Professional Documents
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Urban Design Def & Principles
Urban Design Def & Principles
environmental issues has little meaning at a time environmental problems are pressing forces in
of declining natural resources, ozone layer almost all cities around the world, regardless of
destruction, increasing pollution and fears of the their level of development, etc. Pollution (air,
greenhouse effect. In these circumstances any water, soil, visual,…), traffic, waste management,
discussion of the aesthetics of city design in a pure overcrowding, injustice, poverty, crime, alien-
or abstract form unrelated to environmental con- ation, segregation, housing shortages,… urban
cerns could be described as superficial and rather sprawl, blight are common problems in all cities
like rearranging the deckchairs on the Titanic everywhere.
(Moughtin 1999, p. 1). There are also some who Gosling (1984a, b) suggests that urban design
take a more pragmatic position by saying that is concerned with the physical form of the public
urban design is what urban designers do. realm over a limited physical area of the city
According to this view to know who is an urban and that it therefore lies between the two
designer is determined by appeal to historical and well-established design scales of architecture,
sociological criteria. Also the answer to the which is concerned with the physical form of the
question of what constitutes good urban design, private realm of the individual building, and town
the pragmatist believe must come from the urban and regional planning, which is concerned with
designer or the practices of urban design. the organization of the public realm in its wider
According to the Royal Institute of British context (Gosling 1984a, b, p. 9). So it further
Architects (1970) urban design is an integral part becomes clear that urban design deals essentially
of the process of city and regional planning. It is with public realm, but its subject matter requires
primarily and essentially three-dimensional artistic, as well as scientific approaches. Its con-
design but must also deal with the non-visual tent includes social, economic, demographic,
aspects of environment such as noise, smell or environmental, aesthetic, physical, spatial and
feelings of danger and safety, which contribute symbolic values, both as substances and proce-
significantly to the character of an area. Its major dures of urban design. Economic factors are
characteristic is the arrangement of the physical extremely powerful determinant of land use pat-
objects and human activities which make up the terns, density, and urban from. The form of
environment; this space and the relationships of today’s city tends towards three dimensional
elements in it is essentially external, as distinct representation of land values. Overcrowding,
from internal space. Urban design includes a injustice, lack of safety and security, crime and
concern for the relationship of new development to violence, frustration, alienation, isolation, segre-
existing city form as much as to the social, political gation, delinquency, inequality, blight, social
and economic demands and resources available. It stratification have their roots in the economic,
is equally concerned with the relationship of dif- social and demographic factors. Beautification is
ferent forms of movement to urban development probably the oldest aspect of city design, which is
(see Gosling 1984a, b, p. 7). But while RIBA’s relatively well understood, not only by designers
definition is comprehensive, Banham’s is too and authorities, but also by the layman. The same
narrow and specific, at least with regard to the is also true with engineering factors, such as traffic
scale. Banham suggests that the intermediate field engineering and infrastructure, simply because
of urban design is concerned with urban situations they are functional and their role can be under-
about half a mile square (Banham 1976, p. 130). It stood by all users, and any deficiency in these
seems that Banham’s definition of urban design is elements is clearly reflected in the overall func-
in fact large-scale architecture, and would most tioning of the city. Along with, and as a conse-
likely deal with single design problems, single use, quence of, urbanization and industrialization
single contractor, and most important takes place environmental and ecological issues have become
in the private sector. Social, economic and increasingly critical in any urban design decision.
2.1 Urban Design Definition 7
Political, technical, technological, as well as cul- legitimacy of the field, nature, characteristics and
tural and behavioral issues are also significant components of its knowledge base, its methods
forces in urban design. As we saw the city, its and approaches and finally its jurisdiction and its
inhabitants and functions are extremely compli- relationship with other areas and fields are
cated phenomena whose problems interact in examples. These are the important issues in any
complex ways. Now this constitutes the context field, including urban design, which give an idea
and the subject matter of today’s urban design. of the subject a particular field deals with, the
Addressing some of the problems in defining body of knowledge it has constituted and the
urban design, Anne Vernez-Moudon describes tools one may employ to possess the field and be
concentrations of inquiry in this field, including able to communicate in it. Clarification of these
urban history studies, picturesque studies, image issues will define the field and set its boundaries.
studies, studies of environmental behavior, place, Lack of such a clarification, on the other hand,
material culture, topology-morphology and nat- will result in confusion, frustration, and ineffi-
ure ecology, and provides a useful list of major ciency in the professionals’ and practitioners’
contributors in each area (Vernez-Moudon 1992, efforts to achieve urban design goals.
pp. 331–49). Though urban design is the most traditional
Richard Marshal (in Krieger et al. 2009) sug- field of planning, it sorely lacks cohesive theo-
gests this definition for urban design in ‘The retical foundations. Much writings takes the form
Elusiveness of Urban Design’: “Urban design…is of guidebooks or manuals, which rely on rules of
a ‘way of thinking.’ It is not about separation and thumb, analytical techniques, and architectural
simplification but rather about synthesis. It ideas whose theoretical justifications are unclear.
