Describe the functional properties of the three types of cartilage tissue © Skeletal cartilag Hyaline cartilage Articular joints, costal ribs, respiratory larynx, nasal cartilage nose tip Elastic cartilage External ear and epiglottis Fibrocartilage Menisci of knee vertebral discs © Perichondrium: -. Contains blood vessels for nutrients delivery to cartilage © Chondrocytes: in lacunae - List and describe important functions of bones 4. Support for the body and soft organs 2. Protection for brain, spinal cord, and vital organs 3. Anchorage of muscles that make movement 4. Storage of minerals (calcium and phosphorus) and growth factors 5. Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis) in red marrow cavities 6 7. . Triglyceride (energy) storage in bone cavities . Hormone production- Osteocalcin regulates insulin secretion, glucose homeostasis, and energy expenditure. -Name the major regions of the skeleton and describe their relative functions Axial Skeleton - long axis of skeleton, Skull, vertebral column & rib cage. Protect, support or carry other parts. Appendicular Skeleton - Appendages & girdles (shoulder/hip bones). Use for movement and manipulation of envrionment. Describe the gross anatomy of a typical flat bone and a long bone. Indicate the locations and functions of red and yellow marrow, articular cartilage, periosteum, and endosteum Long bone - Diaphysis: tubular shaft of compact bone (Medullary cavity) ~-Epiphyses: Expanded area at the ends the diaphysis, contains mostly spongy bone (Epiphyseal line/plate) --Membranes: periosteum(outside) & endosteum(inside) Shortlirregular and flat bones - Diploe: layer of spongy bone between compact boneRed Bone Marrow - location of hematopoietic tisues (ribs, vertebrae, humerus, pelvis & femur) - Indicate the functional importance of bone markings Serve as sites of muscle, ligament and tendon attachment, Projections - Bulge outwards Depressions & Openings - allow nerves and blood to pass. Tuberosity - large rounded projection, may be roughened Crest - Narrow ridge of bone Trochanter - Very large, blunt irregularly shaped process (only on femur) Line - narrow ridge of bone, less prominent Tubercle - small rounded projection or process Epicondyle - raised area above the condyle Spine - sharp slender, pointed projection Process - any bony prominence - Describe the histology of compact and spongy bone (cells) (1) The structural unit of compact bone is the osteon, or Haversian system, which consists of concentric tubes of bone matrix (the lamellae) surrounding a central Haversian canal that serves as a passageway for blood vessels and nerves (a) Perforating, or Volkmann's canals lie at right angles to the long axis of the bone, and connect the blood and nerve supply of the periosteum to that of the central canals and medullary cavity (b) Osteocytes occupy lacunae at the junctions of the lamellae, and are connected to each other and the central canal via a series of hairlike channels, canaliculi (c) Circumferential lamellae are located just beneath the periosteum, extending around the entire circumference of the bone, while interstitial lamellae lie between intact osteons, filing the spaces in between (2) Spongy bone lacks osteons but has trabeculae that align along lines of stress, which contain irregular lamellae - Discuss the chemical composition of bone ... organic and inorganic components *Organic (made by osteoblasts)- Osteoid: ground substance and collagen fibers; 1/3 of matrix, gives strength and flexibility “Inorganic ("concrete" 2/3 of matrix)-mostly calcium phosphate *Hydroxyapatite-crystal, gives strength and rigidity along with inflexibility -Compare and contrast intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification Intramembraneous ossification-(bone growth within a membrane) Endochondral Ossification-bone originates from hyaline cartilage Bone development begins at the primary ossification center Secondary ossification centers form in the epiphyses. Articular cartilage Epiphyseal Plate/Line - Describe the process of long bone growth that occurs at the epiphyseal plates During infancy and childhood, the most important stimulus of epiphyseal plate activity is growth hormone from the anterior pituitary, whose effects are modulated by thyroid hormone At puberty, testosterone and estrogen promote a growth spurt, but ultimately induct the closure of the epiphyseal plate. - Compare the locations and remodeling functions of osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts Bone remodeling (bone deposit and resorption) occur at the surface of the periosteum and endosteum packets of osteoblasts and osteocytes called remodeling units. Osteocytes and osteoblasts secrete matrix. Osteoclasts degrade bone matrix and release Ca++ into the blood - Explain how hormones and physical stress regulate bone remodeling Falling Ca++ levels cause thyroid gland to release PTH, PTH causes osteoclasts to degrade matrix which releases Ca++ into blood. If to much Cat+, calcitonin secreted and stimulates calcium salt deposit into bone, Wolf's law says that a bone grows or remodels in response to the demands placed on it. If loading on a particular bone increases, the bone will remodel itself over time to become stronger to resist that sort of loading - Describe the steps of fracture repair (1) Hematoma-mass of blood clot Fibrocarilaginous callus- chondroblasts generate dense regular CT(2) Bony Callus-osteoprogenitors become osteoblasts and produces trabeculae (3) Bone is remodeled- compact bone replaces spongy bone (4) Stress Fracture-thin break in bone (5) Simple Fracture-Broken bone does not penetrate the skin (6) Compound Fracture-One or both ends of the broken bone penetrate the skin - Compare the disorders of