * wire feed rate (m / min) C. The follovsing values depend on 2.3.1 and 2.3.2: * current (A) * deposition rate (kg / hour) * arc length * penetration * size of welding pool. 2.3.1 Effect of altering the voltage or/and wire feed rate Considering Fig. 1.9 - 12 and Fig. 1,9 - 13, the following preconditions are assumed: "* Movement of the SWP in Fig, 1.9 - 12 always starts from A. Always only one static A/V curve has to be considered ** Adjustment of only one parameter (voltage or wire feed rate) changes the arc voltage (= arc length. * If change of SWP under the condition of constant arc length is required, both voltage and wire feed rate will have to be adjusted,19-6 14 and Fig, L9 - 15 consider how a changing SWP infiuences the shape of a weld bead. Fig Fig. 1.9 - 16 considers the influence of a changing stick out on the SWP in the voltage / current diagram. 2.3.2 “One knob"-adjustment Electrically controlled models of power sources have accessories to interface with electrode wire food equipment to change both feed rate and welding voltage (Fig. 1.9 - 17) 2.4 Are Length Control For a proper weld its essential to keep the arc length constant. Fig. 19-18 shows a step in a stcel plate which has tobe surfaced by a welder. 2.4.1 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) Fig. 19 - 19 shows a “drooping static V/A-output characteristic" of a power source which is suitable for ‘SMAW. The welder controls a constant arc length by varying the electrode feed rate manually Fig_ 1.9 = 19b), When the welder passes the step from position 1 to 2 (Fig. 1.9 - 18), he has to correct the arc length by increasing the electrode feed rate for a short moment (position 3). The SWP (Fig_1.9 - 19c) has moved from point 1 to 2 and back to 1. As a consequence of drooping static V/A output characteristic there was only a neglectable change of the welding current. ‘This mode of arc length controt is called "_ mode” 2.4.2 Gas Meta! Arc Welding (GMAW) Fig. 1.9 - 20a shows constant potential (CP-) characteristic. The wire feed rate is constant (Fig. 1.9 = 20) ‘When the welder passes the siep from position 1 to 2 (Fig._1.9 = 18) the arc length increases. From the ‘Viewpoint of “the arc™ it seems that the wire feed rate suddenly decreases. As one can see in Fig. 1.9 = 20¢ this Causes a marked decrease in welding current (point 2). As a consequence the melting rate of the wire also decreases and the arc length becomes shorter - same length as before (Fig, 1,9- 18 / position 3) ‘This mode of arc Iength control is called "_i - mode” Small changes in arc length due to movements of the welding (orch are rapidly compensated by variations in the current drawn and the are length remains effectively constant, ic, is selfagusting. This would not occur with a drooping power source.49-7 3 Equipment Gas metal arc welding cquipment consists of a welding gun, a power supply. a shielding g2s supply, and a wire-drive system which pulls the wire electrode from a spool and pushes it through a welding gun. Also, a source of cooling water may be required for the welding gun. In passing through the gun, the wire becomes ich transfers current from a power source to the arc. While energized by contact with @ copper contact tube, w simple in principle, a system of accurate controls is employed to initiate and terminate the shielding gas and cooling water, operate the welding contactor, and control the electrode feed speed as required. The basic features of GMA welding equipment are shown in Fig 1.9 = 21, The GMAW process is used for semiautomatic, machine, and automatic welding. Semiautomatic GMAW is often referred to a5 manual welding, 3.1 Power Sources (Principles of Function) 3.1.1 Primary tapped transformer rectifier The gereral diagram is shown in Fig. 1.9 - 22, where the tapping on the primary side is installed. The added choke alters the current rise rate at short circuit, 3.1.2 Primary inverters ‘The methods to switch the transistor on and off at a rapid rate use a conventional transformer to achieve the step down in voltage required for welding. This transformer operates at main frequency (ie. 50 Hz). The Primary inverter ‘design utilizes the fact that transformer size may be significantly reduced if its operating {frequency is increased, The basic circuit is illustrated in Fig. 1t can be seen that the primary AC supply is first rectified and ‘the resultant high DC voltage is eloctionically converted to high frequency AC. Only at this stage does the supply enter the transformer. Since the frequency of operation is between 5000 and 50000 Hz the transformer is ‘small, furthermore output control is achieved by chopping or phase shifting the inverter output electronically and very high respose rates are achieved (Fig. 1.9 - 24). The transformer output must be rectified to avoid potential losses in the high frequency AC circuit. ‘The welding output is smoothed and stabilized.19-8 3.2 Welding Control Unit ‘The welding control unit may be a separate package for remote operation, or it may be integrated with the wire feed drive unit. The main Function of the control unit is to regulate the speed of the wire feed motor. Motor speed regulation is usually accomplished with an electronic governor in the control unit. Electrode food speed is ‘manually set by the operator t0 obtain the desired welding current from a constant voltage power source, The ‘control also regulates the starting and stopping of electrode feed upon the appropriate manual or automatic ssitch operation In addition the control units will contain several ofthe following: (1) An electrode feed jogging switch to feed the electrode through the unit when rot welding (@) A shielding gas purging switch for manual control of shielding gas flow 6) Electrode speed or arc voltage adjustment (4) A braking system