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Strengthening of Concrete Structures With TRC
Strengthening of Concrete Structures With TRC
Abstract: Textile reinforced mortars (TRM), also known in the international literature as textile reinforced concrete (TRC) or fabric
reinforced cementitious matrix (FRCM) materials, have been widely studied during the last two decades as they constitute a promising
alternative to the fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) retrofitting solution for strengthening of reinforced concrete members. This paper presents
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a state-of-the-art review on the strengthening of concrete structures with TRM. First, the tensile and bond behavior of TRM is described. Next,
an overview of studies on the use of TRM for flexural, shear, confinement, and seismic retrofitting of concrete or RC members is included,
and the key parameters are investigated. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)CC.1943-5614.0000882. This work is made available under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
Author keywords: Concrete; Strengthening; Textile reinforced mortar (TRM).
a critical review of more than 100 past studies and enables readers
to identify gaps in the existing literature that could be investigated
Fig. 1. Number of publications per year in the field of strengthening in future work. This introductory section is followed by the descrip-
with TRM (last updated on April 2, 2018). tion of the tensile behavior and bond aspects of TRM. Next, an
overview of the flexural, shear, confinement, and seismic retrofit-
ting of concrete members with TRM is presented in a systematic
way, including method description, failure modes, and the effect of
and the matrix. The coating of nonmetallic textiles with polymers key parameters investigated. The main conclusions are summarized
improves the stability of the textile material and the mechanical at the end of this paper.
interlock between the textile and the matrix. However, coated tex-
tiles are stiffer, and, like steel fabrics, they cannot be easily applied
to complex geometries (e.g., U-shaped or fully wrapped jackets). Mechanical Behavior of TRM Composites
Fig. 2 shows textiles that have been used as reinforcement in TRM
systems. The mesh size of commercially available nonmetallic tex-
Tensile Behavior of TRM
tiles that are used for strengthening applications (i.e., carbon, glass,
basalt, or polyphenylene bezobisoxazole fiber textiles) typically Several researchers have investigated the tensile behavior of TRM
varies between 8 and 30 mm, whereas their weight is usually be- as a composite material (Colombo et al. 2011; Contamine et al.
tween 150 and 600 g=m2 , depending on the fiber material. Steel 2011; Hartig et al. 2012; Zhu et al. 2011; Ascione et al. 2015;
fabrics consist of unidirectional steel cords, each one comprising Malena and De Felice 2014; Arboleda et al. 2016; De Santis
a number of twisted steel filaments [Fig. 2(e)]; their density typi- et al. 2017; D’Antino and Papanicolaou 2018). The tensile proper-
cally varies between 1 and 10 cords=cm. ties of TRM, namely the ultimate stress and strain and the modulus
The composition of mortar used as matrix in TRM systems sig- of elasticity, can be defined through tensile tests in which the fibers
nificantly affects its response as a composite material, because the rupture (ideally at the central region of TRM coupons). In most
impregnation of fibers with mortar is quite important for achieving studies, monotonic tensile tests have been carried out on TRM
a good bond between the fibers and the matrix. The mortar has to specimens; however, Zhu et al. (2011) investigated the effect of
include fine granules and should have a plastic consistency, good strain rate on the mechanical properties of TRM coupons, con-
workability, low viscosity (for easy application to vertical or steep ducting dynamic tensile tests.
surfaces) and sufficient shear strength (to prevent the debonding of A variety of TRM coupon geometries have been tested and dif-
the composite material from the substrate); hence cement-based ferent gripping methods have been used. Plate-type TRM coupons
mortars are widely used as matrix of TRM. The mechanical proper- have been widely used, but bone-shaped or dumbbell [Figs. 3(a–c)]
ties of mortar, namely the flexural strength and the bond between specimens (Colombo et al. 2011; Hartig et al. 2012; Ascione et al.
the matrix and the fiber rovings, can be significantly improved by 2015) have also been tested to enable failure in the central region of
adding polymers. the coupon [Fig. 3(c)]. According to De Santis et al. (2017), the
The procedure of strengthening with TRM jacketing includes gripping method strongly affects the failure mode of TRM cou-
the following steps: (1) surface preparation; (2) the application pons. Specifically, slippage of the fibers through the mortar before
Fig. 2. Textile fiber reinforcements: (a) carbon fiber textile; (b) glass fiber textile; (c) basalt fiber textile; (d) polyphenylene bezobisoxazole (PBO)
fiber textile; and (e) steel fiber textile.
Fig. 3. (a) Dumbbell TRM coupon; (b) setup of tensile testing; (c) rupture of fibers at the central region of the TRM coupon; and (d) typical strain
versus stress curve of TRM specimens tested under monotonic tensile loading.
the main parameters investigated is given subsequently. after exposure to high temperatures, but the bond capacity of TRM
The bonded length was a parameter investigated in most studies was only slightly affected by the high temperatures. Regarding fail-
(D’Ambrisi et al. 2012; D’Antino et al. 2013, 2014; Sneed et al. ure modes, in FRP specimens cohesive failure was observed up to
2014; Tran et al. 2014; Awani et al. 2015; D’Antino et al. 2015; 50°C, but adhesive failure at the concrete–resin interface was ob-
Ombres 2015a; Sneed et al. 2015; D’Antino et al. 2016a; Raoof served at 75°C. In the case of TRM specimens, cohesive failure was
et al. 2016; Sabau et al. 2017). It was concluded that ultimate load observed over all tested temperatures (20°C–400°C).
and bond capacity increase nonlinearly with the bonded length.
Based on the results presented in the aforementioned studies,
the effective bond length for PBO TRM with mesh size and nomi- Flexural Strengthening of RC Beams or Slabs
nal thickness of 10 × 15 and 0.045 mm, respectively, was between
250 and 350 mm, while the corresponding value for carbon TRM Method Description
with mesh size and nominal thickness of 10 × 10 and 0.095 mm,
Strengthening of beams or slabs in flexure is achieved by bonding
respectively, was between 200 and 300 mm.