attempts…to deal with the full reality of the urban At best we have a number of contending
situation, not the narrow slices seen through dis- approaches, such as Formalism and New
ciplinary lenses.” In the same direction Douglas Urbanism, which tend to operate in a theoretical
Kelbaugh defines Urban Design as an art not a vacuum, as if cut off from larger streams of
science or an engineering discipline, but a social planning thought, and to invite dogmatic adher-
and public art…Unlike a painter or sculptor, in ence (Sternberg 2000, 265).
every aspect of my work I am responsible not The contemporary practice of urban design,
only to myself, but to my fellow man and to future according to Barnett (2003) began in the 1960 as
generations (cited in Brown et al. 2009, p. 4). reaction against the failures of modernism to
These open-ended, nonhierarchical stances are produce a livable environment. To make cities
especially important for the new approach pro- more livable, urban designers countered mod-
posed in this book. Urban design may be regarded ernist ideology by protecting historic buildings,
as an art or technical practice involving the by making the street the primary element of
physical organization of buildings and spaces, urban open space, and by using zoning and other
towards a civic purpose (Marshall 2012). development regulations creatively to put new
buildings into context and preserve a mix of
different activities (Barnett 2003).
2.2 Existing Urban Design Most of the existing urban design literature is
Knowledge Base on urban form and its attributes. Some urban
geographers (Scargill 1979; Foley 1964), for
Any investigation of the knowledge base requires example, have looked at urban form from mor-
the study of the theory of knowledge. The theory phological point of view, i.e., its physical fabric,
of knowledge, or what is known in philosophy as office and manufacturing functions, and the
epistemology, deals with fundamental questions assemblage of structures that are the spatial
that arise in conjunction with the emergence of a expression of urban phenomena, such as eco-
new study area, or of an already established one nomic, social and political processes. Efforts
that is developing. Questions such as the have also been made to develop appropriate tools
8 2 Urban Design Definition, Knowledge Base and Principles
and methods which the physical environment can Lynch (1991) is in different direction than his
be explained, analyzed, recorded and designed previous works. It is a dark study showing a
effectively, systematically and rationally. The growing recognition that decay and waste are a
majority of these methods deal with the rela- necessary part of contemporary life. A collection
tionship between man and his environment, and of Lynch’s remaining unpublished work was
the perceptual and visual aspects of urban form. published in 1990 with great efforts of Tridib
Among various efforts made in this regard, Bannerjee and Michael Southworht: City sense
Kevin Lynch’s works are especially distinct. His and city design: writings and projects of Kevin
well known book, The image of city (Lynch Lynch.
1960), for example, is a tightly woven argument In a related but different context, Thiel (1961)
moving between concepts of perception and has created a ‘space score’ which organizes the
real-world research resulting in an explanation of physical forms perceived by a person in motion as
how different formal aspects of the city design he/or she changes speed and direction. Thiel is one
can be more or less manifested in the the most significant contributors of notations,
environment. perception, communication and participation in
For Kevin Lynch, the city designer had to deal design. His major work: people, paths and pur-
with the experiential quality of the city, what he poses (Thiel 1997), which is based on extensive
often called the “sensuous qualities” or simply study of over forty years, covers all these areas.
“sense” of place (Bannerjee and Southworth Appleyard et al. (1964) have also built upon this
1991, p. 6). technique, placing the elements seen along a
In another effort called, City design and city highway into such a ‘score’ as a way of developing
appearance, Lynch (1968) suggests a general list techniques for communicating both orientation to
of perceptual criteria to be used in the analysis place and the experience of the person in motion in
and research of urban form. In a quite unprece- relation to his surroundings. Halprin (1964) has
dented effort, Lynch and Rodwin (1958) provide established another technique for recording a
a significant analytical methodology for the behavior circuit. Appleyard’s work, Livable
analysis of urban form.1 For a systematic analy- streets (1981), provides a broad range of tech-
sis of urban form they suggest six criteria: Ele- niques for the evaluation and analysis of streets,
ment types, quantity, density, grain, local neighborhoods and their components. Kostoff,
organization and general spatial distribution. The through his tow remarkable books (The city shaped
exceptional value of this method is that for the 1991; and The city assembled 1998) made a great
first time an analytical method, and not a contribution to the analysis of urban patterns.
descriptive one, is used to analyze and under- Katz (1994) gives an explanation of the
stand the varied effects of different physical principles of the new urbanism, with twenty-four
forms. The most significant contribution of case studies include the best-known and perhaps
Lynch, however, is his last book, A theory of most controversial development of the new town
good city form (1981), which as a comprehensive of Florida, Seaside. In his “City of bits”, pub-
study on urban form, includes all his previous lished in 1996, William J. Mitchell described a
findings. The most distinctive part of this study, new vision of urban living. The use of the new
which seems to be the very core of the book, is communication technology will have profound
the normative criteria for the evaluation and impact on space and time relationship and
analysis of urban form. Wasting away by Kevin eventually the future shape of our cities.
