‘Wave length : | Utrasoric vibrations travel in the form of continuous waves. The distance, measured along the ine of propagation, Deween TWO Wave state ‘surfaces in which the phase differs by one complete period is wavelength. It is not the material's particles that moves through \ the thokness, t is te vbealonal[ mechanical] energy thal iS transfered from one parce to another. —_ pats paces wil vbrie 2 milion times per second. Frequency ‘The particles sre displaced, first in the forward rection and then in the opposite direction. Two cisplacemonis equal one cycle. | Period : | The time required to compete a full cycle of vibration of a Sa | “o |Scattering and Diffraction. | Ulasound velocity in meters /ec and | acoustic impedance in gms /cm?/ sec: | Material Longitudinal Shear eT ngs monks 5 dante stint Wz Bombe Velocity, Freq. and Wavelength are related as, Velecty = Frequency % Wavalngth Acoustic pressure [P) i the amplitude of altemating stresses fn the material by a propagating ultrasonie wave. P = acoustic impedance X amplitude of particle vibration. | Se 3900 3230454 Velocity depends on the densty, eastity and gly ofthe test | Cast Iron 5600 320 40 mater | Inconel, 5820 3020 4.94 Vion = [ECM | Alueimsm 6320 313017 PCT+M)(1 - 2M) ‘Acrylic 2730 143032 : [eceet aieeh act tae Vow =) sap | Cee] 3980 1990 36 rae | Titanium 6100 ‘31200 -2.76 Where, Calculate wave length of ultrasound in steel and waler for a 2 MHz, 10mm dia longitudi wave probe, Longitudinal velocity, in Uttasonic Thtersity [1] ts te. vonaneson or o [esate Ge 1480 Mars / sec. ner, {trough an unt ros. secon are, which i= porpenduar Vey = Pee x ae el ee Fioenee, eeentae ot Pare eee steel = 5900 Mus /seg, oF 5.9 X 10° mm/ see colored tbe ha of the teal waves vetoes | water = 1D Mis ag or 148X108 mn scatter sound energy [reflects energy in rantiom fashion } | Frequency = 2MHa or 2 X 10° cycles/ see Discontinuity, with thickness of quarier wavelength or more reflects | (ath cycle produces one wavelenath ) ultrasound very well. Utirasonic wave gets deflected { spreads out} | Hence, Wavelength = 5.9/2 = 1486/2 from the edges of a discontinuty.|known a6 tip Difraction and | = 2.95 mm. =.74 om 's useful for measuring the size of cracks | ! in steel in water eceacecie|Ultrasound wave modes : Utirasound propagates by means of the oscillatory ‘motion of the atomic or molecular particles in the ‘medium. All material substances are composed of atoms, rl which may be forced into vibrational motion about their oe ‘equilibrium positions. When the particles are displaced Dieten es ‘Shear waves can have the vibration at any angle with respect °°: 1 the direction of wave propagation and can therefore be polarized. Shear wave is described as a wave wih particle Vibration perpendicular to wave propagation. These waves Propagate wih a velocity which is about 50°% of longitudinal ‘waves, Shear waves will not propagate in liquids and gasses since these mediums do not support shear forces. Shear wave has shorter wavelength, can detect smaller flaws and has higher ‘attenuation compared to equivalent longitudinal wave. ay Se ed on pe liptical particle motion. The medium above the metal surlace Longitudinal wave.| “=velenet® must be gas or can be a very thin layer of liquid couptant to ‘sustain the waves. The waves propagate along the test surface ‘through @ thickness of only one wavelength. At one wavelength deep, the wave energy drops to only 4%. The waves have a velocity of approximately 90% of equivalent shear wave. ‘Surface wave follows curved surfaces and gets reflected from sharp comers, surface and very near surtace discontinuities. ‘Surface wave has low attenuation and high sensitivity for detection of surface defects. Lamb wave or plate waves are produced in very thin materials Liew wavelengths thick]. Lamb waves are similar to longitudinal waves, with compression and rarefaction, but bounded by the sheet ° or plate surfaces causing a wave guide effect. They propagate by flexing the plaie surfaces and saturate the plate thickness. Lam wave testing is usually done by mechanized scanning systems. HEHE Direction of wave propagation ——pReflection and Refraction of Ultrasound at Interface : In some ways, the behavior of ultrasound at an interface of two mediums is similar to that of light, Snelt's law is applicable, ultrasound stikes an interface of two different mediums, opening on te rao of te. speoic aoustic impedances, some ‘of the energy will be transmitted through the interface and ‘the remaining energy will be reflected back at the same angle of incidence. This property of ultrasound is utlized for detacting reflectors or defects in materials. “The value of the crcl combination of mediums Single selected between the Siminate tre retacted longitudinal wave in the test medium. “The incident, reflected and refracted angles are relaied as, See Sind, ~ Where, Sin 0 is the angle of the incident wave. Sin 02 is the angle of reflection / refraction. Cy C2 wave velocity in the first medium. ‘wave velocity in the second medium. = Inv Sin (V2 / VI_X Sia 20 ) = Inv Sin ( 5900 / 2730 X 3420) | eee | refracted Shear, Inv Sin (3230/2730 X 3420) | "Sound reflection at water/ steel imerface, —— | cient ong | ea es Normal incidence, wave unchanged, formal Second Critical, Surface wave. eck ge ‘gis / m/sec. {45-15 /(45+ 15) X 100 = 87.5 ‘metal / gas interface, reflection is ~ 100%3 | 4 in i i + A tool Slea,f B i aii ul Bie, i mane tLe fl nate el Byegeesesaeece SPecss li pat a at i it alerteel tt ti wasted tes i pagal funtlag: aH li ead ne i i yebpeytl) 1 Hdl feet Wa HT ila Tudo dae cE‘etormine the angle of refraction of the uronic beam xs. ‘ve, the ext pomnt of a 60° probe should be on the 60° mark ‘Angle can be determined with the V2 block also. Refracted angle of the axis of the beam can be accurately determined by analyzing the maximum reflection signal obtained from a small diameter side driled hole at known depth in a Refracted Beam angle © is calculated as, Cos inverse [hole depth / (beam path + hole radius )] step2 If the probe exit point does not match the 60" mark, angle = INV Cos[30 /Cbeampath + 259] angle calculation Beam path upto hole center = 56 +0.75 ‘56.75 mm. [Radius of hole, 0.75mm added to beam path } Probe angle @ = Inv Cosine [30 / 56.75] = Inv Cosine 0.5286 of 56°DAC curve with normal beam Probe ‘As sound energy propagates through @ medium, energy conversion takes place and the sound pressure decreases with distance from the source. In addtion, sound spreads out from a true parallel beam and the intensity per unit area also reduces. ‘Utrasound energy also gets scattered by coarse grained materials, All these causes the signal amplitude from a constant reflecior to| vary with distance. Therefore, fo evaluate reflected signals from discontinuities, Distance Amplitude Comection [ DAC] curve is used. DAC is plotted from signals from reflectors of equal area at ifferent distances in tho same. material. Flat bottomed hole blocks So eH ff side driled hole blocks are used to plot the DAC curve. : : Variation of signal ampaude wah distance Select at least three fat bottom hole blocks or three 00%§ locations in a side drilled hole block, such that the 2M, 24con ‘curve is sufficient to evaluate discontinuities at any material thickness to be tested. The reference hole size in DAC blocks must be as required in the test procedure being Pick up maximum signal from the hole nearest to the scanning surface [pos 1] and set this signal to 80% screen height. Mark the tip of this signal on the CRT screen. The gain used is the reference gain seting Without changing the gain control, pick up the maximum signals from position 2, 3 etc... Mark the tip of each signal on the CRT screen and join the points with @ smooth curve to complete the DAC curve, To draw @ 50% reference level, reduce the gain setting by 6.48 from reference gain setting at each maximized signal location and ‘mark the peaks of these reduced signals. Draw another curve through these points to obtain the 50% reference level ‘Transfer correction for the reference gain setting should be made if the sound attenuation in the block [s} are diferent from the test ‘material. Compare back wall signals from the test part and the block which is nearest to the part thickness and correct the gain ifference as necessary. When a flaw signal equals the DAC curve, the flaw is generally pre a ASTM FBH basic ‘amplitude correction ‘amplitude linearity i li Beaase i | | | side drited hole block es 2 | | pos 2 pos 1 } ! | | | q eee eeeAngle probe DAC with side drilled hole block : Side driled hole blocks are widely used for plotting the DAC. ‘curve for weld testing. These blocks contain deep driled hole, with the hole axi to surface and perpendicular to the edge. The side reflects ultrasound energy incident al any angle. The diameter of the hole normally increases with block thickness. A 1.6mm. diameter reference hole provides good test sensitivity for most of the weld testing applications. Depending on the block thickness T, holes are driled at 1/47, 1127, 3/4 on the edge of the block. For discontinuity evaluation, a 100% and a 60% DAC reference level is. generally utlized. Plotting the DAC curve: Select the block whose thickness [T} most closely matches the part thickness [equal to or within 10% of T] and designed as ‘specified in the applicable test procedure. Move the angle probe on the block surface to obtain a maximized signal from the driled hole which produces shortest beam path, [Pos 1.or2] and set this signal to 80% screen height. The probe should be at least one half inch away from the edge ‘of the block to avoid comer effect. Mark the peak of this signal on the face of the CRT screen. Without changing the gain control, pickup the hole indications from other postions. [Pos 2,3, 4] Mark the peak of each signal and draw a curve through them to plot the DAC cure. Use