Se) Cutech Arabia LLC adiographic Film Interpretation (RTFI) LEVEL-II Training Course Prepared by Dr. Samir Saad General Manager Cutech Arabia LLCAZ About the Author Experience: 17 Years (Oil and Gas) Skills & Expertise + Welding and Welding Inspection + Non-Destructive Testing + Material Technology + In Service & On-stream Inspection + Corrosion and Management + Asset Integrity Management DrSamir Saad Education Certification MSS. and Ph.D. degrees in Welding Engineering Technology. Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering. Professional Certification ‘ASME Authorized Inspector (A), Boland Pressure Vessel [ASNT NDT LEVEL Min 11 methods, ASNT 10: 190002, 41. Visual and Optical Testing (VT). "7. Magnetic fx leakage Testing (MEL), 2. Radiographic Testing (FN, 8. inferred thermal testing (IR), 3. Utresonic Testing (UT). 9. Leak Testing (LD, 4. Liquid Penetrant Testog (PT), 10. Acoustic Emission Testing (AE) 5. Magnetic Testing (MM), 11. Newton Radiography (NA) 6. Electromagnetic Tesing (ET), ‘AWS-CWEng, -Costiiod Welding Engineer, ID NO. 17010086. AWS-CWE - Cerfied Welding Educator, ID NO, 1902001€. ‘ANS-CWI - Certied Welding Inspector, 1D NO. 19021321. ‘ANS-CWS ~ Certied Welding Superasor, ID NO. 20030008, [AWS-CWSR - Cored Welding Sales Representative, 1D NO. 2003000R {ESWIP 3.22 - Senior Welting Inspector Personal, ID NO.74305, [BGAS-CSWIP-Painting Inspocior Grade 2-8GAS, 10:529730 ‘API 610- Pressure Vessel Inspector ID NO_ 35376, [API 870. Process Piping Inspector ID NO. 38328 ‘API 683. aboveground storage tank inspector ID NO. 96171 ‘APL RP 880 -Risk-Basod Inspection professional ID NO. 52784 ‘APLRP 671- Corrosion and Materials Profesional ID NO. 56359 ‘API 936 - Rofractory Personnol, 1D NO. 94784 [API S77 = Welding Inspection and Metalurgy, 10 NO, 94785 [API SIFE-Source Inspector Fixed Equipment, 1D NO. 95780 Lead auditor according to 180 9001:2018 from IRCChapter 1 : Chapter 2 : Chapter 2 : Chapter 4 = Chapter 5 = Chapter 6 = Chapter 7 = Chapter 8 : Chapter 9 : Chapter 1 Qualification and Certification Requirements Overview of Radiographic Testing Radiographic Techniques Film Radiography Processing Film Introduction to RTFI Film quality Weld Quality Artefacts \cceptance Criteria Chapter 11: ASMEV , ARTICLE 2 RadiographicExaminationChapter 1 Qualification and Certification we Requirements — iin = ‘Dr.Samir SaadXThere are three means of protection to help reduce exposure to radiation: DISTANCE SHIELDING Less time spent (clea ce Behind shielding ge eal re Se acd radiation received § Pecan) reac)Restricted Areas * The actual size of the defined areas will depend up the intensity of the radiation and the time spent receiving dose.Chapter 3 Radiographic Techniques Ye oe y Dr-Samir Saad7 The technique applied to inspect a particular component or weld is selected by + Reference to the possible defects which may occur, + The equipment and access available, ++ The material and the shape of the item.Q Radiographic Techniques A. Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) B. Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) panoramic C. Double Wall Single Image (DWSI) D. Double Wall Double Image (DWDT) E. Multiple film technique (Sandwich Technique) F. Parallax or Tube Shift TechniqueA. Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) ORadiography is usually carried out by the single wall, single image (SWSI) technique which requires access to both surfaces of the object to be radiographed. Q The source of radiation is placed on one side of the item and film on the opposite side.A. Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) \_ _f eeExposure Tocanon Fiten Exposure Arrangement FB SIS [Siar Sate a aRadiographic Techniques A. Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)Single Wall Single Image- (SWSI) panoramic C1 An arrangement of SWSI used for vessel girth welds or for large diameter pipe butt welds is the panoramic technique where the X-ray head or gamma radiation source is placed at the center of the vessel or pipe and film is placed around the outer circumference of the weld. Q The complete weld can be radiographed in a single exposure with this technique. Q The resulting image may be on one single length of film covering the entire weld length or on a series of overlapping films with location markers. Q Location markers must be attached to the component and not to the film cassette.Radiographic Techniques...) B. Single Wall Single Image- (SWSI) panoramicB. Single Wall Single image- (SWSI) panoramic Exposure | Reaiographie Technique | ~ Viewng Tosaton Marker End View Side View Pacement Exposure Arrangement AQ Qa Double Wall Techniques ‘There are many instances where radiography by SWSI techniques is not possible due to the requirement for access to both surfaces of the item to be inspected. This occurs with radiography of pipe butt welds for example where access along the pipe is restricted by size or bends or where the pipework is in service. In these situations techniques are used which involve having the radiation source and film on opposite sides external to the pipe and passing the radiation beam through both pipe walls to produce an image of part of the weld circumference on the film.C. Double Wall Double Image (DWSI) > The double wall single image (DWSI) technique is used on large diameter pipe welds greater than 3 % in. diameter. > The film is wrapped around the pipe and the exposure made by passing radiation through, both pipe walls. >» Only the image from the weld section closest to the film will be suitable for examination since the side furthest from the film will produce a blurred and distorted image. > For complete coverage of the weld it is necessary to make several separate overlapping exposures at positions around the pipe > The number of exposures required is dependent on the diameter and wall thickness of the pipe. > The relevant standards give guidance on establishing the required number of exposures. Since access to the pipe bore is usually restricted film side IQIs are permitted for this techniqueDWSI (Contact technique) ae aa oe EnerRadiographic Techniques C. Double Wall Double Image (DWSI)D. Double Wall Double Image ( DWDI) > Small diameter pipe welds up to about 3 ¥ in. diameter can be radiographed by the double wall doubleimage (DWDI) technique > Itcan be applied where the radiation source is in line with the plane of the weld producing a radiograph where the upperand lower weld images are superimposed or by offsetting the source so that the upperand lower regions of the weld are separated in the image > Forcomplete coverage of the weld using the superimposed technique it is necessary to produce three separate radiographs with the weld rotated by 120° between each. > For the offset technique only two radiographs with 90° rotation are required > In bothcases the IQI must be positioned on top of the pipe closest to the radiation source.Elliptical Te ique__ Radiographic Techniques) / D. Double Wall Double Image ( DWDI) i a . Elliptical Radiograph ,Technique and Exposure Requirements Nominal Pipe Size Technique Type of Exposure and Viewing Min. Num. of Exposures ‘= 3-172" <3-1/2" Elliptical DbI. Wall Exp. Dbl. Wall Viewing 2 ‘Superimposed DBI. Wall Exp. DbI. Wall Viewing (0,90) 3 (0,60,120) = 3-1/2" ‘Contact DBI. Wall Exp. Sql. Wall Viewing 3 (0.120. 240) = 3-1/2" Panoramic Sql. Wall Exp. Sql. Wall Viewing 1 = 3-172" Single wail Single Wall Viewing a (0.90,180,270), Multiple un technique (Sandwich Technique, — we FILMA: FineGrain Medium Speed —_Density 2.0 to 3.0 acceptable FILM B: Very Fine Grain-SlowSpeed.__,F. Parallax or Tube Shift Technique Lead Markerimages.Radiographic TechniquesChapter 4 Film Radiography Ye oe y Dr-Samir SaadQ Film Structure. “The film is sandwiched between the radiographic intensifying screens ina protective cassette. “The intensifying screens change the x-rays into visible light. The visible light exposes the radiographic film “Radiographic Film has two basic parts. 1) Base 2) Emulsion Most films have two layers of emulsion so these are referred as Double Emulsion Film sande |< sharbaridemasin | — dees cctrg Pies | <— Aisi cing |< shertomte aus x Pte cating( Film Radiography ) OFil A. Transparent Base ¥ It is the foundation of the film. ¥ 150 to 300 um thick. ¥ Provides a surface and supportfor the emulsion. ¥ It must have strength, but it should be flexible. ¥ Most film bases are composed of polyester. ¥ Polyester can withstand higher temperatures, andis more fireproof. ¥ The base is usually tinted blue to reduce light glare.