Two other most important and valuable efforts
1
In regard to normative aspects of urban form, for in this regard are Foley’s, An approach to
example, Lynch has suggested the following seven metropolitan spatial structure (1964), and Web-
criteria, five of which he calls performance dimensions
ber’s The urban place and the nonplace urban
and two meta criteria: Vitality, sense, fit, access, control,
efficiency, and justice. Kevin Lynch, A Theory of Good realm (1964). The result of Foely’s efforts is a
City Form (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1981). valuable conceptual framework that seeks to
2.2 Existing Urban Design Knowledge Base 9
bridge spatial and aspatial aspects and values and be made into a cohesively observable whole. It is
the physical environment. in this respect that we should understand Sitte’s
Among other designers who have contributed dictum about proportion. He further asserts that a
to the development of methods to analyze and noteworthy building that is taller than wide
synthesize urban form several others are worthy should receive a deep plaza, while a building that
of mention: Sitte’s The art of building cities… is wider that tall would benefit form a wide plaza.
(1945), Alexander’s Notes on synthesis of form Though these rules of proportion may seem
(1964), Pattern Language (Alexander et al. arbitrary, they reflect an implicit theory about the
1977) and A new theory of urban design (1987), cohesiveness of the beholder’s experience of the
Venturi’s Learning from Las Vegas (1977), plaza (Sternberg 2000, pp. 268–270).
Steinitz’s Meaning and the congruence of urban Edmund Bacon (1974) adds a number of
form and activity (1968), Crane’s City Symbolic additional guides to good form, demanding that
(1960), Mitropoulos’ Space network: Toward a good design should interlock and interrelate
hodological design for urban man (1975), buildings across space. Bacon stresses that the
Choay’s Urbanism and semiology (1975), Bog- human experience of this articulated space hap-
donovic’s Symbolism in the city and the city as pens along an axis of movement. To define this
symbol (1964), and Tugnutt and Robertson’s axis, the designer may strategically place small
Making townscape (1987). and large buildings to create scale linkages
In Camillo Sitte’s classic work City Planning receding in space; or insert in the landscape on
According to Artistic Principles (1965, first arch, gate, or pair of pylons that set the frame of
published in Vienna in 1889) and much later in reference for structures appearing on a recessed
Edmund Bacon’s The Design of Cities (1974), plane (Sternberg 2000, p. 271).
good urban design was to be based on artistic Christopher Alexander was committed to the
principles of good form. Though in each of their social nature of built space. His research in the
works “art” is sometimes meant in the romantic 1960s was dedicated to finding ways of config-
sense as the exercise to the artist’s inscrutable uring social forms and relationships spatially. In
genius, at other points, and more importantly for his books of 1970s, he reverted to a humanism,
present purposes, art also reflects principles that similar to that of Mumford’s 1950s writing. In
can be explicitly communicated (Fig. 2.1). These particular, what emerged in A Pattern Language
principles are based on the geometry of visual (1977) was his commitment to the view that the
perception, the scale of beholder’s body, and the value of architecture is in its capacity to enable
continuity of the beholder’s experience. individuals to realize their collective existence as
We can best understand the implications by social beings.
looking at Sitte’s major concern, the urban plaza. The vocabulary Alexander used to describe
The underlying principle is that the plaza should this, is interesting. “Towns and buildings”, he
writes, “will not be able to become alive, unless
they are made by all the people in society, and
unless these people share a common pattern
language”(x) (Alexander et al. 1977).
There are, however, increasing number of
theorists who explicitly oppose to Alexander’s
Pattern Language on the grounds of impracti-
cality, lack of test, etc. (see for example Moudon
1992, 2000).
On the other hand Dutch architect Hertzberger
Fig. 2.1 Florence, Piazza of the Signoria. The relation- (1991) suggests that just as mankind is distin-
ship between buildings, monuments and public squares guished by its use of language, so too does
(from Sitte p. 9) mankind have the facility to adopt and give
10 2 Urban Design Definition, Knowledge Base and Principles
meaning to spaces, like language, this is not layout of larger buildings, construction and for-
something that can be controlled by anyone mation of centers. Heburther suggests that urban
individual, but is negotiated socially. This led design as “process” may be taken, in the economic
Hertzberger to be strongly influenced by phe- sense, as the response to the power of economic
nomenology, and the assumption that architecture forces shaping the structure of the city not as a
is a means to revealing what it is to be in the world physical end but rather as part of a dynamic pro-
as a social being. cess. Alexander maintained that it was the process,
Hertzberger’s descriptive language is bor- above all, which was responsible for wholeness,
rowed in part from linguistic theory–hence his not merely the form. This “wholeness”, Alexander
liking for “structure”–but in all other respects it is said, can be provided by the definition of a number
heavily reliant on the conventional modernist of geometric properties with a centering process.