minimum three signal peaks to plot the DAC. wold edge [beam misses the root in first reference point. In angie beam enters the weld zone after traveling material. The DAC curve level falls miniature [5 4 mz] probes. Draw the 60% level, by 648 red maximized signal location and mark the peaks. > 100% DAC signal is rejected or a certain length is permitted. A certain length is also signais. ‘These signals are to be recorded in the report For > 1.6mm reference holes, >20% signals are to be ‘evaluated for crack, lack of fusion and lack of penetration. Always refer test procedure for DAC and flaw evaluation] Important : “The sound attenuation, surface condition and contact area ‘of the block should be simiar to the test part If possible, the block is to be prepared from the test material ise. ‘Transfer correction of the reference test sensitivity will be required if the block is different from the test material itis preferable to setup the test sensitivity on a block ‘equal in thickness to the test par. This wil produce a DAC curve with sufficient test length and internal feflecions similar to the test part Thickness. difference of 10% is acceptable. *% The DAC curve (oval) must be at least 20% screen height up to the ful test distance. If required more. than fone curve should be plotied for Naw evaluation oo Side drilled hole block thickness and hole | plate block ‘hole hole | thk, T thk ‘size location | upto 1 T or 3/4 3/32 14, 112, SAT (tee Tor 15 118 a (22 t04 To3 3/16 g (sae Tors 414 a | 36 to 8 ToT 5/16 a 2810 Tord 3/8 a [DAC reference block for Miekness >19 men. iks19mM pos} Pos? Pos \|uat—. t | beam path for Post STXCosA 5 TX slant factor Pos? 18TXCosA 1.57 slant factor Pos3 26TXCosA 257 slant factor where A is effective angle and Tis block thickness [Figmm Post Pos 4 | | wat Ha beam path for Pos?) Pas? Pos! 25TXCosA 25 7X slant factor Fos? 75TXCosA 75 TX stant factor Pos 125TXCosA 1257 slant factor Pos4 175TXCosA 1.757% sant factor here As effective angle and T is block thickness angle probe DAC reject / allow certain length |Angle beam probe Angle probes are used for detecting flaws oriented at an angle to the materal surface, Angle probes wil miss fat reflector, parallel or perpendiouar to the scanning surtace, Tho selected Probe [beam ] must hit the reflecting plane of the discontinuity at 0° for maximum reflection. Angle beam reflects well om comers fut may undergo wave mode conversion Usualy shear wave probes are used in angle beam tesing, ecause feftacted longitudinal wave probe has a shear wave Component in the test material The simutaneous presence of the two waves In the fest pert makes testng complcsted. Longtudinal wave angle probes are. specally useful for toring susteiie stainless steel welds and inside of highly curved hollow pars and welds, Shear wave sed fr Testing wel, material defects in pipes, tubes, plates and sheets and in imegular iS not availabe. ‘The wedge is cut at an angle to provide an incident beam to produce refracted longitudinal or shear wave at the langle in Steel. For designing small crystal low frequency probes, Snel's law fails because of wider beam spread associated with ‘these probes. The refracted angles will change in other materials because of velocity difference. The wedges have serrations cut on the front surface and fitied with absorbing medium to prevent Internal reflections from producing unwanted echoes. The wedge can be an integral part or can be detachable. in detachable system, a single transducer can be configured to different angles by changing the wedge and is economical. The wedges are bigger land absorbs more energy. The detachable type requires couplant between the transducer and the wedge to permit transmission of Ultrasound into the wedge. ‘Standard angles are 30, 35, 45, 60, 70 and 80° in steel. Crystal sizes around 10 mm for 20mm for bigger probes ‘are most popular. Probes with 12.5 mm crystal size is recommended for standard test applications. Rectangular crystals are often used. Bigger probes have higher sensitivity and sharply focused sound beam and permit flaw detection at higher depth but AMHz, 8X9/ 10 200 mm. Larger probes. are mostly used for ‘applications where sufficient probe contact area is available and 2 large area is to be tested Twin crystal angle probes are available {for direct scanning on prepared weld surfaces and low thickness mmatefials. These probes are more suitable for tesiing stainless steel materials and welds. With use, the beam exit point and the refracted beam angle will ‘change with acrylic wear and should be checked before each use. ‘The beam angle change should be controlled within +/-2°. New acrylic soles can be pasted with suitable adhesives [ such as araldite ] to repair the wear. Performance ‘A good angle probe with a standard flaw detector, should produce @ minimum 75% signal from the 100 mm radius of a standard IW- V1 block with a minimum of 40 d8. gain reserve. ‘The probe