{ Film Radiography ) Q Film Structure. B. Emulsion Y The emulsion is the heart of the film. ¥ The x-rays or light from the intensifying screens interact with the emulsion and transfer information to the film. vA homogeneous mixture of gelatin and silver halide crystals and is about 3 to 5 ym thick.Film must be protected from visible light. Light, just like x-rays and gamma rays, can expose film. Film is loaded in a “light proof” cassette in a darkroom. This cassette is then placed on the specimen opposite the source of radiation Film s often placed between screens to intensify radiation.Film contains microscopic material called silver bromide. Once exposed to radiation and developed in a darkroom, silver bromide turns to black metallic silver which forms the image. latent image Image before processing = latent image After proper chemical processing = manifest VALITT image. Once developed, the film is typically referred to as a “radiograph.” eae manifest imageFilm Types Grain size Quality Film Factor Coarse Poor Medium Medium Ultra Fine Note: Some film manufactures my use different film factor systemsChapter 5 Processing Film Ye oe y Dr-Samir Saad[ Processing, Film “In order for the image to be viewed, the film must be “developed” in a darkroom. The process is very similar to photographic film development. “Film processing can either be performed mmanuaiyii in open tanks or in an automatic processor.Manual SystemFilm RadiographyQ Film processing is carried out using the following:- A. Developer tank - alkali Stop bath or rinse tank - slightly acidic Fixer tank - acidic Final wash tank - running water Wetting agent - detergent Drying - drying cabinet or drying room‘A. Developer Suppliedas a liquid concentrated alkali mixed to 1 part developer to 4 parts water. Developer temperatures for manual processing 18 to 24°C (65 to 75 °F). Development times are §-8 minutes . Metallic Silver converted into Black metallic silver During the development process agitation should take place to avoid Graininess Replenishment may be added to maintain development times and the activity of the developer. De > > > > > ¥ "Purpose — to ensure that the activity of the developer and the developing time required remains constant "= Guideline -After 1m2 of film has been developed, about 400 ml of replenisher needs to be added. B. Stop Bath > 3% Acetic acid - neutralises the developerCc. Fixer ca > ‘Suppliedas a liquid concentrated acid (Sodium thiosulphate or ammonium thiosulphate) mixed to 1 part fixer to 3 parts water. Functions:- 1. Removes all unexposed silver grains 2. To leave the developed silver as a permanent Image 2. Hardens the emulsion gelatin Fixing temperatures for manual processing 18 to 24°C (65 to 75 °F). Fixing times are twice the clearing time. " Clearing time - The time taken for the radiography to loose its milky appearance. " clearing time about 3 minutes, fixing time about 6 minutes During the fixing process agitation should take place to avoid light spots and Graininess on the radiograph. When fixing times exceed 10 minutes the fixer should be replaced, replenishment is not normally addedD. Final wash tank - running water / wetting agent > > ¥ After washing in running water the films may be placed in a wetting agent to reduce surface tension this results in even drying, preventing Water spots on films. Films should be washed in a tank with constant running water for at least 20 minutes. Insufficient washing the film can caused the yellow fog appears D. Drying - Before drying excess water should be removed with the use of a squeegee Drying should take place in a dust free environment Typical drying times in a drying cabinet 15 minutes ‘Typical drying times in a drying room 45 minutes Care should be taken not to allow drops of water to appear on the drying films, this may cause black marks to appear on the radiographChapter 6 Introduction to RTFM, We oe y Dr-Samir SaadQ The requirements for satisfactory interpretation are that + the interpreter must have adequate ¢} ight, whether corrected or uncorrected, and have the caused by various conditions. to recognise features in the imag,( Introduction..to RIFI ) Q Before viewing