TRM layers to the tensile face, which is typically the soffit of a
The effect of the width of PBO TRM strips has also been inves-
beam [Fig. 5(a)] or the bottom face of a slab. Textile reinforcement
tigated by several researchers (D’Antino et al. 2013, 2014; Sneed is provided at the regions where additional moment capacity is
et al. 2014; D’Antino et al. 2015; Sneed et al. 2015), who reached needed. In addition, a sufficient anchorage length should be pro-
the conclusion that there is no width effect. D’Ambrisi et al. (2012), vided. Additional measures to improve anchorage conditions could
Ombres (2015a), and Raoof et al. (2016) investigated the effect of be taken by applying methods similar to the ones used for FRP
the number of layers, concluding that an increase in the number of (i.e., U-strips or spike anchors; Koutas et al. 2014; Bournas et al.
TRM layers resulted in nonproportional bond capacity increase. 2015).
Moreover, a change in the failure mode from slippage of fibers In the flexural strengthening of beams or one-way slabs, not all
through the mortar to debonding of TRM layers with part of the the fibers of a textile are utilized in carrying tensile forces. In the
concrete was also observed when the number of TRM layers in- typical case of a bidirectional textile (with fiber rovings in two
creased. This shift in the failure mode occurred when the number orthogonal directions) only the fibers parallel to the member
of PBO layers increased from one to two (D’Ambrisi et al. 2012; axis are stressed in tension; the rest simply contribute to the devel-
Ombres 2015a) and occurred with carbon TRM strips when three opment of the mechanical interlock mechanism—hence, the
layers were applied instead of two. cost-effectiveness of this strengthening technique is questionable.
Concrete surface preparation has also been a parameter under However, in the case of two-way slabs, fibers in both directions are
investigation. D’Antino et al. (2015) compared untreated concrete effective.
surfaces with surfaces that were prepared through sandblasting,
concluding that the surface preparation had a limited role in the
effectiveness of TRM, since the corresponding specimens in this General Behavior
study failed due to slippage of the fibers through the mortar. Raoof The effectiveness of the flexural strengthening of RC beams
et al. (2016) compared two different surface preparations, grinding and slabs with TRM has been experimentally investigated in the
with a grid of grooves and sandblasting, and they reported that both last decade in numerous publications (Bruckner et al. 2006;
methods gave the same results. Furthermore, Raoof et al. (2016) Papanicolaou and Triantafillou 2006; Triantafillou 2007; Jesse
investigated the effect of concrete strength and concluded that de- et al. 2008; Bösche et al. 2008; Papanicolaou et al. 2009;
creasing the concrete strength by 50% results in a slight reduction D’Ambrisi and Focacci 2011; Ombres 2011, 2012; Schladitz
(of 7.5%) of the bond capacity; the failure mode was not changed. et al. 2012; Elsanadedy et al. 2013; Babaeidarabad et al. 2014;
In the same study, the effect of coating (application of epoxy resin Loreto et al. 2013; Verbruggen et al. 2016; Aljazaeri and Myers
to the dry textile material) was also investigated. Coating the textile 2017a; Ebead et al. 2017; Escrig et al. 2017; Koutas and
material resulted in a bond capacity increase and a change in the Bournas 2017; Pino et al. 2017a, b; Raoof et al. 2017; Raoof
failure mode from slippage of fibers through the mortar to TRM and Bournas 2017d). Targeting them to assess their flexural capac-
debonding at the textile–mortar interface. ity, beam or slab elements have been subjected to monotonic
Carloni et al. (2017) studied the effect of loading rate (which three- or four-point bending. In the majority of the studies the tested
was varied from 0.00042 to 0.0126 mm=s) and method of displace- elements comprise either medium-scale beams (effective span
ment control [linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) or around 2.0 m) or one-way slabs strengthened with textiles made
machine stroke]. Based on their results, the loading rate affected of carbon, glass, basalt, or PBO fibers. Steel fabrics made of
the ultimate load of the tests, whereas the type of displacement high-strength steel cords have also been used in combination with
Fig. 5. (a) Flexural strengthening of an RC beam with TRM; and (b) strengthening effect on load versus displacement curves of RC members
strengthened in flexure.
Fig. 7. Different failure modes in TRM-strengthened RC beams. (Reprinted from Raoof et al. 2017.)
3. Debonding at the matrix–textile interface, or interlaminar shear- which is at the interface between a textile layer and the mortar.
ing [Figs. 6(d) and 7(b)]; this has been reported by Triantafillou In this case, the bond at the concrete–matrix interface is stronger
(2007), D’Ambrisi and Focacci (2011), Napoli and Realfonzo than the shear bond at the interface that fails. Thus, part of the
(2015), Sneed et al. (2016), and Raoof et al. (2017). This failure strengthening material remains attached to the soffit of the con-
mode comprises a fracture surface within the TRM thickness, crete element. The use of relatively low shear strength mortars
layer of high-strength textiles. ratios, the strengthening effect is significantly higher. As an in-
5. Fiber rupture [Figs. 6(f) and 7(d)]; this has been reported by dication, for the same retrofitting scheme the flexural capacity of
Bösche et al. (2008), Jesse et al. (2008), Schladitz et al. (2012), a slab was increased by approximately 10% and 30% for ratios
Elsanadedy et al. (2013), and Raoof et al. (2017). When the of 0.2% and 0.5%, respectively.
textile fibers at the region of maximum moment are subjected • Jesse et al. (2008) reported that coating textiles with a polymer
to high tensile stresses, they rupture in a single section. This adhesive can improve the strengthening effectiveness by 67%.
mechanism is brittle, leading to a sudden load drop. Similar effects from coating have also been reported by Raoof
The five aforementioned failure modes are associated with the et al. (2017); in that study, a 55% enhancement in the strength-
loss of the strengthening action. Nevertheless, there is always the ening effectiveness was recorded when one layer of carbon fiber
case where an element might be strengthened in such a way that textile was coated with epoxy adhesive two days before the
failure is eventually associated with concrete damage. In particular, strengthening application.
concrete crushing [Fig. 6(g)] has been reported by Ombres (2011) • The influence of mortar type was investigated by D’Ambrisi and
in beams with high steel reinforcement ratio and low TRM Focacci (2011) and Elsanadedy et al. (2013). The former high-
reinforcement ratio. Concrete crushing in that case prevented the lighted the importance of the chemical bond between the fibers
propagation of debonding, which had just been initiated at the lo- and the mortar by using a special type of mortar which resulted
cation of an intermediate crack. In the case of excessive flexural in higher (by approximately 28%) load-carrying capacity and
strengthening, shear failure of the element may precede flexural debonding strain when compared to conventional mortars.