bone diseases ... Osteoporosis, osteomalacia, and Paget's disease (1) Osteoporosis-bone reabsorption exceeds deposition (2) Osteomalacia-softening of bone due to lack of minerals. Childhood Rickets (3) Paget's Disease-increase in the number of osteoclasts and thus bone reabsorption. Remodeling done by osteoblasts results in disorderly bone remodeling - Name, describe, and identify the skull bones. Identify their important markings © 22bones in all cranium (8 bones) paired parietal and temporal, frontal, occipital, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones -Compare and contrast the major functions of the cranium and the facial skeleton © the major function of the cranium is to protect the brain furnish attachment points for muscle tendon ect , facial bonesform framework houses cavities for sense organs , anchor facial muscle for expression secure teeth -Define the bony boundaries of the orbits nasal cavity, and paranasal sinuses © orbits and nasal cavities - eyeballs and sinuses paranasal sinuses - lighten skull, enhance voice © hyoid bone - attachment point for tongue and neck bones. -Describe the struture of the vertebral column, list its components, and describe its curvatures: © Structure of vertebral column is 26 irregular bones. all have body and 2 transverse processes, 2 superior and 2 inferior articular processes, a spinous process and vertebral arch. cervical and lumbar curvatures are concave posteriorly and the thoracic and sacral curvatures are convex posteriorly,-Discuss the structure of a typical vertebra and describe regional features of cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae © -cervical curvature has 7 vertebrae © -thoracic has 12 vertebrae © dumbar curvature has 5 vertebrae. © -Sacral curvature has a sacrum and coceyx. -Name and describe the bones of the thoracic cage © True ribs, false ribs, floating ribs, and sternum. Differentiate true from false ribs © True ribs - 1-7 attach directly to sternum ¢ false ribs 8-10 attach to sternum indirectly ¢ floating ribs 11 and12 no anterior attachment - Identify bones forming the pectoral girdle and relate their structure and arrangement to the function of this girdle © Pectoral girdle attaches upper limbs to axial skeleton and provide attachment points for muscles. Clavicle is slender and s shaped and scapula thin triangular. - Identify or name the bones of the upper limb and their important markings Humerus-arm radius-forearm (thumb) ulna-forearm (pinky) carpals-wrist metacarpals-palm Phalanges-fingers -Name the bones contributing to the pelvic girdle © Composed of 2 hip bones and sacrum. heavy structure for weight bearing. -Describe differences in the male and female pelves © Male pelvis is deep and narrow with larger, heavier bones than female. Female pelvis is shallow and wide, forms birth canal -Identify the lower limb bones and their important markings © femur - thigh (largest and strongest bone in the body.)tibia- leg, bigger, big toe fibula-leg tarsals-ankle metatarsals- middle bones phalanges-toes cece -Define joint or articulation © (or articular surface) is the connection made between bones in the body which link the skeletal system into a functional whole. -Classify joints by strutter and by function © There are two ways to classify joints: on the basis of their structure or on the basis of their function. The structural classification divides joints into fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints depending on the material composing the joint and the presence or absence of a cavity in the joint. -Describe the general structure of cartilaginous joints. Name and give an example of each of the two common types of cartilaginous joints Structure of cartilagenous united by cartilage no joint cavity Two Types synchondroses - symphyses - -Describe the structural characteristics of synovial joints Synovial Joints Distinguishing Features : - All are diathrotic = Include all limb joints, most joints of the body 1, Articular cartilage : hyaline cartilage 2. Joint synovial cavity ; small potential space 3, Articular joint capsule : - outer fibrous capsule of dense irregular connective tissue - inner synovial membrane of loose connective tissue 4, Synovial Fluid -viscous slippery filtrate of plasma and hyaluronic acid -lubricates and nourishes articular cartilage 5, Three possible types of reinforcing ligaments- capsular (intrinsic) - part of the fibrous capsule - extracapsular - outside the capsule - intrascapular - deep to capsule covered by the synovial membrane 6. Rich nerve and blood vessel supply - nerve fibers detect pain, monitor, joint position, and stretch - capillary beads produce filtrate for synovial fluid -Compare the structures and functions of bursar and tendon sheaths © Bursae = flattened fibrous sacs lined with synovial membranes = contain synovial fluid - commonly act as ball bearings where ligaments muscle, skin, tendon, or bones rub together. Tendon sheath : - elegonated bursae that wraps completely around a tendon -List factors that stabilize joints © shape of articular surfaces, (B) ligaments, and (C) muscle tone. -Name and describe common body movements * Common body movements origin - attachment to the immovable bone © insertion - attach to the movable bone Movements occur along tranverse, frontal, or sagittal plane. -Describe synovial joints based on movements allowed (plane, hinge, pivot, etc.) © 1. Plane joint - intercarpal joint . Hinge joint - elbow joint . Pivot joint - proximal radioulnar joint Condyloid joint - metecarpophalangeal joint . Saddle joint - Carpometacarpal (joint of thumb) . Ball - and- socket - shoulder joint PAREN-Describe the knee, shoulder, elbow, hip, and jaw joints in terms of articulating bones, anatomical characteristics