a radiograph ‘The interpreter should have a basic knowledge of how the image was created and be aware of the radiographic technique used. The interpreter should have details of the weld configuration and should have some knowledge of the welding procedure used.O The standards usually quoted for eyesight require that * personnelare able to read a minimum of the J2 level on the Jaeger eyesight chart with the chart at positioned a distance of 30.5 centimetres. + Ability to recognise the features on a radiograph comes largely with experience.Q Viewing of radiographs should be carried out using “A film viewer in a darkened room. O When entering a darkened room from bright sunlight % some time should be spent under darkroom conditions prior to commencing interpretation in order that eyesight can adjust to the low light level.( Introduction..to RIFI ) Q Viewer screens should be + cleaned before viewing and care must be taken to avoid marking or damaging the Im. QO The area where films are viewed. should be “clean, work surfaces dry and the films handled by the edges to prevent fingerprints and damage to the film surfaces.Introduction. to RIFI Q Soft cotton gloves are often used by interpreters +? To limit the possibility of film damage. Q Each radiograph is masked on the viewer so that % stray light from around the film does not blind the interpreter.Q The film viewer can be activated by “A foot switch when the film to be examined is position. Q A dim side light can be used in order that % Notes can be made during the work.Chapter 7 Film quality Ye oe y Dr-Samir SaadO Radiographs should be ‘reviewed for film quality prior to interpreting the image for possible defects. ‘+ checked for identification, density and sensitivity and also for the presence of artefacts interfere with the assessment. Q Where film quality is unacceptable “the area of weld covered by the film should be re-raPili quality A. Identification Q Manufacturers may have a method of radiographic identification which is “© linked to a quality system but + The following is a guide to the normal requirements for details appearing on the radiograph. QO The identification should include + The manufacturer's symbol, the componentitem/weld number as appropriate, the location within the weld (such as location markers 1 to 2, B to C etc.) and the date radiography was carried out ee B ==m=I=™6 8 96 Sscatsen niacinee Pate | EEE ene R1 oe aeA. Identification PJ S.C.WS PROJECT —__ 40 sere y Pe Wesco] 8 96 ma Manufacturer's symbol —— 72 dLA. Identification O The identification details usually appear in the image but sometimes a system of "flashing" the details on to the film before exposure is used. U In allcases location markers which indicate the diagnostic length (extent of the weld on the film to be examined) must appear as radiographic images. O The repair status of the weld should also be shown, usually by markers Ri (repair), R2second repair) ete. O Identification details must not encroach on the weld area of interest - the length of weld and heat affected zone between the length markers.Filna quality B. Film density O Radiographicimages are viewed by transmitted light with the film placed on a light box or viewer. Q A more accu method is to use electronic device known as a film transmission densitometer. ew:B. Film density U This device simply measures the logarithmic ratio of incident to transmitted light through the image from the viewer. Incident light Transmitted light Density = Log, O Film density is therefore a number which will vary from 0 (film totally transparent) to about 5 (film virtually opaque). In general, densities above 4 are only used for special applications.B. Film density U The densitometer must be regularly calibrated for accuracy throughout its range and must be set to zero on the illuminated viewer immediately before use. Q The blackness or density of the image can be assessed by comparison with a film strip having a range of densi U A densitometer should be calibrated using a density stripB. Film density Q Film density influences the contrast and hence the visibility of defects on a radiograph. Q Film contrast is the difference in density between adjacent areas on the radiograph, the greater the density