failure [Fig. 6(h)]. Related to this, Papanicolaou et al. (2009) Elsanadedy et al. (2013) compared the performance of conven-
and Koutas and Bournas (2017) have observed punching shear fail- tional versus polymer-modified cementitious mortars and
ures in two-way slabs, and D’Ambrisi and Focacci (2011) have re- concluded that the latter are better, because they result in better
ported shear failure of the concrete web in short beams with low bond action at the concrete–mortar interface.
internal shear reinforcement ratio. It is crucial, therefore, for design • The effect of textile geometry was briefly investigated by
engineers to account for this possibility and avoid excessive flexu- D’Ambrisi and Focacci (2011), with no clear results. A change
ral strengthening that may result in shear or punching shear failure in the TEX (defined as mass in grams per 1,000 m) of the fiber
of retrofitted elements. rovings in the transverse direction resulted in slightly better per-
Strengthening effectiveness strongly depends on the failure formance, but this increase could be considered in the range of
mode. If strength increase is the target, then premature failure experimental scatter.
modes (i.e., fiber slippage or early debonding) are linked with less • D’Ambrisi and Focacci (2011), Sneed et al. (2016), Escrig et al.
effective performance compared to failure that exploits the proper- (2017), and Raoof et al. (2017) tried to improve the effective-
ties of the strengthening material (i.e., fiber rupture or debonding at ness of the strengthening layers by providing anchorage with the
high strains). The role of different parameters on the effectiveness use of additional TRM U-strips at the full length or only at the
of the flexural strengthening system is described in the following two ends of the strengthening layers. According to their results,
section. there was no strong evidence that the extra measures helped to
increase load-carrying capacity. In the cases in which U-strips
were applied only at the two ends of beams (Sneed et al. 2016;
Effect of Parameters on the Effectiveness of Escrig et al. 2017; Raoof et al. 2017), debonding of the TRM
Flexural Strengthening strip was prevented and failure was due to slippage of the fibers
Depending on various parameters, such as number of layers, through the matrix. As Sneed et al. (2016) concluded, the latter
material properties, and the RC member’s reinforcement details, indicates that traditional anchorage solutions for FRP compo-
the effectiveness of the strengthening system can vary significantly. sites might not be effective in the case of TRM composites.
Next, we summarize how different parameters affect the perfor- • Aljazaeri and Myers (2017a) and Pino et al. (2017a) examined
mance of beams and slabs, according to information collected from the performance of PBO-FRCM-strengthened RC beams sub-
the literature survey. jected to fatigue loading. Both studies concluded that the
• By increasing the amount of externally applied reinforcement strengthening of beams improved their fatigue performance,
(expressed by the number of layers), flexural capacity increases. with the level of improvement being influenced by the amount
However, this correlation is not consistent among different stu- of external reinforcement. In addition, in both studies the resi-
dies. In some cases (Bösche et al. 2008; Papanicolaou et al. dual flexural capacity of the retrofitted beams that survived
2009; Schladitz et al. 2012; Elsanadedy et al. 2013; Koutas 2 million cycles was very close to the capacity of the strength-
and Bournas 2017) the increase was nearly proportional to ened beams not subjected to fatigue.
D’Ambrisi and Foccacci (2011) obtained a similar effectiveness be- beams or bridge girders because of the presence of concrete slabs
tween PBO TRM and CFRP systems, but they found that—in or decks, respectively. Anchorage systems, including mechanical
agreement with Triantafillou (2007)—carbon TRM systems are devices or spike or textile-based anchors, have also been used to
less effective (by 30%–70%) than CFRP because of the develop- improve the anchorage conditions of side-bonded and U-shaped
ment of different failure modes (fiber slippage for TRM versus de- jackets, similar to FRP jackets. Fig. 8(a) shows a beam strength-
bonding for FRP). Raoof et al. (2017) also concluded that the ened with U-shaped TRM jackets and tested under symmetric
effectiveness of TRM systems was less than that of FRP systems four-point monotonic loading; Fig. 8(b) shows a T-beam strength-
and that the TRM versus FRP effectiveness ratio was sensitive to ened with U-shaped TRM jackets combined with textile-based
the number of textile layers; an increase of layers from one to three anchors.
resulted in an increase of the effectiveness ratio from 0.47 to 0.80.
General Behavior
Design Aspects
A number of studies have investigated the use of TRM for the shear
For design purposes, ACI 549.4R (ACI 2013) proposes a maximum strengthening of RC beams over the last decade (Triantafillou and
value of tensile strain in the TRM composite equal to 0.012, which Papanicolaou 2006; Bruckner et al. 2008; Al-Salloum et al. 2012;
is multiplied by the tensile modulus of elasticity of the cracked Blanksvard et al. 2009; Si Larbi et al. 2010; Al-Salloum et al. 2012;
composite to yield the design tensile strength of the external Contamine et al. 2013; Azam and Soudki 2014; Baggio et al. 2014;
flexural reinforcement. Ombres (2011) suggested that available Escrig et al. 2015; Jung et al. 2015; Loreto et al. 2015; Ombres
analytical models for FRP-strengthened RC beams can estimate 2015b; Tetta et al. 2015; Trapko et al. 2015; Awani et al. 2016;
with good accuracy the ultimate flexural capacity of the beams, Tetta et al. 2016; Tzoura and Triantafillou 2016; Aljazaeri and
given that premature failure modes (e.g., slippage of fibers, debond- Myers 2017b; Tetta et al. 2018a), the vast majority of which were
ing from the concrete substrate) are avoided and rupture of the fi- on small- or medium-scale beams with rectangular sections. The
bers occurs. Based on limited experimental data, Raoof et al. (2017) beams in the aforementioned studies were tested under (symmetric
concluded that if failure is due to debonding of TRM from the con- or nonsymmetric) monotonic three-point or four-point bending,
crete substrate (including part of the concrete cover), the debonding except for the ones in Tzoura and Triantafillou (2016), which
stress in TRM can be estimated using the provisions of fib (2010) were tested as cantilevers under cyclic loading, simulating shear
for the case of FRP-strengthened beams. Finally, Koutas and strengthening near supports.