of the joint, movements allowed and joint stability © 1.ulna and radius with humerous © 2.synovial/hinge © 3.diarthrotic, uniaxial,flexion, extension of forearm -Describe the knee 1.femur and tibia 2.synovialmodified hinge (contains articular disc) 3. diarthrotic, biaxial, flexion, extension of leg some rotation allowed in flex position -Describe the hip 1, hip bone and femur 2. synovial ball and socket 3, diarthrotic gliding of patella -Describe the jaw 1.temperal bone of skull and mandible 2. synovial modified hinge contains articular disc 3. diarthrotic, gladial, and uniaxial, rotation, slight lateral movement, elevation, depression. protraction and retraction of mandible. -Describe the shoulder 1, scapula and humerous 2, synovial ball and socket 3. diarthrotic, multifaxial, flexion. extension. abduction, circumduction, rotation of humerous -Name the most common joint injuries © Cartilage tears, sprains, and dislocations © -cartilage tears typically occur when a meniscus is subjected to compression and shear stress at the same time ©. -cartilage is avascular and cannot repair itself which can cause a joint to lock and grind © Sprain ligaments reinforcing a joint are torn are torn sprains tend to be painful and immobilizing© Dislocations occur when bones are forced out of alignment. -Compare and contrast the common types of arthritis Osteoarthritis - breakdown of articular cartilage and subsequent thickening of bone tissue, may restrict joint movement Rheumatoid Arthritis - Chronic inflammatory disorder that is autoimmune disease Gouty Arthritis - uric acid deposition in soft tissues of joints (crystalization) Gout -Compare and contrast the three basic types of muscle tissue 1. Skeletal muscle is associated with the bony skeleton, and consists of large cells that bear striations and are controlled voluntarily. 2. Cardiac muscle occurs only in the heart, and consists of small cells that are striated and under involuntary control. 3. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of hollow organs [visceral], and consists of small, elongated cells that are not striated and are under involuntary control. - Discuss characteristics of muscle tissue © excitability © Contractility © Extensibility Elasticity -Describe the gross structure of a skeletal muscle * a skeletal muscle is made up of muscle fibers, nerves, blood vessels, and connective tissues. © 1.nerve and blood supply © 2. connective tissue sheaths 3. Attachment -Describe the microscopic strutter and functional roles of the myofibrils, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and T tubules of skeletal muscle fibers A. Myofibrils: rodlike structures, account for roughly 80% of cellular volume, and contain the contractile elements of the muscle cell. 1. Skeletal muscle fibers are long cylindrical cells with multiple nuclei beneath the sarcolemma. a. Striations: Striations are due to a repeating series of dark A bands and light | bands.b. Saromeres: are the functional units of skeletal muscle & extend from z disc to z disc. c. Myofilaments: make up the myofibrils, & consist of thick [myosin] & thin [actin] filaments; Tropomyosin and troponin are regulatory proteins present in thin filaments. Elastic filament * Dystrophin: structural protein which links the thin filaments to the integral proteins of the sacrolemma d, Molecular composition of myofilaments e. Sarcoplasm contains glycosomes [stored glycogen] and myoglobin [stores oxygen] B. Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) & T Tubules 1, SR is a smooth endoplasmic reticulum surrounding each myofibril a. Terminal cisterns 2. T tubules are infoldings of the sarcolemma that conduct electrical impulses from the surface of the cell to the terminal cisternae. a. Triads 3. Triad relationships a. Voltage-gated calcium channels -Describe the sliding filament model of muscle contraction The sliding filament model describes the process used by muscles to contract. It is a cycle of repetitive events that causes actin and myosin myofilaments to slide over each other, contracting the sarcomere and generating tension in the muscle. -Explain how muscle fibers are stimulated to contract by describing events that occur at the neuromuscular junction ¢ The neuromuscular junction is a connection between an axon terminal and a muscle fiber that is the route of electrical stimulation of the muscle cell - Describe how an action potential is generated © Generation of an action potential across the sarcolemma occurs in response to acetylcholine binding with receptors on the motor end plate. It involves the influx of sodium ions, which makes the membrane potential slightly less negative - Follow the events or excitation-contraction coupling that lead to cross bridge activity© Excitation-contraction coupling is the sequence of events be which an action potential in the sarcolemma results in the sliding of the myofilaments - Define motor unit and muscle twitch, ‘© motor unit - motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates. It is smaller in muscles that exhibit fine control, © muscle twitch - the response of a muscle to a single action potential on its motor neuron. -Differentiate between isometric and isotonic contractions © 1. Isotonic: result in movement occurring at the joint and shortening of muscles, 2. Isometric contractions result in increases in muscle tension, but no lengthening or shortening of the muscle occurs. - Describe the ways in which ATP is regenerated during skeletal muscle contration © 1. Direct Phosphorylation of ADP by Creatine Phosphate * 2. Anaerobic Pathway: Glycolysis and Lactic Acid Formation * 3. Aerobic Respiration - Compare the gross and microscopic anatomy of smooth muscle cells to that of skeletal muscle cells