difference the higher the contrast. In addition, radiographic film characteristics are such that contrast increases with film density. For this reason a minimum film density on the area being examined is required by most codes and standards.B. Film density QO ASME V Article 2 requires ¢ a minimum of 1.8 for x-ray techniques and minimum of 2.0 for gamma ray techniques. + For composite viewing of multiple film exposures, each film of the composite set shall have a minimum density of 1.3. + The maximum density shall be 4.0 for either single or composite viewing QO BS/EN standards require “a minimum density of 2.0 (2.3 for high sensitivity techniques) for both X and gamma rays. Q Other codes such as JIS will accept a minimum density of 1.5.Film quality / B. Film density U These minimum figures for film density apply to the area of interest (the diagnostic length of the weld) on the radiograph.C. Radiographic sensitivity Sensitivity Po] IQI sensitivity Defect sensitivityC. Radiographic sensitivity 1Q) sensitivity > The image on a radiograph which is used to determine the quality level Defect sensitivity > Ability to assist the sensitivity and locate a defect ona radiograph (Depend on the defect orientation)C. Radiographic sensitivity Q The ability of a radiograph to reveal internal defects is determined by the quality 6 sensitivity of the image produced. Q Flaw Orientation “+ A significant limitation of radiography is that discontinuities must be favorably aligned with the radiation beam to be reliably detected. > This is usually not a problem for discontinuities such as porosity or slag since they are usually round in cross section and align with a beam from any direction.C. Radiographic sensitivity Q Flaw Orientation % Planarweld defects such as cracks or lack of sidewall fusion may appear faint or even be invisible if they are unfavourably orientated with the direction of the radiation beam.. Radiographic sensitivity Q Flaw Orientation Optimum Radiography has Angle sensitivity limitations When detecting & cracks, S + Vs to detect +o X-rays "see" a crack as a thickness variation and the larger the variation, the easier the crack is to detect. When the path of the x-rays is not parallel to a crack, the thickness variation is less and the crack may not be visible.C. Radiographic sensitivity 1 Flaw OrientationC. Radiographic sensitivity Q Flaw Orientation Since the angle between the radiation beam and a crack or other linear defect is so critical, the orientation of defect must be well known if radiography is going to be used to perform the inspection. a° 10° 20°C. Radiographic sensitivity O The sensitivity of the radiograph produced is affected by many factors but + basically, the higher the contrast and definition (sharpness) of the image the more sensitive the technique will be for detecting imperfections in the object being examined. OlImage Quality Indicators (IQIs) + IQI’s / Penetrameters are used to measure radiographic sensitivity and the quality of the radiographic technique used. “+ They are not used to measure the size of defects detectedC. Radiographic sensi Q Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) “© Standards for IQI’s include: > ASTM > BS3071 > BSEN 462 > DING + ‘Two types of indicatorare in common use > The wire type and > The plate/hole type.C. Radiographic sensitivity O Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) ron Eo[o[o[o Step / Hole type IQI ii Wire type IQIC. Radiographic sensitivity O Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) “> Placement of IQI > IQI must be placed on the maximum thickness of weld > Thinnest required step or wire “shim “ must be placed at the extreme edge of section under test IQI material chosen should have similar radiation absorption/transmission properties to the test specimen .C. Radiographic sensitivity Ci Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) > Placement of [QI Step/Hole Type IQI Wire Type IQIFilna quality iC. Radiographic sensitivity C Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) Placement of [QICc. Radiographic sensitivity ‘ C1 Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) “Placement of [QI > In case of access problem , IQI has to placed on the film side of the object, letter “F” should be placed beside the QL. > — [QI must be placed at the source sideC. Radiographic sensitivity Q Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) Wire Type IQI “ASTM Wire Type “ The left side 01,02,03,04,05 gives the material Grouping and on the right A,B,C & D gives the four sets of wires. Each penetrameter contains 6 wires out of which 1 wires shallbe repeatedin the next adjacent set. Totally the four sets A,B,C & D will therefore account 21 wire diameters. ‘The diameter varies by a geometric progression of 1.25.C. Radiographic sensitivity Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) Wire Type IQI “ASTM Wire Type “C. Radiographic sensitivity Q Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) “Wire Type IQI “ASTM Wire Type “ 03 Magnesium Steel Aluminium bronzes & Nickel Aluminium bronze Nickel-chromium-Iron alloy ‘Nickel copper Tin bronzeincluding Gun metal & valve bronze Aluminium o1 Titanium,C. Radiographic sensitivity Q Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) “Wire Type IQI “ASTM Wire Type * > Finding Sensitivity: Sensitivity = Least wire dia visible x100 % Thickness. Y Acceptable sensitivity shall be 2% (Pressure Vessels& Pipelines). Y Hence penetrameter selection shall be 2 % of material thickness.O The thickness of a test piece is 20 mm and the ASTM wire type IQI visible on the filmis 9™ wire. Find the sensitivity achieved. > Finding Sensitivity: Sensitivity = Least wire dia Thickness. > Visible IQ] 9th wire size is 0.51 mm. > — % sensitivity achieved is=Q Using the ASTM wire type IQ! , How many IQI wires must be visible to give an IQI sensitivity of 2% if Total weld thickness is 16 mm? > Finding Sensitivity: Least wire Dia. visible = Sensitivity x Thickness 100 > Least wire dia visible = 2.x 16 = 0.32mm 100 7 wires visibleC. Radiographic sensitivity ..,cimeter Design Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) * HOLE TYPE IQI o-|—- a |__. ay oe (Peete deiraton Tikes in Thou/ mils 1 Thou = 1/ 1000inch IQI Sensitivity 1 Hole visible = 4T 2 Holes visible = T 3 Holes visible = 2TC. Radiographic sensitivity Q Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) % HOLETYPE IQI “Sensitivity Levels “ Sensitivity Level_2-1T. Here 2 implies penetrameter selection shall be 2 % of material thickness and the least visible hole was 17. Obtained Sensitivity. = 100. / TxH. x 2. Where X- material thickness in Thou. T- Penetrameter thickness in Thou. H- Holedia visible.Given:- Q> JobthicknesX = 20mm =800 Thou Q > 1Q| Thickness T= 15 Thou Q HolediaH = 2T=2x 15 Thou=30 Thou) > Determine the HOLE TYPE IQI Sensitivity Levels Sensitivity = 100 [ T™ x 2 Where X- material thickness in Thou. Sensitivity = 100 | 15x30 T- Penetrameter thickness in Thou. 800 2 H- Hole dia visible. = 1.875%C. Radiographic sensitivity Q Scatter * Scatter will lead to poorer contrast and definition and create spurious indications ¢ Internal scatter originating within the specimen © Side scatter walls and nearby objects in the path of the primary beam * Back scatter materials located behind the filmC. Radiographic sensitivity QO Scatter ¢ Internal scatter : originating within the specimenC. Radiographic sensitivity Q Scatter © Side scatter : walls and nearby objects in the path of the primary beam. Radiographic sensitivity O Scatter * Back scatter : materials located behind the filmC. Radiographic sensitivity OBack scatter Back scattered radiation from surfaces and objects behind the film during exposure can degrade the image and reduce radiographic sensitivity. Code requirements specify that a lead letter "B" must be attached to the back of the film cassette before exposure.Filna quality C. Radiographic sensitivity Q Back scatter + During interpretation , If a light image of the “B,” appears on a darker background of the radiograph would indicate that excessive backscatter had been present during exposure and that the ph is unacceptable, The absence of the lead letter image or / A dark image of the “B” on a lighter background, indicates that acceptably low scatter levels have been achievedChapter 8 Weld Quality Ye oe y Dr-Samir SaadQ Following the review of film quality, > Radiographs should be examined for the presence of defects in the weld and adjacent