Bournas (2017) provided simple design equations to estimate the Fig. 9 depicts the simplified load versus deflection (measured at
flexural moment of resistance of two-way RC slabs strengthened the load application position) curves and illustrates the effect of
with carbon fiber textile composites. strengthening as reported in the majority of the studies. Two linear
Fig. 8. (a) Shear strengthening of an RC beam with U-shaped TRM jacketing subjected to symmetric four-point monotonic loading; and (b) use of
anchors in shear strengthening of RC T-beams.
Fig. 9. Strengthening effect on load versus displacement curves of RC to damage (e.g., fracture) of the jacket instead of debonding
members strengthened in shear. (Triantafillou and Papanicolaou 2006; Tetta et al. 2015; Tzoura
and Triantafillou 2016). Full exploitation of the tensile capacity
of the textiles is achieved when failure of specimens is associated
with rupture of the fibers.
branches up to the maximum load describe the shear behavior:
(1) the uncracked stage up to the point of first concrete cracking, Effect of Parameters on the Effectiveness of Shear
and (2) the cracked stage up to the failure of the specimen. The Strengthening
descending branch can be quite smooth with relatively soft load
degradation (pseudoductile failure mode) or quite rough with sud- The shear capacity of beams was significantly increased, up to
den drop of load (brittle failure mode) depending on the failure 150% or 190%, by applying nonanchored or anchored U-shaped
mode observed in the TRM. TRM jackets, respectively. The key parameters investigated in
these studies and the conclusions thereof are summarized
subsequently.
Failure Modes
• The effect of increasing the amount of external reinforcement on
The failure modes observed in RC beams strengthened in shear the shear capacity of (nonanchored) TRM-strengthened beams
with TRM jackets are summarized as (1) debonding of the TRM has been studied by most researchers by means of (1) increasing
jackets with peeling off of the concrete cover, in the case of side- the number of layers (Triantafillou and Papanicolaou 2006;
bonded or U-wrapped TRM jackets [Fig. 10(a)]; (2) fracture of Bruckner et al. 2008; Al-Salloum et al. 2012; Jung et al. 2015;
TRM jacketing (mainly observed in fully wrapped jackets or glass Loreto et al. 2015; Tetta et al. 2015; Awani et al. 2016; Tetta
and basalt side-bonded or U-wrapped jackets) [Fig. 10(b)]; and et al. 2016; Tzoura and Triantafillou 2016; Tetta et al.
(3) local damage of the jacket, including slippage of the fibers 2018a); (2) increasing the ratio of width over spacing (wf ∶sf )
through the mortar [Fig. 10(c)]. The first two failure modes were of discontinuous TRM strips (Contamine et al. 2013; Ombres
also widely observed in RC beams strengthened in shear with FRP 2015b); and (3) applying textile materials of different weights
jackets; slippage of the fibers through the epoxy resin was pre- (Azam and Soudki 2014; Tetta et al. 2016; Tzoura and
vented in FRP jackets (tested at ambient temperature) because Triantafillou 2016; Tetta et al. 2018a). The key conclusion
of the high strength of the epoxy resins usually used in FRP ap- was that increases in the amount of external shear reinforcement
plications. It should be mentioned that the failure mode related resulted in significant but nonproportional increases in the shear
to slippage of the fibers through the mortar was observed in resistance. When the number of layers was increased, a change
TRM specimens strengthened with dry/uncoated textile materials in the failure mode was witnessed in the case of dry/uncoated
(e.g., Loreto et al. 2015; Tetta et al. 2015, 2016; Tzoura and textile materials. In particular, the failure of specimens that re-
Triantafillou 2016) but was suppressed when coated textile materi- ceived one (Loreto et al. 2015; Tetta et al. 2015) or two (Tetta
als were applied (e.g., Awani et al. 2016). et al. 2016) textile layers was associated with slippage of the
Reinforced concrete members strengthened in shear may also fibers through the mortar. In contrast, the failure mode of speci-
fail in shear compression, that is, due to concrete compression prior mens that received more than two textile layers (Loreto et al.
Fig. 10. Failure modes of RC beams strengthened in shear with TRM jacketing: (a) debonding of the jacket; (b) fracture of the fibers; and (c) slippage
of the fibers.
(2015). However, it should be mentioned that the use of closed modes. This effect of the geometry of the textile fiber material
jackets is not feasible in beams of typical RC buildings or bridge is drastically mitigated by increasing the reinforcement ratio.
girders because of the presence of concrete slabs or decks, • The use of polymers in the TRM matrix was studied by
respectively. Al-Salloum et al. (2012), who reported that polymer-modified
• Debonding of side-bonded or U-shaped TRM jackets constitu- cementitious mortars are more effective than unmodified ones.
tes a common failure mode, similar to the case of FRP jackets. • Regarding fiber orientation, Al-Salloum et al. (2012) concluded
In this context, the use of end anchorage of TRM open jackets, that textiles with fibers at 45° were slightly more effective than
so as to delay or even prevent their early debonding from the textiles with orientations of 0°=90°, contrary to the results pre-
concrete substrate, has been examined. Bruckner et al. (2008) sented in Trapko et al. (2015), who concluded that the highest
and Tzoura and Triantafillou (2016) used a mechanical end- shear capacity gain was obtained from TRM strips aligned at
anchorage system (comprising steel sections anchored into 90o to the longitudinal axis of the member.
the flange by bolts) in T-beams strengthened in shear with glass • Loreto et al. (2015) reported that the increase in shear capacity
or carbon TRM U-jackets. Despite the fact that the effectiveness was slightly lower in specimens with low concrete compressive
of the TRM jackets was dramatically improved [up to 500% strength; hence, they concluded that the strength of concrete
based on the results presented in Tzoura and Triantafillou marginally affects the response of strengthened beams.