should resolve at least three of the five holes [clearly detectable peaks] in the OW beam profile block. Noise from internal reflections should not exceed 5% screen height, at all the working test sensitivity levels. ‘Beam abnormality should be checked by maximizing a signal and moving the probe forward and backward while monitoring the falling signal. The signal should fall continuously without any sudden rise in signal height After maximizing the signal again, the probe is rotated right and left[ swing], the signal should again fall Continuously without any sudden rise in height SB8S8eS88Range calibration with the IW —VI block: ‘The main objective of range calibration is to make the CRT screen represent @ desired material thickness. The CRT screen is graduated in 50 small equal divisions, divided into 10 major ‘groups. By positioning the leading edge of the echoes of known Material distances to appropriate scale divisions, different ranges are selected 100 mm full scale Set the coarse range control to 50mm. Now Place the probe on the face of the IIW-V1 block, Pos 1. Multiple echoes of the block thickness wil appear on the screen with distances of 25, 50, 75, 400 mm ete... [use fine range control to compress the screen display and the bring the echoes within the screen | ‘Now, using the delay contol, set the leading edge of the 25 mm [frst back reflection J echo at 12.5 th small scale division. Position the leading edge of the 100 mm echo [Fourth back reflection} at ‘50 th small scale division with the fine range control Repeat these ‘adjustments till both the echoes are accurately positioned { fixed } fon the scale. To check the calibration, place the probe at pos 2, the first back wall echo shall appear at 50th scale division ‘The calibrated range is valid for similar material only. Minimum calration range is equal to one block thickness. Alternate Method : Pace the probe at Pos 2, Back wall echoes at 100 mm difference will appear along with the side wall reflection echoes between them [use fine range control] Use lower gain setting. Correctly identify the first and second back wall reflections. Side wall echoes are smaller and appear after each back wall echo. Position the first back reflection at 0 division of the scale with the delay control. Set the second back reflection at 50th small scale division with the fine range control Repeat these adjustments till the echoes are accurately positioned fon the scale. The screen now displays from 100 mm to 200 mm. Shift the first back reflection to 50th small scale division with the delay control only to bring the first 100 mm range within the sereen, Fall Scale 200 mm With the probe at pos 2, set the first back reflection to 25 th division with delay control and the second back reflection to the 50th division with the fine range control Repeat til positioning is accurate. Check the calibration from pos 3 iff Hu i‘Angled crystal arrangement in dual probe produces a V-path in the test specimen and hence the sound travel path is more than the actual thickness of the part. Because of this condition, multiple back reflections are not used for range calibration when accuracy is desires. For accurate range calibration two independent thickness sections, cone near the start and the other near the end of fange is used. The lower thickness echo is set By Control and the higher thickness echo by the fine range cont Echo positioning requires many repetitions. Calbraled. range will be accurate between the two selected calloraion block thickness. “The calibrated screen oes not contain the inilel echo and permits aw detection and measurement near the surface. A small cross-talk echo may appear on the screen and its height will decrease when the probe is coupled 10 the test material. ‘Accuracy of calibration may be checked on a step wedge block for thickness measurement applications. ‘Dual crystal probes are useful for detecting discontinufies closer fo the scanning surface. The probe exhibits high sensiivity and produces good signal amplitude from small discontiuities located within short distance. ‘fier the pseudo focus, the sensitvly drops rapidly and the useful range for detecting smalier flaws is around SO mm. [- 648 sensitivity) Duel crystal probes are excellent for thickness measurements in thinner sections, inspection of cladsing and Bonding, amination testing in thinner plates, evaluation of castings and other sound ‘scattering materials and for measuring corrosion in low thickness plates and tubing ge 4 a a 0 2 Dual probe echoes from a 20_mm block | Sensitity curve of panamettic dual probes. Btw 225 305 445Bring the 25, 100 and 175mm echoes within the screen [use fine range control Now position the 25 mm echo at 6.251h small scale division with the delay control and the 100 mm echo at 25th small scale |Effective angle = Inv Cos 20 __ ‘(43 and 60°) beam path +2.5 8 | |Effective angle = Inv Cos —__S__ (0°) beam path +2.5125 and 200 mm