vocabulary: “form”, “function”, “flexibility”, Gosling (2003) reviews the historical devel-
“space”, “environment”, “articulation” and opment of the discipline and practice of urban
“users” are recurrent words. design in America during five decades of 1950 to
Forty (2000) by questioning the capability of 2000. Other efforts in this respect are: Gosling and
language in two respects: (1) Limitation to Maintland’s Concepts of urban design (1984),
describe the “social” aspects of architecture and Cullen’s The concise townscape (1971), Row and
(2) not having the capacity to show the relation- Koetter’s Collage city (1978), Krier’s Urban
ship between social practice ad physical space, space (1979) and Leon Krier: Architecture and
has put together a series of characteristics as urban design 1967–1992 (1992), Aravot’s From
words or vocabulary of modern architecture. reading of forms to hierarchical architecture: An
As we know, the relationship between archi- approach to urban design, Broadbent’s Emerging
tecture and verbal language has not been much concepts in urban space design (1990), Tibbalds’s
talked about, even though, as one architectural Making people-friendly towns (1992). Calthorpe
theorist, Tom Markus, recently pointed out, “lan- (1989) has suggested what he calls simple clusters
guage is at the core of making, using and under- of housing, retail space and offices within a quarter
standing buildings” (Markus 1993). Forty (2000) mile radius of transit station. Lang (1994) makes
suggests the following characteristics as the vo- an attempt to unite architecture and city planning,
cabulary of modern architecture: Character, con- and also enhance urban designers’ graphic and
text, design, flexibility, form function, history, verbal communication skills. According to Lang
memory, nature, order, simple, space, structure, contextual design is the most important element in
transparency, truth, type and user. Obviously, urban design because without context, the city
these are too general and vague to be of any use in becomes fragmented. Lang examines the social
architecture–building meaningful and purposeful and environmental issues within the context of
buildings. American urban history. Lang proposes four types
Christopher Alexander (Alexander et al. 1987) of urban design: The urban designer as a total
in his “A new theory of urban design”, along with designer, all-of-a-piece urban design, urban
his five other books, has claimed to have provided designer as the designer of infrastructure, ad urban
a complete working alternative to the present ideas designer as designer of guidelines for design.
about architecture, building, and planning. He has Barnett (2003) states that urban design requires a
considered the laws of wholeness as the main different process from designing a landscape or
quality of urban design. The task of creating building (a process involving government, com-
wholeness in the city, according to Alexander, can munities, investment and entrepreneurs).
only dealt with as a process, i.e., the centering According to Barnett urban designer should have
process. To achieve this goal he postulated one enough knowledge of the social sciences to be
overriding rule–wholeness, and seven rules of: able to make diagnoses about the social dynamics
piecemeal growth, the growth of larger wholes, of the community. Barnett’s main idea is urban
visions and the basic rule of positive urban space, design as public policy (1874 and 1982), he later
2.2 Existing Urban Design Knowledge Base 11
suggests five principles as the basic principles for must compose across experiential domains to
city design: community, livability, mobility, produce a continuity of experience (Sternberg
equity, and sustainability (Barnett 2003). Gosling 2000, p. 275). Sternberg uses five criteria to be
(2003) has called the techniques used by Cullen met by his integrative theory: being inclusive,
theories of the picturesque or theory of ‘social substantive, based on human experience of built
vision’—sequential three-dimensional experience form, commodifiability as well as uncommodifi-
by moving through the city and annotating these ability, and to guide practice.
experiences in the form of sequential perspectives. Without going into a lengthy discussion on
Hedman (1984) suggests that to achieve the plausibility and validity of Sternberg’s claim
design unity involved the establishment of seven on the integrative theory of urban design, a few
rules: building silhouette; space between build- critical questions may be raised: (1) Isn’t the
ings; setback from street property lines; propor- Lynch’s suggested theory in good city form more
tions of windows, bays and doorways; massing inclusive and practical than Steinberg’s? (2) as an
of building form; location and treatments of integrative theory it does not deal with proce-
entryways; surface material; finish and texture; dural issues, (3) the principles suggested are not
shadow patterns from massing and decorative actually principles, but goals of urban design.,
features; building scale; architectural style; and (4) there are many other goals which could be
landscaping. Hedman regards conceptualism as included in the list, such as: safety, security,
one of the current trends in urban design. accessibility, environmental sustainability, etc.,
Postmodern Urbanism (Ellin 1996) covers (5) and most of all the proposed theory does not
variety of writers of urban studies of the 20th really do what a theory is expected to do for the
century, e.g.: Katz, Peter calthorpe, Robert Ven- members of the discipline, as well as for practi-
turi, Charles Jencks, Denise Scott Brown, Eliza- tioners. All these problems might be referred to
beth Plater-Zyberk, Doug Kelbaugh, Frank the kind of definition Sternberg gives for urban
Gehry, Richard Sennett, Michael Graves, Paolo design and its knowledge base: “the human
Portoghesi, Peter Blake, etc. experience that the built environment evokes
In an ambitious, but interesting paper, Stern- across private properties or in the public realm”,
berg (2000) has proposed “an integrative theory which is too general and vague and does not
of urban design”. He, then, identifies the inte- serve any specific purpose.