(2016)], an anchorage system with metallic components may • Torsional strengthening of RC with TRM was investigated by
be susceptible to corrosion and its use may result in tearing fail- Schladitz and Curbach (2012) and Alabdulhaby et al. (2017).
ure of the textiles due to stress concentrations. A possible Schladitz and Curbach (2012) conducted tests on beams with
solution to this problem could rely on the use of nonmetallic round (300-mm-diameter) or rectangular (250 × 250 mm) cross
materials. Baggio et al. (2014) and Tetta et al. (2016) investi- sections strengthened with 4 or 6 layers of fully wrapped
gated the performance of spike anchors (Fig. 11), which are (coated) glass-based textiles. The results showed that the torsion
versatile, noncorrosive, lightweight, and compatible with the load-carrying capacity and serviceability (based on crack width
materials used for TRM jackets. However, Baggio et al. (2014) and crack spacing) of concrete members significantly improved
were not able to assess the performance of carbon-based spike (up to 240% and 272% in the case of round and rectangular
anchors due to premature rupture of the glass TRM jacket, cross sections, respectively) by using TRM jacketing. Moreover,
both in the nonanchored and in the anchored jacket. In contrast, as expected, the torsional resistance increased with an increase
Tetta et al. (2016) applied textile-based anchors as an end- in the number of textile reinforcement layers. Based on the re-
anchorage system for carbon or glass U-shaped TRM jackets sults presented in Alabdulhady et al. (2017), fully wrapped PBO
and found that textile-based anchors significantly improved TRM jacketing significantly increased the torsional capacity of
(up to 150%) the effectiveness of the carbon TRM jackets; how- rectangular RC beams, contrary to U-wrapped PBO jackets.
ever, glass-anchored TRM jackets failed due to rupture before
failure of the anchorage system.
• Blanksvard et al. (2009), Awani et al. (2016), and Aljazaeri and TRM versus FRP in Shear Strengthening
Myers (2017b) investigated the effect of the amount of internal The comparison of TRM with FRP jackets has been investigated by
several researchers who tested beams strengthened in shear with the
same textile materials combined with different adhesive materials,
namely mortar for TRM jacketing and epoxy resin for FRP jack-
eting (Triantafillou and Papanicolaou 2006; Tetta et al. 2015;
Awani et al. 2016; Tetta et al. 2016; Tzoura and Triantafillou
2016). Triantafillou and Papanicolaou (2006), and Tzoura and
Triantafillou (2016) reported that closed or anchored TRM jackets
are less effective than their FRP counterparts because of slippage of
the fibers through the mortar. Based on tests on both medium-scale
and full-scale T-beams, Tetta et al. (2015), Awani et al. (2016), and
Tetta et al. (2016) reported that TRM jackets can be practically as
effective as equivalent FRP U-shaped jackets when failure of both
Fig. 11. Anchorage system used in shear strengthening of concrete
systems is attributed to debonding of the jacket with concrete cover
beams with TRM jacketing: textile-based spike anchors. (Reprinted
separation. Tetta and Bournas (2016) compared TRM with FRP
from Tetta et al. 2016.)
jackets in the shear strengthening of concrete beams subjected
Fig. 12. (a) Axially loaded concrete element confined with TRM jacket; (b) final TRM layer overlap; and (c) strengthening effect on axial stress–
strain curves.
to high temperatures; they concluded that side-bonded and The typical method of application is wet lay-up on properly
U-shaped TRM jackets are much more effective than their FRP prepared surfaces. An overlap of the last layer is usually provided
counterparts when specimens are exposed to temperatures in the in the hoop direction to avoid early debonding [Fig. 12(b)].
range 100°C to 150°C. Bidirectional textiles (with fiber rovings in two orthogonal direc-
tions) are the most commonly used so far in the literature. However,
when they are applied in a 0°=90° configuration, only the fibers in
Design Aspects
the hoop direction contribute to the development of confining
Triantafillou and Papanicolaou (2006) first presented a design stresses. This suggests that optimum textile geometries with differ-
methodology for shear-strengthened RC members with TRM, that ent materials in each direction are still to be developed.
is, adopting the so-called effective strain of the external reinforce- Similar to FRP confinement, wrapping with textiles can easily
ment, which is also used in FRP-strengthening design procedures. be applied in circular or rectangular sections, provided that the
ACI 549.4R (ACI 2013) proposes a maximum value of effective fibers are uncoated and the corners of the rectangular section have
strain for design purposes equal to 0.004, which is multiplied by been properly rounded. Based on the authors’ experience, corner
the tensile modulus of elasticity of the cracked composite to yield radius R should be at least equal to bc =10, with a minimum value
the design tensile strength of the external shear reinforcement. To of 25 mm (where bc is the smaller of the two column sides). This
estimate the effective strain, Ombres (2015b) used the equations assumes that the available concrete cover is adequate. Textiles with
proposed by Monti and Liotta (2007) for FRP-strengthened RC coated fibers can be used for wrapping under certain conditions—
beams, and applied an effectiveness coefficient equal to 0.5, reflect- the degree of coating impregnation must be low, and a relatively
ing the reduced effectiveness of TRM compared to FRP systems. large mesh size will further make the application easier.
Escrig et al. (2015) developed empirical equations from limited ex-
perimental data to calculate the effective strain of the TRM for fully
wrapped, U-shaped or side-bonded jackets, given that debonding General Behavior
failure is avoided. Very recently, Tetta et al. (2018b) conducted
The application of open-mesh textiles in combination with inor-
a comprehensive study, and by collecting all the available data
ganic matrices as a means of increasing the axial capacity of con-
(which were grouped based on the observed failure modes), pro-
crete through confinement has been reported in the studies of
posed a simple design approach for calculating the contribution
Triantafillou et al. (2006), Bournas et al. (2007), Peled (2007),
of the TRM jacket to the total shear resistance, including new
Ortlepp et al. (2009), Di Ludovico et al. (2010), Garcia et al.
expressions for all failure modes described previously.
(2010), Trapko (2013), Colajanni et al. (2014), Ombres (2014),
Trapko (2014), Ombres and Verre (2015), Thermou et al. (2015),
Cerniauskas et al. (2016), Ombres (2017), and Yin et al. (2016).