material. Examination should be carried out even if the film quality is unacceptable since gross defects may be visibleand the component could be rejected without the need for further radiography. Defects visible shouldbe noted and the component sentenced according to the applicable acceptance criteria. ‘Where there is doubt whether an image is due to an internal defeet ora surface feature the weld area should be examined visually to establish the cause.A. Weld surface features, Q Listed below are some of the irregular weld surface conditions that can be seen in radiographic images. C1 The severity of weld defects such as excessive penetration or undercutting is difficult to judge using radiographic evidence alone. CQ Wherever possible defects of this type should be judged for acceptability by visual examination of the weld.A. Weld surface features, Excessive root penetration Root concavity Incompletely filled groove Undercutting SpatterWeld Quallity A. Weld surface features, 1) Excessive root penetration. Excess weld mi al protruding through the root of a fusion weld made from one side appears in the radiograph as a continuous or intermittent light irregular band within the age of the weld.Weld Qualliky A. Weld surface features, 1) Excessive root penetration.( Weld Quallity ) A. Weld surface features, 2) Root concavity. Root concavity is a shallow groove which may occur in the root of a single sided weld. It appears in the radiograph as a series of dark areas along the centre of the weld varying in density according to the depth of imperfection. Rona e AdWeld Qualliky A. Weld surface features, 3) Incompletely filled groove (lack of fill/ underfill). + This is a continuous or intermittent channel in the surface of the weld, ing along its length, due to Insufficient weld material. The channel may be along the centre or along one or both edges of the weld. It produces an image in the radiograph of a dark band or dark patches within the image of the weld. Where this occurs at the edge of the weld cap it is distinguished from undercutting by the straight edge of the weld preparation on the parent material.Weld Qualliky A. Weld surface features, 4) Undercutting a % — Aminregular groove at the toe the weld in the parent material due to burning away during welding. It appears in the radiograph as a dark /irvegular /intermittent band along the edge of either the cap or root bead or between adjacent capping runs. It may therefore appear inside or outside the weld image on the radiographWeld Qualliky A. Weld surface features, 5) Spatter -e of the p rial or weld. Spatter appears in the aph as small light spots on the weld and adjacent parent material.B. Weld defects, Q_ Weld defects can occur in any position in the weld and may be visible on the radiograph for assessment. Suspected defects which appear to be surface breaking should be confirmed by visual or NDE surface inspection techniques.B. Weld defects, Cracks Lack of fusion Incomplete root penetration Slag inclusions, Metallic inclusions Gas porosity Elongated cavities (hollow bead/piping) Worm holes Crater cracks and pipesB. Weld defects, 1) Cracks + Cracks due to welding may occur at the point of solidification, during the deposition of subsequent welding runs or at a time after the completion of welding. + Cracks may occur either in the weld deposit or in the parent material. + Cracks are usually parallel to the welding direction but can also occur in the transverse plane. + Crater cracks at stop/start positions can also occur.B. Weld defects, 1) Cracks ‘The ability of the radiographic technique to detect a crack is dependent on the crack orientation relative to the direction of the radiation. Even a slight deviation from the optimum orientation will greatly reduce the chances of detection. When they are detected they appear in the radiographas dark, fine and often branching lines which are usually diffuse or discontinuous.