grative principles through which urban environ- Claiming its roots in the history of theory, the
ments can transcend commodification. The New Urbanism first exercised its influence by
principles are: good form, legibility, vitality, and building a supporting base in design practice. It
meaning. He further also adds comfort to these later added pedagogical dimension, with educa-
principles. tional programs at the University of Miami and
Sternburg points out that since all these in the Congresses (Moudon 2000, p. 42). New
capacities to experience are combined in one Urbanism has gained prominence as an alterna-
beholder, the designer’s task is that of integrating tive to traditional U.S. suburban design, through
them through the principles of composition. comprehensive urban design and planning, New
Sternberg suggests foremost among these princi- Urbanism seeks to foster place identity, sense of
ples of composition is continuity. According to community and environmental sustainability.
Sternberg, participant’s experience of the city New Urbanism began as a modest experiment in
coheres according to several integrative princi- the 1980s, since then, its influence has grown
ples, which can be understood separately or in significantly (Day 2003, p. 83).
combination. Nodes and enclosure, fine grain and At the neighborhood level, New Urbanists
ascent into space, mixed use and myth, perme- recommend that mixed uses (commercial, civic,
ability and relative proportion—guided by residential, public spaces, and other) be incor-
explicit integrative principles, the urban designer porated in each community. The goals are to
12 2 Urban Design Definition, Knowledge Base and Principles
provide jobs near where people live and allow program that would establish a substantive foun-
residents to walk or bicycle to the places they dation that would test and validate the move-
need to go. Similarly new urbanists recommend ment’s ideas, ground it into actual processes of
that neighborhoods incorporate alternative forms city building and contribute to its long-term via-
of transportation to decrease auto dependence. bility (Moudon 2000, p. 42).
The Charter further recommends that neighbor- Besides the designers, there have also been
hood design should reinforce the unique identity experts and specialists from other areas and dis-
of each place by adopting a consistent and dis- ciplines who have tried to develop methods and
tinctive architectural style that draws on local theories for their own use and also for the use of
history, culture, geography, and climate (Con- designers. Among these non-designers are
gress for the New Urbanism 2000). behavioral scientists such as Maslow (1957),
New Urbanism’s highest profile “urban” pro- Mayo (1946) and sociologists such as, Sommer
jects include the HOPE (Housing Opportunities (1969), Rosow (1974), Hall (1959) and Michel-
for People Everywhere)IV renovating of public son (1970, 1975). Among these the efforts of
housing. HOPE IV strives to reduce the con- Michelson to develop a new approach for envi-
nection of poor families in public housing and to ronmental design is especially valuable. Among
develop neighborhoods with residents of differ- this group there is Amoss Rapoport, who is the
ent economic and racial/ethnic groups. leader in his efforts to delineate the relationship
The main principle (goal) is clearly stated by of man and environment. His major contributions
New Urbanists is design for diversity. New are Complexity and ambiguity in environmental
Urbanism promotes the end of segregation design (1967), Human aspects of urban form:
between rich and poor (Congress for the New Towards a man-made environment approach to
Urbanism 2000). urban form and design (1977), and The mutual
Day (2003), analyzing the New Urbanism’s interaction of people and their built environ-
goal of designing for diversity raises several ment: A cross-cultural perspective (1976).
concerns: First, physical changes may not be the There are also behaviorists such as: Francis
best solution for the social problems these ‘Mapping downtown activities (1984), Hubbard’s
neighborhoods may face. Furthermore, New Environment-behavior research—a route to
Urbanism ideas—“mixed use,” public space, good design (1992), and Whyte’s The social life
“and so on—may conjure different meanings for of small urban spaces (1980) who, by linking
different groups in the neighborhood. At the behavior patterns to space, have tried to find a
same time, New Urbanist renovation may dis- legitimate base for rational urban design.
place low-income residents from the neighbor- A group of researchers at the University
hood. Finally, New Urbanist participatory design College London have been working on space
processes may not accommodate diversity. syntax, which is best described as a research
Moudon (2000) on the other hand, seems to be program that investigates the relationship
in support of the New Urbanism when she states between human societies and space from the
that “as a theory, New Urbanism is notably and perspective of a general theory of the structure of
refreshingly free of the grand statements and inhabited space in all its diverse forms: buildings,
obscure rationale typical of many urban design settlements, cities, or even landscapes. The point
theories. As a movement, its focus is practical and of departure for space syntax is that human
didactic, providing simple, clear and hand-on societies use space as a key and necessary
directions and guidelines for designers, planners resource in organizing themselves. In doing so,
and builders making towns” (Moudon 2000, the space of inhabitation is configured—a term
p. 38). But as she points out, it validity as an urban that space syntax recognizes as an act of turning
design theory is to be investigated: “A logical next the continuous space into a connected set of
enabling step would be to develop a research discrete units (Bafna 2003, p. 17).