Concrete Confinement for Increased Load and
Deformation Capacity With the aim of assessing axial load and deformation capacity,
concrete prisms (with the axial dimension at least two times larger
than the other two) were subjected to monotonic concentric com-
Method Description pression in the axial direction; in a few cases the loading was ec-
The wrapping of concrete elements with TRM layers [Fig. 12(a)] centric (Trapko 2014; Ombres and Verre 2015). In the majority of
aims to provide passive confinement stresses when the elements are the studies, the tested elements comprised unreinforced concrete
subjected to axial compression and, hence, to increase their com- cylinders with a 150-mm diameter and 300-mm height. However,
pressive strength and deformation capacity. The need of extra con- rectangular-section column-type elements have also been studied,
finement is typical for columns with low axial capacity and poor with sections ranging from 150 × 150 mm to 250 × 350 mm and
detailing. Confinement with TRM can also be useful for seismic heights between 300 and 1,500 mm. Carbon, glass, basalt, aramid,
retrofitting of columns, which is discussed in another section of and PBO fiber textiles were used in the aforementioned studies,
this paper. with carbon and PBO textiles being the most commonly studied.
Fig. 13. Failure modes of TRM-confined concrete elements: (a) debonding at the end of the lap; and (b) rupture of the jacket (data from Bournas
et al. 2007).
The use of steel fabrics made of high-strength steel cords was also Di Ludovico et al. 2010; Garcia et al. 2010; Colajanni et al.
reported in the study of Thermou et al. (2015). 2014; Ombres 2014; Thermou et al. 2015) because of the initia-
Fig. 12(c) illustrates typical simplified axial stress–axial strain tion of fracture in a limited number of fiber bundles (or steel
curves for unconfined and TRM-confined concrete. Although the cords in the case of steel fabrics), which propagates rather
presence of the jacket may increase the initial elastic stiffness of slowly in the neighboring bundles until concrete crushing is
concrete, the contribution of strengthening mainly affects the poste- extensive and the load drops at very low levels. In elements
lastic behavior of concrete. It is only after cracking that lateral with rectangular section, fracture initiates at one of the corners
deformations develop and the jacket is activated in tension due due to high concentration of stresses or due to buckling of
to the lateral expansion of the concrete. As a result, the effect of the longitudinal steel reinforcement (Bournas et al. 2007). The
strengthening is twofold: (1) an axial load-carrying capacity in- speed of fracture propagation may vary depending on the
crease, and (2) an axial deformation capacity enhancement. The amount of reinforcement; a higher number of layers may lead
slope of the postelastic ascending branch of the confined concrete to a more abrupt failure in the corners of rectangular sections
strongly depends on the external reinforcement ratio, the axial compared to a more gradual failure when fewer layers are used
stiffness of the jacket, and the shape of the cross section [a low (Triantafillou et al. 2006).
reinforcement ratio may result in zero or even negative slope
(Colajanni et al. 2014), particularly when combined with a rectan-
gular cross section (Triantafillou et al. 2006)]. At large axial and Effect of Parameters on the Confinement Effectiveness
particularly lateral deformations, failure of the TRM jacket occurs, The effect of the various parameters examined in the literature on
resulting in load drop, which can vary from rather sudden to quite the strengthening effectiveness and the behavior of TRM-confined
smooth and progressive. The failure modes are discussed in the concrete elements is discussed subsequently.
following section. • By increasing the reinforcement ratio (mainly by increasing the
number of the applied TRM layers), both the compressive
strength and the ultimate strain capacity of the confined concrete
Failure Modes
increase. This has been confirmed by all studies in the literature.
Failure in TRM-confined concrete is always induced because of the The increase is usually nonproportional to the amount of rein-
loss of the strengthening action. Two different failure modes have forcement, with the effectiveness decreasing as the number of
been reported in the literature and are described as follows: layers increases. A clear trend is not easy to define because
1. Debonding from the end of the lap [Fig. 13(a)]. In this case of the relatively large scatter of experimental results, with vary-
debonding initiates at the end of the lap and is indicated by ing types of materials and possibly different quality control.
a vertical crack that appears at the location at which the textile However, Ombres and Mazzuca (2016) have developed semi-
terminates. It occurs at the interface between the mortar and empirical prediction models based on the majority of available
the last layer of textile (interlaminar shearing), and its develop- data in the literature.
ment depends on various parameters. A low tensile strength • The section geometry greatly affects the strengthening effective-
mortar (e.g., Triantafillou et al. 2006), a short overlap length ness. Similar to FRP jackets, TRM jackets are more efficient
(e.g., Thermou et al. 2015), a very dense mesh that does not when they confine elements with cylindrical sections. This has
allow a good impregnation with mortar (e.g., Thermou et al. been confirmed by Triantafillou et al. (2006), Ortlepp et al.
2015), or a combination of any of the above, may promote the (2009), and Colajanni et al. (2014). The reason for this is the
debonding failure mechanism. uneven confining action in the case of a rectangular section
2. Fracture of the jacket due to hoop stresses [Fig. 13(b)]. If suffi- (which is higher at the four corners) compared to the uniform
cient overlap length is provided for the applied amount of TRM confinement in the case of a circular section.
reinforcement, failure of the jacket initiates due to fracture of • It has been confirmed by Triantafillou et al. (2006), Ombres
fibers in the hoop direction when they reach their tensile (2014), Thermou et al. (2015), and Ombres and Mazzuca
strength. In this case, failure of the TRM jacket is usually gra- (2016) that the unconfined concrete strength significantly af-
dual (Triantafillou et al. 2006; Bournas et al. 2007; Peled 2007; fects the effectiveness of TRM jackets in increasing the axial
increased effectiveness of the TRM jackets with one or two layers cluded that TRM jackets are approximately 80% and 50% less ef-
of basalt fiber textiles by 8% or 6.5%, respectively. fective (compared to FRP) in increasing the strength and ultimate
• Increasing overlap length can increase the compressive strength strain of confined concrete, respectively, whereas Bournas et al.
and axial deformation capacity of TRM-confined concrete ele- (2007), based on column-type specimens with square section, con-
ments only if debonding at the end of the lap is suppressed. For cluded that TRM jackets were only 10% less effective in increasing
instance, Thermou et al. (2015) managed to supress debonding both strength and ultimate strain capacity. The difference in the two
and further enhance the strength of 150-mm-diameter cylinders studies is mostly related to the different section of the specimens.