to prevent electrode stubbing into the molten weld pool when welding is stopped (S) Timers for preweld and postweld gas and water flow (6) A water pressure switch to insure coolant flow (1) A meter to indicate the load on the wire drive motor ‘One of several arc starting systems may also be included in the contzol circuitry. One type is a slow speed start in which the electrode advances slowly toward the work until the arc starts. Then the electrode speeds up. ‘Another type is a retract start in which the electrode is touched to the work and then retracted to draw an arc. With constant voltage power sources, the arc can be started by just feeding the electrode to the work. Most controls for automatic welding contain provisions for operation from an operator's station, from limit ‘switches, or from weld duration timers, They are so arranged that their circuits can be properly oriented with the fixture controls in order that full weld programming can be achieved. Gas flow regulating equipment and ‘Power sources are the same as those used for semiautomatic equipment.19-9 3.3 Wire Feeders ig_1.9- 25) The wire feed motor is usually a de type, and it provides the power for driving the electrode wire through the uo to the Work. The wire feed is held constant for the majority of GMAW applications. Therefore, most feed motors are shunt wound or permanent magnet types. Fig. 1.9.-26 shows differen systems for wire feeding 3.4 Welding Gun (Torch) Welding guns for GMAW are available for manual manipulation (semiautomatic welding) and for machine or automatic welding. Because the electrode is fed continuously, a welding gun must have a sliding electrical ‘contact (contact tube) to transmit the welding current to the electrode, The gun must also have a gas passage and nozzle to direct the shielding gas around the arc and molten weld pool. Cooling is required to remove the heat generated within the gun, and also heat radiated from the welding arc and the molten weld metal Shielding gas or internal circulating water, or both, are used for cooling. An electric switch is needed to start and stop the welding current, electrode feed system and shielding ges flow: Fig. L9-27 shows the construction of a welding gun, 2... switch 2... hand grip 3... wire electrode 4. gas nozzle 5 ‘ wire electrode food hhose set 4 Metal Transfer 4.1 Introduction to Metal Transfer All metal are processes involve metal transfer from a consumable electrode to the weld pool. ‘These processes include: SMAW, GMAW, SAW, ESW. ‘The way in which metal transfer is important, it may be controlied by process variables and can affect the usefulness of the process49-10 4.1.1 Fundamentals Gravitational transfer ‘The simplest form of metal transfer is due to the effects of gravity alone. Ifthe forces involved are considered, it is obvious that transfer occurs when the force due fo gravity exceeds the restraining force of surface tension, Fig 19-28 ‘This can only usefully occur in welding in the downhand position. This type of detachment is known as globular transfer and is found in electtoslag welding, low current GMAW and SMAW. Detachment in this mode is slow and droplet sire is large Electromagnetic transfer forces It is well known that welding with consumable electrodes is possihle in other than downhand position, therefore some force other than gravity must be responsible. It has been shown that these forces are electromagnetic in origin When a current flows through a conductor (e.g. an arc) a magnetic field is produced. The intensity of this field is related to current density. The field produces a radial compressive force on the conductor which is highest at points such as the arc root on the electrode or the necked area of a detaching droplet; Fig, 1.9 - 29 ‘These forces are referred to as PINCH effect. In addition a component of force along the axis of the conductor is produced. This acts trom high current density areas to low current density areas. ‘This force is known as the LORENTZ force. ‘These two forces can 'pinch' the droplet from the welding consumable and project it across the arc. igh current GMAW. ‘Small droplets may be produced and these may be transferred at high rates particularly19-11 4.1.2 Short circuit transfer It is also possible for metal to be transferred to the weld pool by contact between the electrode tip and the pool. {In this case the arc is momentarily extinguished, an elsctrical short circuit occurs and metal is separated from the electrode by magnetic ‘pinch’ forces and drawn into the weld poo! by surface tension; Fig. 1.9 - 30, 4.1.3 Other transfer forces Motor effects Ifthe current flow through a droplet does not follow its axis (Fig. 1.9 -31), opposing magnetic fields may be set up. These fields may interact to produce motion which can either detach, accelerate or even rotate the droplet. This has been called the motor effect. Plasma forces ‘The are forms between a spot on the electrode and the workpiece; Fig, 1.9 - 32, It has been suggested that if the ‘spot’ on the electrode is small, plasma jets may arise inthe are (due to ‘pinch’ and Lorentz effects). These jets can repel the drople. Ifthe spot is large the plasma jet may be less powerful and assis in droplet detachment due to ‘drag" effects. This theory isnot confirmed by practice (e.g. large anode spots when GMAG welding with CO2 result in poor, globular transfer), However, plasma jets are thought to assist droplet transfer in argon based gases and simitar effects have been ‘eported in liquid slags (ie. in SAW and ESW). 4.1.4 Factors which affect metal transfer Electrode polarity ‘The normal polarity for DC operation of GMA, SMAW and SAW processes is electrode positive. The arc "usually forms from a stable anode spot which is established on the tip ofthe electrode; Fig. 1.9 ~ 3.