2.3 Contemporary Urban Design Movements and Their Rules and Principles 13
Fig. 2.2 Central Paris as one of the greatest scheme of the city beautiful movement (Brown et al. 2009, p. 6)
14 2 Urban Design Definition, Knowledge Base and Principles
Fig. 2.7 The pattern used in the reconstruction of part of Fig. 2.9 Howard’s diagram of the Garden City (Fishman
London which was damaged by fire in 1666 (Morris 1977)
1979)
2.3.5 Megastructuralism
2.3.6 Team X
Fig. 2.15 Mega form, Moshe Safdi: habitat. A commu-
nity of 25,000 (from Banz 1970, p. 108)
Team X movement was emerged due to the
inadequacy of architectural and urban design
ideas that were presented in the framework of the
Brutalism with the concept of architecture as legacy of modernism and also the dissatisfaction
analogous to biology. with the Garden City idea. Each generation
In 1960, Kurokawa, together with Kikutake, should be able to have the desired form for its own
Fumihiko Maki, Mosato Otaka, and Kizoshi place. The purpose was to find a new path and
Awazu published a manuscript entitled 1960—A method: a new start. A different style and feeling.
proposal for a new urbanism, which expressed the To know and feel today’s patterns, desires, tools,
basic outlook of the group members: We regard transportation and communication modes in order
human society as a living process (Taschen 2003) for the society to achieve its goals. But the path to
(Fig. 2.22). the future should be left open, because time
The city is divided into two parts: essential changes everything. This was a practical utopian,
and nonessential. The essential part (main struc- and not a theoretical one. Clustering of residential
ture) is fixed and stable in the short time, but the units will produce meaning and lead to the dom-
rest will continuously undergo changes. This will inance of man over his home. Human hierarchy
lead to a division of responsibility of the part of should replace functional hierarchy of Athens
public and private sector. Charter.
18 2 Urban Design Definition, Knowledge Base and Principles
Fig. 2.27 A cul-de-sac in the old section of the historical Fig. 2.28 Michael Grave’s landmark building in Port-
city of Tunis (photo by: authors) land, Oregon (Photo by: authors)
2
Human knowledge is defined by Hegel as the ‘result or constitutes a clearly identifiable movement, with
product of a process called cognition, which is the process well-defined aims and methods, and principles
or act of knowing. G.W.F. Hegel, quoted in Problems of
Knowledge by Earnst Cassirer (New Haven: Yale Univer- set out in the Charter of the New Urbanism (see
sity Press, 1950), p. 3. Marshall 2009).
2.3 Contemporary Urban Design Movements and Their Rules and Principles 23
Fig. 2.32 Seaside (Florida) by Dauny @ Plaer-Zyberk in Fig. 2.34 Celebration Park, Florida, a New Urbanism
1983 (from Kostof 1991, p. 277) project, 1994
24 2 Urban Design Definition, Knowledge Base and Principles
the early 1980s in the UK and in the late 1980s in 2.3.11.4 Traditional Neighborhood
the United States (Aldous 1992; Neal 2003). The Development (TND)
popular idea of sustainable development in the Traditional Neighborhood development move-
1990s contributed to the formation of the goals of ment is counter-revolution and against suburban
the urban village. According to the Urban Villages sprawl. It uses morphology and typology and
Forum, an urban village is a settlement created on a focuses on spatial order, as well as diversity, by
greenfield or brownfield site, or out of an existing using traditional concepts of urban design. The
development. Its features are high density; mixed design base unit is neighborhood, which is
use; mix of housing tenures, ages, and social defined, limited and has specific center. Unique
groups; high quality; and walkability (Aldous identity of each place is emphasized (architec-
1992). Citing examples from the United States and tural style is derived from local history, culture,
Canada, Kenworthy (1991) states that the urban geography and climate), and the sense of neigh-
village is a trend that attempts to respond to an borhood is promoted.
emptiness in community life and fulfills deeply felt A subset of urban villages comprises tradi-
needs for convenience, efficiency, beauty, and tional neighborhood developments. Typically
connection to a larger portion of humanity. Other new construction, often built on greenfield sites,
reasons for the trends toward the urban village TNDs are more compact than the usual subdi-
include factors such as traffic congestion, pollu- vision, favor walking over driving, mix uses
tion, infrastructure costs, and low quality of life. where possible, and provide narrower roads, few
Urban village principles: a development of or no cul-de-sacs, and common greens and
appropriate size and density, walkability, appro- squares (Fig. 2.36).
priate combination of uses and job opportunities,
diversity of architecture, sustainable urban form,
mixed income of residents, income producing 2.3.12 Critical Theory
uses, providing basic needs of shopping, health
and education, relative self-sufficiency, lower Critical theory is an evaluative attitude towards
car-dependency, citizens participation in reality, a questioning rather than an acceptance of
decision-making (Fig. 2.35). the world as it is, a taking apart and examining
and attempting to understand the world. It leads
to a position not only necessarily critical in the
sense of negative criticism, but also critically
exposing the positive and the possibilities of
change, implying positions on what is wrong and
needing change, but also on what is desirable and
needs to be built on and fostered (Marcuse 2009).