confined with steel fabrics by increasing the overlap length from Nevertheless, the effectiveness of TRM jackets is believed by the
120 to 360 mm. In contrast, Yin et al. (2016), who tested square authors of the aforementioned studies to strongly depend on mortar
columns with internal steel reinforcement, did not record any mechanical properties.
difference in the ultimate load when they increased the overlap
length by four times, mainly because the initial length was ade- Design Aspects
quate to prevent debonding and failure in all cases was due to
fracture of the jacket at the corners. ACI 549.4R (ACI 2013) provides equations for an idealized
• Ombres (2017) studied the effect of fiber orientation on the bilinear constitutive law of TRM-confined concrete, with the effec-
compressive behavior of PBO fiber TRM-confined cylinders, tive tensile strain in the composite material being limited to a value
with the angle of the fibers varying from 90° to 30° with respect of 0.012.
to the cylinder axis. He concluded that the optimal orientation of
the fibers is 90°, with the other orientations having a reduced
effectiveness even after being normalized to the reinforcement Seismic Retrofitting of RC Members
ratio.
• Trapko (2014) and Ombres and Verre (2015) investigated the Seismic Retrofitting of Columns
effect of eccentricity in vertically loaded square columns con- TRM jacketing is applied as a means of confining the plastic hinge
fined with PBO fiber TRM jackets. The common conclusion [Figs. 14(a and b)] of old-type RC columns designed with poorly
of these studies was that, although the jackets enhanced the load detailed reinforcement. Under seismic loading, the ultimate defor-
capacity of the columns, the gain in strength was inversely pro- mation capacity of substandard columns is low because of prema-
portional to the ratio e∶h, where e is the eccentricity and h is the ture failure at the ends of the columns (especially those of
height of the section. the ground and first floors), typically due to bar bucking or bond
• The effect of exposing TRM-confined concrete to elevated failure in the case of short lap splices. Full-height jacketing is pro-
temperatures has been investigated by Trapko (2013), vided when shear strengthening of columns is seismic areas is re-
Cerniauskas et al. (2016), and Ombres (2017). However, the quired [Fig. 14(c)].
testing method and the temperature range varied significantly
among these studies. Trapko (2013) exposed carbon fiber Bar Buckling
TRM-confined cylinders to 40°C, 60°C, and 80°C for 24 h, The work of Bournas et al. (2007) demonstrated that TRM jack-
and then performed compression tests immediately after the eting is quite effective (and equal to its FRP counterpart) as a means
end of the heating period. Cerniauskas et al. (2016) tested car- of increasing the cyclic deformation capacity and energy dissipa-
tion of old-type RC columns with poor detailing by delaying bar
bon fiber TRM-confined cylinders under a steady-state thermal
buckling. In that study, three full-scale RC columns with smooth
regime, varying from 20°C to 400°C for different specimens.
longitudinal bars were constructed (unstrengthened and FRP- or
Finally, Ombres (2017) exposed PBO fiber TRM-confined
TRM-jacketed in the plastic hinge region) and subjected to reversed
cylinders to cycles of thermal conditioning with temperatures cyclic loading with constant axial load. The geometry of the
ranging from 50°C to 250°C, and then performed compres- columns, the reinforcement details, and the general setup of the test
sion tests at ambient temperature. In all studies, a limited are shown in Fig. 15. Details are provided in Bournas et al. (2007).
decrease in the peak load compared to specimens not exposed The load versus drift ratio curves for these specimens are
to high temperature was reported (5%–20%) for temperatures given in Fig. 16. The control specimen failed due to bar buck-
up to 250°C; this was attributed to a decrease in the strength ling at the column base, which limited its deformation capacity
of the concrete. However, at 400°C, Cerniauskas et al. [Fig. 16(a)]. The behavior of the two retrofitted columns was practi-
(2016) recorded strength enhancement, which needs further cally identical [Figs. 16(b and c)] for Columns R2 and M4, respec-
investigation. tively, and far better than their unretrofitted counterpart, with an
buckling; (b) local jacketing to prevent failure at lap splices; and (c) full-height jacketing to increase shear resistance.
Fig. 15. (a) Geometry of columns (tested as vertical cantilevers); and (b) details of lap splices (dimensions in millimeters). (Reprinted from Bournas
et al. 2009, © ASCE.)
increase in deformation capacity by a factor of more than of the problem of bar buckling is presented in Bournas and
two. Triantafillou (2011a).
In a subsequent study, Bournas et al. (2009) demonstrated that
the effectiveness of TRM jackets in columns with limited defor- Bond Failure at Regions of Lap-Spliced Bars
mation capacity due to bar buckling was also quite high (for the The effectiveness of TRM jackets in confining RC columns with
case of columns with deformed longitudinal bars) and clearly limited capacity due to bond failure at lap-splice regions was in-
higher than the effectiveness of identical FRP jackets. The supe- vestigated by Bournas et al. (2009). Based on simulated seismic
rior performance of TRM over FRP jackets in the case of bar tests [Fig. 15(a)] conducted on six full-scale columns [Fig. 15(b)],
buckling was attributed to the capacity of TRM jackets to resist it was shown that TRM jackets are quite effective as a means of
local stresses. This occurs because TRM jackets are able to de- increasing the cyclic deformation capacity and the energy dissipa-
form outward without early fiber rupture, owing to the relatively tion of old-type RC columns with poor detailing by preventing
low composite action between fibers and mortar that allows for splitting bond failures in columns with inadequate lap splices. It
higher local deformations (e.g., slip of fibers within rovings). may be concluded that TRM confining jackets provide substantial
For the same reason, TRM jackets have been proven quite effec- gains in the lateral strength and deformation capacity of cyclically
tive in providing local confinement in RC columns strengthened loaded RC columns with short lap splices at the base of the col-
in flexure with near surface mounted (NSM) reinforcement umns. Compared with equal stiffness and strength FRP jackets,
(Bournas and Triantafillou 2009, 2013). The local confinement TRM jackets are characterized by a slightly reduced effectiveness
with TRM jackets was quite effective in controlling buckling in terms of deformation capacity for columns with short lap splices
of the NSM reinforcement, thus enabling this reinforcement to and with the same effectiveness for columns with longer lap
reach higher strains at failure. An in-depth analytical investigation lengths. An in-depth experimental investigation, as well as an
analytical model for columns with lap splices, is given in Bournas strengthening of joints. It was found that identical load (shear
and Triantafillou (2011b). strength) increases were achieved by using TRM and FRP jackets,
Finally, the high effectiveness of TRM jacketing as a measure of but due to the higher ductility of TRM, the energy dissipation capac-
improving plastic hinge behavior was also confirmed through ity of TRM-strengthened beam–column joints was substantially
nearly full-scale testing of a two-story RC building, as reported higher than the corresponding FRP-strengthened ones.
in Bousias et al. (2007).
