Martensite

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For the transformation, see Diffusionless transformations.

Steels

Phases

 Ferrite
 Austenite
 Cementite
 Graphite
 Martensite

Microstructures
 Spheroidite
 Pearlite
 Bainite
 Ledeburite
 Tempered martensite
 Widmanstätten structures

Classes
 Crucible steel
 Carbon steel
  Spring steel
 Alloy steel
 Maraging steel
 Stainless steel
 High-speed steel
 Weathering steel
 Tool steel

Other iron-based materials

 Cast iron
 Gray iron
 White iron
 Ductile iron
 Malleable iron
 Wrought iron

Martensite in AISI 4140 steel

0.35% carbon steel, water-quenched from 870 °C

Martensite is a very hard form of steel crystalline structure. It is named after

German metallurgist Adolf Martens. By analogy the term can also refer to any
crystal structure that is formed by diffusionless transformation.[1]

Contents

 1Properties
 2See also
 3References
 4External links

Properties[edit]
Martensite is formed in carbon steels by the rapid cooling (quenching) of
the austenite form of iron at such a high rate that carbon atoms do not have time to
diffuse out of the crystal structure in large enough quantities to
form cementite (Fe3C). Austenite is gamma-phase iron (γ-Fe), a solid solution of
iron and alloying elements. As a result of the quenching, the face-centered
cubic austenite transforms to a highly strained body-centered tetragonal form
called martensite that is supersaturated with carbon. The shear deformations that
result produce a large number of dislocations, which is a primary strengthening
mechanism of steels. The highest hardness of a pearlitic steel is 400 Brinell,
whereas martensite can achieve 700 Brinell.[2]
The martensitic reaction begins during cooling when the austenite reaches the
martensite start temperature (Ms), and the parent austenite becomes mechanically
unstable. As the sample is quenched, an increasingly large percentage of the
austenite transforms to martensite until the lower transformation temperature M f is
reached, at which time the transformation is completed. [1]
For a eutectoid steel (0.78% C), between 6 and 10% of austenite, called retained
austenite, will remain. The percentage of retained austenite increases from
insignificant for less than 0.6% C steel, to 13% retained austenite at 0.95% C and
30–47% retained austenite for a 1.4% carbon steel. A very rapid quench is
essential to create martensite. For a eutectoid carbon steel of thin section, if the
quench starting at 750 °C and ending at 450 °C takes place in 0.7 seconds (a rate
of 430 °C/s) no pearlite will form, and the steel will be martensitic with small
amounts of retained austenite.[2]
For steel with 0–0.6% carbon, the martensite has the appearance of lath and is
called lath martensite. For steel with greater than 1% carbon, it will form a plate-like
structure called plate martensite. Between those two percentages, the physical
appearance of the grains is a mix of the two. The strength of the martensite is
reduced as the amount of retained austenite grows. If the cooling rate is slower
than the critical cooling rate, some amount of pearlite will form, starting at the grain
boundaries where it will grow into the grains until the M s temperature is reached,
then the remaining austenite transforms into martensite at about half the speed of
sound in steel.
In certain alloy steels, martensite can be formed by working the steel at
Ms temperature by quenching to below Ms and then working by plastic deformations
to reductions of cross section area between 20% to 40% of the original. The
process produces dislocation densities up to 10 13/cm2. The great number of
dislocations, combined with precipitates that originate and pin the dislocations in
place, produces a very hard steel. This property is frequently used in toughened
ceramics like yttria-stabilized zirconia and in special steels like TRIP steels. Thus,
martensite can be thermally induced or stress induced. [1][3]
The growth of martensite phase requires very little thermal activation
energy because the process is a diffusionless transformation, which results in the
subtle but rapid rearrangement of atomic positions, and has been known to occur
even at cryogenic temperatures.[1] Martensite has a lower density than austenite, so
that the martensitic transformation results in a relative change of volume. [4] Of
considerably greater importance than the volume change is the shear strain, which
has a magnitude of about 0.26 and which determines the shape of the plates of
martensite.[5]
Martensite is not shown in the equilibrium phase diagram of the iron-carbon system
because it is not an equilibrium phase. Equilibrium phases form by slow cooling
rates that allow sufficient time for diffusion, whereas martensite is usually formed
by very high cooling rates. Since chemical processes (the attainment of
equilibrium) accelerate at higher temperature, martensite is easily destroyed by the
application of heat. This process is called tempering. In some alloys, the effect is
reduced by adding elements such as tungsten that interfere with cementite
nucleation, but more often than not, the nucleation is allowed to proceed to relieve
stresses. Since quenching can be difficult to control, many steels are quenched to
produce an overabundance of martensite, then tempered to gradually reduce its
concentration until the preferred structure for the intended application is achieved.
The needle-like microstructure of martensite leads to brittle behavior of the
material. Too much martensite leaves steel brittle; too little leaves it soft.

See also[edit]
 Eutectic
 Eutectoid
 Ferrite (iron)
 Maraging steel
 Spring steel
 Tool steel

References[edit]
1. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Khan, Abdul Qadeer  (March 1972) [1972], "3",  The effect of morphology
on the strength of copper-based martensites  (in German and English), 1  (1  ed.), Leuven,
Belgium: A.Q. Khan, University of Leuven, Belgium, p. 300
2. ^ Jump up to:a b Baumeister, Avallone, Baumeister (1978). "6".  Marks' Standard Handbook
for Mechanical Engineers, 8th ed. McGraw Hill. pp.  17, 18.  ISBN  9780070041233.
3. ^ Verhoeven, John D. (2007).  Steel Metallurgy for the Non-Metallurgist. American
Society for Metals. pp. 26–31. ISBN 9780871708588.
4. ^ Ashby, Michael F.; David R. H. Jones (1992) [1986].  Engineering Materials 2 (with
corrections  ed.). Oxford: Pergamon Press.  ISBN  0-08-032532-7.
 5. ^ Bhadeshia, H. K. D. H. (2001) [2001]. Geometry of Crystals (with corrections ed.).
London: Institute of Materials.  ISBN  0-904357-94-5.

External links[edit]
 Comprehensive resources on martensite, from the University of Cambridge
 Metallurgy for the Non-Metallurgist from the American Society for Metals
 PTCLab---Capable of calculating martensite crystallography with single
shear or double shear theory

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martensite