Critical theory which is also placed under the
headings of “communicative” and “collaborative”
modes, has provided the main theoretical and of implementation, it pays attention to the “story”
philosophical foundation. of the design effort and attends to relationships
Public domain is where political life and par- that will support participation. The term collabo-
ticipation in political activities is open to all citi- rative planning feature as an increasingly promi-
zens and all people. Three kinds of interests may nent part of the vocabulary used in the range of
be found: Instrumental interest, which determines planning and design literature.
the relationship between humans and nature and Critics of modernity, rely on communicative
physical and material environment. Practical rationality, mix of science, ethics and art, con-
interest, which deals with understanding, com- tinuous criticism, education, duality, and nor-
munication and also inter-mind relationship. And mative principles. Communicative model, which
emancipating interest, which represents the ability is the result of communicative rationality, means
and capability of humans in critical thinking, practices that allow people to shape the places in
self-knowledge and rational action. A knowledge which they live. In communicative action, pro-
which lead to the increase of independency and cess design is participatory, transparent, and
responsibility. In the same way, critical theory evolutionary. Collaborative planning is regarded
relies on communicative action, rather than as a theory of practice (Harris 2002). There are,
instrumental or deliberate rational and strategic of course, some who believe that Critical Plan-
actions. But in the case of knowledge, the three ning Theory is inadequate as a design and plan-
kinds of knowledge are used together: practical ning theory (Mantysalo 2002).
knowledge, which governs the method of control
and intervention in the environment. Experimental
knowledge, which deals with the social interaction 2.3.13 Just City
among humans. And the emancipating knowl-
edge, which deals with emancipating the control- In the coming years, designers, as well as plan-
ling forces of his/her decisions—self knowledge. ners will face decisions about where they stand
Within the practice movement, the commu- on protecting the green city, promoting the eco-
nicative theorist appear currently to hold a domi- nomically growing city, and advocating social
nant position, largely inspired by the writings of justice.
Habermas. This approach focuses broadly on Just City concerns the development of an
processes of communication and knowledge urban vision that also involves material
producing in planning and design. Critics of well-being but that relies on a more pluralistic,
modernity, rely on communicative rationality, cooperative, and decentralized form of welfare
mix of science, ethics and art, continuous criti- provision than the state-centered model of the
cism, education, duality, and normative princi- bureaucratic welfare state.
ples. Communicative model, which is the result of
communicative rationality, means practices that
allow people to shape the places in which they 2.3.14 Normative Ethical Theory
live. In communicative action, process design is
participatory, transparent, and evolutionary. The Ethical theory arouse out of attempts to give an
goal is to enhance the quality of deliberation and account of moral goodness and the morally good
lead to consensus-based decisions. Seeks to life. Normative Ethical Theory has been divided
approach conditions for undistorted communica- into two levels—substantive and procedural. Sub-
tion and discover and reconcile issue frames. stantive ethical theory advocates actual normative
Meeting leader actively manages deliberation ethical principles and judgments. These principles
processes. The goals are innovative plans and are applied to judge the rightness or wrongness of
building social and intellectual capital. In the case specific social institutions, actions, plans, policies,
26 2 Urban Design Definition, Knowledge Base and Principles
etc. Procedural ethical theory is a level above sub- 2.3.17 Sustainable Urban Design
stantive theory (Harper and Stein 1992).
The requirements of sustainable development are
compatible with, and closely mirror, the Post
2.3.15 Smart Growth Modern agenda in urban design. The current
pre-occupations of urban designers are with the
While there has been a strong association of urban form of urban space, the vitality and identity of
design with “downtowns,” demand for suburban urban areas, qualities of urbanity, respect for
growth management and reinvestment strategies tradition and preference for medium rise devel-
for the older rings around city centers has gathered opment of human scale. These and other features
many advocates. Indeed, to protect urbanism, not to in the best of Post Modern urban design can be
mention minimize environmental harm and need- absorbed within the schema of sustainable
less land consumption, it is imperative, many argue, development. The two movements—sustainable
to control sprawl and make environmental stew- development and Post Modern urban design—
ardship a more overt part of urban thinking. Since a are mutually supportive: Indeed, they are both
high percentage of development takes place at the expressions of current philosophy which has
periphery of existing urbanization the urban rejected the grand development strategies of the
designer should be operating there, and, if present, 1950s, 1960s and 1970s together with the mod-
advocating “smarter” planning and design. Con- ernist architecture which gave those strategies
versely, ignoring the metropolitan periphery as if it form. Post Modern urban design gives form to
were unworthy of a true urbanist or limiting one’s the ideas of sustainable development while in
efforts to urban “infill” may simply be forms of return it is given functional legitimacy. Without
problem avoidance (Krieger 2009). The principles this functional legitimacy and the discipline it
are: mixed uses, compact buildings, wide range of imposes on the urban design process, post
housing types, pedestrian-oriented neighborhoods, modern urban design, like some of the buildings
building attractive settlements with a strong sense of post modernism, may develop into the whimsy
of place, preserving open spaces, agricultural lands, of another esoteric aesthetic. The foundation of
reclaimed lands, water sources, air quality, histori- urban design is social necessity. The social
cal districts, natural assets, alternative transport, imperative of today is an environmental crisis of
cost-effective and transparent decision-making for global proportions and it is coming to terms with
development, encouraging interest groups and local the efforts of this crisis on cities which gives
residents to participate in the development purpose and meaning to urban design (Moughtin
decisions. 1996, pp. 1–2).