Fig. 18. Seismic retrofitting of masonry-infilled RC frame with TRM: (a) the concept; and (b) in-plane testing of three-story frame. (Data from Koutas
et al. 2015a.)
Fig. 19. Comparative response curves for the two specimens (Sp. #1 is the control specimen) in terms of base shear versus (a) top floor displacement;
and (b) first-story drift ratio. (Data from Koutas et al. 2015a.)
their results, strengthening the masonry infills and connecting them Finally, the use of TRM jacketing for strengthening of masonry
to the RC frame by simply extending the retrofitting layers to the infills has been combined with thermal insulation materials for pro-
faces of the columns and the beam yielded an increase in lateral viding concurrent seismic and energy retrofitting. The concept of
stiffness and ultimate strength of about 40%. combined seismic and energy retrofitting with advanced materials
Moreover, very recently Koutas and Bournas (2018) conducted was proposed for the first time and investigated experimentally for
an experimental study on the use of TRM jackets as a means of the case of masonry subjected to out-of-plane (Triantafillou et al.
improving the out-of-plane performance of masonry-infill walls 2017) and in-plane (Triantafillou et al. 2018) loading. These studies
in RC frames. The effect of different connection configurations be- introduced for the first time the combination of TRM with standard
tween the infill wall and the RC frame members, as well as the or even highly fire-resistant thermal insulation materials. A similar
effect of the wall’s thickness, were investigated. It was concluded system for the concurrent seismic and energy retrofitting for the
that the TRM strengthening technique was highly effective in in- case of RC building envelopes was proposed by Bournas (2018).
creasing the out-of-plane load capacity of the infill walls. The The combined retrofitting (TRM + insulation material) was found
strengthening effectiveness factor varied between 4 and 5 for to be economically efficient, as the payback period of the retrofit-
single-wythe wall specimens and was equal to about 1.5 in the case ting intervention can be significantly reduced for seismic zones
of double-wythe wall specimens. Moreover, the energy absorption when energy is applied concurrently with seismic retrofitting be-
cause of large savings (of about 30%) related to labor costs.
of the retrofitted walls was enhanced from 140% to 260%, com-
pared to the control ones, with the connection configuration playing
an important role. Finally, the authors concluded that connecting Conclusions
single-wythe walls to the front or the back side of the frame resulted
in 30% and 40% increases, respectively, compared to walls without The application of textile reinforced mortars, also known in the
connection to the frame. international literature as textile reinforced concrete or fabric
in enhanced compressive strength. Seismic retrofitting of RC col- Awani, O., T. El-Maaddawy, and A. El Refai. 2016. “Numerical simulation
umns or joints results in ductility increases and energy dissipation and experimental testing of concrete beams strengthened in shear with
enhancements. Finally, masonry-infilled RC frames are stiffer and fabric-reinforced cementitious matrix.” J. Compos. Constr. 20 (6):
stronger when strengthened with TRM, with improved seismic per- 04016056. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CC.1943-5614.0000711.
formance in their plane direction. Although the literature includes Awani, O., T. El-Maaddawy, and A. El Refai. 2017. “Fabric-reinforced ce-
one document with design guidelines and a few studies with design mentitious matrix: A promising strengthening technique for concrete
recommendations, compact and reliable design equations are still structures.” Constr. Build. Mater. 132: 94–111. https://doi.org/10
missing to date. This is mainly attributed to the quite-limited ex- .1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.11.125.
perimental data, as well as to the fact that failure modes in TRM Awani, O., A. El Refai, and T. El-Maaddawy. 2015. “Bond characteristics
of carbon fabric-reinforced cementitious matrix in double shear tests.”
systems are quite complex, not easy to predict, and strongly affect
Constr. Build. Mater. 101: 39–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat
their performance.
.2015.10.017.
The authors believe that the strengthening and seismic retrofit- Azam, R., and K. Soudki. 2014. “FRCM strengthening of shear-critical RC
ting of concrete structures with textile-based composites is a highly beams.” J. Compos. Constr. 18 (5): 04014012. https://doi.org/10.1061
promising technique, which attracts increasing attention of the /(ASCE)CC.1943-5614.0000464.
international scientific community. Future work in this field should Babaeidarabad, S., G. Loreto, and A. Nanni. 2014. “Flexural strengthening
be directed at optimizing the textile reinforcement, understanding of RC beams with an externally bonded fabric-reinforced cementitious
the durability of the strengthening system (including high temper- matrix.” J. Compos. Constr. 18 (5): 04014009. https://doi.org/10.1061
atures), and establishing design guidelines in the context of current /(ASCE)CC.1943-5614.0000473.
design formulations. Baggio, D., K. Soudki, and M. Noël. 2014. “Strengthening of shear critical
RC beams with various FRP systems.” Constr. Build. Mater. 66:
634–644. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.05.097.
Acknowledgments Blanksvärd, T., B. Täljsten, and A. Carolin. 2009. “Shear strengthening of
concrete structures with the use of mineral-based composites.” J. Com-
The second and the last authors acknowledge funding through the pos. Constr. 13 (1): 25–34. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0268
Marie Curie ENDURE program (European Network for Durable (2009)13:1(25).
Reinforcement and Rehabilitation Solutions, 607851). Bösche, A., F. Jesse, R. Ortlepp, S. Weiland, and M. Curbach. 2008.
“Textile-reinforced concrete for flexural strengthening of RC-
structures—Part 1: Structural behaviour and design model.” ACI Spec.
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