etc. ‘Maximizing the indication from the 50 mm radius of the block, produces signals at 50, ‘Check calibration using the 25mm radius, maximum signal shall appear at 101th division, Position the 50mm signal at 20th small scale division with the Full scale 200 mm: delay control. Adjust the fine range control to position the 125mm signal at 50th small scale division. Repeat these adjustments till the echo signals stand at desired positions with no further adjustments. ‘Compress the scale using fine range and bring 50, 125 and 200 mm echo signals within the screen, Position the 50 mm [1st echo] at 12.5 th small scale division Set the coarse range switch to 250 mm position. with the delay control and the 200 mm {3 rd echo] at 50th small scale division with the fine range control. Repeat these adjustments til the echo signals stand at desired positions with no further adjustments.Notches For evaluating incomplete penetration in welds or discontinuities forming a comer, such as a surface crack or weld undercut, ‘machined surface notches may be employed for sensitivity calibration and size comparison, since they more nearly represent the actual discontinuity. A Vee shaped notch is an useful reference for evaluating side wall lack of fusion in vee welds. ‘Square notches are useful for Lack of penetration. These notches are best produced by Electric Discharge Machining process. The notches are usually at least one inch long [min two times the probe crystal width is recommended }, with a depth [d]of 2 to 10% of thickness of the part for weld inspection. ‘The width [w] of the cut is usually 1/167 For base material examination of tubular products, axial and Circumferential notches on the outside and the inside surfaces, in 2 calibration block made from the product being examined i For base material pipe body, the notches used are 0.004" or 5% of material thickness deep, with times the depth of cut. For plates, 3% of thickness is [aMays refer applicable test procedure for notch Sound beam path in curved part : While testing curved parts, increase in beam path due to part curvature must be considered “Two similar angle probes can be used to find the beam path to hit the undersurface of a curved part. After the range | ‘calibration, set the equipment io dual probe mode. Position the probes facing each other at approximately one skip distance ‘apart. Keep one probe fixed, and move the other probe to Produce @ maximized signal. The distance indicated by the CRT fs the effective beam path for the angle probe in use to hit the under surtace of the part xe Be aa Vnotch — Tnotch Buwess ote, pos 2} 1T 1 Cosa 27 fF Cosa 3T f Cosa, Notch reference. ‘The maximum incident sound beam angle, [grazing incidence } which can stil hit the undersurface of a curved part can be found from the relation ; Probe angle 0 = Inv Sin[1-(2t/D)] where, {is wall thickness and D is outside diameter of pipe. increase in sound path in cured part can be determined as shown below. x flaw detector set to dual probe mode, ‘one skip distance g Ce L beam path in curvature. 0s 2 pos 1 wwTransfer Correction : If the reference block used for setting up the test sensitivity is not fabricated from the material to be tested, the sound attenuation ‘characteristic of the block material may be different from that of the test material The differences in surface conditions will also exege isa noneaen Test part Ref block ‘A correction for test sensitivity is required to compensate for the differences between the reference blocks and the test specimen for surface roughness, contact area and | internal sound attenuation. This is known 2s 2 transfer correction and must be considered wall while using a DAC curve for flaw evaluation. Toh Transfer correction with normal beam probe. : eo Correction for normal beam testing [Peete eee) Transfer correction with normal probe can be determined by | ‘comparing the instrument gain required to produce equal amplitude | back reflecions at same material distance from the reference 5 | block and the test part. | - 1 | Select a region on the test part that has parallel walls and the | | — ‘surface condition similar to most of the remaining scanning area a3 a transfer correction measurement point. Select the reference block, being used for DAC set up or from the same set of blocks whose overall material distance most closely matches the thickness of the part at the measurement point. ‘Set the back reflection through the block thickness to 180 % screen height and record the gain setting. Place the probe at the measurement point of the part, and produce a back reflection of 80% screen height and record any ‘change in the gain setting. test eleva The difference between the new and the old gain setting [for the block signal] is the transfer correction. Set up for transfer conection. the new gain setting. a) 2 Me 6 a 10 Test piece echo 248 above the DAC || reference level aac ee Reduce 2 08 from the DAC gain setting.