Sustainable Development attempts to weave
together multiple values to confront the chal-
2.3.16 New Urban Design Theory lenges of reversing environmental degradation
and reducing overconsumption and grinding
Christopher Alexander (Alexander et al. 1987) in poverty. These values are sometimes referred to
his book ‘New Urban Design Theory’ suggests as the three Es of sustainable development:
one overriding and seven intermediate rules for environment, economy, and equity. Sustainable
urban design. According to him The overriding development has implication at international,
rule: every act of construction, every increment national, state, regional, and local levels. Smith
of growth in the city, works towards the creation et al. (1998) suggest the following practical fea-
of wholeness. The seven intermediate rules are: tures of sustainable development that can be
piecemeal growth, the growth of larger wholes, implemented directly in policies aimed at the
visions, the basic rule of positive urban space, built environment.
layout of large buildings, construction, and for- Environmental limits: The environment
mation of centers. imposes thresholds for certain human activities in
2.3 Contemporary Urban Design Movements and Their Rules and Principles 27
terms of resources, absorption of waste and and avoiding the need for resource use
maintenance of life support serving such as (non-renewable).
temperature and protections against radiation. Welfare efficiency: expresses the direct
These resources are intrinsically of value to equivalent of environmental efficiency and
humanity and should not be ‘traded’ against the describes the objective of gaining the greatest
benefit of a particular development or a particular human benefit from each unit of economic activ-
activity as a whole (Fig. 2.37). ity. It requires a much more diverse social and
Demand management: involves more subtle economic system with many more possibilities for
and responsive planning to meet basic objectives satisfying lifestyle requirements than at present.
rather than some derived demand. Hence it is Equity: Environmental policies have the
possible, for example, to reduce energy con- potential to deliver significant improvements in
sumption by a variety of conservation and effi- the quality of life, health and job prospects of the
ciency measures as an alternative to building new marginalized, dispossessed and socially excluded
power station. in the society. Even the narrow notion of physi-
Environmental efficiency: means ‘the cal sustainability implies a concern for social
achievement of the maximum benefit for each equity between generations, a concern that must
unit of resources and waste products’. This could logically be extended to equity within each
be achieved increasing durability; increasing the generation (Smith et al. 1998, pp. 18–20).
technical efficiency of resource conversion; Berke and Manta-Conroy (2000) propose three
avoiding the consumption of renewable natural conceptual dimensions [System Reproduction,
resources, water and energy faster than the nat- Balance between Environmental, Economic,
ural system can replenish them. Closing resource and Social Values; and link local to global
loops: by increasing reuse, recycling, simplifying (and regional) concerns] and six operational
Fig. 2.37 The evolutionary trend of sustainability concept (Source Daniel 2009)
28 2 Urban Design Definition, Knowledge Base and Principles
performances principles (harmony with nature, vii. Build densities that support greater choice
livable built environment, place-based economy, viii. Build interconnected transportation
equity, polluters pay, and responsible regionalism) networks
for sustainability. These principles are expected to ix. Provide choices that enhance quality of
play a key role in guiding evaluations by designers life
of the potential environmental, social, and eco- Enhance personal health
nomic impacts of urban forms and ensuring that x. Promote public health
design solutions integrate a balanced, holistic xi. Increase personal safety
vision of sustainability (Berke 2002). Make places for people
xii. Respond to the human senses
xiii. Integrate history, nature, and innovation
2.3.18 Urban Design for an Urban xiv. Emphasize identity
Century xv. Celebrate history
xvi. Respect and engage nature
Brown et al. (2009, 102–111) suggest five gen- xvii. Introduce innovation
eral urban design principles for what they call A review of the contemporary urban planning
‘urban century’, each of which is broken down and design movements and their relevant prin-
into more specific guidelines: ciples indicates that most of them are piecemeal
Build community in an increasingly diverse and disintegrated ideas focusing solely on some
society aspects of the subject matter of urban design,
i. Create places that draw people together often substantive issues, disregarding the rest.
ii. Support social equity Integrative theory (language) of urban design, as
iii. Emphasize the public realm will be proposed later, will include all aspects of
iv. Forge strongest connections urban design—substantive, as well as procedural.
Advance sustainability at every level (For more information on contemporary urban
v. Forster smarter growth design movements see: Bahrainy et al. 2006.
vi. Address the economic, social and cultural Analysis of Contemporary urban design theories.
underpinnings of sustainability Vol. 1: from late 19th century to 1970s. Tehran:
Expand individual choices UT Press).
http://www.springer.com/978-3-319-32663-4