( Weld Quality B, Weld defects, 1) Cracks YYB. Weld defects, ferret( Weld Quality B, Weld defects, 1) CracksWeld Quallity B. Weld defects, 1) CracksWeld Quality B. Weld defects, —_ ae!B. Weld defects, 2) Lack of fusion “Lack of fusion in welding can occur either between the weld deposit and the parent material or between successive layers of weld material.B. Weld defects, 2) Lack of fusion ‘The ability of radiographic techniques to detect lack of fusion is strongly dependent on the orientation of the defect with respect to the incident beam of radiation. Lack of fusion with the parent material will appear as a fine dark straight line which may be continuous or intermittent. ‘Unfavourably orientated lack of fusion with the parent material may sometimes be detected due to the presence of associated slag inclusions or porosity. a slag inclusion with a straight edge normally indicates lack of fusion. Gas escaping from an area of lack of fusion during welding may show as linear porosity.Weld Quality B. Weld defects, 2) Lack of fusion aWeld Quality B. Weld defects, 2) Lack of fusionWeld Quality B. Weld defects, 2) Lack of fusion =— <<Weld Qualliky B. Weld defects, 2) Lack of fusionWeld Qualliky B. Weld defects, 2) Lack of fusionWeld Quallity B. Weld defects, 2) Lack of fusionWeld Quality ) B. Weld defects, 2) Lack of fusion lack of root fusionB. Weld defects, 3) Incomplete root penetration Incomplete penetration appears in a radiograph as a dark continuous or intermittent linear band, the edges of which will be straight. Where welds are deposited without a root gap, lack of penetration may appear as a single continuous or intermittent straight dark line,( Weld Quallity J B. Weld defects, 3) Incomplete root penetration + — Root gaps frequently close during welding and even in cases where there should have been a root gap the lack of penetration may still appearin the radiographas a single fine dark line.Weld Quality B. Weld defects, 3) Incomplete root penetration ee eeWeld Quality B. Weld defects, 3) Incomplete root penetration re eee incomplete penetrationB. Weld defects, Incomplete root penetration Pre en eet)Weld Quality B. Weld defects, 3) Incomplete root penetration en Eee)(i Weld Quaillity B. Weld defects, 3) Incomplete root penetrationB. Weld defects,B. Weld defects, 3) Slag inclusions “Slag inclusions are irregularly shaped, they may be either rounded/isolated or linear/elongated. * Linearslag inclusions with a straight edge may indicate lack of fusion.l Weld Quality ) B. Weld defects, 4) Slag inclusions * Sometimes linear slag will appear on the radiograph as two irregular parallel lines referred to as tram lines or waggon tracks. ‘Most weld slag and other possible sources of non-metallic inclusions are radiographically much less absorbing than the surrounding metallic material and appear in the radiograph as dark images.Weld Quality B. Weld defects, 4) Slag inclusions( Weld Quality B. Weld defects, 4) Slag inclusionsree| Weld Quality { B. Weld defects, \ 4) Slag inclusionsWeld Quality B. Weld defects, 4) Slag inclusionsB, Weld defects, 5) Metallic inclusions ‘Materials such as tungsten or copper can be accidentally introduced into the molten weld pool during welding, the materials usually coming from the welding equipment in use. ‘Tungsten inclusions are associated with the tungsten inert-gas welding process and are caused by the break-up of the non- consumable tungsten electrode during welding. ‘Tungsten is very dense and the inclusions always appear as bright images which tend to be sharp and angular. They are usually small - typically 0.5 to 1 mm.B. Weld defects, > 5) Metallic inclusions aB. Weld defects, 5) Metallic inclusions ‘Copper inclusions can occur with submerged-arc or other welding processes where the consumable electrode is fed through a copper contact. If the copper touches the weld pool it will melt and become included in the weld. Copper is radiographically more absorbing than steel so the inclusions are bright with diffuse edges. Copper inclusions in ferritic steel welds can cause cracking.Weld Qualliky B. Weld defects, 5) Metallic inclusionsB. Weld defects, 6) Gas porosity. % Gas pores are easily detected by radiography since they are not sensitive to the direction of radiation and the gas is many times less dense than the surrounding material.{ Weld Quality ) B. Weld defects, 6) Gas porosity. Gas pores appear on a radiograph as sharply defined dark circular spots. They may be isolated, grouped or evenly distributed. Linear porosity is usually an indication of lack of fusion.